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Project Gutenberg's Encyclopedia, vol. 1 ( A - Andropha

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declaring that its true object was not the making of gold but 
the preparation of medicines, and this union of chemistry with 
medicine was one characteristic of the iatrochemical school 
of which he was the precursor.  Increasing attention was paid 
to the investigation of the properties of substances and of 
their effects on the human body, and chemistry profited by 
the fact that it passed into the hands of men who possessed 
the highest scientific culture of the time, Still, belief 
in the possibility of transmutation long remained orthodox, 
even among the most distinguished men of science.  Thus it 
was accepted, at least academically, by Andreas Libavius (d. 
1616); by F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614-1672), though not by 
his pupil Otto Tachenius, and by J. R. Glauber (1603-1668); 
by Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and, for a time at least, by Sir 
Isaac Newton and his rival and contemporary, G. W. Leibnitz 
(1646-1716); and by G. E. Stahl (1660-1734) and Hermann Boerhaave 
(1668-1738).  Though an alchemist, Boyle, in his Sceptical 
Chemist (1661), cast doubts on the ``experiments whereby 
vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their salt, 
sulphur and mercury to be the true principles of things,'' 
and advanced towards the conception of chemical elements 
as those constituents of matter which cannot be further 
decomposed.  With J. J. Becher (1635-1682) and G. E. Stahl, 
however, there was a reversion to earlier ideas.  The former 
substituted for the salt, sulphur and mercury of Basil 
Valentine and Paracelsus three earths--the mercurial, the 
vitreous and the combustible--and he explained combustion 
as depending on the escape of this last combustible element; 
while Stahl's conception of phlogiston--not fire itself, 
but the principle of fire--by virtue of which combustible 
bodies burned, was a near relative of the mercury of the 
philosophers, the soul or essence of ordinary mercury. 

Perhaps J. B. van Helmont (1577-1644) was the last distinguished 
investigator who professed actually to have changed mercury 
into gold, though impostors and mystics of various kinds 
continued to claim knowledge of the art long after his 
time.  So late as 1782, James Price, an English physician, 
showed experiments with white and red powders, by the aid 
of which he was supposed to be able to transform fifty 
and sixty times as much mercury into silver and gold.  The 
metals he produced are said to have proved genuine on assay; 
when, however, in the following year he was challenged to 
repeat the experiments he was unable to do so and committed 
suicide.  In the course of the 19th century the idea that 
the different elements are constituted by different groupings 
or condensations of one primal matter--a speculation which, 
if proved to be well grounded, would imply the possibility 
of changing one element into another--found favour with 
more than one responsible chemist; but experimental research 
failed to yield any evidence that was generally regarded as 
offering any support to this hypothesis.  About the beginning 
of the 20th century, however, the view was promulgated 
that the spontaneous production of helium from radium may 
be an instance of the transformation of one element into 
another. (See RADIOACTIVITY; also ELEMENT and MATTER.) 

See M. P. E. Berthelot, Les Origines de l'alchimie (1885); 
Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (text and 
translation, 3 vols., 1887-1888); Introduction a l'etude de 
la chimie des anciens et du moyen age (1889): La Chimie au 
moyen age (text and translation of Syriac and Arabic treatises 
on alchemy, 3 vols., 1893).  Much bibliographical and other 
information about the later writers on alchemy is contained 
in Bibliotheca Chemica (2 vols., Glasgow, 1906), a catalogue 
by John Ferguson of the books in the collection of James 
Young of Kelly (printed for private distribution). (H. M. R.) 

1 An alchemistical work bearing the name of Ostanes 
speaks of a divine water which cures all maladies--an early 
appearance of the universal panacea or elixir of life. 

2 ``Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted in the 
temples and monasteries of Egypt: much useful experience might 
have been acquired in the practice of arts and manufactures, 
but the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement 
to the industry of the Saracens.  They first invented 
and named the alembic for the purposes of distillation, 
analyzed the substances of the three kingdoms of nature, 
tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis and acids, 
and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and salutary 
remedies.  But the most eager search of Arabian chemistry 
was the transmutation of metals, and the elixir of immortal 
health: the reason and the fortunes of thousands were 
evaporated in the crucibles of alchemy, and the consummation 
of the great work was promoted by the worthy aid of mystery, 
fable and superstition.'' It may be noted that the word 
``alembic'' is derived from the Greek ambix, ``cup,'' 
with the Arabic article prefixed, and that the instrument 
is figured in the MSS. of some of the Greek alchemists. 

3 Cf. Chaucer, Chanouns Yemannes Tale, where, 
however, mercury figures both as a spirit and a body:-- 

 ``The firste spirit quik-silver called is, 
  The second orpiment, the thridde ywis
  Sal armoniak, and the ferthe brimstoon.''
ALCIATI, ANDREA (1492-1550), Italian jurist, was born at 
Alzano, near Milan, on the 12th of January 1492.  He displayed 
great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was 
one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, 
languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original 
research for the servile interpretations of the glossators.  He 
published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus.  
His Emblems, a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, has 
been greatly admired, and translated into French, Italian and 
Spanish.  Alciati's history of Milan, under the title Rerum 
Potriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV., was published 
posthumously at Milan in 1625.  He died at Pavia in 1550. 

ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.C.), Athenian general and 
politician, was born at Athens.  He was the son of Cleinias and 
Deinomache, who belonged to the family of the Alcmaeonidae.  
He was a near relative of Pericles, who, after the death 
of Cleinias at the battle of Coroneia (447), became his 
guardian.  Thus early deprived of his father's control, possessed 
of great personal beauty and the heir to great wealth, which 
was increased by his marriage, he showed himself self-willed, 
capricious and passionate, and indulged in the wildest freaks 
and most insolent behaviour.  Nor did the instructors of 
his early manhood supply the corrective which his boyhood 
lacked.  From Protagoras, Prodicus and others he learnt to 
laugh at the common ideas of justice, temperance, holiness and 
patriotism.  The laborious thought, the ascetic life of his 
master Socrates, he was able to admire, but not to imitate or 
practise.  On the contrary, his ostentatious vanity, his amours, 
his debaucheries and his impious revels became notorious.  
But great as were his vices, his abilities were even greater. 

He took part in the battle of Potidaea (432), where his 
life was saved by Socrates, a service which he repaid at 
the battle of Delium (424).  As the reward of his bravery, 
the wealthy Hipponicus bestowed upon him the hand of his 
daughter.  From this time he took a prominent part in Athenian 
politics during the Peloponnesian war.  Originally friendly to 
Sparta, he subsequently became the leader of the war party in 
opposition to Nicias, and after the peace of 421 he succeeded 
by an unscrupulous trick in duping the Spartan ambassadors, 
and persuading the Athenians to conclude an alliance (420) with 
Argos, Elis and Mantineia (Thuc. v. 56, 76). On the failure 
of Nicias in Thrace (418-417) he became the chief advocate 
of the Sicilian expedition, seeing an opportunity for the 
realization of his ambitious projects, which included the 
conquest of Sicily, to be followed by that of Peloponnesus 
and possibly of Carthage (though this seems to have been an 
afterthought).  The expedition was decided upon with great 
enthusiasm, and Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamachus were appointed 
joint commanders.  But, on the day before the expedition 
sailed, there occurred the mysterious mutilation of the Hermae, 
and Alcibiades was accused not only of being the originator 
of the crime, but also of having profaned the Eleusinian 
mysteries.  His request for an immediate investigation being 
refused, he was obliged to set sail with the charge still 
hanging over him.  Almost as soon as he reached Sicily 
he was recalled to stand his trial, but he escaped on the 
journey home and made his way to Sparta.  Learning that he 
had been condemned to death in his absence and his property 
confiscated, he openly joined the Spartans, and persuaded 
them to send Gylippus to assist the Syracusans and to 
fortify Decelea in Attica.  He then passed over to Asia 
Minor, prevailed upon many of the Ionic allies of Athens to 
revolt, and concluded an alliance with the Persian satrap 
Tissaphernes.  But in a few months he had lost the confidence 
of the Spartans, and at the instigation of Agis II., whose 
personal hostility he had excited, an order was sent for his 
execution.  Receiving timely information of this order he 
crossed over to Tissaphernes (412), and persuaded him to 
adopt the negative policy of leaving Athens and Sparta to 
wear themselves out by their mutual struggles.  Alcibiades 
was now bent on returning to Athens, and he used his supposed 
influence with Tissaphernes to effect his purpose.  He entered 
into negotiations with the oligarch Peisander, but when these 
led to no result he attached himself to the fleet at Samos 
which remained loyal to the democracy, and was subsequently 
recalled by Thrasybulus, although he did not at once return to 
Athens.  Being appointed commander in the neighbourhood of the 
Hellespont, he defeated the Spartan fleet at Abydos (411) 
and Cyzicus (410), and recovered Chalcedon and Byzantium.  
On his return to Athens after these successes he was welcomed 
with unexpected enthusiasm (407); all the proceedings against 
him were cancelled, and he was appointed general with full 
powers.  His ill success, however, at Andros, and the 
defeat at Notium (407) of his lieutenant Antiochus, led the 
Athenians to dismiss him from his command.  He thereupon 
retired to the Thracian Chersonesus.  After the battle of 
Aegospotami, and the final defeat of Athens, he crossed 
the Hellespont and took refuge with Pharnabazus in Phrygia, 
with the object of securing the aid of Artaxerxes against 
Sparta.  But the Spartans induced Pharnabazus to put him out 
of the way; as he was about to set out for the Persian court 
his residence was set on fire, and on rushing out on his 
assassins, dagger in hand, he was killed by a shower of arrows 
(404).  There can be no doubt that his advice to Sparta in 
connexion with Syracuse and the fortification of Decelea 
was the real cause of his country's downfall, though it is 
only fair to him to add that had he been allowed to continue 
in command of the Sicilian expedition he would undoubtedly 
have overruled the fatal policy of Nicias and prevented the 
catastrophe of 413. His belated attempt to repair his fatal 
treachery only exposed the essential selfishness of his 
character.  Though he must have known that his influence 
over the Persian satraps was slender in the extreme, he 
used it with the most flagrant dishonesty as a bait first to 
Sparta, then to the Athenian oligarchs, and finally to the 
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