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The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia

A. This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in 
the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.  In 
Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did not 
represent a vowel, but a breathing; the vowels originally were 
not represented by any symbol.  When the alphabet was adopted by 
the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds 
of their language.  The breathings which were not required in 
Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel 
sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by 
an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w. 
The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to 
the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form 
Alpha (alpsa). The earliest authority for this, as for the 
names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama 
(grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of 
Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names 
of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. 

The form of the letter has varied considerably.  In the 
earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions 
(the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest 
Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th 
or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus--@.  In 
the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles 
the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be 
distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle 
at which the cross line is set-- @, &c. From the Greeks of 
the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them 
has passed to the other nations of western Europe.  In the 
earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found 
in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a 
golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET).  
Fine letters are still identical in form with those of the 
western Greeks.  Latin develops early various forms, which 
are comparatively rare in Greek, as @, or unknown, as 
@.  Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy 
did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks 
as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the 
Etruscans.  In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions 
is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form 
@, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece 
(Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically) . 

In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short 
sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte 
a; English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding 
precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be 
ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the 
terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107).  
Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically 
unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the 
Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which 
in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as 
the original e-sound (see ALPHABET: Greek). The vowel 
sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has, 
in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are 
not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and 
also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same 
language.  Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about 
twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in 
English.  In general it may be said that the chief changes 
which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from 
(1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound 
produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther 
forward.  The rounding is often produced by combination with 
rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the 
rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into 
the formation of the vowel sound.  Rounding has also been 
produced by a following l-sound, as in the English fall, 
small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 
2nd ed., sec. sec.  906, 784).  The effect of fronting is seen in 
the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original 
name of the Medes, Madoi, with a in the first syllable 
(which survives in Cyprian Greek as Madoi), is changed 
into Medoi (Medoi), with an open e-sound instead 
of the earlier a.  In the later history of Greek this 
sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with 
i (as in English seed). The first part of the process 
has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah) 
passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation 
the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei 
except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. sec.  783). 

In English a represents unaccented forms of several 
words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and or various 
prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New 
English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol. i. p. 4. (P. GI.) 

As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions 
and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in 
music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this 
use is derived from its being the first of the litterae 
nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority. 

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal 
affirmative proposition in the general form ``all x is y.'' 
The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular 
affirmative ``some x is y,'' the universal negative ``no x 
is y,'' and the particular negative ``some x is not y.'' 
The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels 
of the two Latin verbs AffIrmo (or AIo), ``I assert,'' and 
nEgO, ``I deny.'' The use of the symbols dates from the 13th 
century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek 
logicians.  A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). 

In Shipping, A1 is a symbol used to dennote quality of 
construction and material.  In the various shipping registers 
ships are classed and given a rating after an official 
examination, and assigned a classification mark, which 
appears in addition to other particulars in those registers 
after the name of the ship.  See SHIPBUILDING. It is 
popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence. 

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers.  
The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to 
the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger.-ach; Scand. a, aa, 
pronounced o).  The following are the more important 
streams of this name:--Two rivers in the west of Russia, both 
falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated 
between them; a river in the north of France, falling into 
the sea below Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; 
and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and 
Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and 
Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian 
Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at 
Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others. 

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated 
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted 
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, 
in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.  In 
1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of 
Copenhagen.  In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission 
for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation 
law of 1882 is mainly his work.  In 1879 he was elected a member 
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university 
that he won his reputation.  Among his numerous juridical 
works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse 
af Ejendomsret, Bemaerkinger om Rettigheder over Ting 
(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, 
Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 
1876).  Aagesen was Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law 
at the university, and in this department his researches were 
epoch-making.  All his pupils were profoundly impressed by 
his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic 
demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after 
truth.  His noble, imposing, and yet most amiable personality 
won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect. 

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.  Brog.  Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Szmlade 
Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.) 

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani 
names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifalia, 
plants extensively cultivated in India on account of the 
reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain.  The name 
is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name 
is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence 
of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is compounded 
from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone. 

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop, 
and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south 
bank of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the 
Cattegat.  Pop. (1901) 31,457.  The situation is typical of 
the north of Jutland.  To the west the Linifjord broadens 
into an irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many 
islands.  North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the 
mirage is seen in summer.  South-east lies the similar Lille 
Vildmose.  A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring, 
Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and 
the lines from Germany to the south.  The harbour is good 
and safe, though difficult of access.  Aalborg is a growing 
industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and 
fish.  An old castle and some picturesque houses of the 
17th century remain.  The Budolphi church dates mostly from 
the middle of the 18th century, while the Frue church was 
partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of 
the 14th century or earlier.  There are also an ancient 
hospital and a museum of art and antiquities.  On the north 
side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg 
by a pontoon and also by an iron railway bridge, one of the 
finest engineering works in the kingdom.  Aabborgt received 
town privileges in 1342 and the bishopric dates from 1554. 

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian 
Alps, about 50 m.  E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway 
communication with Ulm and Cannstatt.  Pop. 10,000.  Woollen 
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon 
looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the 
neighbourhood.  There are several schools and churches, and a 
statue of the poet Christian Schubart.  Aalen was a free imperial 
city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg. 

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 145 
m.  N. by E. from Bergen.  Pop. (1900) 11,672.  It occupies 
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and 
Norvo, which enclose the picturesque harbour.  Founded 
in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore 
district, and one of the chief stations of the herring 
fishery.  Aalesund is adjacent to the Jorund and Geiranger 
fjords, frequented by tourists.  From Oje at the head of 
Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nordfjord, and 
from Merck on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on 
the railway to Liilehammer and Christiania.  Aalesund is a 
port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle 
and Hamburg, and Trondhjem.  A little to the south of the 
town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the 
founder, in the 9th century, of the dynasty of the dukes of 
Normandy.  On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the 
scene of one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations 
to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been 
subject.  Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding 
the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the 
night at the notice of a few minutes.  Hardly any lives were 
lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that 
assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the 
German government, while the British government also offered it. 

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born 
at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official.  
Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching 
manhood, he became successively secretary of the Embassy in 
Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid 
Pasha.  In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier, 
but after a short time retired into private life.  During the 
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio 
of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, 
and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of 
Vienna.  Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office 
he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey 
at the congress of Paris in 1856.  In 1867 he was appointed 
regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris 
Exhibition.  Aali Pasha was one of the most zealous advocates 
of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul 
Mejid and Abdul Aziz.  A scholar and a linguist, he was a 
match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom 
he successfully defended the interests of his country.  He 
died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871. 

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both 
rises and ends entirely within Switzerland.  Its total 
length (including all bends) from its source to its junction 
with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it 
descends 5135 ft., while its drainage area is 6804 sq. 
m.  It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of 
Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass.  It runs E. to the Grimsel 
Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, forming on the 
way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past 
Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet 
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a 
plain.  A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands 
into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable.  Near 
the west end of that lake it receives its first important 
affluent, the Lutschine (left), and then runs across the 
swampy plain of the Bodoli, between Interlaken (left) and 
Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form 
the Lake of Thun.  Near the west end of that lake it receives 
on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined 
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and 
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is 
built.  It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly 
direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) 
turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the 
Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of 
which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to 
Buren.  Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance, 
past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the 
right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right), 
Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the 
right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the 
right.  A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the 
Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth 
(right).  It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an 
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume 
when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau.  In 1900 
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly 
Protestants.  It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the 
right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range 
of the Jura.  It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 
m.  N.W. of Zurich.  It is a well-built modern town, with 
no remarkable features about it.  In the Industrial Museum 
there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good 
painted glass of the 16th century, taken from the neighbouring 
Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 
1841---the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in 
Tirol).  The cantonal library contains many works relating to 
Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian 
monasteries.  There are many industries in the town, especially 
silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, and factories for the manufacture 
of cutlery and scientific instruments.  The popular novelist 
and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of 
his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his 
memory.  Aarau is an important military centre.  The slopes 
of the Jura are covered with vineyards.  Aarau, an ancient 
fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 1415, and in 1798 became 
for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic.  Eight miles 
by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach, 
just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the 
original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see 
EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them 
is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from 
South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt.  In form 
these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout, 
with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with 
strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and 
the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The 
greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at 
the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils 
open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long 
extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the 
flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large 
individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the 
Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the 
shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of 
nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near 
ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the 
ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile 
tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the 
flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 

AARD-WOLF (earth-wolf), a South and East African carnivorous 
mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a 
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharpe 
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the 
neck and back.  It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and 
feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites. 

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss 
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.), 
whence its name.  Its total area is 541.9 sq. m., of which 
517.9 sq. m. are classed as ``productive'' (forests covering 
172 sq. m. and vineyards 8.2 sq. m.).  It is one of the least 
mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, 
to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which 
rise low hills.  The surface of the country is beautifully 
diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating 
with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its 
tributaries.  It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of 
Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rheinfelden there are 
very extensive saline springs.  Just below Brugg the Reuss 
and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined 
castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with 
fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman 
settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch].  The total population 
in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but 
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990 
Jews.  The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while 
other important towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 
inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 
inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 
inhabitants).  Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, 
straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and 
salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries.  
As this region was, up to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg 
power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g. 
Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g. 
Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in 
1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes 
of the civil war called the ``Sonderbund War,'' in 1847 in 
Switzerland.  The cantonal constitution dates mainly from 
1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council 
of five members is made by a direct vote of the people.  The 
legislature consists of members elected in the proportion of 
one to every 1100 inhabitants.  The ``obligatory referendum'' 
exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the 
right of ``initiative'' in proposing bills or alterations 
in the cantonal constitution.  The canton sends 10 members 
to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000, 
while the two Standerate are (since 1904) elected by 
a direct vote of the people.  The canton is divided into 
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes. 


1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss 
Confederates.  Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, 
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, 
named the Freie Amter or ``free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen, 
Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, 
were ruled as ``subject lands'' by all or certain of the 
Confederates.  In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of 
Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the remainder forming the 
canton of Baden.  In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick 
glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic) 
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then 
admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. 

See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical 
Society), Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 
2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische 
Strohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt.  
Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d.  Kant.  Argau (fine illustrated 
work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904--1906; W. Merz and 
F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d.  Kant. Argau, 3 vols., 
Aarau, 1898--1905; J. Muller, Der Aargau, 2 vols., Zurich, 
1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthumer, Atarau, 1877; E. 
Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the 
east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; 
the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of 
the amt (county) of Aarhus.  Pop. (1901) 51,814.  The 
district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded.  The town 
is the junction of railways from all parts of the country.  
The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is 
exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports.  
The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively restored) is 
the largest church in Denmark.  There is a museum of art and 
antiquities.  To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a picturesque 
region extends west from the railway junction of Skanderborg, 
including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, 
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 
500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg.  The railway traverses this 
pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern 
town having one of the most attractive situations in the 
kingdom.  The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951. 

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish 
priesthood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites 
out of Egypt (see EXODUS; MOSES) . The greater part of 
his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives, 
which carry back existing conditions and beliefs to the 
time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary 
hierarchical institutions in the events of that period.  
Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) 
to meet Moses at the ``mount of God'' (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he 
plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's 
court.  After the ``exodus'' from Egypt a striking account 
is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to 
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount 
(Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the 
side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working 
rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16).  
Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when 
Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of 
the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the 
prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at 
the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see 
CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy 
which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration 
of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut. 
ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the 
preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series 
of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. 
seq.).  Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been 
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 
seq. compared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some 
obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were 
prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.).  In 
what way they had not ``sanctified'' (an allusion in the 
Hebrew to Kadesh ``holy'') Yahweh is quite uncertain, and 
it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the 
sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3; 
cp.  Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have 
died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor; the latter is 
an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23, 
xxxiii. 37; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently 
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the 
traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). 

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to 
have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a 
place for Aaron in certain incidents.  In the account of the 
contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), 
Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful 
whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving 
narratives.  It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice 
mentioned in Deuteronomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The 
post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of 
Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position 
by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of 
the other tribes (Num. xvii.; for parallels see Gray comm. 
ad loc., p. 217).  The latter story illustrates the growth 
of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of 
priestly ritual: the old account of Korah's revolt against the 
authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a) 
the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (b) 
the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites 
against the rest of the Levites, a development which can 
scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). 

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality 
known after the grandson as the ``hill of Phinehas'' (Josh. 
xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of 
either.  The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) 
is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the 
priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of 
Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have 
belonged.  The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical 
names and those of clans related to Moses is very noteworthy, 
and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's 
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 
17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In 
view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of 
interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the 
historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy.  He may 
well have been the traditional head of the priesthood, and 
R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was 
the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol.  Stud., 
1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder 
of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which 
still remains quite obscure: and unless Aaron (Aharon) is 
based upon Aron, ``ark'' (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. 
N. Land), names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, 
apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. 

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish 
priesthood, see the articles LEVTTES and PRIEST. . (S. A. C.) 

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering 
plants (``hag taper,', ``golden rod,'' &c.).  In architecture 
the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves, 
or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the 
Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8). 

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a 
celebrated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces.  
His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan 
van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, 
as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of 
France.  He took a considerable part in the negotiations of 
the twelve years' truce in 1606.  His conduct of affairs having 
displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by 
Oldenbarneveldt in 1616.  Such was the hatred he henceforth 
conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his 
very utmost to effect his ruin.  He was one of the packed 
court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to 
death.  For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain 
rests on the memory of Aarssens.  He afterwards became the 
confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and 
afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their 
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic.  He was sent 
on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and 
displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu 
ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. 

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and 
lexicographer, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, 
Norway, on the. 5th of August 1813.  His father, a small 
peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826.  He was 
brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all 
his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an 
elementary school in his native parish.  In 1833 he entered 
the household of H. C. Thoresen the husband of the eminent 
writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up 
the elements of Latin.  Gradually, and by dint of infinite 
patience and concentration, the young peasant became master 
of many languages, and began the scientific study of their 
structure.  About 1841 he had freed himself from all the 
burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with 
the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his 
first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in 
the Sondmore language (1843) . His remarkable abilities now 
attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his 
studies undisturbed.  His Grammar ofthe Norwegian Dialects 
(1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken 
to every part of the country.  Aasen's famous Dictionary 
of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in 
1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation 
of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did 
no less than construct, out of the different materials at his 
disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for 
Norway.  With certain modifications, the most important of which 
were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language 
is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in 
dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured 
to foist upon Norway as her official language in the place of 
Dano-Norwegian.  Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite 
dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, 
The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered 
as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the 
last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg.  Aasen continued 
to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary.  He 
lived very quietly in lodgings in Christiania, surrounded by 
his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into 
wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the 
peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular 
party.  Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to 
receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention 
to his philological investigations; and the Storthing--. 
conscious of the national importance of his woth---treated hm 
in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in 
years.  He continued his investigations to the last, but it 
may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, 
he added but little to his stores.  Ivar Aasen holds perhaps 
an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has 
invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language 
which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that 
they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons 
and their songs.  He died in Christiania on the 23rd of 
September 1896, and was buried with Public honours. (E. G.) 

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the 
eleventh of the civil year of the Jews.  It approximately 
Corresponds to the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of 
August.  The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the 
Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile.  
Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab. 
On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to 
bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar 
(586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70). 

ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and Cabled 
after, Antoine d'Abbadie; (2) a rough homespun manufactured in 
Bulgariai (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs. 

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of 
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African ``Arabs,, of Hamitic 
origin.  They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, 
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying 
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile.  They call 
themselves ``sons of the Jinns.'' With some of the clans of 
the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they 
represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location 
to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman 
times.  They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at 
last subsidized them.  In the middle ages they were known as 
Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to 
Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda.  From time immemorial 
they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian 
desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar.  To-day many of 
them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian 
desert.  They intermarried with the Nuba, and settled in small 
Colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian 
invasion (A.D. 1820-1822).  They are still great trade 
carriers, and visit very distant districts.  The Ababda of 
Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary 
``chief.'' Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no 
tribute.  Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a portion of the 
road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin 
robbers.  The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him.  
The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who 
visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since 
diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin, 
their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful 
nation.  The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with 
Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued 
contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion 
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, 
ToBedawiet.  Those of Kosseir will not speak this before 
strangers, as they believe that to reveal the mysterious 
dialect would bring ruin on them.  Those nearest the Nile 
have much fellah blood in them.  As a tribe they claim an Arab 
origin, apparently through their sheikhs.  They have adopted 
the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen 
the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked.  They 
are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these 
latter.  They are lithe and well built, but small: the average 
height is little more than 5 ft., except in the sheikh clan, 
who are obviously of Arab origin.  Their complexion is more 
red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair 
luxuriant.  They bear the character of being treacherous and 
faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest 
in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never 
beg.  Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after 
the British occupation of Egypt.  The chief settlements are in 
Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in 
agriculture.  Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then 
hawk the salt fish in the interior.  Others are pedlars, 
while charcoal burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums 
and drugs, especially in senna leaves, occupy many.  Unlike 
the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build 
huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as 
did their ancestors in classic times.  They have few horses, 
using the camel as beast of burden or their ``mount'' in 
war.  They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter 
eaten either raw or roasted.  They are very superstitious, 
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family 
if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes 
on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his 
home far from his wife's village.  In the Mahdist troubles 
(1882-1898) many ``friendlies'' were recruited from the tribe. 

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, 
HADENDOA, KABBABish; and the following authorities:---Sir 
F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 
1891); Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe 
Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian 
Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by 
Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Russegger, Die 
Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.) 

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis, 
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). . 

ABACUS (Gr. abax, a slab Fr. abaque, tailloir), in 
architecture, the upper member of the capital of a column.  
Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface 
for the architrave or arch it has to carry.  In the Greek Doric 
order the abacus is a plain square slab.  In the Roman and 
Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding.  In the 
Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the 
capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a 
carved ovolo moulding.  In later examples the abacus is square, 
except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly 
curved over the same.  In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic 
capital, the abacus is square with a fillet On the top of an 
ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.  In the Greek 
Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave 
and its angles canted (except in one or two exceptional Greek 
capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and the same 
shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corinthian and 
Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding 
carved.  In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with 
the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the 
same was retained in France during the medieval period; but 
in England,in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded 
abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries 
was transformed into an octagonal one.  The diminutive of 
Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers 
or squares of a tessellated pavement . ``Abacus'' is also the 
name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical 
calculations; pebbles, hits of bone or coins being used as 
counters.  Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken from an ancient 
monument.  It contains seven long and seven shorter rods 
or bars, the former having four perforated beads running 
on them and the latter one.  The bar marked 1 indicates 
units, X tens, and so on up to millions.  The beads on the 
shorter bars denote fives,--five units, five tens, &c. The 
rod O and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces; 
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. 

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles 
the Roman abacus in its construction and use.  Computations 
are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running 
on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board, 
fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in 
teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools. 

FIG. 2.--Chinese Swan-Pan.  The name of ``abacus'' is also 
given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the ``logical 
machine,'' analogous to the mathematical abacus.  It is 
constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of 
logical terms with their negatives, and, further, the way in which 
these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes 
or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the 
solution of logical problems.  These instruments are all more 
or less elaborate developments of the ``logical slate,'' on 
which were written in vertical columns all the combinations 
of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a 
definite number of terms.  These were compared with any given 
premises, and those which were incompatible were crossed 
off.  In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a 
single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a 
key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed 
at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.  
The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S. 
Jevons (Element.  Lessons in Logic, C. xxiii.), John Venn 
(see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan 
Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp. 
303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883). 

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning ``destruction.'' In poetry 
it comes to mean ``place of destruction,'' and so the 
underworld or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11). In Rev. 
ix. 11 Abaddon ((Abaddon) is used of hell personified, 
the prince of the underworld.  The term is here explained 
as Apollyon (q.v.), the ``destroyer.', W. Baudissin 
(Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo padie) notes that Hades and 
Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names, 
just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shamayim (``heaven''), 
and makom (``place'') among the Rabbins, are used of God. 

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of 
Fars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile 
plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. 
from the former and 170 m. from the latter place.  Pop. 
4000.  It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district, 
which has 30 villages; it has telegraph and post offices, 
and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays, 
sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear and box trees. 

ABAE (rabai), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in 
Greece, famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, 
one of those consulted by Croesus (Herod. i. 46). It was 
rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the 
Persians, and the temple remained in a ruined state.  The 
oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans 
before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have 
been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was in a very 
dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), though 
some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, 
was undertaken by Hadrian.  The sanctity of the shrine 
ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.  
Corresp.  Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the 
Romans.  The polygonal wabs of the acropolis may still be 
seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill 
standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho; 
one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls 
below.  The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the 
town.  An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are 
a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the 
British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found. 

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal 
of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.) 

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian 
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m.  S.S.W. 
of Krasnoyarsk, in lat. 54 deg. 20' N., long. 91 deg. 40' E. This is 
considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and 
is remarkable for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues 
of men from seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics.  
Peter the Great had a fort built here in 1707.  Pop. 2000. 

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various 
species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a 
richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl.  This sort 
of Haliotis is also commonly called ``ear-shell,'' and in 
Guernsey ``ormer'' (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). 
The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and 
other places on the southern Californian coast, and when 
polished makes a beautiful ornament.  The mollusc itself is 
often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan. 

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR, 
the ``rivers of Damascus'' (2 Kings v. 12), now generally 
identified with the Barada (i.e. ``cold'') and the A`waj 
(i.e. ``crooked'') respectively, though if the reference 
to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the Arabic 
version of the Old Testament, Pharpar would be the modern 
Taura.  Both streams run from west to east across the plain of 
Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose 
themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the 
borders of the great Arabian desert.  John M'Gregor, who gives 
an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the 
Jordan, affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering, 
the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana 
and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as 
one of the most complete and extensive in the world.  As the 
Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge, 
its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ``rivers'', the 
name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana. 

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE VILLE D', 
(1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.  He was 
Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organized 
the defence of the Tuileries for the 10th of August.  Commanded 
by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss guards, he 
refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent 
to Orleans to be tried.  At the end of August the Assembly 
ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to 
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude 
Fournier, ``the American.'' At Versailles they learned of the 
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners 
were murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792.  
Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime. 

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to 
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent 
to mettrea bandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of 
another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, 
decree, ``ban''), in law, the relinquishment of an interest, 
claim, privilege or possession.  Its signification varies 
according to the branch of the law in which it is employed, 
but the more important uses of the word are summarized below. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of proceedings 
commenced in the High Court of Justice either because the 
plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action 
or for other reasons.  Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, 
considerable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor 
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring 
another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT); but since 1875 
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who 
has deilvered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes 
to abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only 
on condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter. 

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the ship 
or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive 
total loss of the thing insured.  For the requisites and 
effects of abandonment in this sense See INSURANCE, MARINE. 

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under 
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a 
young child under the age of two, which is an indictable 
misdemeanour, is dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO. 

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside permanently 
in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new 
domicile.  The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding 
whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be 
inferred from the facts of each individual case.  See DOMICILE. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some 
accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of 
way, free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT. 

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in England 
recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of 
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a 
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. 

ABANO, PIETRO D, (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE 
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher, 
was born at the Italian town from which he takes his name 
in 1250, or, according to others, in 1246.  After studying 
medicine and philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where 
he speedily gained a great reputation as a physician, and 
availed himself of it to gratify his avarice by refusing 
to visit patients except for an exorbitant fee.  Perhaps 
this, as well as his meddling with astrology, caused him to 
be charged with practising magic, the particular accusations 
being that he brought back into his purse, by the aid of the 
devil, all the money he paid away, and that he possessed the 
philosopher's stone.  He was twice brought to trial by the 
Inquisition; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and he 
died (1316) before the second trial was completed.  He was 
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed 
and burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the 
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public 
proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in 
effigy.  In his writings he expounds and advocates the medical 
and philosophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian 
writers.  His best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum 
quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472; 
V.enice, 1476), and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), 
of which a French translation was published at Lyons in 1593. 

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of 
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei; it is 6 m.  S.W. 
by rail from Padua.  Pop. (1901) 4556.  Its hot springs and 
mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Ronlans 
as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the 
ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato 
dei Bagni d' Abano, Padua, 1789).  An oracle of Geryon lay 
near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., 
Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and 
used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century. 

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet 
of Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 
B.C., or two or three centuries later.  According to 
the legend, he travelled throughout the country, living 
without food and riding on a golden arrow, the gift of 
the god; he healed the sick, foretold the future, worked 
miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague (Herod. iv. 36; 
Iamblichus, De Fit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas credits him 
with several works: Scythian oracles, the visit of Apollo to 
the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose theogony. 

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and 
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the 
surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round 
the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief. 

ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the 
Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or 
doing away with; a term used especially in various legal phrases. 

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to 
a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance 
of destroying or removing it, provided no breach of the 
peace is committed in doing so.  In the case of private 
nuisances abatement is also allowed provided there be no 
breach of the peace, and no damage be occasioned beyond 
what the removal of the nuisance requires. (See NUISANCE.) 

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death of 
the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before 
the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of 
possession.  It differs from intrusion, which is a similar 
entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for life, to 
the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man; and from 
disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent expulsion 
of a person seised of the freehold. (See FREEHOLD.) 

ABATEMENT OE DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable assets 
(see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to 
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate 
proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.  Also, in 
the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which 
they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the 
legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given 
specially to any particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities 
are also subject to the same rule as general legacies. 


ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the 
defeating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of 
fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency 
of the parties suing, pleaded by the defendant.  It did not 
involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action 
subsisting.  In criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at 
one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was 
set up for the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, 
by alleging misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant.  
Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law 
Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the 
truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered 
description of the defendant unnecessary.  All pleas in abatement 
are now abolished (R.S.G.  Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING. 

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action 
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any 
of the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, 
and does not become defective by the assignment, creation or 
devolution of any estate or title pendente lite (R.S.C. Order 
17, r. 1). Criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of 
the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown, but 
the crown itself may bring about their termination without any 
decision on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. 

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act 
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has 
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light 
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. 

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a 
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on 
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses.  The rate and 
conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the 
Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK; REBATE.) 

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some 
kind of degradation or dishonour.  It is called also rebatement. 

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512--1571), a celebrated 
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at 
Bologna.  He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted 
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552--1571).  His 
pictures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace 
and natural colouring.  Some of his easel pieces in oil are 
in different collections; one of the finest, in the Dresden 
Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul. 

ABATIS,ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning 
a heap of material thrown), a term in field fortification 
for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid 
in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and 
interlaced or tied with wire.  The abatis is used alone or 
in combination with wire-entanglements and other obstacles. 

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often 
employed in English as an equivalent of ``slaughter-house'' 
(q.v.), the place where animals intended for food are killed. 

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1679-1767), a learned Frenchman, was born of 
Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc.  His father died when 
he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the 
edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him 
educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his 
escape.  For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in 
the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last reached Geneva, 
where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from 
the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their 
flight.  Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in 
languages, physics and theology.  In 1698 he went to Holland, 
and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. Jurieu and J. 
Basnage.  Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac 
Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his 
discoveries.  Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of 
his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when 
sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, ``You are 
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.'' The reputation 
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in 
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring 
to return to Geneva.  There from 1715 he rendered valuable 
assistance to a society that had been formed for translating 
the New Testament into French.  He declined the offer of 
the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but 
accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the 
city of his adoption.  Here he died at a good old age, in 
1767.  Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful 
versatility.  Whatever chanced to be discussed,it used to be 
said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell of more modern 
times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular 
study.  Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, 
addressed to him, in his Nouvelle Heloise, a fine panegyric; 
and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come 
to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen 
Abauzit.  Little remains of the labours of this intellectual 
giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers 
that came into their possession, because their own religious 
opinions were different.  A few theological, archaeological 
abd astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the 
Journal Helvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed 
several papers to Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique 
(1767).  He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical 
authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply 
from Dr Leonard Twells.  He also edited and made valuable 
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la republique de Geneve. 
A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 
1770 (OEuvres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London 
in 1773 (OEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them 
were translated into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774). 

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. 
Senebier's HIstoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's 
Miscellanies, and W. Orme's Bibliotheca Biblica (1824). 

'ABAYE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (q.v.), 
born in the middle of the 3rd century.  He died in 339. 

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of thc Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of 
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study 
of the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led 
to the compilation of the Talmud.  He is commonly known as Rab. 

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on the 
downfall of the western caliphate.  It lasted from about 1023 
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was 
singularly active and typical of its time.  The founder of 
the house was Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 
1023.  He was the chief of an Arab family settled in the city 
from the first days of the conquest.  The Beni-abbad were not 
of ancient descent, though the poets, whom they paid largely, 
made an illustrious pedigree for them when they had become 
powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  Abd-ul-Qasim gained 
the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful 
resistance to the Berber soldiers of fortune who were grasping 
at the fragments of the caliphate.  At first he professed to 
rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles, 
but when his power became established he dispensed with this 
show of republican government, and then gave himself the 
appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor 
who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When Abd-ul-Qasim 
died in 1042 he had created a state which, though weak in 
itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about 
it.  He had made his family the recognized leaders of the 
Mahommedans of Arab and native Spanish descent against 
the Berber element, whose chief was the king of Granada.  
Abbad, surnamed El Motaddid, his son and successor, is 
one of the most remarkable figures in Spanish Mahommedan 
history.  He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes 
of the later middle ages and the early renaissance, of the 
stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  El Motaddid was a poet and 
a lover of letters, who was also a poisoner, a drinker of 
wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the utmost degree.  Though 
he waged war all through his reign he very rarely appeared in 
the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted, 
from his ``lair'' in the fortified palace, the Alcazar of 
Seville.  He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had 
rebelled against him.  On one occasion he trapped a number 
of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into visiting 
him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room 
of a bath.  It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the 
enemies he had killed--those of the meaner men to be used as 
flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special 
chests.  His reign until his death on the 28th of February 
1069 was mainly spent in extending his power at the expense 
of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief 
rival the king of Granada.  These incessant wars weakened the 
Mahommedans, to the great advantage of the rising power of 
the Christian kings of Leon and Castile, but they gave the 
kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little 
states.  After 1063 he was assailed by Fernando El Magno of 
Castile and Leon, who marched to the gates of Seville, and 
forced him to pay tribute.  His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim 
Abenebet---who reigned by the title of El Motamid--was the 
third and last of the Abbadides, He was a no less remarkable 
person than his father and much more amiable.  Like him he was 
a poet, and a favourer of poets.  El Motamid went, however, 
considerably further in patronage of literature than his father, 
for he chose as his favourite and prime minister the poet Ibn 
Ammar.  In the end the vanity and featherheadedness of Ibn 
Ammar drove his master to kill him.  El Motamid was even 
more influenced by his favourite wife, Romaica, than by his 
vizir.  He had met her paddling in the Guadalquivir, purchased 
her from her master, and made her his wife.  The caprices 
of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Motamid in his 
efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.  
In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the 
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be 
as faithless as his father.  His wars and his extravagance 
exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by 
taxes.  In 1080 he brought down upon himself the vengeance of 
Alphonso VI. of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental 
barbarity.  He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the 
Christian king with false money.  The fraud was detected by a 
Jew, who was one of the envoys of Alphonso.  El Motamid, in 
a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned 
the Christian members of the mission.  Alphonso retaliated 
by a destructive raid.  When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, 
El Motamid called in Yusef ibn Tashfin, the Almoravide (see 
SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). During the six years 
which preceded his deposition in 1091, El Motamid behaved 
with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political 
folly.  He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusef by betraying 
the other Mahommedan princes to him, and intrigued to secure 
the alliance of Alphonso against the Almoravide.  It was 
probably during this period that he surrendered his beautiful 
daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his 
concubine, and is said by some authorities to have married 
her after she bore him a son, Sancho.  The vacillations and 
submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate 
which overtook his fellow-princes.  Their scepticism and 
extortion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef 
a ``fetva'' authorzing him to remove them in the interest of 
religion.  In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville.  El 
Motamid, who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his 
sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order 
to save his own life.  He died in prison in Africa in 1095. 

AUTHORITIES.--Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, 
Leiden, 1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum 
Arabum loci de Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. II.) 

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D', (1810-1897), and ARNAUD MICHEL 
D', (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their travels in 
Abyssinia during the first half of the 19th century.  They 
were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish 
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815.  The parents 
removed to France in 1818, and there the brothers received 
a careful scientific education.  In 1835 the French Academy 
sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results 
being published at a later date (1873) under the title of 
Observations relatives a! la physique du globe faites au 
Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger Abbadie spent some 
time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two brothers started for 
Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February 1838.  They visited 
various parts of Abyssinia, including the then little-known 
districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together and 
sometimes separately.  They met with many difficulties and 
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, 
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed 
in favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries.  After 
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, 
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the 
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their 
materials for publication.  The younger brother, Arnaud, paid 
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853.  The more distinguished 
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies 
relating both to his geographical results and his political 
intrigues.  He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who 
impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to 
Kana.  But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers 
have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, 
though wrong in his contention--hotly contested by Beke--that 
the Blue Nile was the main stream.  The topographical results 
of his explorations were published in Paris in 1860-1873 in 
Geodesie d'Ethiopie, full of the most valuable information and 
illustrated by ten maps.  Of the Geographie de l'Ethiopie 
(Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published.  In Un 
Catalogue raisonne de manuscrits ethiopiens (Paris, 1859) 
is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by 
Antoine.  He also compiled various vocabularies, including 
a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and 
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the 
Latin version, in 1860.  He published numerous papers dealing 
with the geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient 
inscriptions.  Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques 
he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations 
made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red 
Sea and the Levant.  The general account of the travels of 
the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the 
title of Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie. Both brothers 
received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 
1850.  Antoine was a knight of the Legion of Honour and a 
member of the Academy of Sciences.  He died in 1897, and 
bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding 40,000 francs 
a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its 
producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million 
stars.  His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.) 

ABBADIE, JAKOB (1654?-1727), Swiss Protestant divine, 
was born at Nay in Bern.  He studied at Sedan, Saumur and 
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of 
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen.  After spending 
some years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, 
where he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied 
Marshal Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became 
minister of the French church in the Savoy, London.  His 
strong attachment to the cause of King William appears in 
his elaborate defence of the Revolution (Defense de la 
nation britannique, 1692) as well as in his history of the 
conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la grande conspiration 
d'Angleterre). The king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloe 
in Ireland.  He died in London in 1727.  Abbadie was a man 
of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but is best known 
by his religious treatises, several of which were translated 
from the original French into other languages and had a wide 
circulation throughout Europe.  The most important of these are 
Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne (1684); its 
continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ 
(1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692). 

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.) 
who flourished c. 279-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the 
study of Greek by Jews.  He was famous as a collector of 
traditional lore, and is very often cited in the Talmud. 

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses benJoseph), French 
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of 
the 13th century.  He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace 
(Heb.  Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the 
name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel.  The descendant 
of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself 
to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself 
acquainted with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides 
as well as with the Talmud.  In Montpellier, where he lived 
from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence 
of Aristotelian rationalism, which, through the medium of 
the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old 
Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and 
revelation.  He, therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards 
collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e. ``Jealousy 
Offering'') called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Adret 
of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy.  Ben Adret, 
with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a 
letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the 
study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years 
of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal 
section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret in 
1305.  The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain 
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study 
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish 
rabbis.  On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip 
IV. in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he 
published the letters connected with the controversy.  His 
subsequent history is unknown.  Beside the letters, he was 
the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law. 

AUTHORITIES.--Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. 
Bislichis (Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins francais, 
pp. 647 foll.; Perles, Salomo ben Abrahann ben Adereth, 
pp. 15-54; Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v. ``Abba Mari.'' 

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun 
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning 
dynasty.  As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim Pasha 
(q.v.), his real or supposed uncle.  The death of Ibrahim 
in November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August 
following, on the death of Mehemet Alh--who had been deposed 
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness,--Abbas succeeded 
to the pashalik.  He has been generally described as a mere 
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish 
gentleman of the old school.  He was without question a 
reactionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his 
time shut up in his palace.  He undid, as far as lay in his 
power, the works of his grandfather, good and bad.  Among 
other things he abolished trade monopolies, closed factories 
and schools, and reduced the strength of the army to 9000 
men.  He was inaccessible to adventurers bent on plundering 
Egypt, but at the instance of the British government 
allowed the construction of a railway from Alexandria to 
Cairo.  In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha Palace by two 
of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said Pasha. 

ABBAS II. (1874-- ), khedive of Egypt.  Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 
great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the 14th of 
July 1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive 
of Egypt on the 8th of January 1892.  When a boy he visited 
England, and he had an English tutor for some time in 
Cairo.  He then went to school in Lausanne, and from there 
passed on to the Theresianum in Vienna.  In addition to 
Turkish, his mother tongue, he acquired fluency in Arabic, 
and a good conversational knowledge of English, French and 
German.  He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden 
death of his father raised him to the Khedivate; and he was 
barely of age according to Turkish law, which fixes majority 
at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne.  For 
some time he did not co-operate very cordially with Great 
Britain.  He was young and eager to exercise his new 
power.  His throne and life had not been saved for him by the 
British, as was the case with his father.  He was surrounded 
by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for 
some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary 
as his great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt 
to understand the importance of British counsels.  He paid 
a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly 
acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt, 
and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to 
co-operate with the British officials administering Egyptian 
affairs.  The establishment of a sound system of native 
justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest 
of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous irrigation 
works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound education, 
each received his approval and all the assistance he could 
give.  He displayed more interest in agriculture than in 
statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, 
near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural 
show in England; at Montaza, near Alexandria, he created 
a similar establishment.  He married the Princess Ikbal 
Hanem and had several children.  Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, 
the heir-apparent, was born on the 20th of February 1899. 

ABBAS I. (e. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called 
the Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1586) . In the 
midst of general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of 
Khorasan, and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 
1586.  Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, 
he first directed his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs, 
who occupied and harassed Khorasan.  After a long and severe 
struggle, he regained Meshed, defeated them in a great battle 
near Herat in 1597, and drove them out of his dominions.  In 
the wars he carried on with the Turks during nearly the whole 
of his reign, his successes were numerous, and he acquired, 
or regained, a large extent of territory.  By the victory he 
gained at Bassora in 1605 he extended his empire beyond the 
Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was forced to cede Shirvan and 
Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies of the Turks and Tatars 
were completely defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas 
made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing 
the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a year's siege in 
1623.  In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from the Portuguese, 
by the assistance of the British, and much of its trade was 
diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was named after the 
shah.  When he died, his dominions reached from the Tigris 
to the Indus.  Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his 
successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his court and 
of the buildings which he erected, but also by his reforms in 
the administration of his kingdom.  He encouraged commerce, 
and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did much 
to facilitate it.  To foreigners, especially Christians, he 
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony 
and Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his 
confidence.  His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds 
of tyranny and cruelty.  His own family, especially, suffered 
from his fits of jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and 
the eyes of his other children were put out, by his orders. 

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir 
Robert Sherley, &c. (London, 1823); Sir C. R. Markham, 
General Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874). 

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad, 
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan 
empire.  The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim 
to the throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652), 
the eldest uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they 
regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as 
opposed to the Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya.  Throughout 
the second period of the Omayyads, representatives of this 
family were among their most dangerous opponents, partly by 
the skill with which they undermined the reputation of the 
reigning princes by accusations against their orthodoxy, 
their moral character and their administration in general, 
and partly by their cunning manipulation of internecine 
jealousies among the Arabic and non-Arabic subjects of the 
empire.  In the reign of Merwan II. this opposition culminated 
in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent 
from Abbas, who, supported hy the province of Khorasan, achieved 
considerable successes, but was captured (A.D. 747) and died 
in prison (as some hold, assassinated).  The quarrel was taken 
up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu'l-Abbas 
as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on the Greater Zab 
(750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was proclaimed caliph. 

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual 
strife and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, 
in place of the old-fashioned austerity of thought and 
manners.  Mansur, the second of the house, who transferred 
the seat of government to Bagdad, fought successfully against 
the peoples of Asia Minor, and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid 
(786--809) and Mamun (813-833) were periods of extraordinary 
splendour.  But the empire as a whole stagnated and then decayed 
rapidly.  Independent monarchs established themselves in 
Africa and Khorasan (Spain had remained Omayyad throughout), 
and in the north-west the Greeks successfully encroached.  
The ruin of the dynasty came, however, from those Turkish 
slaves who were constituted as a royal bodyguard by Moqtasim 
(833-842).  Their power steadily grew until Radi (934-941) was 
constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed 
b.  Raik.  Province after province renounced the authority 
of the caliphs, who were merely lay figures, and finally 
Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad (Feb. 28th, 1258).  
The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority, 
confined to religious matters, in Egypt under the Mamelukes, 
but the dynasty finally disappeared with Motawakkil III., who 
was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople by Selim I. 

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a 
detailed account of the dynasty will be found. 

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a 
younger son of the shah, Feth Ali, but on account of his 
mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed 
him.  Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he 
sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers 
to reorganize his army.  He was soon at war with Russia, and 
his aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon, 
anxious to checkmate one another in the East.  Preferring 
the friendship of France, Abbas continued the war against 
Russia, but his new ally could give him very little assistance, 
and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous 
peace.  He gained some successes during a war between Turkey 
and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked his 
army, and a treaty was signed in 1823.  His second war with 
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of 
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some 
territory.  When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought 
to restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was 
nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the 
task died at Meshed in 1833.  In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed 
Mirza, succeeded Feth Ali as shah.  Abbas was an intelligent 
prince, possessed some literary taste, and it noteworthy 
on account of the comparative simplicity of his life. 

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government of 
Tiflis, 50 m.  S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 
m.  E. of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped 
valley.  It has hot sulphur baths (93 1/2 deg. -118 1/2 deg.  
Fahr.) and an astronomical observatory (4240 ft.). 

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in 
Istria, 56 m.  S.E. of Trieste by rail.  Pop. (1900) 2343.  It 
is situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at 
the foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded 
by beautiiul woods of laurel.  The average temperature is 50 deg.  
Fahr. in winter, and 77 deg.  Fahr. in summer.  The old abbey, 
San Giacomo della Priluca, from which the place derives its 
name, has been converted into a villa.  Abbazia is frequented 
annually by about 16,000 visitors.  The whole sea-coast to 
the north and south of Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, 
and contains several smaller winter-resorts.  The largest 
of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situated 5 m. to the south. 

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot), 
the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.  The 
mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess 
correspond generally with those of an abbot (q.v.). The 
office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the 
sisters from their own body.  The abbess is solemnly admitted 
to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the 
conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, 
though liable to be deprived for misconduct.  The council of 
Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of 
profession.  Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience 
of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending 
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the 
bishop.  As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the 
spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.  
She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate.  In 
England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that 
of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. 

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and 
nuns.  This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France 
and Spain, and even to Rome itself.  At a later period, A.D. 
1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government 
of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (Aebtissin) 
has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the 
heads of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as 
Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home 
and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, 
called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. 
This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and 
is sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. 

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 
m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 
18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is 
built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the 
river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The 
streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old 
structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark 
archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St 
Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The 
original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays 
and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent 
specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic 
towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an 
hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among 
the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois 
Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.  
There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal 
college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition 
to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, 
sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on; 
there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. 

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time 
belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards 
governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county, 
it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French 
families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo, 
from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of 
England.  French and English were its masters by turns till 
1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of 
Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France, 
and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in 
the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was born at 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of April 1852.  He left 
the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the 
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing 
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company 
with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph 
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an 
illustrator.  In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England 
to gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert 
Herrick.  These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, 
and were followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She 
Stoops to Conquer (1887), for a volume of Old Songs 
(1889), and for the comedies (and a few of the tragedies) of 
Shakespeare.  His water-colours and pastels were no less 
successful than the earlier illustrations in pen and ink.  
Abbey now became closely identified with the art life of 
England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters 
in Water-Colours in 1883.  Among his water-colours are ``The 
Evil Eye'' (1877); ``The Rose in October'' (1879); ``An Old 
Song'' (1886); ``The Visitors'' (1890), and ``The Jongleur'' 
(1892).  Possibly his best known pastels are ``Beatrice,'' 
``Phyllis,'' and ``Two Noble Kinsmen.'' In 1890 he made his 
first appearance with an oil painting, ``A May Day Morn,'' at 
the Royal Academy in London.  He exhibited ``Richard duke of 
Gloucester and the Lady Anne'' at the Royal Academy in 1896, 
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in 
1898.  Apart from his other paintings, special mention must 
be made of the large frescoes entitled ``The Quest of the Holy 
Grail,'' in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied 
for some years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward 
VII. to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many 
portraits elaborately grouped.  The dramatic subjects, and the 
brilliant colouring of his on pictures, gave them pronounced 
individuality among the works of contemporary painters.  
Abbey became a member not only of the Royal Academy, but also 
of the National Academy of Design of New York, and honorary 
member of the Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale 
des Beaux Arts (Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, 
etc.  He received first class gold medals at the International 
Art Exhibition of Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898, 
at the Paris Exhibitions of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 
1903; and was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour. 

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a 
monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government 
of an ABBOT or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from 
an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead 
of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual 
cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the 
archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot's place, the superior 
of the monastery being termed prior.  Other priories were 
originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots 
of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the 
actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. 

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTICISM) 
with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or 
huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode 
of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular 
asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement.  
The formation of such communities in the East does not date 
from the introduction of Christianity.  The example had been 
already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt. 

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics 
were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, 
at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves 
by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the 
surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the 
poor.  Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, 
drove them farther and farther away from the abodes of men 
into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts.  The deserts 
of Egypt swarmed with the ``cells'' or huts of these 
anchorites.  Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid 
during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the most 
celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and 
his power as an exorcist.  His fame collected round him a 
host of followers, emulous of his sanctity.  The deeper he 
withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples 
became.  They refused to be separated from him, and built 
their ceils round that of their spiritual father.  Thus arose 
the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living 
each in his own little dwelling, united together under one 
superior.  Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, 
vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), ``without any conscious 
design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode 
of living in common, Coenobitism.'' By degrees order was 
introduced in the groups of huts.  They were arranged in 
lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a 
street.  From this arrangement these lines of single cells 
came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes." 

The real founder of coenobian koinos, common, and bios, 
life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian 
of the beginning of the 4th century.  The first community 
established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper 
Egypt.  Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000 
monks.  Within fifty years from his death his societies could 
reckon 50,000 members.  These coenobia resembled vilIages, 
peopled by a hard-working religious community, ail of one 
sex.  The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest 
character.  Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii. 
14), contained three monks.  They took their chief meal in a 
common refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually 
fasted.  They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their 
faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table 
before them.  The monks spent all the time, not devoted to 
religious services or study, in manual labour.  Palladius, 
who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 
4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of 
Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 
carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners.  Each separate 
community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject 
to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment.  
All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and 
by him shipped to Alexandria.  The money raised by the sale 
was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the 
communities, and what was over was devoted to charity.  Twice 
in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at 
the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite 
(``the chief of the fold,'' from miandra, a fold), and at 
the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the 
year.  The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian 
institution.  We learn many details concerning those in the 
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings.  The monks 
lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet 
on the mountain side.  They were subject to an abbot, and 
observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their 
common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour 
was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors,) 
Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms. 

Santa Laura, Mount Athos. 

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of 
space and convenience of access from one part of the community 
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly 
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium.  Large 
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, 
capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which 
all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more 
open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters.  The usual 
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent 
of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the designation of a 
monastery generally, being converted into a female saint). 

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is 
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing 
an area of between 3 and 4 acres.  The longer side extends to 
a length of about 500 feet.  There is only one main entrance, 
on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron 
doors.  Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant 
feature in the monasteries of the Levant.  There is a small 
postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open 
courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister 
galleries of wood or stone.  The outer court, which is much the 
larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the 
kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory 
(G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied 
guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is 
surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells 
(II).  In the centre of this court stands the catholicon 
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of 
the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed 
narthex.  In front of the church stands a marble fountain 
(F), covered by a dome supported on columns.  Opening from 
the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in 
the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform 
building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with 
frescoes of saints.  At the upper end is a semicircular 
recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace 

                                                  A. Gateway. 
                                                  B. Chapels.
                                                  C. Guest-house.
                                                  D. Church.
                                                  E. Cloister.
                                                  F. Fountain.
                                                  G. Refectory.
                                                  H. Kitchen.
                                                  I. Cells.
                                                  K. Storehouses.
                                                  L. Postern gate.
                                                  M. Tower.
FIG. 1.---Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir). 

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or 
abbot.  This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the 
oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. 

Vatopede 

St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vatopede 
also on Mount Athos.  This enormous establishment covers at 
least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings 
within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town.  It 
lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the hegumenos is 
described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince.  
The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of 
St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables. 

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, 
shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and 
two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. 

Benedictine. 

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development 
to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480).  His rule was 
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation 
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and 
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far 
exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and 
splendour.  Few great towns in Italy were without their 
Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great 
centres of population in England, France and Spain.  The number 
of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is 
amazing.  Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no 
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order 
alone.  The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly 
arranged ofter one plan, modified where necessary (as at 
Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the 
steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local 
circumstances.  We have no existing examples of the earlier 
monasteries of the Benedictine order.  They have all yielded 
to the ravages of time and the violence of man.  But we 
have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the 
great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, 
which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a 
monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th 
century.  This curious and interesting plan has been made 
the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by 
Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp. 
86-117.  To the latter we are indebted for the substance of 
the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced 
from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved 

 FIG. 2.---Plan of Coptic Monastery. 
A. Narthex. B. Church.
C. Corridor, with cells on each side.
D. Staircase.

in the archives of the convent.  The general apperance 
of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with 
streets running between them.  It is evidently planned in 
compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, 
if possible, the monastery should contain within itself 
every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more 
intimately connected with the religious and social life of its 
inmates.  It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables 
and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying 
on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to 
obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. 

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus 
described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies 
the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square.  The 
buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into 
groups.  The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the 
religious life of the community.  In closest connexion with 
the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the 
monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for 
eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social 
intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary 
conference.  These essential elements of monastic life 
are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered 
arcade, affording communication sheltered ftom the elements 
between the various buildings.  The infirmary for sick monks, 
with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the 
east.  In the same group with the infirmary is the school for 
the novices.  The outer school, with its headmaster's house 
against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the 
convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, 
that he might have a constant eye over them.  The buildings 
devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one 
for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks 
visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and 
pilgrims.  The first and third are placed to the right and 
left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium 
for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the 
church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor 
on the south side next to the farm buildings.  The monks are 
lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the 
church.  The group of buildings connected with the material 
wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west 
of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic 
buildings.  The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a 
passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected 
with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther 
away.  The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to 
workshops, stables and farm-buildings.  The buildings, with some 
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but 
the church were probably erected of wood.  The whole includes 
thirty-three separate blocks.  The church (D) is cruciform, 
with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either 
extremity.  That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular 
colonnade, leaving an open ``paradise'' (E) between it and 
the wall of the church.  The whole area is divided by screens 
into various chapels.  The high altar (A) stands immediately 
to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar 
of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in 
the western apse.  A cylindrical campanile stands detached 
from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). 

The ``cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the 

 FIG. 3.--Ground-plan of St 

 
  CHURCH.                          U. House for blood-letting.
  A. High altar.                   V. School.
  B. Altar of St Paul.             W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
  C. Altar of St Peter.            X1X1. Guest-house for those
  D. Nave.                                  of superior rank
  E. Paradise.                     X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
  FF. Towers.                      Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.
  MONASTIC BUILDINGS 
  G. Cloister.                     MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
  H. Calefactory, with             Z. Factory.
     dormitory over.               a. Threshing-floor
  I. Necessary.                    b. Workshops.
  J. Abbot's house.                c, c. Mills.
  K. Refectory.                    d. Kiln.
  L. Kitchen.                      e. Stables.
  M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.      f Cow-sheds.
  N. Cellar.                       g. Goat-sheds.
  O. Parlour.               (over. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
  P1. Scriptorium with library  k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's
  P2. Sacristy and vestry.                     sleeping-chambers.
  Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;   l. Gardener's house
    2. refectory; 3. calefactory;  m,m. Hen and duck house.
    4. dormitory; 5. master's room n. Poultry-keeper's house.
    6. chambers.                   o. Garden.
  R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in   q. Bakehouse for sacramental
     the house of novices.
  S. Doctor's house.               s, s, s. Kitchens.
  T. Physic garden.                t, t, t. Baths.
 

church has on its east side the ``pisalis'' or ``calefactory', 
(H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by 
flues beneath the floor.  On this side in later monasteries 
we invariably find the chapterhouse, the absence of 
which in this plan is somewhat surprising.  It appears, 
however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the 
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a 
chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long 
sides.  Above the calefactory is the ``dormitory'' opening 
into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks 
to attend the nocturnal services with readiness.  A passage 
at the other end leads to the ``necessarium'' (I), a portion 
of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme 
care.  The southern side is occupied by the ``refectory'' 
(K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen 
(L) is reached.  This is separated from the main buildings 
of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with 
a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and 
the sleeping-rooms of the servants.  The upper story of the 
refectory is the ``vestiarium,'' where the ordinary clothes of 
the brethren were kept.  On the western side of the cloister 
is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, 
and the larder and store-room above.  Between this building 
and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and 
by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the 
``parlour'' for interviews with visitors from the external 
world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the 
``scriptorium'' or writing-room (P1), with the library above. 

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising 
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in 
itself.  Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual 
buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or 
chapel on one side, placed back to back.  A detached building 
belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen.  One of these 
diminutive convents is appropriated to the ``oblati'' or novices 
(Q), the other to the sick monks as an ``imfirmary'' (R). 

The ``residence of the physicians'' (S) stands contiguous to the 
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of 
the monastery.  Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, 
and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill.  The ``house 
for bloodletting and purging'' adjoins it on the west (U). 

The ``outer school,'' to the north of the convent area, contains 
a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or 
partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed 
the dwellings of the scholars.  The head-master's house (W) 
is opposite, built against the side wall of the church.  The 
two ``hospitia'' or `' guest-houses'' for the entertainment 
of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large 
common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by 
sleeping-apartments.  Each is provided with its own brewhouse 
and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has 
a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and 
stables for their horses.  There is also an ``hospitium'' for 
strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). 

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent 
area to the south, stands the `factory'' (Z), containing 
workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), 
cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, 
fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the 
rear.  On this side we also find the farmbuildings, the large 
granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse 
(d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds 
(f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), 
together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). 
At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and 
poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). 
Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the 
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, 
celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in 
all.  In the same way the physic garden presents the names 
of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of 
the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, &c., planted there. 

Canterbury Cathedral. 

A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its 
annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved 
in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, 
Cambridge.  As elucidated by Professor Willis,1 it exhibits 
the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th century, 
and enables us to compare it with that of the 9th as seen at St 
Gall.  We see in both the same general principles of arrangement, 
which indeed belong to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling 
us to determine with precision the disposition of the various 
buildings, when little more than fragments of the walls 
exist.  From some local reasons, however, the cloister and 
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far 
more commonly the case, on the south of the church.  There is 
also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall. 

The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate 
groups.  The church forms the nucleus.  In immediate contact 
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the 
group of buildings devoted to the monastic life.  Outside of 
these, to the west and east, are the ``halls and chambers 
devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every 
monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as 
guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity, 
travellers, pilgrims or paupers.'' To the north a large 
open court divides the monastic from the menial buildings, 
intentionally placed as remote as possible from the conventual 
buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse, 
brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of the 
establishment.  At the greatest possible distance from the 
church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary 
department.  The almonry for the relief of the poor, 
with a great hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium. 

The most important group of buildings is naturally that devoted 
to monastic life.  This includes two Cloisters, the great 
cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with 
the daily life of the monks,---the church to the south, the 
refectory or frater-house here as always on the side opposite 
to the church, and farthest removed from it, that no sound or 
smell of eating might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the 
east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the 
chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer to the 
west.  To this officer was committed the provision of the 
monks' daily food, as well as that of the guests.  He was, 
therefore, appropriately lodged in the immediate vicinity of 
the refectory and kitchen, and close to the guest-hall.  A 
passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the smaller 
or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm 
monks.  Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of 
the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and 
chancel of an aisled church.  Beneath the dormitory, looking 
out into the green court or herbarium, lies the ``pisalis'' 
or ``calefactory,'' the common room of the monks.  At its 
north-east corner access was given from the dormitory to the 
necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman 
hall, 145 ft. long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats.  It 
was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries, 
constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and 
health, a stream of water running through it from end to 
end.  A second smaller dormitory runs from east to west for 
the accommodation of the conventual officers, who were bound 
to sleep in the dormitory.  Close to the refectory, but outside 
the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected with it: 
to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, surmounted by a 
lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the 
butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its 
own.  Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are two 
lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall, 
at which the monks washed before and after taking food. 

The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three 
groups.  The prior's group ``entered at the south-east angle 
of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the 
cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or 
nobility who were assigned to him.'' The cellarer's buildings 
were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary visitors 
of the middle class were hospitably entertained.  The inferior 
pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry, 
just within the gate, as far as possible from the other two. 

Westminster Abbey. 

Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine 
abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they 
can be traced, with those described above.  The cloister and 
, monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.  
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, 
was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door.  On the 
eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised 
on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south 
transept.  The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the 
cloister.  The small cloister lles to the south-east of 
the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have 
the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the 
refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers.  The 
abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, 
close to the inner gateway.  Considerable portions of this 
remain, including the abbot's parlour. celebrated as ``the 
Jerusalem Chamber,'' his hall, now used for the Westminster 
King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. 

York. 

St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, 
exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements.  The precincts 
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, 
the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth 
side.  The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the 
north.  Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now 
the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid 
their devotions immediately on their arrival.  Near the 
gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). 
The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to 
enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the 
cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I), 
the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other 
principal apartments.  The infirmary has perished completely. 

Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements, 
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of 
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the 
cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of 

                             FIG. 4

 St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins.
 A. Church.                        O. Offices.
 B. Chapter-house.                 P. Cellars.
 C. Vestibule to ditto.            Q. Uncertain. 
 E. Library or scriptorium.        R. Passage to abbot's house.
 F. Calefactory.                   S. Passage to common house.
 G. Necessary.                     T. Hospitium.
 H. Parlour.                       U. Great gate.
 I. Refectory.                     V. Porter's lodge.
 K. Great kitchen and court.       W. Church of St Olaf.
 L. Cellarer's office.             X. Tower.
 M. Cellars.                       Y. Entrance from Bootham.
 N. Passage to cloister.
 

as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrangements 
deduced from the examples described may be regarded as invariable. 

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of 
decay and revival.  With growth in popular esteem came increase 
in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness.  The 
first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was 
relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline 
was so complete in France that the monks are said to have 
been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, 
and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at 
all.  The reformation of abuses generally took the form of 
the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more 
stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural 
arrangements.  One of the earliest of these reformed orders 
was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little 
village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about 
A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, 
duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of 
Beaume.  He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as 
the founder of the order.  The fame of Cluny spread far and 
wide.  Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the 
old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation 
to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in 
large numbers, all owing allegiance to the ``archabbot,'' 
established at Cluny.  By the end of the 12th century the 
number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various 
countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.  The monastic 
establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive 
and magnificent in France.  We may form some idea of its 
enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, A.D. 
1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals, 

         FIG. 5--Abbey of Cluny, from 

 
 A. Gateway.        F. Tomb of St Hugh.  M. Bakehouse.
 B. Narthex.        G. Nave.             N. Abbey buildings.
 C. Choir.          H. Cloister.         O. Garden.
 D. High-altar.     K. Abbot's house.    P. Refectory.
 E. Retro-altar.    L. Guest-house.
 

a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the 
Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three 
of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders 
and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and 
six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their 
attendants, were lodged withn the monastery without disarranging 
the monks, 400 in number.  Nearly the whole of the abbey 
buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away 
at the close of the 18th century.  When the annexed ground-plan 
was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the 
monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. 

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable 
resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast 
dimensions.  It was 656 ft. high.  The nave (G) had double 
vaulted aisles on either side.  Like Lincoln, it had an 
eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with 
apsidal chapels to the east.  The western transept was 213 
ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft.  The choir terminated in 
a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also 
semicircular.  The western entrance was approached by an 
ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of 
no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a 
stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross.  To the 
south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense 
size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the 
case.  On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory 
(P), an immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, 
accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of 
tables.  It was adorned with the portraits of the chief 
benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects.  The 
end wall displayed the Last Judgment.  We are unhappily unable 
to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The 
abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the 
entrance-gate.  The guest-house (L) was close by.  The bakehouse 
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. 

English Cluniac 

The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of 
Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077.  Of 
this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist.  
The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, 
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire.  Ground-plans of both are 
given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show 
several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.  In 
each the prior's house is remarkably perfect.  All Cluniac 
houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors 
of that nation.  They did not secure their independence nor 
become ``abbeys'' till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac 
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived.  
The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral 
ruin.  With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac 
foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in 
discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. 

Cistercian 

The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in 
the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, 
and a longer and more honourable existence.  Owing its real 
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines, in 
the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorsetshire, 
educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its 
name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost 
inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and 
Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order 
are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety 
of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, 
subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the 
first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux 
(de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116.  The rigid self-abnegation, 
which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation 
of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and 
other buildings erected by them.  The characteristic of the 
Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied 
plainness.  Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and 
that was to be very low.  Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets 
were prohibited.  The triforium was omitted.  The windows 
were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to 
decorate them with stained glass.  All needless ornament was 
proscribed.  The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of 
iron.  The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced 
in all that met the eye.  The same spirit manifested itself 
in the choice of the sites of their monasteries.  The more 
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, 
the more did it please their rigid mood.  But they came 
not merely as ascetics, but as improvers.  The Cistercian 
monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered 
valleys.  They always stand on the border of a stream; not 
rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it.  These 
valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different 
aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their 
retirement.  Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, 
wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features.  The 
``bright valley,'' Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known 
as the ``valley of Wormwood,'' infamous as a den of robbers. 
``It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that 
at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on 
beech leaves.''-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.) 

Clairvaux 

All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the 
locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan.  The 
general arrangement and distribution of the various
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast 
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own 
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given.  It will be observed 
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, 
furnished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive 
works.  The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, 
artificially diverted from the small rivulets which flow 
through the precincts, furnishing the establishment with 
an abundant supply in every part, for the litigation of 
the gardens and orchards, the sanitary requirements of the 
brotherhood and for the use of the offices and workshops. 

The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall, 
running from N. to S., into an outer and inner ward,--the 
former containing the menial, the latter the monastic 
buildings.  The precincts are entered by a gateway (P), at 
the extreme western extremity, giving admission to the lower 
ward.  Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops 
and workmen,s lodgings were placed, without any regard to 
symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.  Advancing 
eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the 

    FIG. 6.--.Clairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercian), General 

 
  A. Cloisters.         I. Wine-press and       O. Public presse.
  B. Ovens, and corn          hay-chamber       P. Gateway.
       oil-mills        K. Parlour              R. Remains of old monastery
  C. St Bernard's cell. L. Workshops and.
  D. Chief entrance.         workmen's lodgings S. Oratory.
  E. Tanks for fish.                            V. Tile-works.
  F. Guest-house.       M. Slaughter-house.     X. Tile-kiln.
  G. Abbot's house.     N. Barns and stables.   V. Water-courses.
  H. Stables.
 

outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communication 
between the two.  On passing through the gateway, the outer 
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade 
of the monastic church in front.  Immediately on the right 
of entrance was the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to 
the guest-house (F). On the other side of the court were the 
stables, for the accommodation of the horses of the guests 
and their attendants (H). The church occupied a central 
position.  To the south was the great cloister (A), 
surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to 
the east the smaller cloister, opening out of which were 
the infirmary, novices' lodgings and quarters for the aged 
monks.  Still farther to the east, divided from the monastic 
buildings by a wall, were the vegetable gardens and orchards, 
and tank for fish.  The large fish-ponds, an indispensable 
adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the formation 
of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and 
which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these 
vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls. 

Plan No. 2 furninshes the ichnography of the distinctly 
monastic buildings on a larger scale.  The usually unvarying 
arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us to accept 
this as a type of the monasteries of this order.  The church 
(A) is the chief feature.  It consists of a vast nave of 
eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept and short 
apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb in 
all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and 
usually square.) To the east of each limb of the transept 
are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian 
rule by solid walls.  Nine radiating chapels, similarly 
divided, surround the apse.  The stalls of the monks, 
forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays of the 
nave.  There was a second range of stalls in the extreme 
western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, or lay 
brothers.  To the south of the church, so as to secure as 
much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably placed, 
except when local reasons forbade it.  Round the cloister 
(B) were ranged the buildings connected with the monks' daily 
life.  The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the east 
walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept. 

      FIG. 7.--Clairvaux, No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic 

 
  A. Church.            L. Lodgings of novices.   S. Cellars and storehouses.
  B. Cloister. 
  C. Chapter-house.     M. Old guest-house.       T. Water-course.
  D. Monks' parlour.    N. Old abbot's lodgings.  U. Saw-mill and oil mill
  E. Calefactory. 
  F. Kitchen and court. O. Cloister of            V. Currier's shop.
  G. Refectory.            supernumerary monks.
  H. Cemetery.                                    X. Sacristy.
  I. Little cloister.   P. Abbot's hall.          Y. Little library.
  K. Infirmary.         Q. Cell of St Bernard.    Z. Undercroft of dormitory.
                        R. Stables.
 

In Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided 
by pillars and arches into two or three aisles.  Between 
it and the transept we find the sacristy (X), and a small 
book-room (Y) armariolum, where the brothers deposited the 
volumes borrowed from the library.  On the other side of the 
chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) communicating 
with the courts and buildings beyond.  This was sometimes 
known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the 
privilege of conversation here.  Here also, when iscipline 
became relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, 
were allowed to display their goods.  Beyond this we often 
find the calefactorium or day-room--an apartment warmed 
by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half 
frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after 
the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease 
their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the 
day.  In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the 
south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory.  The place usually 
assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substructure of the 
dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was placed on the 
east side of the cloister, running over the calethetory and 
chapter-house, and joined the south transept, where a flight 
of steps admitted the brethren into the church for nocturnal 
services.  Opening out of the dormitory was always the 
necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and 
cleanliness, a water-course invariably running from end to 
end.  The refectory opens out of the south cloister at G. 
The position of the refectory is usually a marked point of 
difference between Benedictine and Cistercian abbeys.  In the 
former, as at Canterbury, the refectory ran east and west 
parallel to the nave of the church, on the side of the cloister 
farthest removed from it.  In the Cistercian monasturies, to 
keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from 
the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, 
at right angles to the axis of the church.  It was often 
divided, sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three 
aisles.  Outside the refectory door, in the cloister, 
was the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands at 
dinner-time.  The buildings belonging to the material life of 
the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the 
church, to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer 
court was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery 
and larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running 
water.  Farther to the west, projecting beyond the line of 
the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments 
(SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above which was 
the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and 
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various 
workshops, which convenience repuired to be banished to 
the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned 
by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals 
and leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired. 

Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small 
cloister (l), opening from the north side of which were eight 
small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works 
for the library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible 
by a turret staircase.  To the south of the small cloister 
a long hall will be noticed.  This was a lecture-hall, or 
rather a hall for the religious disputations customary among the 
Cistercians.  From this cloister opened the infirmary (K), 
with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and other 
dependencies.  At the eastern verge of the vast group of buildings 
we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister 
near the novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). 
Detached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was the 
original abbot's house (N), with its dining-hall (P). Closely 
adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of the whole 
establishment should be constantly over those who stood the 
most in need of his watchful care,--those who were training 
for the monastic life, and those who had worn themselves 
out in its duties,--was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed 
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the 
establishment.  The cemetery, the last resting-place of the 
brethren, lay to the north side of the nave of the church (H). 

It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement of 
a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly defined 
system, and admirably adapted to its purpose.  The base court 
nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging to 
the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of 
labour.  Advancing into the inner court, the buildings`devoted 
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those 
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren, 
--the kitchen, cellars, &c.,--form a court of themselves 
outside the cloister and quite detached from the church.  
The church refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging 
to the professional life of the brethren surround the great 
cloister.  The small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells, 
library, hall for disputations, &c., is the centre of the 
literary life of the community.  The requirements of sickness 
and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary 
cloister and that for the aged and infirm members of the 
establishment.  The same group contains the quarters of the novices. 

This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the 
illustration of the mother establishment of Citeaux. 

Citeaux. 

A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to 
the gate of the monastery. reached by an avenue of trees.  On 
one side of the gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably 
the almonry, with a dormitory above for the lower class of 
guests.  On the other side is a chapel (D). As soon as the 
porter heard a stranger knock at the gate, he rose, saying, 
Deo gratias, the opportunity for the exercise of hospitality 
being regarded as a cause for thankfulness.  On opening the 
door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing --Benedicite. 
He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the 
abbot.  However important the abbot's occupations might 
be, he at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had 
sent.  He also threw himself at his guest's feet, and 
conducted him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the 
gate.  After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest 
to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was 
to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he 
might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner 
gatehouse (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court 
(T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. 
On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, 
fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with 
cellars and storehouses below.  At H, also outside the monastic 
buildings proper, was the abbot's house, and annexed to it the 
guest-house.  For these buildings there was a separate door 
of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its 
surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects 
the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from 
the base court.  The long gabled building on the east side of 
the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house 
and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above (M), 
communicating with the south transept of the church.  At L 
was the staircase to the dormitory.  The small cloister is at 
W, where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the 
library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase.  At R we see 
a portion of the infirmary.  The whole precinct is surrounded 
by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches, 

            FIG. 8.---Bird's-eye view of 

 
 A. Cross.            H. Abbot's house.            R. Infirmary.
 B. Gate-house.       I. Kitchen.                  S. Door to the church
 C. Almonry.          K. Refectory.                   for the lay brothers.
 D. Chapel.           L. Staircase to dormitory.
 E. Inner gate-house.                              T. Base court.
 F. Stable.           M. Dormitory.                V. Great cloister.
 G. Dormitory of lay  N. Church.                   W. Small cloister.
        brethren.     P. Library.                  X. Boundary wall.
 

through which streams of water are introduced.  It will 
be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has 
a square end instead of the usual apse.  The tower, in 
accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low.  The windows 
throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order. 

Kirkstall Abbey. 

The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such extensive 
and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall, 
Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same 
plan, with slight local variations.  As an example, we give 
the groundplan of Kirkstall Abbey. which is one of the best 
preserved.  The church here is of the Cistercian type, with 
a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three 
eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2). 
The whole is of the most studied plainness.  The windows 
are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium.  The 
cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the 
nave.  On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house 
(5), between which and the south transept is a small 
sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments, 
one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this 
stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks 
(14).  Above this whole range of building runs the monks' 
dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the 
church.  At the other end were the necessaries.  On thc south 
side of the cloister we have the remains of the old refectory 
(11), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west, 
and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the 
inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual 
in Cistercian houses, from north to south.  Adjacent to this 
apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry and buttery.  
The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory 
entrance.  The western side of the cloister is, as usual, 
occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story 
the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the 

      FIG. 9 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire 

 
 1. Church.                         10. Common room.
 2. Chapels.                        11. Old refectory.
 3. Sacristy.                       12. New refectory.
 4. Cloister.                       13. Kitchen court.
 5. Chapter-house.                  14. Calefactory or day-room.
 6. Parlour.                        15. Kitchen and offices.
 7. Punishment cell (?).            16-19. Uncertain; perhaps offices
 8. Cellars, with dormitories for            connected with the infirmary.
      conversi over.
 9. Guest-house.                    20. Infirmary or abbot's house.
 

south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the 
walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable 
extent.  These have been identified either with the hospitium 
or with the abbot's house, but they occupy the position in 
which the infirmary is more usually found.  The hall was 
a very spacious apartment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 
48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, and was divided by two rows of 
columns.  The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and 
the river to the south.  The abbey mill was situated 
about 80 yards to the north-west.  The millpool may be 
distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream. 

Fountains Abbey. 

Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the 
largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England.  
But the earlier buildings received considerable additions 
and alterations in the later period of the order, causing 
deviations from the strict Cistercian type.  The church 
stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the 
buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the 
stream.  We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the 
three-aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from 
its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) 
and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk. 

     FIG. 10.--Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, 

 
 A. Nave of the church.     N. Cellar.              Z. Gate-house.
 B. Transept.               O. Brewhouse.              ABBOT'S HOUSE.
 C. Chapels.                P. Prisons.                 1. Passage
 D. Tower.                  Q. Kitchen.                 2. Great hall.
 E. Sacristy.               R. Offices.                 3. Refectory.
 F. Choir.                  S. Refectory.               4. Refectory.
 G. Chapel of nine alters.  T. Buttery.                 5. Storehouse.
 H. Cloister.               U. Cellars and storehouses. 6. Chapel.
 I. Chapter-house.          V. Necessary.               7. Kitchen.
 K. Base court.             W. Infirmary (?).           8. Ashpit.
 L. Calefactory.            X. Guest-houses.            9. Yard.
 M. Water-course.           Y. Mill bridge.            10. Kitchen tank.
 

Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure 
(U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and 
store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi 
above.  This building extended across the river.  At its S.W. 
corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above 
the swiftly flowing stream.  The monks' dormitory was in its 
usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the 
transept.  As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed 
the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and 
calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some 
error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining 
the guest-houses (XX).  We may also call attention to the 
greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 
1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like 
Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot 
John of Kent, 1220-1247, and to the tower (D), added not long 
before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very 
unusual position at the northern end of the north transept.  
The abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of 
this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to the 
east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by 
the kitchen court (R), surrounded by the ordinary domestic 
offices.  A considerable portion of this house was erected on 
arches over the Skell.  The size and character of this house, 
probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious 
house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks 
the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern 
simplicity of the original foundation.  The hall (2) was one 
of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval 
times, measuring 170 ft. by 70 ft.  Like the hall in the 
castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally 
built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3 
aisles.  Among other apartments, for the designation of which 
we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or 
chapel, 46 1/2 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen (7), 50 ft. by 38 
ft.  The whole arrangements and character of the building 
bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble 
father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by vows to a 
life of poverty and self-denying toil.  In the words of Dean 
Milman, ``the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with 
humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit 
bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot 
on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver 
cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the 
lordliest of the realm.'' --(Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 330.) 

Austin Canons. 

The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so 
called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive 
peculiarities.  This order had its first seat in England at 
Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about 
A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely.  As an order 
of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks 
and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish 
priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length 
to accommodate large congregations.  The choir is usually 
long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church 
(Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, 
&c., is destitute of aisles altogether.  The nave in the northern 
houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, 
Brinkburn and Lanercost.  The arrangement of the monastic 
buildings followed the ordinary type.  The prior's lodge was 
almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. 

Bristol Cathedral. 

The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol, 
now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement 
of the buildings, which departs very little from the 
ordinary Benedictine type.  The Austin canons' house at 
Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size 
and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of 
which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for 
possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. 

Premonstratensians. 

The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had 
as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect 
remaining are those of Easby.  Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent.  
The head house of the order in England was Welbeck.  This order 
was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. 
1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 
1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest 
of Coucy in the diocese of Laon.  The order spread widely.  
Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and 
Palestine.  It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in 
the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its 
members sank into indolence and luxury.  The Premonstratensians 
were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were 
first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber.  
The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the 
edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly 
irregular.  The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the 
church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions 
round it.  But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not 
rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made 
to sprawl in a very awkward fashion.  The church follows 
the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern 
abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the 
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless.  Each 
transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. 

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or 
choir.  The latter terminated in a three-sided apse.  This church 
is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its 
length.  Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is 

    FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol 

 
 A. Church.            H. Kitchen.         S. Friars' lodging.
 B. Great cloister.    I. Kitchen court.   T. King's hall.
 C. Little cloister.   K. Cellars.         V. Guest-house.
 D. Chapter-house.     L. Abbot's hall.    W. Abbey gateway.
 E. Calefactory.       P. Abbot's gateway. X. Barns, stables, &c
 F. Refectory.         R. Infirmary.       Y. Lavatory.
 G. Parlour.
 

not more than 25 ft. broad.  Stern Premonstratensian canons 
wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; 
therefore they built their church like a long room. 

Carthusians. 

The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, 
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and 
arrangement of a monastic institution.  The principle of this 
order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, 
demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan.  This 
plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve 
companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near 
Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments 
throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order 
had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity 
of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence 
of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the 
Certosas of Pavia and Florence.  According to the rule of 
St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived 
in the most absolute solitude and silence.  Each occupied a 
small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden 
surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or 
cloister.  In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk 
passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving 
his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, 
except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the 
refectory.  The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian 
monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, 
from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited 
in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet-le-Duc. 

Clermont. 

The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished 
at intervals with watch towers (R) . The enclosure is divided 
into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a 
cloister, from from which the cottages of the monks (I) open, 
is musch the larger.  The two courts are divided by the main 
buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary 
(A), divided from B, the monks' choir, by a screen with two 
altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by 
the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X)---these buildings 
occupying their normal position--and the chapel of Pontgibaud 
(K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the 
relectory, accessible ftom the outer court without entering the 
cloister.  To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy 
(L), and the side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior 
(a), with its garden.  The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy 
the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the 
west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent 
(O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before 
it.  This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), 
the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns 
and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). 
At Z is the prison.  In this outer court, in all the earlier 
foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in 
addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and 
inner courts are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough 
to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the 
brethren with fuel.  The number of cells surrounding the great 

                                                A. Church. 
                                                B. Monks' choir.
                                                C. Prior's garden.
                                                D. Great cloister.
                                                E. Chapter-house.
                                                F. Passage.
                                                G. Prior's lodgings.
                                                H. Dovecot.
                                                I. Cells.
                                                K. Chapel of Pontgibaud.
                                                L. Sacristy.
                                                M. Chapel.
                                                N. Stables.
                                                O. Gateway.
                                                P. Guest-chambers.
                                                Q. Barns and granaries.
                                                R. Watch-tower.
                                                S. Little cloister.
                                                T. Bakehouse.
                                                V. Kitchen.
                                                X. Refectory.
                                                Y. Cemetery.
                                                Z. Prison.
                                                a. Cell of subprior
                                                b. Garden of do.
          FIG. 12.--Carthusian monastery of Clermont. 

cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan.  
Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room 
(C), warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), 
furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and 
a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A) 
is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the 
cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his 
meditations.  The superior had free access to this corridor, and 
through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being 
seen.  At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily 
allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that 
purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards.  H is the 
garden, cultivated by the occupant of the cell.  At K is the 
wood-house.  F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end. 


The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation 
in all the charter-houses of western Europe.  The Yorkshire 
Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, the 
young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of 
England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, 
about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English 
example.  It is characterized by all the simplicity of the 
order.  The church is a modest building, long, narrow and 
aisleless.  Within the wall of enclosure are two courts.  
The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual 
arrangement of church, refectory, &c., opening out of a 
cloister.  The buildings are plain and solid.  The northern 
court contains the cells, 14 in number.  It is surrotmded by a 
double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. 
apart.  Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; 
low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the 
ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the 
side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the 
back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the 
monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse 
of his garden to the ``eremus'' beyond.  By the side of the 
door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily 
pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an 
angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look 
out.  A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement 
belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at Miraflores, near 
Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. 

                                                A. Cloister gallery. 
                                                B. Corridor.
                                                C. Living-room.
                                                D. Sleeping-room.
                                                E. Closets.
                                                F. Covered walk.
                                                G. Necessary.
                                                H. Garden.
                                                I. Hatch.
                                                K. Wood-house.
             FIG. 13--Carthusian cell, Clermont. 

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England.  The 
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded 
by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into 
England.  The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of 
Sheen or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 
1414.  The, dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated 
to have been remarkably large.  The great court measured 
300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; 
the hall was 110 ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth.  The 
most celebrated historically is the Charter house of London, 
founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which 
is preserved by the famous public school established on the 
site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming. 

Mendicant Friars. 

An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without 
some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching 
Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey 
or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or 
Austin, Friars.  These orders arose at the beginning of the 
13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their 
various reformed branches, had terminated their active 
mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious 
revival.  Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, 
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated 
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their 
buildings to the requirements of the site.  Regularity of 
arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had 
studied it.  Their churches, built for the reception of 
large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form 
a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder 
orders in ground-plan and character.  They were usually long 
parallelograms unbroken by transepts.  The nave very usually 
consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls 
of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the 
congregation.  The constructional choir is often wanting, 
the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with 
a continuous range of windows.  The east end was usually 
square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal 
apse.  We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of 
great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave.  This arrangement 
is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries 
afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of 
ground-plan.  The friars' churches were at first destitute of 
towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers 
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir.  The 
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good 
example.  The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally 
peculiar and characteristic.  We miss entirely the regularity 
of the buildings of the earlier orders.  At the Jacobins at 
Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church 
of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense 
length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across 
the area before the west front of the church.  At Toulouse the 
nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, 
with radiating chapel.  The refectory stretches northwards at 
right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the 
church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. 

Norwich.  Gloucester. 

As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at 
Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at 
Gloucester, may be mentioned.  The church of the Black 
Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the 
nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles.  In 
this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at 
Reading.  The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower 
between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished.  Thc 
cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the 
north.  The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the 
cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated 
church.  The refectory is on the west side and on the south 
the dormitory of the 13th century.  This is a remarkably good 
example.  There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided 
by partitions, the bases of which remain.  On the east side 
was the prior's house, a building of later date.  At the Grey 
or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in 
having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of 
windows.  There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir. 

Hulne. 

Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a 
good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first 
of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240.  The church 
is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by 
only 26 ft. wide.  The cloisters are to the south, with 
the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory 
over.  The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the 
cloister.  The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to 
which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual 
area.  The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites 
in London is still standing.  It is of Decorated date, and 
has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and 
graceful arcade.  Some fragments of the south walk of the 
cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of 
Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still 
standing.  Of the Black Friars all has perished but the 
name.  Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of 
the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of 
the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris:---``The friars 
who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences 
as the palaces of kings.  These are they who, enlarging day 
by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty 
walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently 
transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very 
fundamental rules of their profession.'' Allowance must here be 
made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. 

Cells. 

Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller 
establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic 
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some 
outlying estate.  As an example, we may refer to the small 
religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great 
Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the 
Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln.  This consists 
of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part 
formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of 
the handful of monks of which it was the home.  To the east 
may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and 
mill-lead.  These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house, 
were called Obedientiae. The plan given by Viollet-le-Duc 
of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell, 
situated between the town of Avallon and the village of 
Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised 
every essential feature of a monastery,---chapel, cloister, 
chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the 
recognized arrangement.  These Cluniac obedientiae differed 
from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of 
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave 
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of 
penitentiary.  Here they were placed under the authority of a 
prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling 
the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as 
farmservants.  The outlying farming establishments belonging to 
the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. 
They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers 
under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother 
Hospitaller ---the granges, like their parent institutions, 
affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers. 

AUTHORITIES.--Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, 
Architecture monastique (1852--1856); Veollet-le-Duc, 
Dictionnaire raisonnee de l'architecture francaise; 
Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus, 
Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.) 

ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945-1004), a 
learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He distinguished 
himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was especially 
proficient in science as known in his time.  He spent two 
years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in 
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey.  After 
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire 
(988).  He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious 
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a 
threatened papal interdict.  He was killed at La Reole in 
1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt.  He wrote an 
Epitomie de vitis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial 
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. 
139).  His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in 
which much of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great 
importance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially 
with reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139). 

See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885); 
Cuissard-Gaucheron, ``L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du 10 
siecle,'' in Memoires de la societe de l'Orleanais, xiv. 
(Orleans, 1875); A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France. 

ABBOT, EZRA (1819--1884), American biblical scholar, was 
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April 
1819.  He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 
1847, at the request of Prof.  Andrews Norton, went to 
Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until 
1856.  He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from 
1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card 
catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary 
dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics 
under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic 
catalogue.  From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor 
of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard 
Divinity School.  His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages 
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, thoygh his 
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive 
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future 
life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of 
a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages 
(1862), and published separately in 1864.  His publications, 
though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, 
were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, 
dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian 
controversial treatises, &c.; but he took a more conspicuous 
and more personal part in the preparation (with the Baptist 
scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition 
of Dr (afterwards Sir) William Smith's Dictionary of the 
Bible (1867-1870), to which he contributed more than 400 
articles besides greatly improving the bibliographical 
completeness of the work; was an efficient member of the 
American revision committee employed in connexion with the 
Revised Version (1881-1885) of the King James Bible; and aided 
in the preparation of Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to 
the revised Greek New Testament of Tischendorf.  His principal 
single production, representing his scholarly method and 
conservative conclusions, was The Authorship af the Fourth 
Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second edition, by J. H. 
Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture, and 
in spite of the compression due to its form, up to that time 
probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence, 
of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the completest 
treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.  
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from 
Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. . He 
died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 21st of March 1884. 

See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884). 

ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of 
Canterbury, was born on the 19th of October 1562, at Guildford in 
Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker.  He studied, and 
then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master of 
University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester in 
1600.  He was three times vice-chancellor of the university, 
and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version 
of the New Testament.  In 1608 he went to Scotland with the 
earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches 
of England and Scotland.  He so pleased the king (James 
I.) in this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and 
Coventry in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month 
afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of 
Canterbury.  His puritan instincts frequently led him not 
only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into 
courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he 
opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard 
against the earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, 
he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting Sunday 
sports.  He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match 
between the elector palatine and the Princess Elizabeth, 
and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the prince 
of Wales with the infanta of Spain.  This policy brought 
upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he had previously 
come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the 
king himself never forsook him.  In 1622, while hunting in 
Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt from his 
cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the 
keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly 
distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled 
melancholy.  His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of 
this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued 
that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of 
hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical 
person could lawfully indulge.  The king had to refer the 
matter to a commission of ten, though he said that ``an angel 
might have miscarried after this sort.'' The commission was 
equally divided, and the king gave a casting vote in the 
archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or 
dispensation.  After this the archbishop seldom appeared 
at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities.  He 
attended the king constantly, however, in his last illness, 
and performed the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I. 
His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert 
Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February 1626-1627, in 
which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a 
general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance 
even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to 
deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in 
commission.  The need of summoning parliament, however, 
soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's 
powers.  His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived 
from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in 
undisputed ascendancy.  He died at Croydon on the 5th of August 
1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where 
he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of L. 300 a 
year.  Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view 
and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists.  He 
wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his 
discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was 
reprinted in 1845.  His Geography, or a Brief Description 
of the Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions. 

The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England. 

ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as ``The 
Puritan,'' has been oddly and persistently mistaken for 
others.  He has been described as a clergyman, which he never 
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his 
writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities 
as by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury.  One of the 
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he 
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a 
different family altogether.  He was son or grandson (it is 
not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, 
East Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603--1604, 
his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of 
Pickering.  Of his early life and training nothing is 
known.  He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, 
Warwickshire, and as his monument, which may still be seen 
in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house 
against Princes Rupert and Maurice during the civil war.  As 
a layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of rare 
ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique 
place in the literature of the period.  The terseness of his 
Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to 
understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with the usual 
prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators.  His 
Vindiciae Sabbathi (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting 
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy.  His Brief 
Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date 
shows, was posthumous.  He died on the 2nd of February 1648. 

AUTHORITIES--MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all 
of the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; 
Dugdale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730 p. 1099; Wood's 
Athenae (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath. 

ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?-1662?), English Puritan divine.  Noted 
as this worthy was in his own time, and representative in 
various ways, he has often since been confounded with others, 
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury.  He is also wrongly 
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he 
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles 
dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe out Sinne 
and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had ``received all'' his 
``worldly maintenance,'' as well as ``best earthly countenance', 
and ``fatherly incouragements.', The worldly maintenance 
was the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in 
Kent.  He had received his education at Cambridge, where he 
proceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford.  In 
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book 
historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells 
us, ``I have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above 
fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty 
full.'' The former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or 
perhaps 1587-1588 ---the ``Armada'' year---as his birth-time; 
the latter to 1616-1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull 
London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as 
formerly ``assistant to a reverend divine . . . now with 
God,'' and the name on the margin is ``Master Haiward of Wool 
Church (Dorset).'' This was doubtless previous to his going to 
Cranbrook.  Very remarkable and effective was Abbot's 
ministry at Cranbrook, where his parishioners were as his 
own ``sons and daughters'' to him.  Yet, Puritan though he 
was, he was extremely and often unfairly antagonistic to 
Nonconformists.  He remained at Cranbrook until 1643, when, 
Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical 
offices, he chose the very inferior living of Southwick, 
Hants, as between the one and the other.  He afterwards 
succeeded the ``extruded'' Udall of St Austin's, London, 
where according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 
1657.  He disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662.  
Robert Abbot's books are conspicuous amongst the productions 
of his time by their terseness and variety.  In addition to 
those mentioned above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's 
Catechism for her Children (1646), and A Christian Family 
builded by God, or Directions for Governors of Families (1653). 

AUTHORITIES.--.Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's 
Sufferings, ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323; 
Palmer's Nonconf.  Mem. ii. 218, which confuses him most 
oddly of all with one of the ejected ministers of 1662. 

ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798--1843), English actor, was born in 
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath 
in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808.  At Covent 
Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his 
first decided success.  He Was Pylades to Macready's Orestes 
in Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made 
his first appearance at that theatre (1816).  He created the 
parts of Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius 
(1820) and of Modus in his Hunchback (1832).  In 1827 he 
organized the company, including Macready and Miss Smithson, 
which acted Shakespeare in Paris.  On his return to London 
he played Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830).  Two of 
Abbot's melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great 
(1817) and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at 
Covent Garden.  He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland. 

ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac 
abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late 
Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence 
of the Lat. form to abbat, used abternatively till the end 
of the 17th century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and 
chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the 
East hegumenos or archimandrite.  The title had its origin 
in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the 
East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as 
the designation of the head of a monastery.  At first it was 
employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St 
Jerome, who denounced the custom on the ground that Christ had 
said, ``Call no man father on earth'' (in Epist. ad Gal. 
iv. 6, in Matt. xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the 
superior.  The name ``abbot,'' though general in the West, 
was never universal.  Among the Dominicans, Carmelites, 
Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus, 
``provost,'' and Prior; among the Franciscans, Custos, 
``guardian''; and by the monks of Camaldoi, Major. 

In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction 
of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined.  
Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over 
several, each of which had its own abbot as well.  Cassian 
speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under 
him, a number exceeded in other cases.  By the rule of St 
Benedict, which, until the reform of Cluny, was the norm 
in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one 
community.  The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to 
frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of 
the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising 
jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely 
recognized.  New styles were devised to express this new 
relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called abbas 
abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the tities 
abbas generails, or magister or minister generalis. 

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot 
any exception.  All orders of clergy, therefore, even the 
``doorkeeper,', took precedence of him.  For the reception 
of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the 
abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest 
church (Nocellae, 133, c. ii.).  This rule naturally proved 
inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at 
a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination 
of abbots.  This innovation was not introduced without a 
struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent 
with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of 
the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost 
universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters.  The 
change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of 
abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th 
century, and partially so up to the 11th.  Ecclesiastical 
councils were, however, attended by abbots.  Thus at that 
held at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of 
Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, 
and, c A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a 
canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend 
councils.  Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England 
in Saxon times.  Abbots were permitted by the second council 
of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior 
orders.  This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong 
prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down, 
eventually monks, almost without exception, took holy orders. 

Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and 
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th 
century.  The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. 
xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight.  
The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot 
from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, 
at the council of Arles, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims 
and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal 
control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of 
abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th 
century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or 
altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible 
to the pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the 
Great.  These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had 
grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually 
creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop 
of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his 
diocese.  In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed 
precedence of the archbishop of Cologne.  Abbots more and 
more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the 
prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and 
others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and 
sandals.  It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres 
was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th 
century, but the documents on which this claim is based are 
not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453).  The 
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. 
in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of 
the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The 
mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, 
Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, 
Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, 
St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, 
Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, 
Winchcombe, St Mary's York.  Of these the precedence was 
originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in 
A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the 
abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought 
up.  Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of 
Westminster.  To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained 
that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, 
and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon 
entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral 
staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating 
that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. 

The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed 
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be 
specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran 
council, A.D. 1123.  In the East, abbots, if in priests' 
orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have 
seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, 
to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but 
gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, 
until we find them in A.D. 1489 permitted by Innocent 
IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate.  Of 
course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting 
their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. 

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose 
the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right 
of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks 
themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the 
election and the benediction of the new abbot.  In abbeys 
exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and 
benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house 
being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to 
Rome.  By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity 
was in some undefined way required; but this seems never 
to have been practically enforced.  It was necessary that 
an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate 
birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable 
candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another 
convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, 
one also who had learned how to command by having practised 
obedience.  In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed 
to name his own successor.  Cassian speaks of an abbot in 
Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example 
in the case of St Bruno.  Popes and sovereigns gradually 
encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the 
pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in 
France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other 
houses, chiefs of their order.  The election was for life, 
unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of 
his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the 
pope or the bishop.  The ceremony of the formal admission of 
a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by 
the consuetudinary of Abingdon.  The newly elected abbot was 
to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed 
barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a 
procession.  After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel 
and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, 
into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his 
commissary, and placed in his stall.  The monks, then kneeling, 
gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the 
mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.  He then put 
on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and 
the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon. 

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, 
however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general 
establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control.  As a 
rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act 
without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty 
to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were 
withdrawn.  Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind 
submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into 
a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the 
individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by 
Cassian and others,--- e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, 
day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge 
rock immensely exceeding his powers.  St Jerome, indeed, lays 
down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his 
monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things, 
and perform whatever they commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. de 
custod. virgin.). So despotic did the tyranny become in the 
West, that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to 
restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their 
monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St 
Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight 
offences.  An abbot also had the power of excommunicating 
refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess. 

The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence 
by the brethren of his house.  When he appeared either in 
church or chapter all present rose and bowed.  His letters 
were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the 
king.  If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to 
kneel.  No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his 
permission.  The highest place was naturally assigned to him, 
both in church and at table.  In the East he was commanded to 
eat with the other monks.  In the West the rule of St Benedict 
appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain 
guests and strangers.  This permission opening the door to 
luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that 
the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with 
the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a 
guest.  These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual 
to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature 
abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the 
inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots.  When the 
abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited 
upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting 
them.  At St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the 
centre of the high table, and was served on silver plate, and 
sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of 
quality.  When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule 
of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, 
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were 
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. 

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be 
the same as that of the monks.  But by the 10th century the 
rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of 
abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire.  They 
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and 
assumed a secular dress.1 This was a necessary consequence of 
their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at 
that time only natural.  With the increase of wealth and power, 
abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and 
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by 
celibacy.  Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with 
their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and 
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, 
c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in 
harehunting.  In magnificence of equipage and retinue the 
abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.  They rode 
on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, 
carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of 
attendants.  The bells of the churches were rung as they 
passed.  They associated on equal terms with laymen of the 
highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and 
pursuits.  This rank and power was, however, often used most 
beneficially.  For instance, we read of Whiting, the last 
abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII., 
that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as 
many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent 
to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides 
others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities.  
His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the 
nation.  He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at 
one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a 
week.  He had his country houses and fisheries, and when 
he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to 
upwards of 100 persons.  The abbots of Cluny and Vendome 
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. 

In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred 
to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, 
as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and 
under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, 
Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas 
Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular 
officials.  Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa 
was called Abbas Populi. Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives 
us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. 

Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores, abbacomites, abbates laici, 
abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, 
abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome 
of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century 
onwards.  The practice of commendation, by which---to meet 
a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were 
handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, 
early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of 
rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam. 
During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting 
these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th 
century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly 
established.  Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam 
by Hugh Capet.  The example of the kings was followed by the 
feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession 
permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation 
whatever.  In England the abuse was rife in the 8th 
century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of 
Cloveshoe.  These lay abbacies were not merely a question of 
overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands 
of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the 
foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of 


1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is 
charged by Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. 

spiritual institutions.  The lay abbot took his recognized 
rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of 
his fief as in the case of any other.  The enfeoffment of 
abbeys differed in form and degree.  Sometimes the monks were 
directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a 
substitute to perform the spirtual functions, known usually 
as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimas, 
monasticus, regularis). When the great reform of the 11th 
century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay 
abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by 
certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century 
and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of 
dean.  The connexion of the lesser lay abbots with the 
abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; 
and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes 
chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with 
certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues.  The abuse was 
not confined to the West.  John, patriarch of Antioch, at the 
beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most 
monasteries had been handed over to laymen, bencficiarii, 
for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. 

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the 
place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on 
the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. 

The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the 
Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent 
of the English ``Father,'' being loosely applied to all who 
have received the tonsure.  This use of the title is said to 
have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, 
by the concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), 
to appoint abbes commendataires to most of the abbeys in 
France.  The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew 
young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and 
the class of abbes so formed ---abbes de cour they were 
sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbes de sainte 
esperance, abbes of St Hope---came to hold a recognized 
position.  The connexion many of them had with the church 
was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting 
the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of 
theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive 
dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.  Being 
men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the 
class found admission to the houses of the French nobility 
as tutors or advisers.  Nearly every great family had its 
abbe.  The class did not survive the Revolution; but the 
courtesy title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in 
people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained 
as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt) is 
sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction, 
and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries 
converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.  Of 
these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover, 
founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of 
Hallermund, and reformed in 1593.  The abbot of Lokkum, who 
still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the 
clergy of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory 
of the kingdom.  The governing body of the abbey consists of 
abbot, prior and the ``convent'' of canons (Stiftsherren). 

See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du 
Cange, Glossarium med. et inf.  Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie 
Robertson, Hist. of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond 
Martene, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. 
F. R. de Montalembert, Les moines d'occident depuis S. Benoit 
jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860--1877); Achille Luchaire, Manuel 
des institutions francaises (Par. 1892). (E.V.; W.A.P.) 

1 The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of 
the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert 
Willis.  Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869. 

ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott, 
situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m.  W. of Melrose, 
Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly 1 m. from Abbotsford Ferry 
station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk and 
Galashiels.  The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100 
acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy) 
Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) 
of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel.  It was added to 
from time to time, the last and principal acquisition being 
that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 
1817.  The new house was then begun and completed in 1824.  
The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular 
outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is 
mainly the Scottish Baronial.  Into various parts of the fabric 
were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, 
such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh.  Scott 
had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met 
with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in 
debt.  In 1830 the library and museum were presented to him 
as a free gift by the creditors.  The property was wholly 
disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who 
cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share 
in the copyright of Sir Walter's works.  Scott's only son Walter 
did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way 
from India in 1847.  Among subsequent possessors were Scott's 
son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., and his 
daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell 
Scott.  Abbotsford gave its name to the ``Abbotsford Club,'' 
a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland clubs, founded 
by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's honour, for 
printing and publishing historical works connected with his 
writings.  Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. 

See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford 
and Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country. 

ABBOTT, EDWIN ARROTT (1838- ), English schoolmaster and 
theologian, was born on the 20th of December 1838.  He 
was educated at the City of London school and at St John's 
College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the 
classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became 
fellow of his college.  In 1862 he took orders.  After holding 
masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at 
Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster 
of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of 
twenty-six.  He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876.  He retired 
in 1889, and devoted himself to literary and theological 
pursuits.  Dr Abbott's liberal inclinations in theology 
were prominent both in his educational views and in his 
books.  His Shakespearian Grammar (1870) is a permanent 
contribution to English philology.  In 1885 he published a 
life of Francis Bacon.  His theological writings include three 
anonymously published religious romances--Philochristus 
(1878), Onesimus (1882), Sitanus (1906).  More weighty 
contributions are the anonymous theological discussion The 
Kernel and the Husk (1886), Philomythus (1891), his book 
on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his article 
``The Gospels'' in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable 
stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St 
Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (1898), 
Johannine Vocabulary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906). 

His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known tutor of 
Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of Greece. 

ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at 
Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris.  She had a fine soprano 
voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel 
Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important 
concerts.  She organized an opera company known by her name, 
and toured extensively in the United States, where she had 
a great reputation.  In 1873 she married E. J. Wethereil.  
She died at Salt Lake City on the 5th of January 1891. 

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for the 
young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the 14th of November 
1803.  He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820; studied at 
Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824; was 
tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst College; was 
licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; 
founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in Boston in 
1829, and was principal of it in 1829--1833; was pastor of 
Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, 
Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, 
and in 1843--1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 
1845--1848 of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York 
City.  He was a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, 
brief histories and biographies, and religious books for 
the general reader, and a few works in popular science.  
He died on the 31st of October 1879 at Farmington, Maine, 
where he had spent part of his time since 1839, and where 
his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott founded in 1844 the Abbott 
School, popularly cailed ``Little Blue.'' Jacob Abbott's 
``Rollo Books''-Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play, Rollo in 
Europe, &c. (28 vols.)---are the best known of his writings, 
having as their chief characters a representative boy and his 
associates.  In them Abbott did for one or two generations 
of young American readers a service not unlike that performed 
earlier, in England and America, by the authors of Evenings at 
Home, Sandford and Merton, and the Parent's Assistant. Of 
his other writings (he produced more than two hundred volumes 
in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10 vols.), 
twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series of 
thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and 
the Young Christian,---all of which had enormous circulations. 

His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin Abbott 
(1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott (q.v.), and 
Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also well-known 
authors.  See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with 
a Sketch of the Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward 
Abbott (New York, 1882), with a bibliography of his works. 

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American writer, 
was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the 18th of September 
1805.  He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated 
with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York 
City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical 
biographies.  He is best known, however, as the author of 
a partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very 
readable History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which 
the various elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are 
treated with some skill in arrangement, but with unfailing 
adulation.  Dr Abbott graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, 
prepared for the ministry at Andover Theological Seminary, 
and between 1830 and 1844, when he retired from the ministry, 
preached successively at Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, 
Massachusetts.  He died at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the 17th 
of June 1877.  He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian 
ethics, and of histories, which now seem unscholarly and 
untrustworthy, but were valuable in their time in cultivating 
a popular interest in history.  In general, except that 
he did not write juvenile fiction, his work in subject and 
style closely resembles that of his brother, Jacob Abbott. 

ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author, was 
born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December 1835, 
the son of Jacob Abbott.  He graduated at the University 
of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the 
bar in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, 
after studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, 
was ordained a minister of the Congregational Church in 
1860.  He was pastor of a church in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 
1860-1865, and of the New England Church in New York City in 
1865--1869.  From 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American 
Union (Freedman's) Commission.  In 1869 he resigned his pastorate 
to devote himself to literature.  He was an associate editor of 
Harper's Magazine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian 
Weekly, and was co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian 
Union with Henry Ward Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as 
pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn.  From this pastorate he 
resigned ten years later.  From 1881 he was editor-in-chief 
of The Christian Union, renamed The Outlook in 1893; this 
periodical reflected his efforts toward social reform, and, in 
theology, a liberality, humanitarian and nearly unitarian.  
The latter characteristics marked his published works also. 

His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869); Illustrated 
Commentary on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study 
in Human Nature (1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution 
of Christianity (Lowell Lectures, 1896); The Theology of 
an Evolutionist (1897); Christianity and Social Problems 
(1897); Life and Letters of Paul, (1898); The Life that 
Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights 
of Man (1901); Henry Ward Beecher (1903); The Christian 
Ministry (1905); The Personality of God (1905); Industrial 
Problems (1905); and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907).  
He edited Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868). 

ABBOTTADAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above 
sealevel, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the 
Hazara district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after 
its founder, Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district 
after the annexation of the Punjab.  It is an important 
military cantonment and sanatorium, being the headquarters of 
a brigade in the second division of the northern army corps.  
In 1901 the population of the town and cantonment was 7764. 

ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening; 
more particularly, an ``abbreviation'' is a letter or group 
of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to 
represent them for the sake of brevity.  Abbreviations, both 
of single words and of phrases, having a meaning more or 
less fixed and recognized, are common in ancient writings 
and inscriptions (see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and 
very many are in use at the present time.  A distinction is 
to be observed between abbreviations and the contractions 
that are frequently to be met with in old manuscripts, and 
even in early printed books, whereby letters are dropped 
out here and there, or particular collocations of letters 
represented by somewhat arbitrary symbols.  The commonest 
form of abbreviation is the substitution for a word of its 
initial letter; but, with a view to prevent ambiguity, one 
or more of the other letters are frequently added.  Letters 
are often doubled to indicate a plural or a superlative. 

I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS.---The following list 
contains a selection from the abbreviations that occur 
in the writings and inscriptions of the Romans:-- 


 
                                  A.
 A.         Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, Antiquo,
              Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, Aut.
 A.A.       Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum.
 AA.        Augusti. AAA. Augusti tres.
 A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.1
 A.A.V.     Alter ambove.
 A.C.       Acta causa, Alins civis.
 A.D.       Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum.
 A.D.A.     Ad dandos agros.
 AEO.       Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas.
 AEM. and AIM.        Aemilius, Aemilia.
 AER.       Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico.
 A.F.       Acture fide, Auli filius.
 AG.        Ager, Ago, Agrippa.
 A.G.       Ammo grato, Aulus Gellius.
 A.L.AE. and A.L.E.  Arbitrium litis aestimandae.
 A.M. and A.MILL.    Ad milliarium.
 AN.        Aniensis, Annus, Ante.
 ANN.       Annales, Anni, Annona.
 ANT.       Ante, Antonius.
 A.O.       Alii omnes, Amico optimo.
 AP.        Atppius, Apud.
 A.P.       Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate.
 A.P.F.     Auro (or argento) publico feriundo.
 A.P.M.     Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus.
 A.P.R.C.   Anno post Romam conditam.
 ARG.       Argentum.
 AR.V.V.D.D.Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono dedit.
 AT         A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER.
 A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare oportere.
 AV.        Augur, Augustus, Aurelius.
 A.V.       Annos vixit.
 A.V.C.     Ab urbe condita.
 AVG.       Augur, Augustus.
 AVGG.      Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres.
 AVT.PR.R.  Auctoritas provinciae Romanorum.
 
                                  B.
 B.         Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium,
            Bonus, Brutus, Bustum.
 B.for V.      Berna Bivus, Bixit.
 B.A.       Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis.
 BB.or B.B.    Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus.
 B.D.       Bonae deae, Bonum datum.
 B.DD.      Bonis deabus.
 B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti.
 B.F.       Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.
 B.F.       Bona femina, Bona filia.
 B.H.       Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres.
 B.I.       Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium.
 B.M.       Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.
 B.N.       Bona nostra, Bonum nomen.
 BN.H.I.    Bona hic invenies.
 B.P.       Bona paterna, Bonorum potestas, Bonum publicum.
 B.Q.       Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita.
 B.RP.N.    Boho reipublicae natus.
 BRT.       Britannicus.
 B.T.       Bonorum tutor, Brevi tempore.
 B.V.       Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.
 B.V.V.     Balnea vina Venus.
 BX.        Bixit, for vixit.
 
                                  C.
 C.         Caesar, Cains, Caput, Causa, Censor, Civis, Conors, Colonia,
                Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, Custos.
 C.         Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.
 C.B.       Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui bono.
 C.C.       Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Consilium
                cepit, Curiae consulto.
 C.C.C.     Calumniae cavendae causa.
 C.C.F.     Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Cains Caii filius.
 CC.VV.     Clarissimi viri.
 C.D.       Caesaris decreto, Cains Decius, Comitialibus diebus.
 CES.       Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.
 C.F.       Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
 C.H.       Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.
 C.I.       Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. .
 CL.        Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.
 CL.V.      Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.
 C.M.       Caius Marius, Causa mortis.
 CN.        Cnaeus.
 COH.       Coheres, Conors.
 COL.       Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna.
 COLL.      Collega, Coloni, Coloniae.
 COM.       Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.
 CON.       Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis.
 COR.       Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
 COS.       Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.
 C.P.       Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit
                ponendum.
 C.R.       Cains Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.
 CS.        Caesar, Communis, Consul.
 C.V.       Clarissimus or Consularis vir.
 CVR.       Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.
 
                                  D.
 D.         Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,
                Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, Donum.
 D.C.       Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar.
 D.D.       Dea Dia, Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono dedit.
 D.D.D.     Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
 D.E.R.     De ea re.
 DES.       Designatus.
 D.I.       Dedit imperator, Diis immortalibus, Diis inferis.
 D.l.M.     Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.
 D.M.       Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.
 D.O.M.     Deo Optimo Maximo.
 D.P.S.     Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia
                sua.
 
                                  E.
 E.         Ejus, Eques, Erexft, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex.
 EG.        Aeger, Egit, Egregius.
 E.M.       Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.
 EQ.M.      Equitum magister.
 E.R.A.     Ea res agitur.
 
                                  F.
 F.         Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix,
                Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit, Functus.
 F.C.       Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissume, Fiduciae causa.
 F.D.       Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit.
 F.F.F.     Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato.
 FL.        Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius.
 F.L.       Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.
 FR.        Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius.
 F.R.       Forum Romanum.
 
                                  G.
 G.         Gaius (=Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemma, Gens,
                Gesta, Gratia.
 G.F.       Gemma fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F. Gemma
                pia fidelis.
 GL.        Gloria.
 GN.        Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus (=Cnaeus).
 G.P.R.     Genro populi Romani.
 
 H.
 H.         Habet, Heres, Hic, Homo, Honor, Hora.
                HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules.
 H.L.       Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.
 H.M.       Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulier, Hora mala.
 H.S.E.     Hic sepultus est, Hic situs est.
 H.V.       Haec urbs, Hic vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.
 
                                  I.
 I.         Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, Isis,
                Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus.
 IA.        Jam, Intra.
 I.C.       Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile.
 ID.        Idem, Idus, Interdum.
 l.D.       Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatnm, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei.
 I.D.M.     Jovi deo magno.
 I.F.       In foro, In fronte.
 I.H.       Jacet hic, In honestatem, Justus homo.
 IM.        Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa.
 IMP.       Imperator, Imperium.
 I.O.M.     Jovi optimo maximo.
 I.P.       In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona.
 I.S.V.P.   Impensa sua vivus posuit.
 
                                  K.
 K.         Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra.
 K., KAL. and KL.   Kalendae.
 
                                  L.
 L.         Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius,
                Lucius, Ludus.
 LB.        Libens, Liberi, Libertus.
 L.D.D.D.   Locus datus decreto decurionum.
 LEG.       Legatus, Legio.
 LIB.       Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius.
 LL.        Leges, Libentissime, Liberti.
 L.M.       Libens merito, Locus monumenti.
 L.S.       Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer.
 LVD.       Ludus.
 LV.P.F.    Ludos publicos fecit.
 
                                  M.
 M.         Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marins,
                Marti, Mater, Memoria, Mensis, Miles, Monumentum, Mortuus,
                Mucius, Mulier.
 M'.        Manius.
 M.D.       Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit.
 MES.       Mensis. MESS. Menses.
 M.F.       Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit.
 M.I.       Matri Idaeae, Matii Isidi, Maximo Jovi.
 MNT. and      MON. Moneta.
 M.P.       Male positus, Monumentum posuit.
 M.S.       Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum.
 MVN.       Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC.
 M.V.S.     Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit.
 
                                  N.
 N.         Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero,
                Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Numerius,
                Numerus, Nummus.
 NEP.       Nepos, Neptunus.
 N.F.C.     Nostrae fidei commissum.
 N.L.       Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe.
 N.M.V.     Nobilis memoriae vir.
 NN.        Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum.
 NOB.       Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris.
 N.P.       Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parto diei), Non potest.
 
                                  O.
 O.         Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa.
 OB.        Obiit, Obiter, Orbis.
 O.C.S.     Ob cives servatos.
 O.H.F.     Omnibus honoribus functus.
 O.H.S.S.   Ossa hic sita sunt.
 OR. Hora,  Ordo, Ornamentum.
 O.T.B.Q.   Ossa tua bene quiescant.
 
                                  P.
 P.         Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,
                Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,
                Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.
 P.C.       Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia constituta,
 Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate censoria.
 P.F.       Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius.
 P.M.       Piae memoriae, Pius minus, Pontifex maximus.
 P.P.       Pater patratus, Pater patriae, Pecunia publica, Praepositus,
 Primipilus, Propraetor.
 PR.        Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.
 P.R.       Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus.
 P.R.C.     Post Romam conditam.
 PR.PR.     Praefectus praetorii, Propraetor.
 P.S.       Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae saluti.
 P.V.       Pia victrix, praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.
 
                                  Q.
 Q.         Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,
                Quintus, Quirites.
 Q.D.R.     Qua de re.
 Q.I.S.S.   Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.
 QQ.        Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.
 Q.R.       Quaestor reipublicae.
 
                                  R.
 R.         Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,
                Rufus, Rursus.
 R.C.       Romana civitas, Romanus civis.
 RESP. and RP.       Respublica.
 RET.P. and RP.      Retro pedes.
 
                                  S.
 S.         Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,
                Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, Suus.
 SAC.       Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.
 S.C.       Senatus consultum.
 S.D.       Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam
 S.D.M.       Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.
 SER.       Servius, Servus.
 S.E.T.L.   Sit ei terra levis.
 SN.        Senatus, Sententia, Sine.
 S.P.       Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.
 S.P.Q.R.   Senatus populusque Romanus.
 S.S.       Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scripture.
 S.V.B.E.E.Q.V.          Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.
 
                                  T.
 T.         Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, Tutor.
 TB., TI. and TIB.   Tiberius.
 TB., TR. and TRB.   Tribunus.
 T.F.       Testamentum fecit, Titi filius, Titulum fecit, Titus Flavius.
 TM.        Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.
 T.P.       Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.
 TVL.       Tullius, Tunus.
 
                                  V.
 V.         Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, Vivus,
                Vixit, Volo, Votum.
 VA.        Veterano assignatus, Vixit annos.
 V.C.       Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.
 V.E.       Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.
 V.F.       Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.
 V.P.       Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.
 V.R.       Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.
 
 II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS.--Of the different kinds of
 abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are
 examples:--
 A.M.       Ave Maria.
 B.P.       Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. .
 CC.        Carissimus (atso plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.
 D.         Deus, Dominicus, Dux.
 D.N.PP.    Dominus hoster Papa.
 U.F.       Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).
 I.C. or I.X.    Jesus Christus.
 I.D.N.     In Dei nomine.
 KK.        Karissimus (or-mi).
 MM.        Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.
 O.S.B.     Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.
 PP.        Papa, Patres, Piissimus.
 R.F.       Rex Francorum.
 R.P.D.     Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.
 S.C.M.     Sacra Caesarea Majestas.
 S.M.E.     Sancta Mater Ecclesia.
 S.M.M.     Sancta Mater Maria.
 S.R.I.     Sanctum Romanum Imperium.
 S.V.       Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.
 V.         Venerabilis, Venerandus. .
 V.R.P.     Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.
 
 III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE.--The import of these
 will often be readily understood from the connexion in which
 they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common
 abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture,
 months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and
 mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like ``Mr,'' &c.
 
 The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
 be conveniently classified under the following headings:-
 
 I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS.
 A.A.       Associate of Arts.
 A.B.       Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts.
 A.D.C.     Aide-de-Camp.
 A.M.       (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.
 A.R.A.     Associate of the Royal Academy.
 A.R.I.B.A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects.
 A.R.S.A.   Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.
 B.A.       Bachelor of Arts.
 Bart.      Baronet.
 B.C.L.     Bachelor of Civil Law.
 B.D.       Bachelor of Divinty.
 B.LL.      Bachelor of Laws.
 B.Sc.      Bachelor of Science.
 C.         Chairman.
 C.A.       Chartered Accountant.
 C.B.       Companion of the Bath.
 C.E.       Civil Engineer.
 C.I.E.     Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire.
 C.M.       (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery.
 C.M.G.     Companion of St Michael and St George.
 C.S.I.     Companion of the Star of India.
 D.C.L.     Doctor of Civil Law.
 D.D.       Doctor of Divinity.
 D.Lit. or Litt. D.   Doctor of Literature.
 D.M.       Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).
 D.Sc.      Doctor of Science.
 D.S.O.     Distinguished Service Order.
 Ebor.      (Eboracensis) of York.2
 F.C.S.     Fellow of the Chemical Society.
 F.D.       (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.
 F.F.P.S.   Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow)
 F.G.S.     Fellow of the Geological Society.
 F.K.Q.C.P.I.             Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians
 in Ireland.
 F.L.S.     Fellow of the Linnaean Society.
 F.M.       Field Marshal.
 F.P.S.     Fellow of the Philological Society.
 F.R.A.S.   Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
 F.R C.P.   Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
 F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.
 F.R.C.S.   Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
 F.R.G.S.   Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
 F.R.H.S.   Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society.
 F.R.Hist.Soc.            Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.
 F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects.
 F.R.S.     Fellow of the Royal Society.
 F.R.S.E.   Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
 F.R.S.L.   Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
 F.S.A.     Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
 F.S.S.     Fellow of the Statistical Society.
 F.Z.S.     Fellow of the Zoological Society.
 G.C.B.     Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
 G.C.H.     Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.
 G.C.I.E.   Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian
                Empire.
 G.C.M.G.   Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.
 G.C.S.I.   Knight Grand Commander of the Star of india.
 G.C.V.O.   Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.
 H.H.       His or Her Highness.
 H.I.H.     His or Her Imperial Highness.
 H.I.M.     His or Her Imperial Majesty.
 H.M.       His or Her Majesty.
 H.R.H.     His or Her Royal Highness.
 H.S.H.     His or Her Serene Highness.
 J.         Judge.
 J.C.D.     (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor),
                Doctor of Canon or Civil Law.
 J.D.       (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.
 J.P.       Justice of the Peace.
 K.C.       King's Counsel.
 K.C.B.     Knight Commander of the Bath.
 K.C.I.E.   Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.
 K.C.M.G.   Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.
 K.C.S.I.   Knight Commander of the Star of India.
 K.C.V.O.   Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.
 K.G.       Knight of the Garter.
 K.P.       Knight of St Patrick.
 K.T.       Knight of the Thistle.
 L.A.H.     Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.
 L.C.C.     London County Council, or Councillor.
 L.C.J.     Lord Chief Justice
 L.J.       Lord Justice.
 L.L.A.     Lady Literate in Arts.
 LL.B.      (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.
 LL.D.      (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
 LL.M.      (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.
 L.R.C.P.   Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.
 L.R.C.S.   Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.
 L.S.A.     Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.
 M.A.       Master of Arts.
 M.B.       (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine
 M.C.       Member of Congress.
 M.D.       (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
 M.Inst.C.E.             Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.
 M.P.       Member of Parliament.
 M.R.       Master of the Rolls.
 M.R.C.P.   Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
 M.R.C.S.   Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
 M.R.I.A.   Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
 Mus.B.     Bachelor of Music.
 Mus.D.     Doctor of Music.
 M.V.O.     Member of the Victorian Order.
 N.P.       Notary Public.
 O.M.       Order of Merit.
 P.C.       Privy Councillor.
 Ph.D.      (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.
 P.P.       Parish Priest.
 P.R.A.     President of the Royal Academy.
 R.         (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.
 R. & I.    Rex et Imperator.
 R.A.       Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.
 R.A.M.     Royal Academy of Music.
 R.E.       Royal Engineers.
 Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
 R.M.       Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.
 R.N.       Royal Navy.
 S. or St.             Saint.
 S.S.C.     Solicitor before the Supreme Courts of Scotland.
 S.T.P.     (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred
                 Theology.
 V.C.       Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.
 V.G.       Vicar-General.
 V.S.       Veterinary Surgeon.
 W.S.       Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney
 
 2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
 ac.    acre.                  lb. or lb.  (libra), pound (weight).
 bar.   barrel.                 m. or mi. mile, minute.
 bus.   bushel.                 m. minim.
 c.     cent.                  mo. month.
 c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c.   na. nail.
 cwt.   hundredweight.         oz. ounce.
 d.     (denarius), penny. pk. peck.
 deg.   degree.                po. pole.
 dr.    drachm or dram.    pt. pint.
 dwt.   pennyweight.            q. (quadrans), farthing.
 f.     franc.                 qr. quarter.
 fl.    florin.                qt. quart.
 ft.    foot.                  ro. rood.
 fur.   furlong.               Rs.4 rupees.
 gal.   gallon.                 s. or / (solidus), shilling.
 gr.    grain.                  s. or sec. second.
 h. or hr. hour.           sc. or scr. scruple.
 hhd.   hogshead.          sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c.
 in.    inch.                  st. stone.
 kilo.  kilometre.             yd. yard.
 L.,3 L. ,2 or l. (libra), pound (money).
 
 3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS.
 
 A.         Accepted.
 A.C.       (Ante Christum), Before Christ.
 acc., a/c. or acct.        Account.
 A.D.       (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
 A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,5 or
                Alles Erdreich Ist Oesterreich Unterthan.
 Aet. or Aetat.            (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.
 A.H.       (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan
                era).
 A.M.       (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world.
 A.M.       (Ante meridiem), Forenoon.
 Anon.      Anonymous.
 A.U.C.     (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building
                of the city (i.e. Rome).
 A.V.       Authorized version of the Bible.
 b.         born.
 B.V.M.     The Blessed Virgin Mary.
 B.C.       Before Christ.
 c.         circa, about.
 C.         or Cap. (Caput), Chapter.
 C.         Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.
 cent.6 (Centnim), A hundred, frequently L. 100.
 Cf. or cp.       (Confer), Compare.
 Ch. or Chap.     Chapter.
 C.M.S.     Church Missionary Society.
 Co.        Company, County.
 C.O.D.     Cash on Delivery.
 Cr.        Creditor.
 curt.      Current, the present month.
 d.         died.
 D.G.       (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.
 Do.        Ditto, the same.
 D.O.M.     (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.
 Dr.        Debtor.
 D.V.       (Deo volente), God willing.
 E.& O.E.   Errors and omissions excepted.
 e.g.       (Exempti gratia), For example.
 etc. or &c.     (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth.
 Ex.        Example.
 F. or Fahr.     Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
 
 fec. (Fecit),   He made (or did) it.
 fl.        Flourished.
 Fo. or Fol.     Folio.
 f.o.b.     Free on board.
 G.P.O.     General Post Office.
 H.M.S.     His Majesty's Ship, or Service.
 Ib. or Ibid.    (Ibidem), In the same place.
 Id.        (Idem), The same.
 ie. (Id est),   That is.
 I.H.S.     A symbol for ``Jesus,', derived from the first three letters
                of the Greek (I E S); the correct origin was lost
                sight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted
                erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Salvator,
                the Latin ``h'' and Greek long ``e'' being confused.
 I.M.D.G.   (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God.
 Inf. (Infra),   Below.
 Inst.      Instant, the present month.
 I.O.U.     I owe you.
 i.q.       (Idem quod), The same as.
 k.t.l.      (gr kai ta loipa) Et caetera, and the rest.
 L. or Lib. (Liber),      Book.
 Lat.       Latitude.
 l.c.       (Loco citato), In the place cited.
 Lon. or Long.       Longitude.
 L.S.       (Locus sigilli), The place of the seal.
 Mem.       (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.
 MS.        Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.
 N.B.       (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.
 N.B.       North Britain (i.e. Scotland).
 N.D.       No date.
 nem. con.       (Nemine contradicente), No one contradicting.
 No.        (Numero), Number.
 N.S.       New Style.
 N.T.       New Testament.
 ob.        (Obiit), Died.
 Obs.       Obsolete.
 O.H.M.S.   On His Majesty's Service.
 O.S.       Old Style.
 O.S.B.     Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines).
 O.T.       Old Testament.
 P.         Page. Pp. Pages.
 @        (Per), For; e.g. @ lb., For one pound.
 Pinx.      (Pinxit), He painted it.
 P.M.       (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.
 P.O.       Post Office, Postal Order.
 P.O.O.     Post Office Order.
 P.P.C.     (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.
 P.R.       Prize-ring.
 prox.      (Proximo [mense]), Next month.
 P.S.       Postscript.
 Pt.        Part.
 p.t. or pro tem.   (Pro tempore), For the time.
 P.T.O.     Please turn over.
 Q., Qu., or Qy.    Query; Question.
 q.d.       (Quasi dicat), As if he should say: as much as to say.
 Q.E.D.     (Quod erot demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated.
 Q.E.F.     (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.
 q.s. or quant. suff.      (Quantum sufficit), As much as is
                sufficient.
 q.v.       (Quod vide), Which see.
 R. or @.      (Recipe), Take.
 sqrt.  (=r. for radix), The sign of the square root.
 R.I.P.     (Requiescat in pace!), May he rest in peace!
 R.S.V.P.   (i Respondes s'il vous plait), please reply.
 sc.        (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.
 Sc. or Sculp.  (Sculpsit), He engraved it.
 S.D.U.K.   Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
 seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq.   (Sequens, sequenitia), The following.
 S.J.       Society of Jesus.
 sp.        (Sine prole), Without offspring.
 S.P.C.K.   Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
 S.P.G.     Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.
 S.T.D.    }
 S.T.B.    }Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.
 S.T.L.    }
 Sup.       (Supra), Above.
 s.v.       (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).
 T.C.D.     Trinity College, Dublin.
 ult.       (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.
 U.S.       United States.
 U.S.A.     United States of America.
 v.         (versus), Against.
 v. or vid:      (Vide), See.
 viz.       (Videlicet), Namely.
 Xmas.      Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.
 

See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); 
Nicolai's Tractatus de Sigils Veterum; Mommsen's Corpus 
Inscriptionum Latinarum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's 
Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph.  Chassant's Paleographie 
(1854), and Dictionnaire des Abreviations (3rd ed. 
1866); Campelli, Duzionario di Abbreviature (1899). 

1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales. 

2 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes 
for his surname the name of his see; thus the prelates of 
Canterbury, York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves 
with their initials (Christian names only), followed by 
Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. (sometimes London.), &c. 

3 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same 
way; e.g. `` deg. '' for ``degrees, minutes, seconds'' (circular 
measure); @, @, @ for ``ounces, drachms, scruples.'' @ is 
probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ``oz.'' 

4 These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the 
American dollar) are placed before the amounts. 

5It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. 
The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. 

6``Per cent.'' is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100." 

ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery, 
whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the 
pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are 
written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first 
mentioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict 
XII. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. 
From the time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed 
as de Parco majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de 
Parco minnori. The name was derived from a space in the 
chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, 
which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to 
the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor.  
After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes 
to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as 
prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic 
chancery.  By Martin V. their signature was made essential to 
the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in 
course of time many important privileges.  They were suppressed 
in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were transferred to the 
protonotarii apostolici participantes. (See CURIA ROMANA.) 

ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated 
physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers 
of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1162.  An interesting 
memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved 
with additions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a 
contemporary.  From that work we learn that the higher education 
of the youth of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and 
careful study of the rules and principles of grammar, and in 
their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise 
or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian 
poetry.  After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of 
learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and 
medicine.  To enjoythe society of the learned, he went first 
to Mosul (1189), and afterwards to Damascus.  With letters of 
recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where 
the wish he had long cherished to converse with Maimonides, 
``the Eagle of the Doctors,'' was gratified.  He afterwards 
formed one of the circle of learned men whom Saladin gathered 
around him at Jerusalem.  He taught medicine and philosophy at 
Cairo and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, 
for a shorter period, at Aleppo.  His love of travel led him 
in his old age to visit different parts of Armenia and Asia 
Minor, and he was setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when 
he died at Bagdad in 1231.  Abdallatif was undoubtedly a 
man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating 
mind.  Of the numerous works--mostly on medicine---which 
Osaiba ascribes to bim, one only, his graphic and detailed 
Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears to be known in 
Europe.  The manuscript, discovered by Edward Pococke the 
Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, contains 
a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's 
residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks.  
It was translated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 
1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the Omayyad dynasty, 
amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them being rulers of great capacity. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch of 
the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahommedan 
Spain.  When the Omayyads were overthrown in the East by the 
Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty years of age. 
together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with Bedouin 
tribes in the desert.  The Abbasids hunted their enemies 
down without mercy.  Their soldiers overtook the brothers; 
Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself by fleeing 
first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the common 
refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the 
Abbasids.  In the general confusion of the caliphate produced 
by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the hands 
of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omayyad 
caliphs, but now aiming at independence.  After a time 
Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he 
fled farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of 
Mauritania.  In the midst of all his perils, which read like 
stories from the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been 
encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama 
that he would restore the fortune of the family.  He was 
followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the 
Omayyads.  In 755 he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence 
he sent an agent over to Spain to ask for the support of 
other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of 
Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern 
Granada.  The country was in a state of confusion under the 
weak rule of the amir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a 
faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs 
and by race conflicts between the Arabs and Berbers.  It 
offered Abd-ar-rahman the opportunity he had falled to find in 
Africa.  On the invitation of his partisans he landed at 
Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, in September 755. For a 
time he was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, 
who were aware of the risks of their venture.  Yusef opened 
negotiations, and offered to give Abdar-rahman one of his 
daughters in marriage and a grant of land.  This was far less 
than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have 
been forced to accept the offer for want of a better if the 
insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, 
had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad cause.  He 
taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable 
to write good Arabic.  Under this provocation Obeidullah drew 
the sword.  In the course of 756 a campaign was fought in 
the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on the 16th of 
May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova.  Abdar-rahman's 
army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good 
war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by 
unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a 
spear.  The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish 
Omayyads.  The long reign of Abd-arrahman I. was spent in a 
struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab and Berber subjects to 
order.  They had never meant to give themselves a master, and 
they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier.  
The details of these conflicts belong to the general history of 
Spain.  It is, however, part of the personal history of 
Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was compelled to fight at the 
very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the 
Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, he cut off the heads 
of the leaders, filled them with salt and camphor and sent 
them as a defiance to the eastern caliph.  His last years were 
spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, repressed with 
cruelty.  Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and ferocious.  He was 
a fine example of an oriental founder of a dynasty, and did his 
work so well that the Omayyads lasted in Spain for two centuries 
and a half.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of 
the Spanish Omayyads.  He was a prince with a taste for 
music and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion.  
It is chiefly memorable for having included the story of 
the ``Martyrs of Cordova,'' one of the most remarkable 
passages in the religious history of the middle ages. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-961) was the greatest and the most 
successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the 
general history of his reign see SPAIN, History). He 
ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned 
for half a century.  His life was so completely identified 
with the government of the state that he offers less material 
for biography than his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it 
supplies some passages which show the real character of an 
oriental dynasty even at its best.  Abd-ar-rahman III. was 
the grandson of his predecessor, Abdallah, one of the weakest 
and worst of the Spanish Omayyads.  His father, Mahommed, 
was murdered by a brother Motarrif by order of Abdallah The 
old sultan was so far influenced by humanity and remorse 
that he treated his grandson kindly.   Abd-ar-rahman III. 
came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more 
than a generation of tribal conflict among the Arabs, and 
of strife between them and the Mahommedans of native Spanish 
descent.  Spaniards who were openly or secretly Christians 
had acted with the renegades.  These elements, which formed 
the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting 
a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab 
aristocracy.  These restless nobles were the most serious 
of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies.  Next to them came the Fatimites 
of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the caliphate, 
and who aimed at extending their rule over the Mahommedan 
world, at least in the west.  Abd-ar-rahman subdued the nobles 
by means of a mercenary army, which included Christians.  
He repelled the Fatimites, partly by supporting their 
enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the caliphate for 
himself.  His ancestors in Spain had been content the the 
title of sultan.  The caliphate was thought only to belong 
to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and 
Medina.  But the force of this tradition had been so far 
weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph on 
the 16th of January 929, and the assumption of the title gave 
him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain and 
Africa.  His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahommedans. 
After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega 
in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his 
army (see SPAIN, History) he never again took the 
field.  He is accused of having sunk in his later years 
into the self-indulgent habits of the harem.  When the 
undoubted prosperity of his dominions is quoted as an 
example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is well to remember 
that he administered well not by means of but in spite of 
Mahommedans.  The high praise given to his administration may 
even excite some doubts as to its real excellence.  We are 
told that a third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary 
expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on 
buildings.  A very large proportion of the surplus must 
have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, built three 
miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a favourite 
concubine.  Ten thousand workmen are said to have been employed 
for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which no trace now 
remains.  The great monument of early Arabic architecture in 
Spain, the mosque of Cordoya, was built by his predecessors, 
not by him.  It is said that his harem included six thousand 
women.  Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is highly probable 
that he was very indifferent in religion, and it is certain 
that he was a thorough despot.  One of the most authentic 
sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of 
Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of 
Gorze, who has left in his Vita an incomplete account 
of his embassy (in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 
355-377).  He blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, 
which he said could only increase their pride and leaning to 
rebellion.  His confession that he had known only twenty happy 
days in his long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed 
with the ``omnia fui, et nil expedit'' of Septimius Severus. 

In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes 
of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, 
Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. Mostadir 
(1023-1024).  Both were the mere puppets of factions, who 
deserted them at once.  Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered 
in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when 
fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by his 
supporters.  Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in 
December 1023 at Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a 
mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. 

The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histoire 
des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.) 

ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of Sultan 
Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife.  He was fourteen 
years of age on his father's death in 1894.  By the wise action 
of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el 
Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little 
fighting.  Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed 
himself a capable ruler.  On his death in 1900 the regency 
ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his own 
hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his chief 
adviser.  Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan sought 
advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to act up to 
it.  But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, and 
in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to 
do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action 
and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted 
exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired.  His 
intimacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were 
sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction.  
His attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy 
of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not 
strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money 
which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed 
to purchase firearms.  Thus the benign intentions of Mulai 
Abdel-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were 
accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of 
spoiling the country.  When British engineers were employed 
to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and 
Fez, this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the 
country.  The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a 
revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier.  Such was the 
condition of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement 
of 1904 came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on 
England for support and protection  against the inroads of 
France.  On the advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of 
an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult 
upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensure 
a condition of affairs which would leave foreigners with no 
excuse for interference in the control of the country, and 
would promote its welfare, which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly 
desired from his accession to power.  The sultan gave his 
adherence to the Act of the Algeciras Conference, but the 
state of anarachy into which Morocco fell during the latter 
half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed that the young 
ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will respected 
by his turbulent subjects.  In May 1907 the southern tribes 
invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and 
viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following 
August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual 
formalities.  In the meantime the murder of Europeans 
at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by 
France.  In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez 
and endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers 
against his brother.  From France he accepted the grand cordon 
of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to negotiate a 
loan.  His leaning to Christians aroused further opposition 
to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared deposed by 
the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid.  After 
months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to restore 
his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on 
Marrakesh.  His force, largely owing to treachery, was 
completely overthrown (August 19th) when near that city, 
and Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines 
round Casablanca.  In November he came to terms with his 
brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier 
as a pensioner of the new sultan.  He declared himself more 
than reconciled to the loss of the throne, and as looking 
forward to a quiet peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.) 

ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great 
opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near 
Mascara in 1807 or 1808.  His family were sherifs or descendants 
of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated 
throughout North Africa for his piety and charity.  Abd-el 
Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman 
of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in 
horsemanship and in other manly exercises.  While still a 
youth he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca 
and Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at 
Bagdad--events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious 
enthusiasm.  While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated 
to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out 
by Mehemet Ali with the value of European civilization, and 
the knowledge he then gained affected his career.  Mahi-ed-Din 
and his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French 
occupation of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government 
of the Dey. Coming forward as the champion of Islam against 
the infidels, Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 
1832.  He prosecuted the war against France vigorously and 
in a short time had rallied to his standard all the tribes 
of western Algeria.  The story of his fifteen years' struggle 
against the French is given under ALGERIA. To the beginning 
of 1842 the contest went in favour of the amir; thereafter 
he found in Marshal Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the 
end, his master.  Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed 
himself a born leader of men, a great soldier, a capable 
administrator, a persuasive orator, a chivalrous opponent.  
His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, 
and his ultimate failure was due in considerable measure 
to the refusal of the Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes whose 
Mahommedanism is somewhat loosely held, to make common cause 
with the Arabs against the French.  On the 21st of December 
1847, the amir gave himself up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi 
Brahim.  On the 23rd, his submission was formally made to the 
duc d'Aumale, then governor of Algeria.  In violation of the 
promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean 
d'Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and 
his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at 
Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of 
Amboise.  There Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when 
he was released by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again 
to disturb Algeria.  The amir then took up his residence in 
Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus.  In July 1860, when the 
Moslems of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among 
the Druses of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and 
killed over 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the 
outbreak and saved large numbers of Christians.  For this 
action the French government, which granted the amir a pension 
of L. 4000, bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of 
Honour.  In 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in 
Paris at the exposition of 1867.  In 1871, when the Algerians 
again rose in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling 
submission to France.  After his surrender in 1847 he devoted 
himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a 
philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was 
published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent.  
Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab 
horse.  He died at Damascus on the 26th of May 1883. 

See Commdt.  J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807--1883 
(Paris [1899]): Alex.  Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa 
vie politique et militaire (Paris, 1863); Col. C. H. 
Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867).  

ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, 
between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district inhabited by the 
Bastuli.  It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading 
station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans 
one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania 
Baetica.  It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra 
(q.v.).  Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician 
inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and 
a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the 
place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two 
tunny-fish erect in the form of columns.  For inscriptions 
relating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267. 

ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the 
Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos.  Its mythical foundation 
was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from 
Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity 
dates from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of 
Teos migrated to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape 
the Persian yoke (Herod. i. 168); the chief coin type, a 
gryphon, is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is 
noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.  The 
town seems to have declined in importance after the middle 
of the 4th century.  The air of Abdera was proverbial as 
causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher 
Democritus.  The ruins of the town may still be seen on 
Cape Balastra; they cover seven small hills, and extend 
from an eastern to a western harbour; on the S.W. hills 
are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon. 

Mittheil. d. deutsch.  Inst.  Athens, xii. (1887), 
p. 161 (Regel); Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions, 
xxxix. 211; K. F. Hermann, Ges. Abh. 90-111, 370 in. 

ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, 
from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as 
not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office 
renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time 
for which it is held.  In Roman law, the term is especially 
applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the 
disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except 
in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.  
Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of 
their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited 
monarchy.  The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of 
Parliament.  When James II., after throwing the great 
seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not 
formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed 
in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had 
abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed on, for in a 
full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, 
it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, ``that King 
James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of 
the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king 
and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked 
persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having 
withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the 
government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.'' The 
Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and 
deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of 
antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 
B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The 
following is a list of the more important abdications of later 

 
                                                      A.D.
 Benedict IX., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
 Stephen II. of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
 Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . 1169
 Ladislaus III. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
 Celestine V., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294
 John Baliol of Scotland  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
 John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East  . . . . . . . 1355
 Richard II. of England . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399
 John XXIII., pope  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
 Eric VII; of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . . . . 1439
 Murad II., Ottoman Sultan  . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445
 Charles V., emperor  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
 Christina of Sweden  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
 John Casimir of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
 James II. of England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
 Frederick Augustus of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704
 Philip V. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724
 Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
 Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
 Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain). 1759
 Stanislaus II. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
 Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia  . . . . . . June 4, 1802
 Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 19, 1808
 Joseph Bonaparte of Naples . . . . . . . . . June 6, 1808
 Gustavus IV. of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 29, 1809
 Louis Bonaparte of Holland . . . . . . . . . July 2, 1810
 Napoleon I., French Emperor. . . . . . . . .April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815
 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 13, 1821
 Charles X. of France . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 2, 1830
 Pedro of Brazil 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .April 7, 1831
 Miguel of Portgual . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1834
 William I. of Holland  . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1840
 Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . . .Feb. 24, 1848
 Louis Charles of Bavaria . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 21, 1848
 Ferdinand of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 2, 1848
 Charles Albert of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 23, 1849
 Leopold II. of Tuscany . . . . . . . . . . .July 21, 1859
 Isabella II. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . June 25, 1870
 Amadeus I. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 11, 1873
 Alexander of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 7, 1886
 Milan of Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 6, 1889
 

1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 
1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. 

ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, 
or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, 
the region of the body containing most of the digestive 
organs. (See for anatomical details the articles ALIMENTARY 
CANAL, and ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.) 

ABDOMINAL SURGERY.---The diseases affecting this region 
are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 
and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term 
``abdominal surgery'' covers generally the operations which 
involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this 
field of work has been greatly extended.  In this Encyclopaedia 
the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the 
most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of 
that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.); but here the 
general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed. 

Exploratory Laparotomy.---In many cases of serious intra-abdominal 
disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly 
what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his 
finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines.  With 
due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the 
great advantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully 
recognized.  It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American 
physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of 
what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so 
also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the 
abdomen without making an opening into it.  When an opening 
is made in such circumstances---provided only it is done soon 
enough--the successful treatment of the case often becomes a 
simple matter.  An exploratory operation, therefore, should 
be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left 
as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless. 

It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced 
hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having 
advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, 
his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other 
hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he 
had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having 
shown that if only he had insisted on an exploratioui being 
made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess 
might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left 
unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the 
death.  A physician by himself is helpless in these cases. 

Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in 
the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved 
relationship which exists between the public and the surgical 
profession.  In former days it was not infrequently said, ``If 
a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate.'' Not only have 
the public said this, but even physicians have been known to 
suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, 
the ``apotheosis of surgery,'' in connexion with the operative 
treatment of a serious abdominal lesion.  But fortunately 
the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest 
man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is 
necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable.  And this happy 
discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his 
decision.  It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician 
who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact 
that it is useless to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion 
by diet or drugs.  Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure 
or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into 
hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical 
wards, and after the effect of drugs had been tried with 
expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called 
in.  In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and 
the idea was more widely spread that surgery, after all, was 
a poor handmaid to medicine.  But now things are different.  
Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to 
the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if 
operation is thought desirable it is performed without any 
delay.  The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless 
operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all 
its bearings.  And so it has come about that the results of 
operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving 
day by day.  And doubtless they will continue to improve. 

A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, mortified 
or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from 
Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, 
Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated 
tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided 
ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the 
pieces are subsequently ``married'' the adjusted ends of 
the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered 
practicable.  In the course of time the button loosens itself 
into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine 
evacuation.  In many other cases the use of the button has 
proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of 
a permanent communication between the stomach and the small 
intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of 
the alimentary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant 
growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that 
some obstruction may be passed; betw:en smal' and large 
intestine.  The operative procedure goes by the name of 
short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get 
beyond an obstruction.  In this way also a permanent working 
communication can be set up between the gallbladder, or a 
dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine---the 
last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name 
of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious 
apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in 
the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of 
the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest 
importance.  But there is this against the method---that 
sometimes ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, 
whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its 
passage along the alimentary canal.  Some surgeons therefore 
prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft 
material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the 
parts.  The last-named method is gradually increasing in 
popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit, 
it is the ideal method of treatment.  The cause of death 
in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the 
blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of 
decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the 
obstruction.  It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to 
complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing 
out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating 
it, and then carefully suturing and returning it.  The surgeon 
who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of 
this stagnant fluid---or, at any rate, who first suggested the 
proper method of treating it---was Lawson Tait of Birmingham, 
who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on 
the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of Epsom salts to wash 
away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the 
same time to empty itself of the gas, which, by distending the 
intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation. 

Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery 
may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the sitting 
position as soon as practicable after the operation, and 
the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the 
lower bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting 
pints of this ``normal saline'' fluid into the loose 
tissue of the armpit.  Hot water thus administered or 
injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its 
volume, diluting its impurities and quenching the great 
thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition. 

Gunshot wounds of the Abdomen.---If a revolver bullet passes 
through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be 
traversed by it in several places.  If the bullet be small and, 
by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings 
may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place 
into the general peritoneal cavity.  If increasing collapse 
suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, 
the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration 
made.  When it is uncettain lf the bowel has been traversed 
or not, it is well to wait before opening the abdomen, due 
preparation being made for performing that operation on the 
first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having 
occurred.  Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated 
by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior 
of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic 
micro-organisms as possible.  It is by the malign influence of 
such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an 
abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed 
weapon.  If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted 
to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well, 
but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of 
battle.  When after an action wounded men come pouring into 
the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst 
preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out 
of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary 
case.  Experience in the South African war of 1899-1902 showed 
that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave 
the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere 
``expectancy,'' more than 50% recovered, whereas if operations 
were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue.  
In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants, 
pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying 
out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming, 
gunshot wounds of the abdomen had best not be interfered with. 

Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the 
abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may 
have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded.  In 
either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be set 
up.  It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out 
if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself 
might carry inwards septic germs.  In case of doubt it is 
better to enlarge the wound in order to determine its depth, 
and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating.  If, 
however, the bellycavity has been opened, the neighbouring 
pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be, 
sutured.  Should there have been an escape of the contents of 
the bowel the ``toilet of the peritoneum'' would be duly made, 
and a drainage-tube would be left in.  If the stab had injured 
a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the 
hiver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested 
by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged 
out.  Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory 
abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed 
to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost 
untreated: at the present time a large number of them are saved. 

Intussusception.---This is a terribly fatal disease of 
infants and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, 
and is gripped by, the piece next below it.  Formerly it was 
generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination 
by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure--a 
speculative method of treatment which sometimes ended in a 
fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often---one might 
almost say generally--failed to do what was expected of 
it.  The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision 
into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated 
piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, and more than, 
infection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the 
bowel.  It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to 
unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts 
themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could 
have been effective.  But the outlook in these distressing 
cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is 
extremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which 
the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail.  
Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance. 

Cancer of the Intestine.---With the introduction of aseptic 
methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can 
reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely.  
With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the 
diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest.  
If the cancerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece 
of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together, 
and the continuity of the alimentary canal is permanently 
re-established.  Thus in the case of cancer of the large 
intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects 
to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel, 
but actually to cure the patient of his disease.  When the 
lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous 
obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape 
for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the 
colon in the left loin.  But in recent years this operation of 
lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening 
the colon in the left groin.  This operation of iniguinal 
colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the 
large intestine is first drawn out through the abdominal 
wound and secured by stitches, and a few days afterwards, 
when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, 
it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no 
longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial 
anus.  If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of 
obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes 
with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, 
may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so 
that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of 
soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*) 

ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a 
law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a 
person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the 
victim.  In the case of men or children, it has been usual 
to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.).  The old English 
laws against abduction, generally contemplating its object 
as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been 
repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which 
makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take 
away or detain against her will with intent to marry or 
carnally know her, &c., any woman of any age who has any 
interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress 
presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to 
any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause 
such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other 
person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take 
away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, 
out of the possession and against the will of her parents or 
guardians.  By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention 
against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is 
felony.  The same act makes abduction without eyen any such 
intent a misdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the 
age of sixteen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and 
against the will of her parents or guardians.  In such a case 
the girl's consent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the 
person charged reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or 
over.  The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more 
stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making 
the procuration or attempted procuration of any virtuous 
female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as 
well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of 
age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the 
detaining of any female against her will on any premises, 
with intent to have, or that another person may have, carnal 
knowledge of her.  In Scotland, where there is no statutory 
adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice. 

ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan 
Mahmud II., was born on the 9th of February 1830, and 
succeeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861.  His personal 
interference in government affairs was not very marked, and 
extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the 
constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire 
wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces 
and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, 
by means of ``bear'' sales, from the default on the Turkish 
debt in 1875 and the consequent fall in prices.  Another 
source of revenue was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive 
of Egypt, who paid heavily in bakshish for the firman of 
1866, by which the succession to the khedivate was made 
hereditary from father to son in direct line and in order 
of primogeniture, as well as for the subsequent firmans of 
1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the khedive's prerogatives.  It 
is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless 
influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change 
in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the 
succession after him of his eldest son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din.  
Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867, being the first Ottoman 
sultan to do so, and was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen 
Victoria.  In 1869 he received the visits of the emperor of 
Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other foreign princes, on their 
way to the opening of the Suez Canal, and King Edward VII., 
while prince of Wales, twice visited Gonstantinople during his 
reign.  The mis-government and financial straits of the 
country brought on the outbreak of Mussulman discontent and 
fanaticism which eventually culminated in the murder of two 
consuls at Salonica and in the ``Bulgarian atrocities,'' and 
cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne.  His deposition on the 30th of 
May 1876 was hailed with joy throughout Turkey; a fortnight 
later he was found dead in the palace where he was confined, 
and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to 
suicide.  Six children survived him: Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, 
born 1857; Princess Salina, wife of Kurd Ismall Pasha; 
Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha; Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, 
born 1869; Prince Self-ed-din, born 1876; Princess Emine, 
wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, born 1872, died 1899. 

ABD-UL-HAMID I.,(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed 
III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773.  Long 
confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left 
him pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition.  At his 
accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that 
the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries.  War 
was, however, forced on him, and less than a year after his 
accession the complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led 
to the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji ( 21st July 1774), the most 
disastrous, especially in its after effects, that Turkey 
has ever been obliged to conclude. (See TURKEY.) Slight 
successes in Syria and the Morea against rebellious outbreaks 
there could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea, which 
Russia soon showed that she meant to absorb entirely.  In 
1787 war was again declared against Russia, joined in the 
following year by Austria, Joseph II. being entirely won over to 
Catherine, whom he accompanied in her triumohal progress in the 
Crimea.  Turkey held her own against the Austrians, but in 
1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians.  Four months later, on 
the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged sixty-four. 

ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan 
Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 21st of September 1842, and 
succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother Murad 
V., on the 31st of August 1876.  He accompanied his uncle 
Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France in 
1867.  At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless 
manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way 
to be girt with the sword of Eyub.  He was supposed to be of 
liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects 
were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him 
with suspicion as a too ardent reformer.  But the circumstances 
of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal 
developments.  Default in the public funds and an empty 
treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the 
war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout 
Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian 
rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he 
could expect little aid from the Powers.  But, still clinging 
to the groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of 
late at least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great 
Britain at all events would support him, he obstinately refused 
to give ear to the pressing requests of the Powers that the 
necessary reforms should be instituted.  The international 
Conference which met at Constantinople towards the end of 
1876 was, indeed, startled by the salvo of guns heralding 
the promulgation of a constitution, but the demands of the 
Conference were rejected, in spite of the solemn warnings 
addressed to the sultan by the Powers; Midhat Pasha, the 
author of the constitution, was exiled; and soon afterwards 
his work was suspended, though figuring to this day on the 
Statute-Book.  Early in 1877 the disastrous war with Russia 
followed.  The hard terms, embodied in the treaty of San 
Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, were 
to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main to 
British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this 
time the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and 
thought that he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was 
evidenced in his eyes by her capital being selected as the 
meeting-place of the Congress, the future friend of Turkey.  
He hastened to employ Germans for the reorganization of his 
finances and his army, and set to work in the determination to 
maintain his empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding 
him, to resist the encroachments of foreigners, and to take 
gradually the reins of absolute power into his own hands, 
being animated by a profound distrust, not unmerited, of his 
ministers.  Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to 
a foreign control over the Debt, and the decree of December 
1881, whereby many of the revenues of the empire were handed 
over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the 
bondholders, was a sacrifice of principle to which he could 
only have consented with the greatest reluctance.  Trouble in 
Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble 
on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were 
determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should 
be carried into effect, were more or less satisfactorily got 
over.  In his attitude towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of 
Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid showed less than his usual astuteness, and 
the resulting consolidation of England's hold over the country 
contributed still further to his estrangement from Turkey's old 
ally.  The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the 
severance of which had been the great triumph of the Berlin 
Congress, was another blow.  Few people south of the Balkans 
dreamed that Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, 
and apprehension was entertained of the results of the union 
until it was seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of 
it.  Then the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan 
preserved towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated 
so as to avoid running counter either to Russian or to German 
wishes.  Germany's friendship was not entirely disinterested, 
and had to be fostered with a railway or loan concession from 
time to time, until in 1899 the great object aimed at, the 
Bagdad railway, was conceded.  Meanwhile, aided by docile 
instruments, the sultan had succeeded in reducing his ministers 
to the position of secretaries, and in concentrating the 
mhole administration of the country into his own hands at 
Yildiz.  But internal dissension was not thereby lessened.  
Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks were dissatisfied, 
and from about 1890 the Armenians began a violent agitation 
with a view to obtaining the reforms promised them at 
Berlin.  Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893 at 
Marsovan and Tokat.  In 1894 a more serious rebellion in 
the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped 
out; the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual 
grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a 
series of massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious 
and threatening acts of the victims, and extending over many 
months and throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital 
itself.  The reforms became more or less a dead letter.  
Crete indeed profited by the grant of extended privileges, 
but these did not satisfy its turbulent population, and early 
in 1897 a Greek expedition salled to unite the island to 
Greece.  War followed, in which Turkey was easily successful 
and gained a small rectification of frontier; then .a few 
months later Crete was taken over ``en depot'' by the Four 
Powers---Germany and Austria not participating,---and Prince 
George of Greece was appointed their mandatory.  In the next year 
the sultan received the visit of the German emperor and empress. 

Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European 
Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only 
to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam 
against aggressive Christendom.  The Panislamic propaganda 
was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman 
Empire-often an obstacle to government--were curtailed; the 
new railway to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries 
were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the 
caliph's supremacy.  This appeal to Moslem sentiment was, 
however, powerless against the disaffection due to perennial 
misgovernment.  In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was 
endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained 
in the army and among the Mussulman population by a system 
of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests; while, 
obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan withdrew 
himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz. 

The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia 
(q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against 
the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a 
crisis.  The remarkable revolution associated with the names 
of Niazi Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and 
the Committee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere 
(see TURKEY: History); here it must suffice to say that 
Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the Salonica troops 
to march on Constantinople (July 23), at once capitulated.  
On the 24th an irade announced the restoration of the 
suspended constitution of 1875; next day, further irades 
abolished espionage and the censorship, and ordered the 
release of political prisoners.  On the 10th of December 
the sultan opened the Turkish parliament with a speech 
from the throne in which he said that the first parliament 
had been ``temporarily dissolved until the education of 
the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level 
by the extension of instruction throughout the empire.'' 

The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from 
the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary 
elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude 
towards the counter-revolution of the 13th of April, when 
an insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of 
the capital overthrew the committee and the ministry.  The 
comittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on 
Abdul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 27th of April his brother 
Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The 
ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica. 

ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-.1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on 
the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II. 
on the 2nd of July 1839.  Mahmud appears to have been unable 
to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating 
his children, so that his son received no better education 
than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish 
princes in the harem.  When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the 
throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical 
state.  At the very time his father died, the news was on 
its way to Constantinople that the Turkish army had been 
signally defeated at Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian 
viceroy, Mehemet Ali; and the Turkish fleet was at the same 
time on its way to Alexandria, where it was handed over by its 
commander, Ahmed Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext 
that the young sultan's advisers were sold to Russia.  But 
through the intervention of the European Powers Mehemet Ali 
was obliged to come to terms, and the Ottoman empire was saved. 
(See MEHEMET ALI.) In compliance with his father's express 
instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid set at once about carrying out 
the reforms to which Mahmud had devoted himself.  In November 
1839 was proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of 
Dulhane, consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which 
was supplemented at the close of the Crimean war by a similar 
statute issued in February 1856.  By these enactments it was 
provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should 
have security for their lives and property; that taxes should 
be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and 
that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil 
rights.  The scheme met with keen opposition from the Mussulman 
governing classes and the ulema, or privileged religious 
teachers, and was but partially put in force, especially in 
the remoter parts of the empire; and more than one conspiracy 
was formed against the sultan's life on account of it.  Of 
the other measures of reform promoted by Abd-ul-Mejid the more 
important were---the reorganization of the army (1843-1844), 
the institution of a council of public instruction (1846), 
the abolition of an odious and unfairly imposed capitation 
tax, the repression of slave trading, and various provisions 
for the better administration of the public service and for 
the advancement of commerce.  For the public history of his 
times--the disturbances and insurrections in different parts of 
his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war successfully 
carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England, France and 
Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey(1853-1856)-- see TURKEY, 
and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others sought refuge in 
Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian rising in 1849, 
the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to surrender 
them, but boldly and determinedly refused.  It is to his 
credit, too, that he would not allow the conspirators against 
his own life to be put to death.  He bore the character of 
being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and easily 
led.  Against this, however, must be set down his excessive 
extravagance, especially towards the end of his life.  He 
died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his 
brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of 
Osman.  He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and 
Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne.  In his 
reign was begun the reckless system of foreign loans, carried 
to excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, 
which led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey 
and, indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz. 

ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844-1901), 
was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of Dost 
Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in war the 
Barakzai family established their dynasty in the rulership of 
Afghanistan.  Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863, Dost 
Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his third 
son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and Azim 
Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized.  But 
after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the 
northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the 
Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died; and 
then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of Dost 
Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years.  In this war, 
which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes, 
the English War of the Roses at the end of the 15th century, 
Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring 
energy.  Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of 
these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the 
son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the 
amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman: when he was summoned to 
Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara.  Shere Ali threw 
Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in 
south &fghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by 
winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reapearance 
in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops 
stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his 
standard.  After some delay and desultory fighting, he and 
his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866).  The amir 
Shere All marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the 
battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10th May he was deserted 
by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat 
Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Elian, from prison 
in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir of 
Afghanistan.  Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and 
some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his 
uncle, they again routed Shere All's forces, and occupied 
Kandahar in 1867; and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan 
died, Azim Khan succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman 
as his governor in the northern province.  But towards the end 
of 1868 Shere Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, 
resulting in their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 
1869, forced them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur 
Rahman proceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian 
protection at Samarkand.  Azim died in Persia in October 1869. 

This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur 
Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was 
not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the 
rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and 
fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in 
Afghanistan.  He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the 
death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the 
British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governorgeneral 
at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him to try his 
fortunes once more across the Oxus.  In March 1880 a report 
reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan; and the 
governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him 
to the effect that the British government were prepared to 
withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as amir of 
Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts 
adjacent.  After some negotiations, an interview took place 
between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the 
diplomatic representative at Kabub of the Indian government, 
who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with 
an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous 
manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in 
hand.  At the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abbdur Rahman 
was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in 
arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign 
aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel 
it, provided that he followed British advice in regard to 
his external relations.  The evacuation of Afghanistan was 
settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881 the British troops 
also made over Kandahar to the new amir; but Ayub Khan, 
one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, 
defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in 
July.  This serious reverse roused the amir, who had not 
at first displayed much activity.  He led a force from 
Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete 
victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly into 
Persia.  From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the 
throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he 
consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing 
insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic 
authority.  Against the severity of his measures the powerful 
Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887.  
In that year Ayub Khan made a,fruitless inroad from Persia; 
and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against 
him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. 

In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir 
was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, 
in India, the news came of a collision between Russian 
and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the 
demarcation of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan.  
Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good 
example of his political sagacity.  To one who had been a man 
of war from his youth up, who had won and lost many fights, 
the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some 
debateable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it 
was no sufficent reason for calling upon the British, although 
they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate 
his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon 
him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his 
British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the 
south-east.  His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, 
whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom.  He knew this 
to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan 
nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed 
imminent, while the Indian government made ready for that 
contingency, the amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the 
consultations with him helped to turn the balance between 
peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific 
solution.  Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India 
the impression of a clear-headed man.of action, with great 
self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the 
implacable severity that too often marked his administration.  
His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the 
Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure. 

From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in 
his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where 
he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been 
disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand 
all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in 
rebellion.  Shortly afterwards (1892) he succeeded in 
finally beating down the resistance of the Hazara tribe, who 
vainly attempted to defend their immemorial independence, 
within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul. 

In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government 
of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory 
required bu the demarcation of the boundary between north-eastern 
Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss 
with the amir other pending questions.  The amir showed his 
usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his 
own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying 
insight into the real situation.  The territorial exchanges 
were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and 
Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and 
an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult 
subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards 
India.  In 1895 the amir found himself unable, by reason of 
ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit 
England; hut his second son Nasrullah Khan went in his stead. 

Abdur Rahman died on the 1st of October 1901, being succeeded 
by his son Habibullah.  He had defeated all enterprises by 
rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of 
local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his 
orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion.  
His government was a military despotism resting upon a 
well-appointed army; it was administered through officials 
absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled 
by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise 
of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of 
unnecessary cruelty.  He held open courts for the receipt 
of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the 
disposal of business he was indefatigable.  He succeeded in 
imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most 
unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European 
inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly 
set his face against all innovations which, like railways 
and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his 
country.  His adventurous life, his forcible character, 
the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian 
and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held 
the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a 
prominent figure in contemporary Asiatic politics and will 
mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. 

The amir received an annual subsidy from the British 
government of 18-1/2 lakhs of rupees.  He was allowed to 
import munitions of War. In 1896 he adopted the title of 
Tia-ul-hlillat-ud Din (Light of the nation and religion); 
and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish 
treatises on Jehad.  His eldest son Habibullah Khan, with 
his brother Nasrullah Khan, was born at Samarkand.  His 
youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan 
mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. 

See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London, 
1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B., 
G.C.S.L, edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (2 vols., 
London, 1900); At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895). 
                                            (A. C. L.)
ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme 
Anabaptists (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the Holy 
Spirit as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
learning and even the power of reading the written word. 

A BECKETT, GILBERT ARBOTT (1811-1856), English writer, was 
born in north London on the 9th of January 1811.  He belonged 
to a family claiming descent from the father of St Thomas 
Becket.  His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett (1806-1869), 
became chief justice of Victoria (Australia).  Gilbert Abbott 
a Beckett was educated at Westminster school, and was called 
to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841.  He edited Figaro in 
London, and was one of the original staff of Punch and 
a contributor all his life.  He was an active journalist on 
The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series 
of light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted 
in 1846 The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce 
some fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of 
Dickens's shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon.  
As poor-law commissioner he presented a valuable report to the 
home secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover 
Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan pouce magistrate.  
He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August 1856 of typhus fever. 

His eldest son GILBERT ARTHUR A BECKETT (1837-1891) was born 
at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837.  He went up to Christ 
Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855, graduating in 
1860.  He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave his attention 
chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and Hearts at 
the Haymarket in 1867, which was followed by other light 
comedies.  His pieces include numerous burlesques and 
pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and 
of The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music 
of Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court 
Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked 
World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline.  
For the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff 
of Punch. His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the 
death of his only son, and he died on the 15th of October 1891. 

A younger son, ARTHUR WILLIAM A BECKETT (1844--1909), a 
well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the 
staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his 
father and his own reminiscences in The A Becketts of Punch 
(1903).  He died in London on the 14th of January 1909. 

See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895). 

ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of 
the companions of Daniel (Dan. i. 7, &c.).  It is probably a 
corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, ``servant of 
Nebo,'' though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was 
Abednergo, for Abednergal, ``servant of the god Nergal.'' C. 
H. Toy compares Barnebo, ``son of Nebo''; of which he regards 
Barnabas as a slightly disguised form (Jewish Encyclopaedia). 

ABEKEN, HEINRICH (1809-1872), German theologian and 
Prussian official, was born at Berlin on the 8th of August 
1809.  He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became 
chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome.  In 1841 he visited 
England, being commissioned by King Frederick William IV. 
to make arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant 
bishopric of Jerusalem.  In 1848 he received an appointment 
in the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853 
was promoted to be privy councillor of legation (Geheimer 
Legationsrath).  He was much employed by Bismarck in the 
writing of official despatches, and stood high in the favour 
of King William, whom he often accompanied on his journeys 
as representative of the foreign office.  He was present with 
the king during the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71.  In 1851 he 
published anonymously Babylon unnd Jerusalem, a slashing 
criticism of the views of the Countess von Hahn-Hahn (q.v.). 

See Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit 
(Berlin, 1898), by his widow.  This is valuable by reason 
of the letters written from the Prussian headquarters. 

ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain 
by Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16).  The narrative 
in Genesis which tells us that ``the Lord had respect unto 
Abel and to his offering, but unto Cain and to his offering 
he had not respect,'' is supplemented by the statement of the 
New Testament, that ``by faith Abel offered unto God a more 
excellent sacrifice than Cain'' (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain 
slew Abel ``because his own works were evil and his brother's 
righteous'' (1 John iii. 12). See further under CAIN.  The 
name has been identified with the Assyrian ablu, ``son,'' but 
this is far from certain.  It more probably means ``herdsman'' 
(cf. the name Jabal), and a distinction is drawn between the 
pastoral Abel and the agriculturist Cain.  If Cain is the eponym 
of the Kenites it is quite possible that Abel was originally 
a South Judaean demigod or hero; on this, see Winckler, 
Gesch.  Israels, ii. p. 189; E. Meyer, Israelitein, p. 
395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to have lived in North 
Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De Haeresibus, lxxxvi.). 

ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BART. (1827-1902), English 
chemist, was born in London on the 17th of July 1827.  After 
studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann at the 
Royal College of Chemistry (established in London in 1845), he 
became professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in 
1851, and three years later was appointed chemist to the War 
Department and chemical referee to the government.  During 
his tenure of this office, which lasted until 1888, he carried 
out a large amount of work in connexion with the chemistry of 
explosives.  One of the most important of his investigations 
had to do with the manufacture of guncotton, and he developed 
a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated 
cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be prepared with 
practically no danger and at the same time yielded the 
product in a form that increased its usefulness.  This work 
to an important extent prepared the way for the ``smokeless 
powders'' which came into general use towards the end of the 
19th century; cordite, the particular form adopted by the 
British government in 1891, was invented jointly by him and 
Professor James Dewar.  Our knowledge of the explosion of 
ordinary black powder was also greatly added to by him, and 
in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble he carried out one of 
the most complete inquiries on record into its behaviour when 
fired.  The invention of the apparatus, legalized in 1879, for 
the determination of the flash-point of petroleum, was another 
piece of work which fell to him by virtue of his official 
position.  His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was 
prescribed by the act of 1868, but, being found to possess 
certain defects, it was superseded in 1879 by the Abel close-test 
instrument (see PETROLEUM).  In electricity Abel studied 
the construction of electrical fuses and other applications 
of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems 
of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of the 
Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was 
president.  He was president of the Institution of Electrical 
Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 
1877.  He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860, 
and received a royal medal in 1887.  He took an important 
part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 
1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first 
director of the Imperial Institute, a position he held till 
his death, which occurred in London on the 6th of September 
1902.  He was knighted in 1891, and created a baronet in 1893. 

Among his books were--Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L. 
Bloxam), Modern History of Gunpowder (1866), Gun-cotton 
(1866), On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in 
Explosives (1875), and Electricity applied to Explosive 
Purposes (1884).  He also wrote several important articles 
in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

ABEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-1787), German musician, was 
born in Kothen in 1725, and died on the 20th of June 1787 in 
London.  He was a great player on the viola da gamba, 
and composed much music of importance in its day for that 
instrument.  He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at 
the Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758) 
under A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector 
of Saxony; and then, going to England, became (in 1759) 
chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte.  He gave a concert 
of his own compositions in London, performing on various 
instruments, one of which, the pentachord, was newly 
invented.  In 1762 Johann Christian Bach, the eleventh son 
of Sebastian, came to London, and the friendship between 
him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the establishment of 
the famous concerts subsequently known as the Bach and Abel 
concerts.  For ten years these were organized by Mrs Comelys, 
whose enterprises were then the height of fashion.  In 1775 
the concerts became independent of her, and were continued 
by Abel unsuccessfully for a year after Bach's death in 
1782.  At them the works of Haydn were first produced in 
England.  After the failure of his concert undertakings 
Abel still remained in great request as a player on various 
instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby 
hastened his death.  He was a man of striking presence, of whom 
several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough, exist. 

ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathematician, 
was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802.  In 1815 he 
entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three years 
later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his brilliant 
solutions of the original problems proposed by B. Holmboe.  
About this time, his father, a poor Protestant minister, 
died, and the family was left in straitened circumstances; 
but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to enter 
Christiania University in 1821.  His first notable work was a 
proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation by 
radicals.  This investigation was first published in 1824 
and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826) 
more elaborately in the first volume of Crelle's Journal.  
Further state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in 
1825, and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher 
(178-1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where 
he became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then 
about to publish his mathematical journal.  This project 
was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the 
success of the venture.  From Berlin he passed to Freiberg, 
and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of 
functions, elliptic, hyperelliotic and a new class known as 
Abelians being particularly studied.  In 1826 he moved to 
Paris, and during a ten months' stay he met the leading 
mathematicians of France; but he was little appreciated, for 
his work was scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him 
from proclaiming his researches.  Pecuniary embarrassments, 
from which he had never been free, finally compelled him 
to abandon his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught 
for some time at Christiania.  In 1829 Crelle obtained a 
post for him at Berlin, but the offer did not reach Norway 
until after his death near Arendal on the 6th of April. 

The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom 
Legendre said ``quelle tete celle du jeune Norvegien!'', 
cut short a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise.  
Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis 
began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the 
study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians 
with numerous ramifications along which progress could be 
made.  His works, the greater part of which originally 
appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Holmbor and 
published in 1839 by the Swedish government, and a more 
complete edition by L. Sylow and S. Lie was published in 1881. 

For further details of his mathematical investigations see the 
articles GROUPS, THEORY OF, and FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLES. 

See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sa 
vie et son action scientifique (Paris, 1885); Lucas 
de Peslouan, Niels Henrik Abel (Paris, 1906). 

ABEL (better ABELL), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest 
who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII.  The place 
and date of his birth are unknown.  He was educated at Oxford 
and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time before 
1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V. on a 
mission relating to the proposed divorce.  On his return he 
was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in Essex, 
and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the unfortunate 
queen.  In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas (with 
the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion), 
which contained an answer to the numerous tracts supporting 
Henry's ecclesiastical claims.  After an imprisonment of more 
than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the 
royal supremacy in the church, and was executed at Smithfield 
on the 30th of July 1540.  There is still to be seen on the 
wall of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with 
an A upon it and the name Thomas above, winch he carved 
during his confinement.  He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. 

See J. Gillow's Bibl.  Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.; 
Calendar of State Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-vii. passim. 

ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142), scholastic philosopher, was born 
at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079.  He was the 
eldest son of a noble Breton house.  The name Abaelardus 
(also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other 
ways) is said to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted 
by himself for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a 
student.  As a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of 
apprehension, and, choosing a learned life instead of the 
knightly career natural to a youth of his birth, early became 
an adept in the art of dialectic, under which name philosophy, 
meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted 
through Latin channels, was the great subject of liberal 
study in the episcopal schools.  Roscellinus, the famous 
canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by himself as his teacher; 
but whether he heard this champion of extreme Nominalism in 
early youth, when he wandered about from school to school 
for instruction and exercise, or some years later, after he 
had already begun to teach for himself, remains uncertain.  
His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still under 
the age of twenty.  There, in the great cathedral school of 
Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William 
of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of 
Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the 
master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued 
in the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till 
then dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth 
of opposition from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only 
twenty-two, he proceeded to set up a school of hs own at 
Melun, whence, for more direct competition, he removed to 
Corbeil, nearer Paris.  The success of his teaching was 
signal, though for a time he had to quit the field, the 
strain proving too great for his physical strength.  On his 
return, after 1108, he found William lecturing no longer at 
Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the city, and 
there battle was again joined between them.  Forcing upon 
the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once more 
victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme.  His discomfited 
rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in Paris, hut 
soon failed in this last effort also.  From Melun, where he 
had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, and set 
up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking over 
Notre-Dame.  From his success in dialectic, he next turned to 
theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon.  His triumph 
over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able to give 
lectures, without previous training or special study, which 
were acknowledged superior to those of the master.  Abelard 
was now at the height of hs fame.  He stepped into the chair at 
Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the year 1115. 

Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a 
time.  Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen 
surrounded by crowds--it is said thousands of students, 
drawn from all countries by the fame of hs teaching, in which 
acuteness of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of 
exposition.  Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and 
feasted with universal admiration, he came, as he says, 
to think himself the only philosopher standing in the 
world.  But a change in his fortunes was at hand.  In his 
devotion to science, he had hitherto lived a very regular 
life, varied only by the excitement of conflict: now, at 
the height of his fame, other passions began to stir within 
him.  There lived at that time, within the precincts of 
Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, a 
young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about 
1101.  Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, 
which extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, 
she awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and 
with intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in 
Fulbert's house as a regular inmate.  Becoming also tutor to 
the maiden, he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained 
over her for the purpose of seduction, though not without 
cherishing a real affection which she returned in unparalleled 
devotion.  Their relation interfering with his public work, and 
being, moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became 
known to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, 
when at last it could not escape even his vision, they were 
separated only to meet in secret.  Thereupon Heloise found 
herself pregnant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, 
where she gave birth to a son.  To appease her furious uncle, 
Abelard now proposed a marriage, under the condition that it 
should be kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of 
advancement in the church; but of marriage, whether public 
or secret, Heloise would hear nothing.  She appealed to him 
not to sacrifice for her the independence of his life, nor 
did she finally yield to the arrangement without the darkest 
forebodings, only too soon to be reallzed.  The secret of 
the marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Heloise, true 
to her singular purpose, boldly denied it, life was made so 
unsupportable to her that she sought refuge in the convent of 
Argenteuil.  Immediately Fulbert, believing that her husband, 
who aided in the flight, designed to be rid of her, coinceived 
a dire revenge.  He and some others broke into Abelard's 
chamber by night, and perpetrated on him the most brutal 
mutilation.  Thus cast down from his pinnacle of greatness 
into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left to the 
brilliant master only the life of a monk.  The priesthood 
and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him.  
Heloise, not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice 
at the call of his jealous love, and took the veil. 

It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged 
forty, sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight.  
Finding, however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude, 
and having gradually turned again to study, he yielded after 
a year to urgent entreaties from without and within, and 
went forth to reopen his school at the priory of Maisonceile 
(1120).  His lectures, now framed in a devotional spirit, were 
heard again by crowds of students, and all his old influence 
seemed to have returned; but old enmities were revived 
also, against which he was no longer able as before to make 
head.  No sooner had he put in writing his theological 
lectures (apparently the Introductio and Theolo giam 
that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul of 
his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.  
Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial 
synod held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular 
practices a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made 
to throw his book into the flames and then was shut up in 
the convent of St Medard at Soissons.  After the other, it 
was the bitterest possible experience that could befall him, 
nor, in the state of mental desolation into which it plunged 
him, could he find any comfort from being soon again set free.  
The life in his own monastery proved no more congenial than 
formerly.  For this Abelard himself was partly responsible.  
He took a sort of malicious pleasure in irritating the monks. 
Quasijocando, he cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the 
Areopagite had been bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon 
the statement of the abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of 
Athens.  When this historical heresy led to the inevitable 
persecution, Abelard wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in 
which he preferred to the authority of Bede that of Eusebius' 
Historia Ecelesiastica and St Jerome, according to whom 
Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, was distinct from Dionysius 
the Areopagite, bishop of Athens and founder of the abbey, 
though, in deference to Bede, he suggested that the Areopagite 
might also have beeit bishop of Corinth.  Life in the 
monastery was intolerable for such a troublesome spirit, and 
Abelard, who had once attempted to escape the persecution 
he had called forth by flight to a monastery at Provins, 
was finally allowed to withdraw.  In a desert place near 
Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and 
reeds, and turned hermit.  But there fortune came back to him 
with a new surprise.  His retreat becoming known, students 
flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him 
with their tents and huts.  When he began to teach again he 
found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new 
oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete. 

Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard 
left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting 
an invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys, 
on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany.  It proved a wretched 
exchange.  The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey to 
lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly.  
Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate 
before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under 
peru of violent death.  The misery of those years was not, 
however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking 
up of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as 
head of a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and 
in the capacity of spiritual director he often was called to 
revisit the spot thus made doubly dear to him.  All this time 
Heloise had lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and 
character, uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon 
her youth; hut now, at last, the occasion came for expressing 
all the pent-up emotions of her soul.  Living on for some time 
apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St 
Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia 
Calamitatum, and thus moved her to peu her first Letter, 
which remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and 
womanly devotion; the first being followed by the two other 
Letters, in which she finally accepted the part of resignation 
which, now as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to 
her.  He not long after was seen once more upon the field 
of his early triumphs lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 
1136 (when he was heard by John of Salisbury), but it was 
only for a brief space: no new triumph, but a last great 
trial, awaited him in the few years to come of his chequered 
life.  As far back as the Paraclete days, he had counted 
as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, in whom was 
incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating faith, 
from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt, and 
now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance of 
others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest 
offender.  After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard 
was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his 
strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard, 
formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was 
prepared to plead his cause.  When, however, Bernard, not without 
foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubtable 
dialectician, had opened the case, suddenlly Abelard appealed to 
Rome.  The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard, who had 
power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed at the 
council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation was 
procured at Rome in the following year.  Meanwhile, on his way 
thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken down 
at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man, with 
spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual 
force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of 
death.  Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his 
sufferings, to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, 
he died on the 21st of April 1142.  First buried at St Marcel, 
his remains soon after were carried off in secrecy to the 
Paraclete, and given over to the loving care of Heloise, who 
in time came herself to rest beside them (1164).  The bones 
of the pair were shifted more than once afterwards, but they 
were marvellously preserved even through the vicissitudes 
of the French Revolution, and now they lie united in the 
well-known tomb in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris. 

Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds of 
his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he has 
been little known in modern times but for his connexion with 
Heloise.  Indeed, it was not till the 19th century, when Cousin 
in 1836 issued the collection entitled Ouvrages inedits 
d'Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged 
at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, 
the ethical treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published 
earlier, namely, in 1721.  Cousin's collection, besides giving 
extracts from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage 
of opposite opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the 
Fathers as a basis for discussion, the main interest in which 
lles in the fact that there is no attempt to reconcile the 
different opinions), includes the Dialectica, commentaries 
on logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry and Boothius, and a 
fragment, De Generibus et Speciebus.  The last-named 
work, and also the psychological treatise De Inteilectibus, 
published apart by Cousin (in Fragmens Philosophiques, 
vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal evidence not to 
be hy Abelard himself, but only to have sprung out of his 
school.  A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphyrium, 
from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph 
Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript. 

The general importance of Abelard lles in his having fixed 
more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner 
of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally 
rational expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine 
. However his own particular interpretations may have been 
condemned, they were conceived in essentially the same spirit 
as the general scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in 
the 13th century with approval from the heads of the church.  
Through him was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy 
of the philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became 
firmly established in the half-century after his death, when 
first the completed Organon, and gradually ail the other 
works of the Greek thinker, came to be known in the schools: 
before his time it was rather upon the authority of Plato 
that the prevailing Realism sought to lean.  As regards his 
so-called Conceptualism and his attitude to the question of 
Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM.  Outside of his dialectic, 
it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity of 
philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon 
the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral 
character, at least the moral value, of human action.  His 
thought in this direction, wherein he anticipated something 
of modern speculation, is the more remarkable because his 
scholastic successors accomplished least in the field of 
morals, hardly venturing to bring the principles and rules of 
conduct under pure philosophical discussion, even after the 
great ethical inquiries of AAstotle became fully known to them. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY --Abelard's own works remain the best sources 
for his life, especially his Historia Culamitatum, an 
autobiography, and the correspondence with Heloise.  The 
literature on Abelard is extensive, but consists principally 
of monographs on different aspects of his philosophy.  
Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols., 1845) remains an 
authority; it must be distinguished from his drama Abelard 
(1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval 
life.  McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from 
the sources. eee also the valuable analysis by Nitsch 
in the article ``Abalard'' There is a comprehensive 
bibliograohy in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources 
hist. du moyen age, s. ``Abailard.'' (G. C. R.; J. T. S.*) 

ABELIN, JOHANN PHILIPP, an early 16th-century German 
chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there 
between the years 1634 and 1637.  He wrote numerous histories 
over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibaus, Abeleus and Johann 
Eudwighottfaed or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance 
being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, 
entitled Arma Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the 
Inventarium Sueciae (1632)---both compilations from existing 
records.  His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum, a 
series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the 
world down to 1619.  He was himself responsible for the first two 
volumes.  It was continued by various writers and grew to 
twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633-1738).  The chief interest 
of the work is, however, its illustration by the beautiful 
copperplate engravings of Matthaus Meriah (1593-1650).  Abelin 
also wrote a history of the antipodes, Historia Antipodum 
(posthumously pub.  Frankf. 1655), and a history of India. 

See G. Droysen, Arlanibaeus, Godofredus, Abelinus (Berlin, 
1864); and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. 

ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have held a 
prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada in the 15th 
century.  The name appears to have been derived from the Yussuf 
ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Mahommed 
VII., who did that sovereign good service in his struggles 
to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.  
Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but the name 
is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines Perez de 
Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the feuds 
of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and 
the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected.  J. 
P. de Florian's Gonsalve de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le 
dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's 
work.  The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its 
name from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family. 

ABENDANA, the name of two Jewish theologians. (1) JACOB 
(1630-i695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in London 
from 1680.  Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana had 
a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to 
the appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian 
theologians. (2) ISAAC (c. 1650-1710), his brother, 
taught Hebrew at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford.  He 
compiled a Jewish Calendar and wrote Discourses on the 
Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews (1706). 

ABENEZRA (IBN EZRA), or, to give him his full name, 
ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN Ezra (1092 or 1093-1167), one of the 
most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the 
Middle Ages.  He was born at Toledo, left his native land of 
Spain before 1140 and led until his death a life of restless 
wandering, which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome, 
Lucca, Mantua,Verona), Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers), 
Northern France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to 
the South of France.  At several of the above-named places he 
remained for some time and developed a rich literary activity.  
In his native land he had already gained the reputation of a 
distinguished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his 
works, which were all in the Hebrew language, were written 
in the second period of his life.  With these works, which 
cover in the first instance the field of Hebrew philology and 
Biblical exegesis, he fulfilled the great mission of making 
accessible to the Jews of Christian Europe the treasures of 
knowledge enshrined in the works written in Arabic which he 
had brought with him from Spain.  His grammatical writings, 
among which Moznayim (``the Scales,'' written in 1140) 
and Zahot (``Correctness,'' written in 1141) are the most 
valuable, were the first expositions of Hebrew grammar in the 
Hebrew language, in which the system of Hayyuj and his school 
prevailed.  He also translated into Hebrew the two writings 
of Hayyuj in which the foundations of the system were laid 
down.  Of greater original value than the grammatical works of 
Ibn Ezra are his commentaries on most of the books of the Bible, 
of which, however, a part has been lost.  His reputation as an 
intelligent and acute expounder of the Bible was founded on his 
commentary on the Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is 
evidenced by the numerous commentaries which were written upon 
it.  In the editions of this commentary (ed. princ.  Naples 
1488) the commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a 
second, more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the 
first and shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until 
1840.  The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical 
commentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the 
following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms, 
Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra 
and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses 
Kimhi.  Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as he 
had done on Exodus, but this was never finished.  There are 
second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther and 
Daniel.  The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra consists 
in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of 
the text, the so-called ``Pesohat,'' on solid grammatical 
principles.  It is in this that, although he takes a great 
part of his exegetical material from his predecessors, the 
originality of his mind is everywhere apparent, an originality 
which displays itself also in the witty and lively language of his 
commentaries.  To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza 
in his Tractatus Theologico Politicus makes use, Ibn 
Ezra belongs to the earliest pioneers of the criticism of the 
Pentateuch.  His commentaries, and especially some of the longer 
excursuses, contain numerous contributions to the philosophy of 
religion.  One writing in particular, which belongs to this 
province (Vosod Mera), on the division and the reasons 
for the Biblical commandments, he wrote in 1158 for a London 
friend, Joseph b.  Jacob.  In his philosophical thought 
neo-platonic ideas prevail; and astrology also had a place 
in his view of the world.  He also wrote various works on 
mathematical and astronomical subjects.  Ibn Ezra died on the 
28th of January 1167, the place of his death being unknown. 

Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned: 
M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra 
(London, 1877); W. Bacher, Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker 
(Strasburg, 1882); M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in 
the Zeitschrift fur Mathematik und Physik, Band xxv., 
Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions philosophie Abraham 
Ibn Ezra's in vols. xiii. and xliii. of the Monatschrift 
fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums; his Diwan 
was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886): a collection of his 
poems, Reime und Gedichte, with translation and commentary, 
were published by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the 
Jewish theological Seminary at Breslau (1885--1894). (W. BA.) 

ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the 
Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m.  S.W. of Regensburg, 
with which it is connected by rail.  Pop. 2202.  It has a small 
spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of 
rheumatism and gout.  The town is the Castra Abusina of the 
Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.  Here, 
on the 20th of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal victory 
over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and Genegal Hiller. 

ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba 
division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate.  It 
is situated in 7 deg.  8' N., 3 deg.  25' E., on the Ogun river, 64 
m.  N. of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water.  Population, 
approximately 60,000.  Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile 
country, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey 
granite.  It is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded 
by mud walls 18 miles in extent.  Abeokuta, under the reforming 
zeal of its native rulers, was largely transformed during 
the early years of the 20th century.  Law courts, government 
offices, prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads 
made, and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed.  
The streets are generally narrow and the houses built of 
mud.  There are numerous markets in which a considerable 
trade is done in native products and articles of European 
manufacture.  Palm-oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter 
are the chief articles of trade.  An official newspaper is 
published in the Yoruba and English languages.  Abeokuta is 
the headquarters of the Yoruba branch of the Church Missionary 
Societyi and British and American, missionaries have met 
with some success in their civilizing work.  In their schools 
about 2000 children are educated.  The completion in 1899 
of a railway from Lagos helped not only to develop trade 
but to strengthen generally the influence of the white man. 

Abeokuta (a word meaning ``under the rocks,''), dating 
from 1825, owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the 
slavehunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the 
village populations scattered over the open country to take 
refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy.  
Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many 
distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs, 
religious rites and even the very names of their original 
villages.  Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held 
its ground successfully against the powerful armies often 
sent against the place both by the king of Dahomey from the 
west, and by the people of Ibadan from the north-east. 

The district of Egba, of which Abeokuta is the capital, has 
an estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 
350,000.  It is officially known as the Abeokuta province 
of the Southern Nigeria protectorate.  It contains luxuriant 
forests of palmtrees, which constitute the chief wealth of the 
people.  Cotton is indigenous and is grown for export.  
The Egbas are enthusiastic farmers and have largely adopted 
European methods of cultivation.  They are very tenacious 
of their independence, but accepted without opposition the 
establishment of a British protectorate, which, while putting 
a stop to inter-tribal warfare, slave-raiding and human 
sacrifices, and exercising control over the working of the 
laws, left to the people executive and fiscal autonomy.  The 
administration is in the hands of a council of chiefs which 
exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, judicial 
functions.  The president of this council, or ruling chief 
---chosen from among the members of the two recognized 
reigning families--is called the alake, a word meaning 
``Lord of Ake,'' Ake being the name of the principal quarter 
of Abeokuta, after the ancient capital of the Egbas.  The 
alake exercises little authority apart from his councili 
the form of government being largely democratic.  Revenue 
is chiefly derived from tolls or import duties.  A visit 
of the alake to England in 1904 evoked considerable public 
interest.  The chief was a man of great intelligence, eager 
to study western civilization, and an ardent agriculturist. 

See the publications of the Church Missionary Society 
dealing mith the Voruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The 
Yoruba-speaking Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on 
Abeokuta by Sir Wm. Macgregor, sometime governor of Lagos, in 
the African Society's Journal, No. xii. (London, July 1904). 

ABERAVON, a contributory parliamentary and municipal borough 
of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the Avon, near 
its mouth in Swansea Bay, 11 m.  E.S.E. of Swansea and 170 m. 
from London by rail.  Pop. (1901) 7553.  It has a station on the 
Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on the main South 
Wales line of the Great Western, whose station, however, is at 
fort Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern side of the 
Avon.  The valley of the Avon, which is only some three miles 
long, has been from about 1840 a place of much metallurgical 
activity.  There are tinplate and engineering works within 
the borough.  At Cwmavon, 1 1/2 m. to the north-east, are 
large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired 
two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper 
Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Tinto Copper 
Company.  There are also iron, steel and tinplate works 
both at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted 
only of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port. 

The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted from 
Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship.  On 
the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son of 
the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold this 
lordship, and for the defence of thc passage of the river 
built here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in 
a field near the churchyard.  His descendants (who from the 
13th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene) 
established, under line protection of the castle, a chartered 
town, which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward 
Le Despenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an 
exchange of lands.  In modern times these charters were not 
acted upon, the town being deemed a borough by prescription, 
but in 1861 it was incorporated under the Municipal 
Corporations Act. Since 1832 it has belonged to the Swansea 
parliamentary district of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig, 
Loughor, Neath and Swansea to return one member; but in 1885 
the older portion of Swansea was given a separate member. 

ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary 
division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m.  N.W. of Newport 
by the Great Western railway.  Pop. (1901) 12,607.  There are 
collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district; 
the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw 
valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the 
great mining region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. 

ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1575-1618), 
was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of 
James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of 
Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton.  He was made 
sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of 
lands in Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of 
Abercorn, and on the 10th of July 1606 was rewarded for his 
services in the matter of the union by being made earl of 
Abercorn, and Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick.  
He married Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left 
five sons, of whom the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded 
him as 2nd earl of Abercorn.  He died on the 23rd of March 
1618.  The title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton 
family, became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, 
the 2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist 
politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company. 

ABERCROMRIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician, was the son 
of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen, where he was born 
on the 10th of October 1780.  He was educated at the university 
of Edinburgh, and after graduating as M.D. in 1803 he settled 
down to practise in that city, where he soon attained a leading 
position.  From 1816 he published various papers in the 
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, which formed the basis 
of his Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases 
of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his Researches on the 
Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera 
of the Abdomen, both published in 1828.  He also found time 
for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he published his 
Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and 
the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by a 
sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings.  Both works, 
though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide 
popularity.  He died at Edinburgh on the 14th of November 1844. 

ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician who 
was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable 
date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis 
reprinted at Paris in 1740.  During his lifetime his Tuta 
ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper 
absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was 
translated into French, Dutch and German.  Two other works 
by him were De Pulsus Variatione (London, 1685), and Ars 
explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore 
(London, 1685--1688); His Opuscula were collected in 1687.  
These professional writings gave him a place and memorial 
in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae Pract. (4 vols. 
8vo, 1779, tom. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice rather by 
his remarkable controversial books in theology and philosophy 
than by his medical writings.  Bred up at Douai as a Jesuit, 
he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved Safer 
than Popery' (London, 1686).  But the most noticeable of 
his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685), which 
contains some of the most characteristic and most definitely-put 
metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common 
sense.  It was followed by Academia Scientiarum (1687), 
and by A Moral Treatise of the Power. of Interest (1690), 
dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines, 
by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James 
Maidment.  The exact date of his death is unknown, but 
according to Haller he was alive early in the 18th century. 

ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (1656-c.1716), Scottish physician 
and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby 
of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis 
Abercromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He 
was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic 
family.  Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered 
the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. 
in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years 
abroad.  It has been stated that he attended the university of 
Paris.  The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to 
him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (q.v.).  On his return to 
Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh, 
where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with 
characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities.  He was 
appointed physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution 
deprived him of the post.  Living during the agitations for 
the union of England and Scotland, he took part in the war 
of pamphlets inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on 
both sides of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less 
redoubtable a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the 
Act of Security compared with those of the intended Union 
(Edinburgh, 1707), and A Vindication of the Same against Mr 
De Foe (ibid.). A minor literary work of Abercromby's was 
a translation of Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre 
d'Ecosse (1556) which appeared in 1707.  But the work with 
which his name is permanently associated is his Martial 
Atchievements of the Scots Nation, issued in two large folios, 
vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716.  In the title-page and preface 
to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of being an historian, 
but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface alike, he is no 
longer a simple biographer, but an historian.  Even though, 
read in the light of later researches, much of the first volume 
must necessarily be relegated to the region of the mythical, 
none the less was the historian a laborious and accomplished 
reader and investigator of all available authorities, as well 
manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those who 
aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the time, 
from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to Alexander 
Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman.  The date of Abercromby's death is 
uncertain.  It has been variously assigned to 1715, 1716, 
1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left a widow 
in great poverty.  The Memoirs of the Abercrombys, commonly 
attributed to him, do not appear to have been published. 

See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson, 
Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog.  Dict., 
s.v.; George Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe. 

ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant-general, 
was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tillibody, 
Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734.  Educated 
at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to 
Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding 
to the Scotch bar.  On returning from the continent he 
expressed a strong preference for the military profession, 
and a cornet's commission was accordingly obtained for him 
(March 1756) in the 3rd Dragoon Guards.  He served with his 
regiment in the Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus 
afforded him of studying the methods of the great Frederick 
moulded his military character and formed his tactical 
ideas.  He rose through the intermediate grades to the rank of 
lieutenant-colonel of the regiment (1773) and brevet colonel 
in 1780, and in 1781 he became colonel of the King's Irish 
infantry.  When that regiment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon 
half-pay.  That up to this time he had scarcely been engaged 
in active service was owing mainly to his disapproval of the 
policy of the government, and especially to his sympathies with 
the American colonists in their struggles for independence; 
and his retirement is no doubt to be ascribed to similar 
feelings.  On leaving the army he for a time took up political 
life as member of Parliament for Clackmannanshire.  This, 
however, proved uncongenial, and, retiring in favour of his 
brother, he settled at Edinburgh and devoted himself to the 
education of his children.  But on France declaring war against 
England in 1793, he hastened to resume his professional duties; 
and, being esteemed one of the ablest and most intrepid 
officers in the whole British forces, he was appointed to the 
command of a brigade under the duke of York, for service in 
Holland.  He commanded the advanced guard in the action at Le 
Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen.  The duty fell to him of 
protecting the British army in its disastrous retreat out of 
Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795.  In 1795 he received the 
honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in acknowledgment of his 
services.  The same year he was appointed to succeed Sir Charles 
Grey, as commander-in-chief of the British forces in the West 
Indies.  In 1796 Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a 
detachment of the army under his orders.  He afterwards obtained 
possession of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in 
South America, and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and 
Trinidad.  He returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for 
his important services, was appointed colonel of the regiment 
of Scots Greys, entrusted with the governments of the Isle of 
Wight, Fort-George and Fort-Augustus, and raised to the rank of 
lieutenant-general.  He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command 
of the forces in Ireland.  There he laboured to maintain the 
discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion, 
and to protect the people from military oppression, with a 
care worthy alike of a great general and an enlightened and 
beneficent statesman.  When he was appointed to the command 
in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the French was 
confidently anticipated by the English government.  He used 
his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an army that 
was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he anxiously 
endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing the 
supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military 
to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary 
for the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of 
order.  Finding that he received no adequate support from the 
head of the Irish government, and that all his efforts were 
opposed and thwarted by those who presided in the councils 
of Ireland, he resigned the command.  His departure from 
Ireland was deeply lamented by the reflecting portion of the 
people, and was speedily followed by those disastrous results 
which he had anticipated, and which he so ardently desired 
and had so wisely endeavoured to prevent.  After holding for 
a short period the office of commander-in-chief in Scotland, 
Sir Ralph, when the enterprise against Holland was resolved 
upon in 1799, was again called to command under the duke of 
York.  The campaign of 1799 ended in disaster, but friend and 
foe alike confessed that the most decisive victory could not 
have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distinguished 
officer.  His country applauded the choice when, in 1801, he 
was sent with an army to dispossess the French of Egypt.  His 
experience in Holland and the West Indies particularly fitted 
him for this new command, as was proved by his carrying his 
army in health, in spirits and with the requisite supplies, 
in spite of very great difficulties, to the destined scene of 
action.  The debarkation of the troops at Aboukir, in 
the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked among 
the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English 
army.  A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March 
21, 1801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it 
was Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory.  He 
was struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, 
and died seven days after the battle.  His old friend and 
commander the duke of York paid a just tribute to the great 
soldier's memory in general orders: ``His steady observance 
of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the health 
and wants of his troops, the persevering and unconquerable 
spirit which marked his military career, the splendour of 
his actions in the field and the heroism of his death, are 
worthy the imitation of all who desire, like him, a life of 
heroism and a death of glory.'' By a vote of the House of 
Commons, a monument was erected in his honour in St Paul's 
cathedral.  His widow was created Baroness Abercromby of 
Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of L. 2000 a year 
was settled on her and her two successors in the title. 

A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his 
third son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 
1835-1839, and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 
1861.  For a shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see 
Wilkinson, Twelve British Soldiers (London, 1899). 

ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, 1ST BARON (1815-1895), English 
statesman, was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, Glamorganshire, on 
the 16th of April 1815, the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire 
landowner.  John Bruce's original family name was Knight, 
but on coming of age in 1805 he assumed the name of Bruce, 
his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate, 
having been the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of 
Glamorganshire.  Henry Austin Bruce was educated at Swansea 
grammar school, and in 1837 was called to the bar.  Shortly 
after he had begun to practise, the discovery of coal beneath 
the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley estates brought the 
family great wealth.  From 1847 to 1852 he was stipendiary 
magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and Aberdare, resigning the 
position in the latter year, when he entered parliament 
as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil.  In 1862 he became 
under-secretary for the home department, and in 1869, after 
losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being re-elected 
for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by W. E. 
Gladstone.  His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a 
reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the 
Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the 
licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in 
public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of 
drink.  In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at 
Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council, 
and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron 
Aberdare.  The defeat of the Liberal government in the following 
year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and 
he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and 
economic questions.  In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 
to 1892 he was president of the Royal Historical Society; 
and in 1881 he became president of the Royal Geographical 
Society.  In 1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which 
lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship 
of the National African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman 
Goldie, which in 1886 received a charter under the title of the 
Royal Niger Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British 
government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of 
Nigeria.  West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted 
Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his 
efforts that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university 
of Wales at Cardiff.  Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a 
G.C.B., presided over several Royal Commissions at different 
times.  He died in London on the 25th of February 1895.  
His second wite was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the 
historian of the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited. 

ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated (as 
the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and Cynon, the 
latter being a tributary of the Tain.  Pop. of urban district 
(1901), 43,365.  It is 4 m.  S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24 from 
Cardiff and 160 from London by rail.  It has a station on the 
Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western railway, 
and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant stations 
which are on a branch line to Merthyr.  The Tain Vale line 
(opened 1846) has a terminus in the town.  The Glamorgan canal 
has also a branch (made in 1811) running from Abercynon to 
Aberdare.  From being, at the beginning of the 19th century, 
a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew 
rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and 
iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only 
1486 in 1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the 
century.  Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant 
in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys 
and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847.  These have not been worked 
since about 1875, and the only metal industries remaining 
in the town are an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate 
works at Gadlys (established in 1868).  Previous to 1836, 
most of the coal worked in the parish was consumed locally, 
chiefly in the ironworks, but in that year the working of 
steam coal for export was begun, pits were sunk in rapid 
succession, and the coal trade, which at least since 1875 
has been the chief support of the town, soon reached huge 
dimensions.  There are also several brickworks and breweries.  
During the latter half Of the 19th century, considerable 
public improvements were effected in the town, making it, 
despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place of 
residence.  Its institutions included a post-graduate 
theological college (opened in connexion with the Church 
of England in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to 
Llandaff).  There is a public park of fifty acres with two small 
lakes.  Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St 
Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient 
parish, has some twelve Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic 
church (built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a 
cell attached to Penrhys Abbey) and over fifty Noncoformist 
chapels.  The services in the majority of the chapels are in 
Welsh.  The whole parish falls within the parliamentary borough 
of Merthyr Tydvil.  The urban district includes what were 
once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, 
Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon.  There are several 
cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on 
the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr.  Hirwaun moor, 
4 m. to the N.W. of Aberdare, was according to tradition 
the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of 
Dyfed, was defeated by the ailied forces of the Norman Robert 
Fitzhamon and Iestyn ab Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan. 

ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, 1ST EARL OF (1637-1720), lord 
chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, 1st baronet 
of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in 
1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637.  He graduated 
M.A., and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 
1658.  Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad.  
At the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was 
annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder 
brother to the baronetcy and estates.  He returned home in 
1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal 
reputation.  He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish 
parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his 
first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two 
legislatures.  In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor 
for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord 
Haddo.  He was a leading member of the duke of York's 
administration, was created a lord of session in June and 
in November 1681 president of the court.  The same year 
he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of 
witnesses.1 In 1682 he was made lord chancellor of Scotland, 
and was created, on the 13th of November, earl of Aberdeen, 
Viscount Formartine, and Lord Haddo, Methllck, Tarves and 
Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also sheriff 
principal of Aberdeenshire and Midlothian.  Burnet reflects 
unfavourably upon him, calls him ``a proud and covetous man,'' 
and declares ``the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone 
before him.''2 He executed the laws enforcing religious 
conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but 
resisted the excessive measures of tyranny prescribed by the 
English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the 
duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of 
Portsmouth with a present of L. 27,000, he was dismissed in 1684.  
After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions 
by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some 
act of maladministration on which to found a charge against 
him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his 
credit.  He took an active part in parliament in 1685 and 
1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of William's 
reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and 
took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on 
the 11th of May 1703.  In the great affair of the Union in 
1707, while protesting against the completion of the treaty 
till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, 
he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself 
and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was 
settled.  He died on the 20th of April 1720, after having 
amassed a large fortune.  He is described by John Mackay as 
``very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and 
is belleved to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine 
orator, speaks slow but sure.'' His person was said to be 
deformed, and his ``want of mine or deportment'' was alleged 
as a disqualification for the office of lord chancellor.  He 
married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of George Lockhart of 
Torbrecks, by whom he had six children, his only surviving 
son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen. 

See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding 
Club, 1851); Hist.  Account of the Senators of-the College 
of Justice, by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G. 
Crawfurd's Lives of the Officers of State (1726), p. 226; 
Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by Sir G. Mackenzie (1821), 
p. 148; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) Journals (Scottish 
Hist.  Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's Memoirs 
(1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist. of Scotland, iii. 369, 376. 
                                                     (P. C. Y.)
1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist.  Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297. 

2 Hist. of his own Times, i. 523. 

ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF (1784-1860), 
English statesman, was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord 
Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William Baird of 
Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, 3rd earl of 
Aberdeen.  Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1784, 
he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as 
his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to 
reside with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville.  At 
the age of fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name 
his own curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt 
and Dundas for this office he spent much of his time at their 
houses, thus meeting many of the leading politicians of the 
day.  He was educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, 
where he graduated as a nobleman in 1804.  Before this time, 
however, he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's 
death in 1801, and had travelled over a large part of the 
continent of Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte 
and other persons of distinction.  He also spent some time in 
Greece, and on his return to England founded the Athenian 
Society, membership of which was confined to those who had 
travelled in that country.  Moreover, he wrote an article in 
the Edinburgh Review of July 1805 criticizing Sir William 
Gill's Topography of Troy, and these circumstances led Lord 
Byron to refer to him in Eniglish Bardo and Scotch Reviewers 
as ``the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen.'' Having attained 
his majority in 1805, he married on the 28th of July Catherine 
Elizabeth Hamilton, daughter of John James, 1st marquess of 
Abercorn.  In December 1806 he was elected a representative 
peer for Scotland, and took his seat as a Tory in the House of 
Lords, but for some years he took only a slight part in public 
business.  However, by his birth, his abilities and his 
connexions alike he was marked out for a high position, and 
after the death of his wife in February 1812 he was appointed 
ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at 
Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz between Great 
Britain and Austria in October 1813; and accompanying the 
emperor Francis I. through the subsequent campaign against 
France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig.  He was 
one of the British representatives at the congress of 
Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was 
present during the negotiations which led to the treaty of 
Paris in the following May. Returning home he was created 
a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen 
(1814), and made a member of the privy council.  On the 15th 
of Juby 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John 
Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus 
became doubly connected with the family of the marquess of 
Abercorn.  During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a 
less prominent part in public affairs, although he succeeded 
in passing the Entail (Scotland) Act of 1825.  He kept in 
touch, however, with foreign politics, and having refused to 
join the ministry of George Canning in 1827, became a member 
of the cabinet of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the 
duchy of Lancaster in January 1828.  In the following June he 
was transferred to the office of secretary of state for foreign 
affairs, and having acquitted himself with credit with regard 
to the war between Russia and Turkey, and to affairs in Greece, 
Portugal and France, he resigned with Wellington in November 
1830, and shared his leader's attitude towards the Reform 
Bill of 1832.  As a Scotsman, Aberdeen was interested in the 
ecclesiastical controversy which culminated in the disruption of 
1843.  In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle the vexed question 
of patronage; but disliked by a majority in the general assembly 
of the Scotch church, and unsupported by the government, it 
failed to become law, and some opprobrium was cast upon its 
author.  In 1843 he brought forward a similar measure ``to 
remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers to 
benefices.'' This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called, 
passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties. 

During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834 
and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for 
the colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again 
under Peel, on this occasion as foreign secretary; the 
five years during which he held this position were the most 
fruitful and successful of his public life.  He owed his 
success to the confidence placed in him by Queen Victoria, 
to his wide knowledge of European politics, to his intimate 
friendship with Guizot, and not least to his own conciliatory 
disposition.  Largely owing to his efforts, causes of quarrel 
between Great Britain and France in Tahiti, over the marriage 
of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other directions, were 
removed.  More important still were his services in settling 
the question of the boundary between the United States and 
British North America at a time when a single injudicious 
word would probably have provoked a war.  In 1845 he supported 
Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to suspend the duty 
on foreign corn, and left office with that minister in July 
1846.  After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized 
leader of the Peelites, although since his resignation his 
share in public business had been confined to a few speeches 
on foreign affairs.  His dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles 
Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in 
1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord John 
Russell, or from forming an administration himself in this 
year.  In December 1852, however, be became first lord of 
the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and 
Peelites.  Although united on free trade and in general 
on questions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained 
Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to 
Aberdeen, was certain to differ on questions of foreign 
policy.  The strong and masterful character of these and 
other colleagues made the task of the prime minister one 
of unusual difficulty, a fact which was recognized by 
contemporaries.  Charles Greville in his Memoirs says, 
``In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of 
equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely to 
acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any 
other, and every one of these five or six considering himself 
abler and more important than their premier''; and Sir James 
Graham wrote, ``It is a powerful team, but it will require good 
driving.'' The first year of office passed off successfully, 
and it was owing to the steady support of the prime minister 
that Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the 
cabinet.  This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute 
between France and Turkey over the guardianship of the 
holy places at Jerusalem, which, after the original cause 
of quarrel had been forgotten, developed into the Crimean 
war.  The tortuous negotiations which preceded the struggle 
need not be discussed here, but in defence of Aberdeen 
it may be said that he hoped and strove for peace to the 
last.  Rightly or wrongly, however, he held that Russell was 
indispensable to the cabinet, and that a resignation would 
precipitate war.  His outlook, usually so clear, was blurred 
by these considerations, and he lacked the strength to force 
the suggestions which he made in the autumn of 1853 upon his 
imperious colleagues.  Palmerston, supported by Russell and 
well served by Lord Stratford de Redcllffe, British ambassador 
at Constantinople, favoured a more aggressive policy, and 
Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and unwilling to let 
Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame.  When the war 
began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but the stories 
of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war deprived 
the ministry of public favour.  Russell resigned; and on 
the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for the 
appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct 
of the War, was carried in the House of Commons by a large 
majority.  Treating this as a vote of want of confidence 
Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed 
upon him the order of the Garter.  He smoothed the way for 
Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon 
remained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and 
was consulted on matters of moment.  He died in London on the 
14th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at 
Stanmore.  By his first wife he had one son and three 
daughters, all of whom predeceased their father.  By his second 
wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one 
daughter.  His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th 
earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, 
K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; 
and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various 
high offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 
1893.  Among the public offices held by the earl were those of 
lord-lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of 
Antiquaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society. 

Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory 
and a wide knowledge of literature and art.  His private life 
was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the 
loftiness of his character.  His manner was reserved, and 
as a speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent.  In public 
life he was remarkable for his generosity to his political 
opponents, and for his sense of justice and honesty.  He 
did not, however, possess the qualities which impress the 
populace, and he lacked the strength which is one of the 
essential gifts of a statesman.  His character is perhaps best 
described by a writer who says ``his strength was not equal 
to his goodness.'' His foreign policy was essentially one of 
peace and non-intervention, and in pursuing it he was accused 
of favouring the despotisms of Europe.  Aberdeen was a model 
landlord.  By draining the land, by planting millions of trees 
and by erecting numerous buildings, he greatly improved the 
condition of his Aberdeenshire estates, and studied continually 
the welfare of his dependants.  A bust of him by Matthew Noble 
is in Westminster Abbey, and his portrait was painted by Sir 
Thomas Lawrence.  He wrote An Inquiry into the Principles 
of Beauty in Grecian Architecture (London, 1822), and the 
Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen has been printed 
privately under the direction of his son, Lord Stanmore. 

The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, 
was drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother 
John Campbell Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen, (b. 1847), a 
prominent Liberal politician, who was lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland in 1886, governor-general of Canada 1893--1898, 
and again the lord-lieutenant of Ireland when Sir Henry 
Campbell-Bannerman formed his ministry at the close of 1905. 

See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); C. 
C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888); 
Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), 
and Life of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W. 
Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); 
Sir T. Martin, Life of the Prince Consort (London, 
1875-1880); J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London, 1903). 
                                                    (A. W. H. deg. )
ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, 
capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of 
Scotland.  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North 
Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m.  N. 
E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.  Though Old 
Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and 
history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no 
longer be said to exist; and for parliamentary, municipal 
and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one 
community.  Aberdeen's popular name of the ``Granite City,' 
is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town fs built 
of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation 
of the ``Silver City by the Sea,'' it should be seen after 
a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless 
houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine.  
The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of 
Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for 
parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) 
to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891.  
The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical 
parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with 
lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild.  The 
corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21 
m.  W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplles, electric lighting and 
tramways.  Since 1885 the city has returned two members to 
Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North 
of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious 
joint railway station), and there is regular communication by 
sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
temperature of the city for the year is 45.8 deg.  F., for summer 
56 deg.  F., and for winter 37.3 deg.  F. The average yearly rainfall 
is 30.57 inches.  The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. 

Streets and Buildings.--Roughly, the extended city runs 
north and south.  From the new bridge of Don to the ``auld 
brig'' of Dee there is tramway communication via King 
Street, Union Street and Holburn Road--a distance of over five 
miles.  Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares 
in the British Isles.  From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. 
for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal 
shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite.  
Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for 
the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine 
granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town 
still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union 
Street.  Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the 
street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music 
Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity 
Hall of the incorporated trades (originating in various years 
between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable funds for poor 
members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits 
by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint 
inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of 
the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace 
Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the 
Nutional Bank of Scotland.  In Castle Street, a continuation 
eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and 
County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices 
in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 
1867-1878.  They are of four stories and contain the great 
hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the 
Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits 
of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, 
the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens.  
In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of 
black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert 
Davidson, who feh in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 
1411.  From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to 
a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and 
surrounding country.  Adjoining the municipal buildings is 
the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico 
of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely 
carved.  On the opposite side of the street is the fine 
building of the Union Bank.  At the upper end of Castle Street 
stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated 
mansion, the most imposing ``barracks'' possessed anywhere 
by this organization.  In front of it is the Market Cross, 
a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in 
diameter and 18 ft. high.  The original was designed in 1682 
by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
removed hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better 
style.  On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are 
panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James 
I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal,unicorn 
rampant.  On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military 
barracks.  In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution, 
founded in 1824, with a good library; the Post and Telegraph 
offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and 
general wares are sold.  The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin, 
is a busy scene in the early morning.  The Art Gallery and 
Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style 
of red and brown granite, contains an excellent Collection of 
pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contemporary 
artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional 
interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain.  The public 
llbrary, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 
volumes.  The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of 
dramatic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety 
entertainment.  The new buildings of Marischal College fronting 
Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one 
of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great 
Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native 
of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to 
the design of a noble building with the originality of genius. 

Churches.---Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well 
equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but 
few of special interest.  The East and West churches of St 
Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic 
facade, 147 1/2 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous 
building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the 
ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Colllson 
Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the 
12th-century church of St Nicholas.  The West Church was built in 
1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the 
Gothic.  In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the 
old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of 
which, Laurence or ``Lowrie,'' was 4 ft. in diameter at the 
mouth, 3 1/2 ft. high and very thick.  The church was rebuilt 
and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening 
aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36 
bells, cast in Holland, being installed to commemorate the 
Victorian jubilee of 1887.  The Roman Catholic Cathedral in 
Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859.  The 
see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire 
by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over 
the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric 
to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of 
St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was 
begun.  Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone 
(1484-1511), the building progressed slowly.  Gavin Dunbar, 
who followed him in 1518, was enabled to complete the 
structure by adding the two western spires and the southern 
transept.  The church suffered severely at the Reformation, 
but is still used as the parish church.  It now consists of the 
nave and side aisles.  It is chiefly built of outlayer granite, 
and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately 
simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.  
On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave are the heraldic 
shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its 
erection, and the great west window contains modern painted 
glass of excellent colour and design.  The cemeteries are St 
Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield 
at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and 
Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park. 

Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, 
and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by 
George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
1860.  Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine 
and science at Marischal.  The number of students exceeds 800 
yearly.  The buildings of both colleges are the glories of 
Aberdeen.  King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two 
sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been 
added.  The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 
1500.  The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. 
high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both 
sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched 
ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the 
tower.  The choir of the chapel still contains the original 
oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in 
the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and 
execution.  Their preservation was due to the enlightened 
energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who 
armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the 
Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and 
lead.  Marischal College is a stately modern building, having 
been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years 
later at a cost of L. 100,000.  The additions to the buildings 
opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr 
Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration 
of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the 
university.  The University Library comprises nearly 100,000 
books.  A Botanic Garden was presented to the university in 
1899.  Aberdeen and Glasgow Universities combine to return 
one member to Parliament.  The United Free Church Divinity 
Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from 
1850.  The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in 
1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new 
building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street.  
Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729 
by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor 
burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized 
in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical 
education, and has since been unusually successful.  Besides 
a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are 
many private higher-class schools.  Under the Endowments Act 
1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a 
capital of L. 155,000.  At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five 
miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College 
for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. 

Charities.---The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established 
in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and 
largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's 
jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan 
Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, 
in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital 
for Sick Children; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; 
the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb 
Institution; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East 
and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted 
to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of 
the charitable institutions.  There are, besides, industrial 
schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a 
Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth 
House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's 
Convalescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the 
Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. 

Parks and Open Spaces.---Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift 
of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an 
excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park 
(13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are 
situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart 
Park (11 acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 
1893.  The capacious links bordering the sea between the 
mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air 
recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,'' 
or shooting tournament, is held annually.  Part is laid out 
as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket 
and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course, 
and a bathing-station has been erected.  Union Terrace 
Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city. 

Statues.---In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue 
in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. 
(1888).  In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns 
and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert.  In 
front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. 
Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888).  At the east 
end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, 
erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city.  Near the 
Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 
1836).  Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead 
granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal 
College to the memory of Sir James M`Grigor (1778-1851), the 
military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical 
Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College. 

Bridges.--The Dee is crossed by four bridges,--the old 
bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, 
and Victoria Bridge, opposite Market Street.  The first, till 
1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of 
seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and 
was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and 
Dunbar.  It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718--1723, and in 
1842 was widened from 14 1/2 to 26 ft.  The bridge of Don has 
five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in 
1827--1832.  A little to the west is the Auld Brig o' 
Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep 
black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., 
and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. 

Harbour.--A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel 
bar at its entrance. long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but 
under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened.  The 
north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly 
by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North 
Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few 
feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at 
neap.  A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, 
was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour 
of the queen's visit to the city in that year.  Adjoining 
it is the Upper Dock.  By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee 
near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of 
L. 80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres 
formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the 
river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and 
warehouses.  A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was 
constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection 
against south-easterly gales.  On Girdleness, the southern 
point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833.  Near the 
harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. 

Industry.---Owing to the variety and importance of its chief 
industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 
Scotland.  Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 
Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed 
paving ``setts,'' kerb and building stones, and monumental 
and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported 
from the district to all parts of the world.  This, though 
once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the 
deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from 
beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing 
in 1889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of 
Grimsby.  Fish trains are despatched to London daily.  Most 
of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst 
them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779).  These 
give employment to several thousands of operatives.  The 
paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in 
the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694.  
Flax-spinning and jute and combmaking factories are also very 
flourishing, and there are successful foundries and engineering 
works.  There are large distilleries and breweries, and 
chemical works employing many hands.  In the days of wooden 
ships ship-building was a flourishing industry, the town being 
noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records 
in the ``tea races.'' The introduction of trawllng revived 
this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city 
from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron 
vessels.  Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted 
meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in 
strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. 

History.--Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 
12th century.  William the Lion had a residence in the city, to 
which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights 
granted by David I. The city received other royal charters 
later.  It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 
1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New 
Aberdeen.  The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland.  
They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to 
the present day.  For many centuries the city was subject to 
attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, 
but the gates were all removed by 1770.  In 1497 a blockhouse 
was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the 
English.  During the struggles between the Royalists and 
Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both 
sides.  In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old 
Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland 
resided for a short time in the city before attacking 
the Young Pretender.  The motto on the city arms is ``Bon 
Accord,'' which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians 
while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English. 

Population.---In 1396 the population was about 3000.  By 1801 it had 
become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503. 

AUTHORITIES.--The charters of the burgh; extracts from 
the council register down to 1625, and selections from the 
letters. guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. 
of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus 
Aberdonensis, Spalding Club; Walter Thore, The History 
of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and 
Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals 
of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Descripjion of the Chanonry, 
Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 
(1830); Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated 
Architecture of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of old 
Castellated Houses of Aberdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives 
of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description 
of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842); Joseph 
Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); W. 
Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 
1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen 
(Aberdeen, 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, 
Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); 
P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., illustrating the History 
of Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 1890); 
Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New 
Spalding Club, 1889, 1898..1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of 
the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); 
G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the 
Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to 
the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History 
and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882). 

ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, South 
Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m.  N.E. of Pierre.  Pop. (1890) 
3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905) 5841; 
(1910) 10,753.  Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee 
and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and St 
Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways.  It is 
the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the 
state, a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks 
and a number of wholesale houses.  The city is the seat of the 
Northern Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, 
and has a Carnegie Library; the principal buildings are the 
court house and the government buildings.  Artesian wells 
furnish good water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain 
pitchers, brooms, chemicals and flour are manufactured.  The 
municipality owns and operates the water-works.  Aberdeen 
was settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1883. 

ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded 
N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar and 
Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff.  It has a coast-line 
of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying 
1261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m.  The county is generally 
hilly, and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, 
the Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the 
north-east.  The shire is popularly divided into five 
districts.  Of these the first is Mar, mostly between the 
Dee and Don, which nearly covers the southern half of the 
county and contains the city of Aberdeen.  It is mountainous, 
especially Braemar (q.v.), which contains the greatest 
mass of elevated land in the British Isles.  The soil on the 
Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy.  The second district, 
Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a sandy 
coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled 
tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land.  
Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, 
comprising the north-east of the county, is next in size to 
Mar, parts of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, 
low, flat, undulating and in places peaty.  On the coast, 6 
m.  S. of Peterhead, are the Bullers of Buchan--a basin in 
which the sea, entering by a natural arch, boils up violently 
in stormy weather.  Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of 
Scotland.  The fourth district, Garioch, in the centre of the 
shire, is a beautiful, undulating, loamy, fertile valley. 
formerly called the granary of Aberdeen.  Strathbogie, the 
fifth district, occupying a considerable area south of the 
Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors and mosses.  The 
mountains are the most striking of the physical features of the 
county.  Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent mass, the 
second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach (4248), 
Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon (3843), 
``dark'' Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known song by 
Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch (2953), 
are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther 
north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border, 
Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which 
from its central position is a landmark visible from many 
different parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John 
Imlah's song, ``O gin I were where Gadie rins,'' and Foudland 
(1529).  The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Iyon, 
82 m.; the Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the 
Ugie, 20 m., and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of 
Banffshire.  The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the 
pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl 
in the Scottish crown is said to be from the Ythan.  Loch 
Muick, the largest of the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft. 
above the sea, 2 1/2 m. long and  1/3 to  1/2 m. broad, lies some 
8  1/2 m.  S.W. of Ballater, and has Altnagiuthasach, a royal 
shooting-box, near its south-western end.  Loch Strathbeg, 6 
m.  S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from the sea by 
a narrow strip of land.  There are noted chalybeate springs 
at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater. 

Geology.---The greater part of the county is composed of 
crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of 
the Eastern Highlands.  In the upper parts of the valleys 
of the Dee and the Don they form well-marked groups, of 
which the most characteristic are (1) the black schists and 
phyllites, with calcflintas, and a thin band of tremolite 
limestone, (2) the main or Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the 
quartzite.  These divisions are folded on highly inclined or 
vertical axes trending north-east and south-west, and hence 
the same zones are repeated over a considerable area.  The 
quartzite is generally regarded as the highest member of the 
series.  Excellent sections showing the component strata 
occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys above Braemar.  
Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and northwards across the 
plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head and Fraserburgh there 
is a development of biotite gneiss, partly of sedimentary 
and perhaps partly of igneous origin.  A belt of slate which 
has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along the west 
border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and the 
Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly.  The 
metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, some 
before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the 
strata.  The basic types of the former are represented by 
the sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick 
and Glen Callater, which have been permeated by granite and 
pegmatite in veins and lenticles, often foliated.  The later 
granites subsequent to the plication of the schists have a 
wide distribution on the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and 
on Lochnagar; they stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland 
to Aberdeen and north to Bennachie.  Isolated masses appear 
at Peterhead and at Strichen.  Though consisting mainly of 
biotite granite, these later intrusions pass by intermediate 
stages into diorite, as in the area between Balmoral and the 
head-waters of the Gairn.  The granites have been extensively 
quarried at Rubislaw, Peterhead and Kemnay.  Serpentine and 
troctolite, the precise age of which is uncertain, occur at 
the Black Dog rock north of Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old 
Meldrum.  Where the schists of sedimentary origin have been 
pierced by these igneous intrusions, they are charged with 
contact minerals such as sillimanite, cordierite, kyanite and 
andalusite.  Cordierite-bearing rocks occur near Ellon, at the 
foot of Bennachie, and on the top of the Buck of Cahrach.  A 
banded and mottled calc-silicate hornfels occurring with the 
limestone at Iyerry Falls, W. N.W. of Braemar, has yielded 
malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, garnet, sphene and 
hornblende.  A larger list of minerals has been obtained 
from an exposure of limestone and associated beds in Glen 
Gairn, about four miles above the point where that river 
joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting 
unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have 
been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to 
Fyvie, and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle.  
The strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, 
which, at Gartly and at Rhyme, are associated with lenticular 
bands of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic 
action.  Small outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this 
age have recently been found in the course of excavations in 
Aberdeen.  The glacial deposits, especially in the belt 
bordering the coast between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish 
important evidence.  The ice moved eastwards off the high 
ground at the head of the Dee and the Don, while the mass 
spreading outwards from the Moray Firth invaded the low 
plateau of Buchan; but at a certain stage there was a marked 
defection northwards parallel with the coast, as proved by 
the deposit of red clay north of Aberdeen.  At a later date 
the local glaciers laid down materials on top of the red 
clay.  The committee appointed by the British Association 
(Report for 1897, p. 333) proved that the Greensand, which 
has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat, 
in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting 
probably on granite.  The strata from which the Moreseat 
fossils were derived are not now found in place in that part 
of Scotland, but Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon 
of the fossils is that of the lower Greensand of the Isle of 
Wight or the Aptien stage of France.  Chalk flints are widely 
distributed in the drift between Fyvie and the east coast of 
Buchan.  At Plaidy a patch of clay with Liassic fossils 
occurs.  At several localities between Logie Coldstone and Dinnet 
a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr) occurs beneath the peat. 

Flora and Fauna.---The tops of the highest mountains have an 
arctic flora.  At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft. above 
the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, 
&c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing 
at 1300 ft. above the sea.  T rees, especially Scotch fir and 
larch, grow well, and Braemar is rich in natural timber, said 
to surpass any in the north of Europe.  Stumps of Scotch fir 
and oak found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now 
growing.  The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the 
squirrel at 1400.  Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, 
and rabbits are often too numerous.  Red deer abound in 
Braemar, the deer forest being the most extensive in Scotland. 

Climate and Agriculture.---The climate, except in the 
mountainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to 
the proximity of much of the shire to the sea.  The mean 
annual temperature at Braemar is 43.6 deg.  F., and at Aberdeen 
45.8 deg. .  The mean yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 
in.  The summer climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is 
the driest and most bracing in the British Isles, and grain 
is cultivated up to 1600 ft. above the sea, or 400 to 500 
ft. higher than elsewhere in North Britain.  Poor, gravelly, 
clayey and peaty solis prevail, but tile-draining, bones and 
guano, and the best methods of modern tillage, have greatly 
increased the produce.  Indeed, in no part of Scotland has 
a more productive soil been made out of such unpromising 
material.  Farm-houses and steadings have much improved, and 
the best agricultural implements and machines are in general 
use.  About two-thirds of the population depend entirely 
on agriculture . Farms are small compared with those in 
the south-eastern counties.  Oats are the predominant crop, 
wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley 
has largely increased.  The most distinctive industry is 
cattle-feeding.  A great number of the home-bred crosses 
are fattened for the London and local markets, and Irish 
animals are imported on an extensive scale for the same 
purpose, while an exceedingly heavy business in dead meat 
for London and the south is done all over the county.  
Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in large numbers. 

Fisheries.---A large fishing population in villages along 
the coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the 
next most important industry to agriculture, its development 
having been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam 
trawlers.  The total value of the annual catch, of which 
between a half and a third consists of herrings, amounts to 
L. 1,000,000.  Haddocks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) 
or smoked (finnans).  The ports and creeks are divided 
into the fishery rllstricts of Peterhead, Fraserburgh and 
Aberdeen, the last of which includes also three Kincardineshire 
ports.  The herring season for Aberdeen, Peterhead and 
Fraserburgh is from June to September, at which time 
the ports are crowded with boats from other Scottish 
districts.  There are valuable salmon-fishings--rod, net 
and stake-net--on the Dee, Don, Ythan and Ugie.  The average 
annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeenshire is about 400 tons. 

Other Industries.--Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or 
near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts 
there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work, 
brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, 
casting and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially 
on Deeside and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, 
laths and barrel staves.  There are a number of paper-making 
establishments, most of them on the Don near Aberdeen. 

The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable 
granite, which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and 
elsewhere.  An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded L. 40 to 
L. 50 worth of causewaying stones.  Sandstone and other rocks 
are also quarried at different parts.  The imports are mostly 
coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile 
manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, 
alcoholic liquors, fruits.  The exports are granite (roughdressed 
and polished), flax, woollen and cotton goods, paper, combs, 
preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle. 

Communications.---From the south Aberdeen city is approached 
by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the 
North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways, 
and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland 
railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith and 
Elgin.  There are branch lines from various points opening up 
the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater by 
Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at Maud 
for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam), from 
Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and also to 
Macduff.  By sea there is regular communication with London, 
Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, Iceland and the 
continent.  The highest of the macadamized roads crossing the 
eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. above sea-level. 

Population and Government.---In 1801 the population numbered 
284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 were 
females), or 154 persons to the sq. m.  In 1901 there were 8 
persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic and 
English.  The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, 153,503), 
Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), Inverurie 
(3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273).  The Supreme Court 
of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from the counties of 
Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine.  The three counties are under 
a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute resident in 
Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, Peterhead and 
Turriff.  The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen and 
Peterhead.  The county sends two members to parliament 
--one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West 
Aberdeenshire.  The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two 
members.  Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin 
group of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being 
Banff, Cullen and Elgin.  The county is under school-board 
jurisdiction, and there are also several voluntary schools.  
There are higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary 
schools at Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of 
the other schools in the county earn grants for secondary 
education.  The County Secondary Education Committee dispense 
a large sum, partly granted by the education department and 
partly contributed by local authorities from the ``residue'' 
grant, and support, besides the schools mentioned, local 
clases and lectures in agriculture, fishery and other technical 
subjects, in addition to subsidizing the agricultural department 
of the university of Aberdeen.  The higher branches of 
education have always been thoroughly taught in the schools 
throughout the shire, and pupils have long been in the 
habit of going directly from the schools to the university. 

The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny, 
active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without 
demonstrative enthusiasm.  They have a physiognomy distinct 
from the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, 
sharp, rather angry accent.  The local Scots dialect is 
broad, and rich in diminutives, and is noted for the use 
of e for o or u, f for wh, d for th, &c. 
So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of 
almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used. 

History.---The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen 
and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom 
Ptolemy called Taixall, the territory being named Taixalon.  
Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aberdeen, 
has been identified by Prof.  John Stuart with a site in the 
parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient 
camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station 
on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne.  So-called Roman camps have 
also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but 
evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek.  
Traces of the native inhabitants, however, are much less 
equivocal.  Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the 
west.  Relics of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch 
Ceander, or Kinnord, 5 m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch 
Goul in the parish of New Machar and elsewhere.  Duns or forts 
occur on hills at Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area 
of two acres, Bnrra near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer 
near Insch and other places.  Monoliths, standing stones and 
``Druidical'' circles of the pagan period abound, and there are 
many examples of the sculptured stones of the early Christian 
epoch.  Efforts to convert the Picts were begun by Teman 
in the 5th century, aad continued by Columba (who founded 
a monastery at Old Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but 
it was long before they showed lasting results.  Indeed, 
dissensions within the Columban church and the expulsion 
of the clergy from Pictland by the Pictish king Nectan in 
the 8th century undid most of the progress that had been 
made.  The Vikings and Danes periodically raided the coast, 
but whhen (1040) Macbeth ascended the throne of Scotland the 
Northmen, under the guidance of Thorfinn, refrained from further 
trouble in the north-east.  Macbeth was afterwards slain at 
Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill marking the spot.  The 
influence of the Norman conquest of England was felt even in 
Aberdeenshire.  Along with numerous Anglo-Saxon exiles, there 
also settled in the country Flemings who introduced various 
industries, Saxons who brought farming, and Scandinavians 
who taught nautical skill.  The Celts revolted more than 
once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors crushed them 
and confiscated their lands.  In the reign of Alexander 
I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally 
called Abordon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which 
received its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which 
date its burgesses had alfeady combined with those of Banff, 
Elgin, Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form 
a free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading 
privileges.  By this time, too, the Church had been organized, 
the bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1150.  
In the 12th and 13th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire 
famines arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the 
Leslies, Freskins (ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), 
Durwards, Bysets, Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant 
that in most cases their founders were immigrants.  The 
Celtic thanes and their retainers slowly fused with the 
settlers.  They declined to take advantage of the disturbed 
condition of the country during the wars of the Scots 
independence, and made common cause with the bulk of the 
nation.  Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of the competitors 
for the throne, had considerable interests in the shire, his 
claim received locally little support.  In 1296 Edward I. made 
a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the more turbulent 
nobles.  Next year Wilham Wallace surprised the English garrison 
in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle.  In 1303 Edward 
again visited the county, halting at the Castle of Kildrummy, 
then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who shortly afterwards 
became the acknowledged leader of the Scots and made Aberdeen 
his headquarters for several months.  Despite the seizure of 
Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306, Bruce's prospects 
brightened from 1308, when he defeated John Comyn, earl of 
Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie.  For a hundred years after 
Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent anarchy 
in the shire.  Aberdeen itself was burned by the English in 
1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and 
Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels On the part of the 
dispossessed.  Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself 
with some of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it 
sought to abolish.  This policy culminated in the invasion of 
Aberdeenshire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, 
defeated at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 
1411.  In the 15th century two other leading county families 
appeared, Sir Alexander Forbes being created Lord Eorbes 
about 1442, and Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 and 
earl of Huntly in 1445.  Bitter feuds raged between these 
families for a long period, but the Gordons reached the 
height of their power in the first half of the 16th century, 
when their domains, already vast, were enhanced by the 
acquisition, through marriage, of the earldom of Sutherland 
(1514).  Meanwhile commerce with the Low Countries, Poland 
and the Baltic had grown apace, Campvere, near Flushing in 
Holland, becoming the emporium of the Scottish traders, while 
education was fostered by the foundation of King's College 
at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed a century 
later).  At the Reformation so little intuition had the 
clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that 
religious structures were being despoiled in the south, the 
building and decoration of churches went on in the shire.  
The change was acquiesced in without much tumult, though 
rioting took place in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in 
the city suffered damage.  The 4th earl of Huntly offered 
some resistance, on behalf of the Catholics, to the influence 
of Lord James Stuart, afterwards the Regent Murray, but 
was defeated and killed at Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 
1562.  As years passed it was apparent that Presbyterianism 
was less generally acceptable than Episcopacy, of which system 
Aberdeenshire remained for generations the stronghold in 
Scotland.  Another crisis in ecclesiastical affairs arose in 
1638, when the National Covenant was ordered to be subscribed, 
a demand so grudgingly responded to that the marquis of 
Montrose visited the shire in the following year to enforce 
acceptance.  The Cavaliers, not being disposed to yield, 
dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the affair 
called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood 
of the civil war was shed.  The Covenanters obtained the upper 
hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge 
of Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no 
choice but to cast in its lot with the victors.  Montrose, 
however, soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters 
under Lord Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to 
rapine.  He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff 
fight on the 2nd of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the 
beautiful Howe of Alford.  Peace was temporarily restored 
on the ``engagement', of the Scots commissioners to assist 
Charles I. On his return from Holland in 1650 Charles II. 
was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in little more than a year 
General Monk entered the city at the head of the Cromwellian 
regiments.  The English garrison remained till 1659, and 
next year the Restoration was effusively hailed, and prelacy 
was once more in the ascendant.  Most of the Presbyterians 
conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in the shire 
and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere else 
in Scotland, were systematically persecuted.  After the 
Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the 
clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the 
inevitable, hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy 
might yet be recognized as the national form of Church 
government.  Her death dissipated these dreams, and as George 
I., her successor, was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened 
that Jacobitism and episcopalianism came to be regarded in the 
shire as identical, though in point of fact the non-jurors as 
a body never countenanced rebellion.  The earl of Mar raised 
the standard of revolt in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a 
fortnight later James was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the 
Pretender landed at Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and 
in February 1716 he was back again in France.  The collapse 
of the first rising ruined many of the lairds, and when the 
second rebellion occurred thirty years afterwards the county 
in the main was apathetic, though the insurgents held Aberdeen 
for five months, and Lord Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory 
for Prince Charles Edward at Inverurie (23rd of December 
1745).  The duke of Cumberland relieved Aberdeen at the end 
of February 1746, and in April the Young Pretender was a 
fugitive.  Thereafter the people devoted themselves to 
agriculture, industry and commerce, which developed by leaps 
and bounds, and, along with equally remarkable progress in 
education, transformed the aspect of the shire and made the 
community as a whole one of the most prosperous in Scotland. 

See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 
1900); Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen 
and Banff. (edited by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club); Sir 
A. Leith-Hay, Castles of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 188R); 
J; Davidson, Inverurie and the Earldom of the Garioch 
(Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by) R. Anderson), 
(Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside (Aberdeen, 1895). 

ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland.  Pleasantly 
situated on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 17 1/2 m.  N.W. 
of Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m.  N.W. of 
Leith by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent 
sea-bathing.  There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed 
church, which contains some fine Norman work.  About 3 
m.  S.W. is Donibristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray 
(Moray), and the scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 
2nd (Stuart) earl of Murray.  The island of Inchcolm, or 
Island of Columba,  1/4 m. from the shore, is in the parish of 
Aberdour.  As its name implies, its associations date back 
to the time of Columba.  The primitive stone-roofed oratory 
is supposed to have been a hermit's ceil.  The Augustinian 
monastery was founded in 1123 by Alexander I. The buildings 
are well preserved, consisting of a low square tower, church, 
cloisters, refectory and small chapterhouse.  The island 
of Columba was occasionally plundered by English and other 
rovers, but in the 16th century it became the property of 
Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl of Murray 
by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the 1st 
earl.  From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (1611). 

ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a 
seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian 
railway.  Pop. (1901) 1466.  It lies in the midst of beautiful 
scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary, 
commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and 
Plynllmmon.  The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a 
ferry to Borth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth.  
The submerged ``bells of Aberdovey'' (since Seithennin ``the 
drunkard'' caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous 
in a Welsh song.  Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort. 

ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 34 1/4 
m.  N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway.  Pop. 
of parish (1901) 1052.  The village is situated at the base of 
Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the 
Forth.  Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed a 
road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older 
road at tho entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become 
the alternauve route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine.  Loch 
Ard, about 2 m.  W. of LIberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the 
sea.  It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) 
and 1 m. broad.  Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the 
green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of 
Ledard.  Two m.  N.W. is Loch Chon, a90 ft. above the sea, 
1 1/4 m. long, and about  1/2 m. broad.  It drains by the Avon 
Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan.  The 
slate quarries on Craigmore are the Only industry in Aberfoyle. 

ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in the 
northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 14 
m.  W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London and 
North-Western railways.  Pop. (1901) 7795.  It is situated 
at the junction of a small stream cailed the Gavenny with the 
river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, 
is very beautiful.  The town was formerly walled, and has the 
remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently 
the scene of border strife.  The church of St Mary belonged 
originally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the 12th 
century.  The existing building, however, is Decorated and 
Perpendicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates 
from the 13th to the 17th century.  There is a free grammar 
school, which till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, 
Oxford.  Breweries, ironworks, quarries, brick fields and 
collieries in the neihbourhood are among the principal industrial 
establishments.  Abergavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is 
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.  Area, 825 acres. 

This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the 
road along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among 
the hill tribes.  There is practically no trace of this 
fort.  Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew up under the protection 
of the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from William 
I. Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled 
in the border warfare of the 12th and 13th centuries, and 
Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1173 the castle was seized 
by the Welsh.  Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Abergavenny, 
founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently 
endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits 
of the castle and town.  At the dissolution of the priory 
part of this endowment went towards the foundation of a 
free grammar school, the site itself passing to the Gunter 
family.  During the Civil War prior to the siege of Ragban 
Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Abergavenny, and presided 
in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other 
parliamentarians.  In 1639 Abergavenny received a charter 
of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses.  
A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but 
appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect.  
OV1ng to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation 
to take the oath of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the 
charter was annullod, and the town subseunentlv declined in 
prosperity.  The act of 27 Henry VIII., which provided that 
llonmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to 
parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire 
boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the 
member.  In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various 
occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 
1685.  Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter 
granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. r211).  The right 
to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto 
held, was confirmed in 1657.  Abergavenny was celebrated for 
the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, 
whilst the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats, hair. 

The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates 
from Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of 
the 1st earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of 
John of Gaunt.  He married the heiress of Richard, earl of 
Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of 
Abergavenny, and was summoned in 1392 to parliament as Lord 
Bergavenny.  Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with 
this title in 1450.  His direct male descendants ended in 1387 
in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was 
confirmed in the barony in 1604.  From him it has descended 
continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 
1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic) 5th earl (b. 1826), 
an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the conseruative 
party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See NEVILLE.) 

ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo-Indian 
writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th 
of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School 
and Cambridge University.  Entering the Indian education 
department in 1870, he became professor of English literature 
in Delhi College in 1873, tutor to the raja of Rutlam 
1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indore in 
1877.  He is best known for his book Twenty-one Days in India 
(1878--1879), a satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of 
thought.  This book gave promise of a successful literary 
Career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three. 

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine, 
was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father 
was Nonconformist minister, on the 19th of October 1680.  In 
his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and 
on concluding his course thore went on to Edinburgh, where 
his intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready 
entrance into the most cultured circles.  Returning home he 
received licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was 
twenty-one.  In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge 
of an important congregation in Antrim; and after an interval 
of two years, mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he 
was ordained there on the 8th of August 1703.  Here he did 
notable work, both as a debater in the synods and assemblies 
of his church and as an evangelist.  In 1712 he lost his wife 
(Susannah Jordan), and the loss desolated his life for many 
years.  In 1717 he was invited to the congregation of Usher's 
Quay, Dublin, and contemporaneously to what was called the 
Old Congregation of Belfast.  The synod assigned him to 
Dublin.  After careful consideration he declined to accede, 
and remained at Antrim.  This refusal was regarded then as 
ecclesisstical high-treason; and a controversy of the most 
intense and disproportionate character followed, Abernethy 
standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the 
sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts.  The 
controversy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the 
conflict, the ``Subscribers'' and the ``Non-subscribers.'' 
Out-and-out evangelical as (John Abernethy was, there can 
be no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds 
of that after-struggle (1821--1840) in which, under the 
leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, the Arian and Socinian elements 
of the Irish Presbyterian Church were thrown out.  Much of 
what he contended for, and which the ``Subscribers'' opposed 
bitterly, has been silently granted in the lapse of time.  
In 1726 the ``Non-subscribers,'' spite of an almost wofully 
pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut 
off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian 
Church.  In 1730, although a ``Non-subscriber,'' he was 
invited to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed.  In 
1731 came on the greatest controversy in which Abernethy 
engaged, viz. in relation to the Test Act nominally, but 
practically on the entire question of tests and disabilities.  
His stand was ``against all laws that, upon account of mere 
differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, 
excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their 
country.'' He was nearly a century in advance of his age.  
He had to reason with those who denied that a Roman Catholic 
or Dissenter could be a ``man of integrity and ability.'' 
His Tracts---afterwards collected--did fresh service, 
generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love 
freedom of conscience and opinion.  He died in December 1740. 

See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762): Diary in 
MS., 6 vols. 4to; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234. 

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson of 
John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the 3rd of 
April 1764.  His father was a London merchant.  Educated at 
Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed in 1779 to 
Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bartholomew's 
Hospital, London.  He attended the anatomical lectures of 
Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London Hospital, 
and was early employed to assist as ``demonstrator''; 
he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St 
Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John 
Hunter.  On Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St 
Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, 
succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 
1787.  In this capacity he began to give lectures at his 
house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended 
that the governors of the hospital built a regular theatre 
(1790-1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the 
distinguished school of St Bartholomew's.  He held the office 
of assistant-surgeon of the hospital for the long period of 
twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal 
surgeon.  He had before that time been appointed lecturer in 
anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons (1814).  Abernethy 
was not a great operator, though his name is associated with 
the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the external iliac 
artery.  His Surgical Observations on the Constitutional 
Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809)--known as ``My 
Book,'' from the great frequency with which he referred his 
patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that 
name--was one of the earliest popular works on medical science, 
He taught that local diseases were frequently the results 
of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be 
treated by purging and attention to diet.  As a lecturer he was 
exceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely 
attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his 
views.  It has been said, however, that the influence he exerted 
on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this 
respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, 
and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced 
so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating 
inquiry.  The celebrity he attained in his practice was due 
not only to his great professional skill, but also in part 
to the singularity of his manners.  He used great plainness 
of speech in his intercourse with his patients, treating them 
often brusquely and sometimes even rudely.  In the circle of 
his family and friends he was courteous and affectionate; and 
in all his dealings he was strictly just and honourable.  He 
resigned his position at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1827, 
and died at his residence at Enfield on the 20th of April 1831. 

A collected edition of his works was published in 1830.  A biography, 
Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared in 1853. 

ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander), 
a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative 
sense: as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, 
a mental derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal 
development or structure.  In optics, the word has two special 
applications: (1) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration 
in Optical Systems.  These subjects receive treatment below. 

I. ABERIIATION OF LIGHT This astronomical phenomenon may 
be defined as an apparent motion of the heavenly bodies; the 
stars describing annually orbits more or less elliptical, 
according to the latitude of the star; consequently at 
any moment the star appears to be displaced from its true 
position.  This apparent motion is due to the finite velocity 
of light, and the progressive motion of the observer with the 
earth, as it performs its yearly course about the sun.  It 
may be familiarized by the following illustrations.  Alexis 
Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be falling 
vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular tube 
to be standing on the ground.  If the bearer be stationary, 
rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides; 
if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inchued 
at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain 
may traverse the tube centrally. (J. J. L. de Lalande gave 
the illustration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if 
the carriage be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be 
moying, rain enters at the front.  The ``umbrella', analogy 
is possibly the best known figure.  When stationary, the most 
efficient position in which to hold an umbrella is obviously 
vertical; when walking, the umbrella must be held more and 
more inclined from the vertical as the walker quickens his 
pace.  Another familiar figure, pointed Out by P. L. M. de 
Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, when aiming at a bird on the 
wing, sights his gun some distance ahead of the bird, the 
distance being proportional to the velocity of the bird.  
The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of velocities, 
permits a ready and easy graphical representation of these 
facts.  Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, let AB (fig. 
1) represent the velocity of the rain, and AC the relative 
velocity of the person bearing the tube.  The diagonal AD 
of the parallelogram, of which AB and AC are adjacent sides, 
will represent, both in direction and magnitude, the motion 
of the rain as apparent to the observer.  Hence for the 
rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined 
at an angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently 
termed the aberration: due to these two motions.  The 
umbrella analogy is similarly explained; the most efficient 
position heing when the stick points along the resultant AD. 

The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James 
Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of 
astronomy.  That it wus unexpected there can be no doubt; 
and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity 
that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727.  Its origin is 
seated in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing 
discordances as to whether the stars possessed appreciable 
parallaxes.  The Copernican theory of the solar system--that 
the earth revolved annually about the sun--had received 
confirmation by the observations of Galileo and Tycho 
Brahe, and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and 
Newton.  As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that 
this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of 
the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes 
existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional 
confirmation.  Many observers claimed to have determined such 
parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioll concluded 
that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and 
were due to instrumental and personal errors.  In 1680 Jean 
Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result 
of ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole 
Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40" 
annually; some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by 
parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion 
was at variance with that which parallax would occasion.  J. 
Flamsteed, from measurements made in 1689 and succeeding 
years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the 
declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in 
September.  R. Hooke, in 1674, pubilshed his observations of 
g Draconis, a star of the second magnitude which passes 
practically overhead in the latitude of London, and whose 
observations are therefore singularly free from the complex 
corrections due to astronomical refraction, and concluded 
that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October. 

When James Bradley and Samuel Moineux entered this sphere of 
astronomical research in 1725, there consequently prevailed 
much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been 
observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely 
answering this question that these astronomers erected a large 
telescope at the house of the latter at Kew. They determined 
to reinvestigate the motion of g Draconis; the telescope, 
constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a celebrated 
instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimneystack, 
in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the 
eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the 
vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction 
of a screw and a plumb-line.  The instrument was set up 
in November 1725, and observations on g Draconis were 
made on the 3rd, 5th, 11th, and 12th of December.  There 
was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore 
thought to be at its most southerly point.  On the 17th of 
December, however, Bradley observed that the star was moving 
southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the 
20th.  These results were unexpected, and, in fact, inexplicable 
by existing theories; and an examination of the telescope 
showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental 
errors.  The observations were continued, and the star was 
seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it 
took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December 
position.  After March it began to pass northwards, a motion 
quite apuarent by the middle of April; in June it passed 
at the same distance from the zenith as it did in December; 
and in September it passed through its most northerly 
position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the 
angle between the March and September positions, being 40". 

This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this 
case, the maximum range should be between the June and 
December positions; neither was it due to observatiooal 
errors.  Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in 
the hope of fixing the solution.  One hypothesis was: while 
g Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which 
the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow 
if the axis of the earth varied.  The oscillation of the 
earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished 
as ``nutation of the axis'' and ``variation of latitude.'' 
Nutation, the only form of oscillation imagined by Bradley, 
postulates that while the earth's axis is fixed with respect 
to the earth, i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent 
geographical positions, yet the axis is not directed towards 
a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however, 
is associated with the shifting of the axis within the earth, 
i.e. the geographical position of the north pole varies. 

Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent 
motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar 
distance as g Draconis should exhibit the same apparent 
motion after or before this star by a constant interval.  
Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance 
with that of g Draconis, but few were bright enough to 
be observed in Molyneux's telescope.  One such star, however, 
with a right ascension nearly equal to that of g Draconis, 
but in thc opposite sense, was selected and kept under 
observation.  This star was seen to possess an apparent 
motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the 
nutation of the earth's axis; but since its declination 
varied only one half as much as in the case of g Draconis, 
it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite 
solution.  The question as to whether the motion was due to 
an irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus 
involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was 
also investigated; here, again, negative results were obtained. 

Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars 
previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of 
declination from the maximum positions was nearly proportional 
to the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he 
reallzed the necessity for more observations before any 
generalization could be attempted.  For this purpose he 
repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs 
Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had 
made many observations of the heavenly bodies.  Here he had set 
up, on the 19th of August 1727, a more convenient telescope 
than that at Kew, its range extending over 6 1/4 deg.  on each 
side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the 
sky.  Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of 
Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about 
fifty were kept under close observation.  His conclusions 
may be thus summatized: (1) only stars near the solstitial 
colure had their maximum north and south positions when the 
sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its maximum 
positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning 
and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and 
found the greatest change in declination to be proportional 
to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of 
all stars at about the same time was in the same direction. 

A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as 
to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory 
was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in 
simplicity and importance with the association of a falling 
apple with the discovery of the principle of universal 
gravitation.  Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly 
observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered 
its courser and, having been assured that the motion of the 
vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its 
direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane 
was determined by the motion of the boat and the direction of the 
wind.  The application of this observation to the phenomenon 
which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 
1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light--a 
corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science.  Let 
S (fig. 2) be a star and the observer be carried along the 
line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be 
stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; 
if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time 
as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will E 
appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the observer is 
not conscious of his own translatory motion with the earth 
in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which 
is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer.  To 
generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, ABCD the earth's 
orbit, and s the true position of a star.  When the earth 
is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star is displaced 
to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to the 
earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star appears 
at b; and so on throughout an orbital revolution of the 
earth.  Every star, therefore, describes an apparent orbit, 
which, if the line joining the sun and the star be perpendicular 
to the plane ABCD, will be exactly similar to that of the 
earth, i.e. almost a circle.  As the star decreases in 
latitude, this circle will be viewed more and more obliquely, 
becoming a flatter and flatter ellipse until, with zero 
latitude, it degenerates into a straight line (fig. 4). 

The major axis of any such aberrational ellipse is always parallel 
to AC, i.e. the ecliptic, and since it is equal to the ratio 
of the velocity of light to the velocity of the earth, it is 
necessarily constant.  This constant length subtends an angle 
of about 40" at the earth; the ``constant of aberration'' is 
half this angle.  The generally accepted value is 20.445", due 
to Struve; the last two figures are uncertain, and all that can 
be definitely affirmed is that the value lies between 20.43" and 
20.48".  The minor axis, on the other hand, is not constant, 
but, as we have already seen, depends on the latitude, being 
the product of the major axis into the sine of the latitude. 

Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley corrected his 
observations for aberration, but he found that there still 
remained a residuum which was evidently not a parallax, for 
it did not exhibit an annual cycle.  He reverted to his early 
idea of a nutation of the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the 
discovery that the earth did possess such an osculation (see 
ASTRONOMY).  Bradley recognized the fact that the experimental 
determination of the aberration constant gave the ratio of the 
velocities of light and of the earth; hence, if the velocity 
of the earth be known, the velocity of light is determined.  
In recent years much attention has been given to the nature 
of the propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the 
earth, the argument generally being centred about the relative 
effect of the motion of the aether on the velocity of light.  
This subject is discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT. 

REFERENCES.--A detailed account of Bradley's work is 
given in S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in 
Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary 
(1795); a particularly clear and lucid account is given 
in H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904).  The 
subject receives treatment in all astronomical works. 

II. ABERRIATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS Aberration in optical 
systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a series of them, 
may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays from the 
points of an object after transmission through the system; 
it happens generally that an image formed by such a system 
is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical 
systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the 
instruunent-maker.  Reference should he made to the articles 
REFLEXION, REFRACTION and CAUSTIC for the general characters 
of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers 
in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also 
be consulted); in this article will be discussed the nature, 
varieties and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical 
point of view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker. 

Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr. 
oroma, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite 
nature of the light generally applied (e.g. white light), 
which is dispersed by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. 
monos, one) aberrations produced without dispersion.  
Consequently the monochromatic class includes the aberrations 
at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting 
surfaces of monochromatic or light of single wave length. 

(a) Monochromatic Aberration. The elementary theory of optical 
systems leads to the theorem; Rays of light proceeding from 
any ``object point,' unite in an ``image point''; and therefore 
an ``object space'' is reproduced in an ``image space.'' The 
introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss 
(Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Gottingen, 1841), named the 
focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination 
of the image of any object for any system (see LENS). The 
Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles 
made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis 
of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal 
objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are 
not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems 
are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, 
if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.  
The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; 
Quart.  Journ.  Math., 1858, and Ernst Abbe1) showed that 
the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative 
position .and magnitude of the images, are not special 
properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of 
the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points 
of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general 
hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the 
reproduction is effected.  These authors proved, however, that 
no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they 
are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and 
refraction.  Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies 
a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no 
constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal.  
All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single 
plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether 
satisfactorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and 
it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected. 

This, and related general questions, have been treated--besides 
the above-mentioned authors--by M. Thiesen (Berlin.  
Akad.  Sitzber., 1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.  
Verb., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math.  Phys.  
Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's 
``characteristic function'' (Irish Acad.  Trans., ``Theory 
of Systems of Rays,,' 1828, et seq.).  Reference may also 
be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161. 

A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be 
given. (1) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration 
in the restricted sense).  If S (fig.5) be any optical 
system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle 
u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an 
angle u2 in the axis point O'2.  If there be refraction 
at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive 
lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle 
u2 is greater than u1 (``under correction''); and 
conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (``over 
correction'').  The caustic, in the first case, resembles 
the sign > (greater than); in the second K (less than).  If 
the angle u1 be very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; 
and O'1 O'2 is termed the ``longitudinal aberration,'' 
and O'1R the ``lateral aberration'' of the pencils with 
aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 be that 
of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, 
then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is 
a circular ``disk of confusion'' of radius O'1R, and in a 
parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between 
these two is situated the ``disk of least confusion.'' 

The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the 
reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined 
by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin 
plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the 
system.  This hole is termed the ``stop'' or ``diaphragm''; 
Abbe used the term ``aperture stop'' for both the hole and 
the limiting margin of the lens.  The component S1 of the 
system, situated between the aperture stop and the object 
O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the 
``entrance pupil''; the ``exit pupil'' is the image formed 
by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture 
stop.  All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture 
stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these 
are images of the aperture stop.  Since the maximum aperture 
of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the 
entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration 
will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance 
pupil.  If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, 
then this is itself the entrance pupil (``front stop''); 
if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (``back stop''). 

If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received 
by the first member of the system are parallel, and their 
intersections, after traversing the system, vary according 
to their ``perpendicular height of incidence,'' i.e. their 
distance from the axis.  This distance replaces the angle 
u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. 
the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value. 

(2) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right 
angles to the axis.--If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be 
concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion 
of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also 
concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small.  
With a considerable aperture, the neighbouring point N will 
be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in 
magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to 
Abbe, the ``sine condition,'' sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2jsin 
u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the 
object point O be infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are 
to be replaced by pi and h2, the perpendicular heights of 
incidence; the ``sine condition', then becomes sin u,1jh1 
sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free 
from spherical aberration is called ``aplanatic'' (Greek 
a-, privative, plann, a wandering).  This word was 
first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of practical 
astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior 
achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote 
freedom from spherical aberration.  Both the aberration of axis 
points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly 
increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. 

(3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the 
axis) with narrow pencils.  Astigmatism.---A point O (fig. 
6) at a finite distance from the, axis (or with an infinitely 
distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the 
system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if 
the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system 
is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such 
a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object 
point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil.  It 
is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does 
not meet he refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; 
therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a 
point).  Naming the central ray passing through the entrance 
pupil the ``axis of the pencil,' or ``principal ray,'' we 
can say: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, 
but in two focal lines, which we can assume to be at right 
angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane 
containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, 
i.e. in the ``first principal section'' or ``meridional 
section,', and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the 
second principal section or sagittal section.  We receive, 
therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, 
as, for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object 
point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and 
O" are separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are 
formed), and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least 
confusion.  The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, 
increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal 
ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of 
view.  Two ``astigmatic image surfaces'' correspond to one 
object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on 
the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other 
those of the second.  Systems in which the two astigmatic 
surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic. 

Sir Isaac Newron was probably the discoverer of astigmation; 
the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by 
Thomas Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 
1807); and the theory has been recently developed by A. 
Gullstrand (Skand. Arch. f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; 
Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen, etc., 
Upsala, 1900; Arch. f.  Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185).  A 
bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die 
Bilderzeugung in opitschen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). 

(4) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils.  
Coma. ---By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise 
for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial 
points; but in this case they are much more complicated.  
The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer 
symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an 
intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous 
point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and 
often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail 
directed towards or away from the axis.  From this appearance 
it takes its name.  The unsymmetrical form of the meridional 
pencil--formerly the only one considered--is coma in the 
narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by 
A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.), and more recently by 
A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d.  Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). 

(5) Curvature of the field of the image.---If the above errors 
be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp 
image obtained with a wide aperture--there remains the necessity 
to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when 
the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in 
photography.  In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. 

(6) Distortion of the image.--If now the image be sufficiently 
sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point 
meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen 
that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the 
object.  This error consists in the different parts of the 
object being reproduced with different magnifications; for 
instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification 
than the outer (``barrel-shaped distortion''), or conversely 
(``cushion-shaped distortion'') (see fig. 7). Systems free 
of this aberration are called ``orthoscopic'' (orthos , 
right, skopein to look).  This aberration is quite distinct 
from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, 
reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of 
the object can be recognized in the figure.  If, in an unsharp 
image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the 
``centre of gravity'' of the patch may be regarded as the image 
point, this being the point where the plane receiving the 
image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing 
through the middle of the stop.  This assumption is justified 
if a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary 
when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally 
occurs.  This ray, named by Abbe a ``principal ray'' (not to be 
confused with the ``principal rays'' of the Gaussian theory), 
passes through the centre of the enttance pupil before the first 
refraction, and the centre of the exit pupil after the last 
refraction.  From this it follows that correctness of drawing 
depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent 
of the sharpness or curvature of the image field.  Referring 
to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, 
where N is the ``scale'' or magnification of the image.  For 
N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan 
w must also be constant.  If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently 
constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces 
to the ``condition of Airy,'' i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a 
constant.  This simple relation (see Camb.  Phil.  Trans., 
1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical 
with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named ``symmetrical 
or holosymmetrical objectives''), or which consist of two like, 
but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm 
in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature 
to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan 
w' / tan w = 1. The constancy of a'/a necessary for 
this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit.  
Journ.  Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic 
Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von 
Rohr (Zeit. f.  Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). 
It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in 
the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical 
aberration.  M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling 
neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' 
tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the 
object.  This combined condition is exactly fulfilled 
by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 
1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction 
be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components. 

Analytic Treatment of Aberrations.---The preceding review 
of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the ``Abbe 
theory of aberrations,'' in which definite aberrations are 
discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for 
in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are 
sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by 
experience.  In the mathematical sense, however, this selection 
is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite 
aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of 
aberrations.  This number is only finite if the object and 
aperture are assumed to be ``infinitely small of a certain 
order''; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with 
each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and 
apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated.  This 
connexion is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations 
generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. 

A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be defined 
by the co-ordinates (x, e).  Of this point O in an object 
plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other co-ordinates 
(x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance 
pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image 
ray may be defined by the points (x', e'), and (x', 
y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four 
plane co-ordinate systems may be collinear with the axis 
of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be 
parallel.  Each of the four co-ordinates x', e', x', y' 
are functions of x, e, x, y; and if it be assumed that the 
field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then x, 
e, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently 
by expanding x', e', x', y' in ascending powers of x, 
e, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary 
to consider the lowest powers.  It is readily seen that if the 
optical system be symmetrical, the orqins of the co-ordinate 
systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding 
axes parallel, then by changing the signs of x, e, x, 
y, the values x', e', x', y' must likewise change their 
sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the 
series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. 

The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding 
from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, 
this will not be the case, for x', e' vary if x, e be 
constant, but x, y variable.  It may be assumed that the 
planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes 
I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary 
Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, 
however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point 
O'0, with co-ordinates x'0, e'0, of the point O at 
some distance from the axis could be constructed.  Writing 
Dx'=x'-x'0 and De'=e'-e'0, then Dx' and 
De' are the aberrations belonging to x, e and x, y, 
and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in 
series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given 
above.  On account of the aberrations of all rays which 
pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on 
the lowest powers of x, e, x, y which the aberrations 
contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, 
named by (J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger 
dioptrischer Untersuchnungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad.  
Sitzber., Wien, 1857, vols. xxiv. xxvi.) ``the numerical 
orders of the image,'' are consequently only odd powers; the 
condition for the formation of an image of the mth order 
is that in the series for Dx' and De' the coefficients 
of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . (m-2)th degrees must 
vanish.  The images of the Gauss theory being of the third 
order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, 
or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree 
zero.  This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; 
in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, 
the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. 

The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants 
of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive 
indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. 
Seidel (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval 
constructed his portrait objective, unexcelled even at the present 
day, from similar calculations, which have never been published 
(see M. von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen 
Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, p. 248).  The theory was elaborated 
by S. Finterswalder (Munchen. Acad.  Abhandl., 1891, 
17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel 
containing a short view of his work (Munchen.  Akad. 
Sitrber., 1898, 28, p. 395); a simpler form was given by A. 
Kerber (Beitrage zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-9).  A. 
Konig and M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung 
in optischen Instrumenten, pp. 317-323) have represented 
Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from 
geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have 
interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212-316). 

The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the 
"characteristic function'' of the system and its differential 
coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; 
these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, 
however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the 
order.  Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc.  Report, 
1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; 
and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell 
(Proc.  London Math.  Soc., 1874--1875; (see also the treatises 
of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad.  
Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig.  Math.  
Phys.  Ber., 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully 
by K. Schwartzschild (Gottingen.  Akad.  Abhandl., 1905, 
4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th 
order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest 
proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae.  A. Gullstrand (vide 
supra, and Ann. d.  Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his 
theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. 

The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the 
axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the 
axis is very small, less than of the third order---the deviation 
from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; 
(3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion. 

(1) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with 
in all text-books on optics.  It is important for telescope 
objectives, since their apertures are so small as to permit 
higher orders to be neglected.  For a single lens of very 
small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon 
the ratio of the radii r:r', and is a minimum (but never 
zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely 
with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining 
constant).  The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses 
in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be 
zero.  This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic 
sign.  Of thin positive lenses with n=1.5, four are necessary 
to correct spherical aberration of the third order.  These 
systems, however, are not of great practical importance.  In 
most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has 
just so strong a positive aberration (``under-correction,'' 
vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a 
positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, 
however: may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is 
maintained.  It is generally an advantage to secure a great 
refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power 
lens.  By one, and likewise by several, and even by an 
infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two 
axis points can be reproduced without aberration of the third 
order.  Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which 
is infinitely distant, is known as ``Herschel's condition.'' 
All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and 
distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account. 

(2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order 
is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is 
known as ``Fraunhofer's condition.'' (4) After eliminating 
the aberration On the axis, coma and astigmatism, the 
relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is 
expressed by the ``Petzval equation,'' S1/r(n'-n) = 
0, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n 
and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring media, 
and S the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces. 

Practical Elimination of Aberrations.---The existence of 
an optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane 
on another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but 
practical systems solve this problem with an accuracy which 
mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of 
instrument.  The problem of finding a system which reproduces 
a given object upon a given plane with given magnification 
(in so far as aberrations must be taken into account) could 
be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most 
cases, however, the analytical difficulties are too groat.  
Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see 
A. Konig in M. von Rohr's Die Bilderzeugung, p. 373; K. 
Schwarzschild, Gottingen.  Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 
2 and 3). At the present time constructors almost always employ 
the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often 
quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical 
calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system 
gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. 
Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 
1902).  The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually 
altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently 
small.  By this method only certain errors of reproduction are 
investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named 
above.  The analytical approximation theory is often employed 
provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. 

In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from 
the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there 
is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width 
infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence 
h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine 
ratio as to one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be 
much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the 
system).  The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than 
u* would not have the same distance of intersection and 
the same sine ratio; these deviations are called ``zones,'' 
and the constructor endeavours to reduce these to a minimum.  
The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of 
the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field 
and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, 
``zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion,' 
attend smaller values of w.  The practical optician names 
such systems: ``corrected for the angle of aperture u* 
(the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of 
view w*.'' Spherical aberration and changes of the sine 
ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the 
aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic 
image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are 
represented as functions of the angles of the field of view. 

The final form of a practical system consequently rests 
on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in 
a diminution of the available field of view, and vice 
versa.  The following may be regarded as typical:--(1) 
Largest aperture; necessary corrections are--for the axis 
point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are 
almost disregarded; example-- high-power microscope objectives. 
(2) Largest field of view; necessary corrections are--for 
astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of 
the aperture only slightly regarded; examples--photographic 
widest angle objectives and oculars.  Between these extreme 
examples stands the ordinary photographic objective: the 
portrait objective is corrected more with regard to aperture; 
objectives for groups more with regard to the field of 
view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not very large 
apertures, and small fields of view; they should, however, 
possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the simplest 
manner.  They are the best for analytical computation. 

(b) Chromatic or Colour Aberration. In optical systems 
composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors 
of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the 
glass employed (see LENS, and above, ``Monochromatic 
Aberration'').  Since the index of refraction varies with 
the colour or wave length of the light (see DISPERSION), 
it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects 
images of different colours in somewhat different places 
and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are 
``chromatic differences'' of the distances of intersection, 
of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations.  If 
mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images 
are formed; and since they are ail ultimately intercepted 
by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing screen of a 
camera, &c.), they cause a confusion, named chromatic 
aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark 
background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or narrow 
spectrum.  The absence of this error is termed achromatism, 
and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic.  
A system is said to be ``chromatically under-corrected'' 
when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin 
positive lens, otherwise it is said to be ``over-corrected.'' 

If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected 
---in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted---then 
every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal 
planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal 
lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of 
reproduction.  These constants are determined by the data 
of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., 
of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive 
index, and consequently on the colour, are calculable (the 
formulae are given in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der 
Theorie der optischen Instrumente (1903, p. 166).  The 
refractive indices for different wave lengths must be known 
for each kind of glass made use of.  In this manner the 
conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction 
is equal for two different colours, i.e. this constant is 
achromatized.  For example, it is possible, with one thick 
lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of 
the magnitude of the focal length.  If all three constants 
of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for 
all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, 
and the system is said to be in ``stable achromatism.'' 

In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine 
the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance 
of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and 
express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount 
due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. 
cit. p. 170; A. Konig in M. v.  Rohr's collection, Die 
Bilderzeugung, p. 340).  In a plane containing the image point 
of one colour, another colour produces a disk of confusion; 
this is similar to the confusion caused by two ``zones'' in 
spherical aberration.  For infinitely distant objects the 
radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to 
the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (vide 
supra, ``Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point''); and 
since this disk becomes the less harmful with au increasing 
image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, 
it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor-, 
tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, 
i.e. the ``relative aperture.'' (This explains the gigantic 
focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) 

Examples.--(a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant 
of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and 
the distance of the focal point are equal.  If the refractive 
index for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the 
powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be f and f + d
f, then (1) df/f = dn/(n-1) = 1/n; dn is called 
the dispersion, and n the dispersive power of the glass. 

(b) Two thin lenses in contact: let f1 and f2 be 
the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices 
n1 and n2 and radii r'1, r"1, and r'2, 
r"2 respectively; let f denote the total power, and d
f, dn1, dn2 the changes of f, n1, and n2 
with the colour.  Then the following relations hold:-- 

(2) f = f1-f2== (n1 - 1)(1/r'1-1/r''1) +(n2-1)(1/
r'2 - 1/r''2) = (n1 - 1)k1 + (n2 - 1)k2; and 

(3) df = k1dn1 + k2dn2.  
For achromatism df = 0, hence, from (3), 

(4) k1/k2 = -dn2 / dn1, or f1/f2 = -n1/
n2.  Therefore f1 and f2 must have different algebraic 
signs, or the system must be composed of a collective and a 
dispersive lens.  Consequently the powers of the two must be 
different (in order that f be not zero (equation 2)), and 
the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4). 

Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of 
different dispersive powers required by achromatism; 
consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of 
refractors.  James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the 
correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of 
the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, 
Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed 
the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See TELESCOPE.) 

Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named 
``crown glass''; that with greater dispersive power, ``flint 
glass.'' For the construction of an achromatic collective lens 
(f positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a 
collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of 
flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, 
corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive 
power.  For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be 
adopted.  This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, 
e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of 
the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two 
other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the 
elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either 
the ``Herschel'' or ``Fraunhofer Condition,'' the latter being 
the best vide supra, ``Monochromatic Aberration'').  In 
practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second 
condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal 
radii.  According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f.  Photog., 
1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of 
thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration 
on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller 
refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination 
of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective 
lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the 
Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr.  Nachr., 1856, p. 
289).  Should the cemented system be positive, then the more 
powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the 
greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater 
v), that is to say, clown glass; consequently the crown 
glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic 
and plane images.  In all earlidr kinds of glass, however, 
the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; 
that is, v decreased as n increased; but some of the 
Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of 
high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown 
glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are 
called the ``new achromats,'' and were employed by P. Rudolph 
in the first ``anastigmats'' (photographic objectives). 

Instead of making df vanish, a certain value can be assigned 
to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, 
any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate 
one present in other parts of the system.  If the lenses I. 
and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one 
colour, then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens 
of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made 
chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical 
effect.  If its chromatic effect (df/f) be greater than 
that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive 
of the two glasses employed, it is termed ``hyper-chromatic.'' 

For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition 
for achromatism is D = v1f1+v2f2; if v1=v2 
(e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces 
to D= 1/2 (f1+f2), known as the ``condition for oculars.'' 

If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, 
be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for 
other colours, if two different glasses are employed.  For 
example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses 
in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since 
dn2/dn1 varies within the spectrum.  This fact was first 
ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means 
of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the 
ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the 
red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 
50%).  If, therefore, for two colours, a and b, fa = 
fb = f, then for a third colour, c, the focal length is 
different, viz. if c lie between a and b, then fc<
f, and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from 
the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive 
crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the 
negative flint.  These chromatic errors of systems, which 
are achromatic for two colours, are called the ``secondary 
spectrum,'' and depend upon the aperture and focal length 
in the same manner as the primary chromatid errors do. 

In fig. 11, taken from M. von Rohr,s Theoric und Geschichte des 
photographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths, and the 
ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer lines used are-- 


 
 A'       C      D   Green Hg.   F    G'    Violet Hg.
 767.7  656.3  589.3  546.1    486.2 454.1  405.1 mm,
 

and the focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. 
In the neighbourhood of 550 mm the tangent to the curve 
is parallel to the axis of wave-lengths; and the focal 
length varies least over a fairly large range of colour, 
therefore in this neighbourhood the colour union is at its 
best.  Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which 
appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this 
curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making 
fc = fF, is, according to the experiments of Sir G. 
G. Stokes (Proc.  Roy. Soc., 1878), the most suitable for 
visual instruments (``optical achromatism,').  In a similar 
manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the 
colour curve must be placed in the position of the maximum 
sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at 
G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are 
united.  This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for 
astronomical photography (``pure actinic achromatism'').  For 
ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: 
the image on the focussing-screen and the correct adjustment 
of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in 
astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in 
other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects.  On this 
account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic 
objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is 
chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and 
consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as 
the ``actinic correction'' or ``freedom from chemical focus''). 

Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths 
for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. fa = fb = 
fc = f, then the relative partial dispersion (nc-
nb) (na-nb) must be equal for the two kinds of glass 
employed.  This follows by considering equation (4) for the 
two pairs of colours ac and bc. Until recently no glasses 
were known with a proportionap degree of absorption; but R. 
Blair (Trans.  Edin.  Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and 
F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid 
lenses between glass walls.  Fraunhofer prepared glasses which 
reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was 
only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. 
Abbe and O. Schott.  In using glasses not having proportional 
dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated 
by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or 
by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of 
the old glasses.  In uniting three colours an ``achromatism 
of a higher order'' is derived; there is yet a residual 
``tertiary spectrum,'' but it can always be neglected. 

The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic 
or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different 
for different colours; and should they be compensated for one 
colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing.  
The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration 
of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the 
image, after par-axial rays of different colours are united 
by an appropriate combination of glasses.  If a collective 
system be corrected for the axis point for a definite 
wave-length, then, on account of the greater dispersion in 
the negative components--the flint glasses,--over-correction 
will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the 
error of the negative components), and under-correction for 
the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown glass lenses 
preponderating in the red).  This error was treated by 
Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. 
Gauss.  It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more 
important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum 
of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must 
be elliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, 
then it must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths 
which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a 
graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, 
Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs). 

The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the 
place of a sharply reproduced point--the constant of the sine 
relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for 
several colours.  E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope 
objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying 
the sine condition for several colours, which therefore, 
according to his definition, were ``aplanatic for several 
colours''; such systems he termed ``apochromatic''.  While, 
however, the magnification of the individual zones is the 
same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a 
chromatic difference of magnification.  This is produced in the 
same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which 
ate used with these objectives (``compensating oculars''), so 
that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope.  
The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives 
intended for three-colour work, are also apochromatic, even 
if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction 
as microscope objectives do.  The chromatic differences of 
other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances. 

1 The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, 
originally published only in his university lectures, were 
first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893.  See below, AUTHORITIES. 
AUTHORITIES.---The standard treatise in English is H. D. 
Taylor, A System of Applied Optics (1906); reference may also 
be made to R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd 
ed., 1895); and L A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics 
(1900).  The ideas of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, 
Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, published 
separately at Breslau in 1893, and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's 
Handbuch der Physik in 1894; a second edition, by Czapski 
and O. Eppenstein, was published at Leipzig in 1903 with the 
title, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach 
Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's Handbuch 
der Physik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl 
Zeiss at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, Die bilderzeugung in 
optischen Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen 
Optik (Berlin, 1904), contains articles by A. Konig and 
M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations. (O. E.) 

ABERSYCHAN, an urban district in the northern parliamentary 
division of Monmouthshire, England, 11 m.  N. by W. of Newport, 
on the Great Western, London and North-Western, and Rhymney 
railways.  Pop. (1901) 17,768.  It lies in the narrow upper 
valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of the great coal 
and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire, 
and its large industrial population is occupied in the mines 
and ironworks.  The neighbourhood is wild and mountainous. 

ABERTILLERY, an urban district in the western parliamentary 
division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m.  N.W. of Newport, on 
the Great Western railway.  Pop. (1891) 10,846; (1901) 21,945.  
It lies in the mountainous mining district of Monmouthshire 
and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw Fach, and the 
large industrial population is mainly employed in the numerous 
coalmines, ironworks and tinplate works.  Farther up the 
valley are the mining townships of NANTYOLO and BLAINA, 
forming an urban district with a population (1901) of 13,489. 

ABERYSTWYTH, a municipal borough, market-town and seaport of 
Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth 
and Rheidol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay. Pop. (1901) 
8013.  It is the terminal station of the Cambrian railway, 
and also of the Manchester and Milford line.  It is the 
most popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and 
possesses a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from 
Constitution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the 
mouth of the harbour.  The town is of modern appearance, and 
contains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable 
is the imposing but fantastic structure of the University 
College of Wales near the Castle Hill.  Much of the finest 
scenery in mid-Wales hes within easy reach of Aberystwyth. 

The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the time 
of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1109 erected a fortress on the 
present Castle Hill.  Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle 
in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh.  Between the 
years 1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of 
Owen Glendower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of 
Monmouth, and shortly after this the town was incorporated 
under the title of Ville de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the 
place being Llanbadarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, 
to distinguish it from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile 
inland.  It is thus styled in a charter granted by Henry 
VIII., but by Elizabeth's time the town was invariably termed 
Aberystwyth in all documents.  In 1647 the parliamentarian 
troops razed the castle to the ground, so that its remains 
are now inconsiderable, though portions of three towers still 
exist.  Aberystwyth was a contributory parliamentary borough 
until 1885, when its representation was merged in that of the 
county.  In modern times Aberystwyth has become a Welsh 
educational centre, owing to the erection here of one of the 
three colleges of the university of Wales (1872), and of a 
hostel for women in connexion with it.  In 1905 it was decided 
to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh National Library. 

ABETTOR (from ``to abet,'' O. Fr. abeter, a and beter, to 
bait, urge dogs upon any one; this word is probably of Scandinavian 
origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying one 
who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an 
offence.  An abettor differs from an accessory (q.v.) in that 
he must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors 
(with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence
of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable 
to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence.  
A person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in 
the commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a 
principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age 
in aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting 
a bankrupt to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws. 

ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, ``gaping''), a state of 
expectancy in respect of property, titles or office, when the 
right to them is not vested in any one person, but awaits the 
appearance or determination of the true owner.  In law, the 
term abeyance can only be applied to such future estates as 
have not yet vested or possibly may not vest.  For example, an 
estate is granted to A for life, with remainder to the heir of 
B, the latter being alive; the remainder is then said to be in 
abeyance, for until the death of B it is uncertain who his heir 
is.  Similarly the freehold of a benefice, on the death of the 
incumbent, is said to be in abeyance until the next incumbent 
takes possession.  The most common use of the term is in 
the case of peerage dignities.  If a peerage which passes to 
heirs-general, like the ancient baronies by writ, is held 
by a man whose heir-at-law is neither a male, nor a woman 
who is an only child, it goes into abeyance on his death 
between two or more sisters or their heirs, and is held by 
no one till the abeyance is terminated; if eventually only 
one person represents the claims of all the sisters, he or 
she can claim the termination of the abeyance as a matter of 
right.  The crown can also call the peerage out of abeyance at 
any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of the sisters 
or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance.  The question 
whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man and his 
``heirs'' go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been 
raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 1312, 
discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1906.  It is 
common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are 
dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance. (J. H. R.) 

ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or 
toparchs, apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in 
Osrhoene and had their capital at Edessa about the time of 
the Christian era.  According to an old tradition, one of 
these princes, perhaps Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, ``the 
black''), being afflicted with leprosy, sent a letter to 
Jesus, acknowledging his divinity, craving his help and 
offering him an asylum in his own residence, but Jesus wrote 
a letter declining to go, promising, however, that after his 
ascension he would send one of his disciples.  These letters 
are given by Eusebius (Eccl.  Hist. i. 13), who declares 
that the Syriac document from which he translates them had 
been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of 
Abgar.  Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of 
Thaddaeus, was sent (in 340 = A.D. 29). In another form of 
the story, derived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further 
that Jesus sent his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed 
in Edessa (Hist. Armen., ed.  W. Whiston, ii. 29-32).  
Yet another version is found in the Syriac Doctrina Addaei 
(Addaeus=Thaddaeus), edited by G. Phillips (1876).  Here it 
is said that the reply of Jesus was given not in writing, but 
verbally, and that the event took place in 343 (A.D. 32). 
Greek forms of the legend are found in the Acta Thaddaei 
(C. Tischendorf, Acta apostoloruiu apocr. 261 ff.). 

These stories have given rise to much discussion.  The testi- 
mony of Augustine and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote 
nothing.  The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by 
Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is 
true, this view has not been shared universally by the Roman 
church (Tillemont, Memoires, i. 3, pp. 990 ff ). Amongst 
Evangelicals the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally 
admitted.  Lipsius (Die Edessenische Abgarsage, 1880) has 
pointed out anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story 
is quite unhistorical.  The first king of Edessa of whom we have 
any trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (A.D. 
176-213).  It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire 
to trace the christianizing of his kingdom to an apostolic 
source.  Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was 
worked up in the Doctrina Addaei in the second half of the 4th 
century; and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY---R, Schmidt in Herzoe-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; 
Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersucht (1880); 
Matthes, Die Edessenische Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung 
untersucht (1882); Les Origines de l'eglise d'Edesse 
et la legende d'A. (1888); A. Harnack, Geschichte d. 
altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 2 (1893); L. Duchesne, 
Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles see 
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, sect. ``New Testament'' (c.) 

ABHIDHAMMA, the name of one of the three Pitakas, or 
baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures 
(see BUDDHISM) are divided.  It consists of seven works: 1. 
Dhamma Sangani (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga 
(exposition). 3. Katha Vatthu (bases of opinion). 4. 
Puggala Pannatti (on individuals). 5. Dhatu Katha (on 
relations of moral dispositions). 6. Yamaka (the pairs, that 
is, of ethical states). 7. Patthana (evolution of ethical 
states).  These have now been published by the Pah Text 
Society.  The first has been translated into English, and an 
abstract of the third has been published.  The approximate 
date of these works is probably from about 400 B.C. to 
about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and the third 
the latest of the seven.  Before the publication of the texts, 
when they were known only by hearsay, the term Abhidhamma 
was usually rendered ``Metaphysics.'' This is now seen to be 
quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and Abhidhamma 
has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by-law to 
law.  It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries 
from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular 
treatises.  There is no metaphysics in it atnall, only 
psychological ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind.  
And there is no originality in it; only endless permutations 
and combinations of doctrines already known and accepted.  
As in the course of centuries the doctrine itself, in certain 
schools, varied, it was felt necessary to rewrite these secondary 
works.  This was first done, so far as is at present known, 
by the Sarvastivadins (Realists), who in the century before 
and after Christ produced a fresh set of seven Abhidhamma 
books.  These are lost in India, but still exist in Chinese 
translations.  The translations have been analysed in a 
masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article mentioned 
below, They deal only with psychological ethics.  In the 
course of further centuries these hooks in turn were superseded 
by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of the 
Maha-yana (great Vehicle) there was eventually developed a 
system of metaphysics.  But the word Abhidhamma then fell 
out of use in that school, though it is still used in the 
schools that continue to follow the original seven books. 

See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900), 
translation of the Dhamma Sangani, with valuable introduction; 
or the Royal Asiatic Society, 1892, contains an abstract of the 
Katha ``On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins,'' by 
Prof.  Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1905. 

(l'. W. R. D.) 

ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who 
expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who 
had signed petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble 
parliament.  Feel ing against Roman Catholics, and especially 
against James, duke of York, was running strongly; the 
Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, 
and the popularity of James, duke of Monmouth, was very 
great.  To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles 
had dissolved parliament in July 1679, and in the following 
October had prorogued its successor without allowing it to 
meet.  He was then deluged with petitions urging him to 
call it together, and this agitation was opposed by Sir 
George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who presented 
addresses expressing ``abhorrence'' of the ``Petitioners,'' 
and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who 
supported the action of the king. ``The frolic went all 
over England,'' says Roger North; and the addresses of 
the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the 
country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners.  
It is said that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied 
to English political parties in consequence of this dispute. 

ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebyathar, ``the [divine] father is 
pre-eminent''), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, 
priest at Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from 
Saul's massacre, he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him 
the ephod (1 Sam. xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great 
service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion 
of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35, xx. 25). In 1 Kings iv. 
4 Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests 
under Solomon.  In 1 Kings i. 7, 19, 25, however, Abiathar 
appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and in ii. 22 and 26 
it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and banished to 
Anathoth.  In 2 Sam. viii. 17 ``Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech'' 
should be read, with the Syriac, for ``Ahimelech, the son 
of Abiathar.'' For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26. 

ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-1886), German 
mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the 11th 
of December 1806, and educated at the university in that 
city.  His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other 
minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroles, of the 
mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of 
volcanoes.  In 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy 
in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention 
to the geology and mineralogy of Russia.  Residing for some 
time at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus.  
Ultimately' he retired to Vienna, where he died on the 1st 
of July 1886.  The mineral Abichite was named after him. 

PUBLICATIONS.---Vues illustratives de quelques phenomenes 
geologiques, prises sur le Vesuve et l'Etna, pendant 
les annees 1833 et 1834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die 
Natur und den Zusammenhang der vulcanischen Bildungen 
(Brunswick, 1841); Geologische Forschungen in den 
Kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887). 

ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps ``father is joy''), or 
ABIGAL (2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the 
Carmelite, on whose death she became the wife of David (1 Sam. 
xxv.).  By her David had a son, whose name appears in the 
Hebrew of 2 Sam. iii. 3 as Chileab, in the Septuagint as 
Daluyah, and in 1 Chron. iii. 1 as Daniel.  The name 
Abigail was also borne by a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 
25; 1 Chron. ii. 16 f.).  From the former (self-styled 
``handmaid'' 1 Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived the colloquial use 
of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail, the ``waiting 
gentlewoman,'' in Beaumont and Fletcher's Scornful Lady.) 

ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, ``Yah is father''), 
a name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old 
Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following. (i) 
The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron. 
xii. 16--xiii.), reigned about two years (918-915 B.C..) 
The accounts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are 
very conflicting (compare 1 Kings xv. 2 and 2 Chron. xi.20 
with 2 Chron. xiii.2).  The Chronicler tells us that he has 
drawn his facts from the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet 
Iddo This is perhaps sufficient to explain the character of 
the narrative. (2) The second son of Samuel (1 Sam. viii. 
2; 1 Chron. vi. 28 [13j).  He and his brother Joel judged at 
Beersheba.  Their misconduct was made by the elders of 
Israel a pretext for demanding a king (1 Sam. viii. 4). 
(3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he died young 
(1 Kings xiv. 1 ff., 17). (4) Head of the eighth order of 
priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zacharias, 
the father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5). 

The alternative form Abijam is probably a 
mistake, though it is upheld by M. Jastrow. 

ABILA, (1) a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the 
tetrarchy of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible 
to define.  It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to 
distinguish it from (2) below.  Abila was an important town on 
the imperial highway from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek).  
The site is indicated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c., 
and inscriptions on the banks of the river Barada at Suk 
Wadi Barada, a village called by early Arab geographers 
Abil-es-Suk, between Baalbek and Damascus.  Though the names 
Abel and Abila differ in derivation and in meaning, their 
similarity has given rise to the tradition that this was the 
place of Abel's burial.  According to Josephus, Abilene was a 
separate Iturean kingdom till A.D. 37, when it was granted 
by C to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius granted it to Agrippa II. 
(See also LYSANIAS.) (2) A city in Perea, now Abil-ez-Zeit. 

ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM (1744-1809), called ``the 
Father of Danish Painting,'' was born at Copenhagen, the 
son of Soren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of 
repute.  He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas 
Poussin, and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by 
art.  As a technical painter he attained remarkable success, 
his tone being very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a 
foreigner's eye, is rarely interesting.  His works are scarcely 
known out of Copenhagen, where he won an immense fame in his 
own generation.  He was the founder of the Danish school of 
painting, and the master of Thorwaldsen and Eckersherg. 

ABIMELECH (Hebrew for ``father of [or is] the king''). 
(1) A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in 
the Bible, had relations.  The patriarch, during his sojourn 
there, alleged that his wife Rebekah was his sister, but the 
king doubting this remonstrated with him and pointed out how 
easily adultery might have been unintentionally committed (Gen. 
xxvi.).  Abimelech is called ``king of the Philistines,'' but 
the title is clearly an anachronism.  A very similar story 
is told of Abraham and Sarah (ch. xx.), but here Abimelech 
takes Sarah to wife, although he is warned by a divine vision 
before the crime is actually committed.  The incident is 
fuller and shows a great advance in bdeas of morality.  Of 
a more primitive character, however, is another parallel 
story of Abraham at the court of Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 
10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken into the royal household, 
and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead to the discovery of the 
truth.  Further incidents in Isaac's life at Gerar are narrated 
in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of Abraham), notably a 
covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba (whence the name is 
explained ``well of the oath''); (see ABRAHAM.) By a pure 
error, or perhaps through a confusion in the traditions, Achish 
the Philistine (of Gath, 1 Sam. xxi., xxvii.), to whom David 
fled, is called Abimelech in the superscription to Psalm xxxiv. 

(2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (q.v.), by his Shechemite 
concubine (Judges viii. 31, ix.).  On the death of Gideon, 
Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his 
father had earned, and through the influence of his mother's 
clan won over the citizens of Shechem.  Furnished with money 
from the treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a 
band of followers and slew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of his 
brethren at Ophrah, his father's home.  This is one of the 
earliest recorded instances of a practice common enough on 
the accession of Oriental despots.  Abimelech thus became 
king, and extended his authority Over central Palestine.  
But his success was short-lived, and the subsequent discord 
between Abimelech and the Shechemites was regarded as a just 
reward for his atrocious massacre.  Jotham, the only one who 
is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on Mount Gerizim 
and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen towards the 
legitimate sons of the man who had saved them from Midian. 
``Jotham's fable'' of the trees who desired a king may be 
foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and 
cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to 
rule over others, only the bramble is self-confident.  The 
``fable'' appears to be antagonistic to ideas of monarchy.  
The origin of the conflicts which subsequently arose is not 
clear.  Gaal, a new-comer, took the opportunity at the time 
of the vintage, when there was a festival in tho temple, to 
head a revolt and seized Shechem.  Abimelech, warned by his 
deputy Zebul, left his residence at Arumah and approached the 
city.  In a fine bit of realism we are told how Gaal observed 
the approaching foe and was told by Zebul, ``You see the 
shadow of the hills as men,'' and as they drew nearer Zebul's 
ironical remark became a taunt, ``Where is now thy mouth? 
is not this the people thou didst despise? go now and fight 
them!'' This revolt, which Abimelech successfully quelled, 
appears to be only an isolated episode.  Another account 
tells of marauding bands of Shechemites which disturbed the 
district.  The king disposed his men (the whole chapter is 
specially interesting for the full details it gives of the 
nature of ancient military operations), and after totally 
destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebez, which had also
revolted.  Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on 
the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by a 
woman.  To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's hand, 
he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body, but 
his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded (2 Sam. 
xi. 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the first 
attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is 
mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, 
and of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants 
of its deliverer. (See, further, JEWS, JUDGES.) (S. A. C.) 

ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6 
m.  S. of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great 
Western railway from Radley.  Pop. (1901) 6480.  It lies 
in the fiat valley of the Thames, on the west (right) bank, 
where the small river Ock flows in from the Vale of White 
Horse.  The church of St Helen stands near the river, and 
its fine Early English tower with Perpendicular spire is the 
principal object in the pleasant views of the town from the 
river.  The body of the church, which has five aisles, is 
principally Perpendicular.  The smaller church of St Nicholas 
is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of the fabric are 
older.  Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a beautiful 
Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called the prior's 
house, mainly Early English, and the guest house, with other 
fragments.  The picturesque narrow-arched bridge over the Thames 
near St Helen's church dates originally from 1416.  There may 
be mentioned further the old buildings of the grammar school, 
founded in 1563, and of the charity called Christ's Hospital 
(1583); while the town-hall in the marketplace, dating from 
1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones.  The grammar school now 
occupies modern buildings, and ranks among the lesser public 
schools of England, having scholarships at Pembroke College, 
Oxford.  St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m. from Abingdon, is 
one of the principal modern public schools.  It was opened in 
1847.  The buildings he close to the Thames, and the school is 
famous for rowing, sending an eight to the regatta at Henley each 
year.  Abingdon has manufactures of clothing and carpets and 
a large agricultural trade.  The borough is under a mayor, 
four aldermen and twelve councillors.  Area, 730 acres. 

Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which 
was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have 
been founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of 
Centwin.  Abundant charters from early Saxon monarchs are 
extant confirming laws and privileges to the abbey, and the 
earliest of these, from King Ceadwalla, was granted before 
A.D. 688. in the reign of Alfred the abbey was destroyed 
by the Danes, but it was restored by Edred, and an imposing 
list of possessions in the Domesday survey evidences recovered 
prosperity.  William the Conqueror in 1084 celebrated Easter at 
Abingdon, and left his son, afterwards Henry I., to be educated 
at the abbey.  After the dissolution in 1538 the town sank 
into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of its pitiable 
condition, Queen Mary granted a charter establishing a mayor, 
two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen secondary 
burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and 
a Justice of the peace.  The council was empowered to elect 
one burgess to parliament, and this right continued until the 
Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885.  A town clerk and other 
officers were also appointed, and the town boundaries described 
in great detail.  Later charters from Elizabeth, James I., 
James II., George Il. and George III. made no considerable 
change.  James II. changed the style of the corporation to 
that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and twelve burgesses.  The 
abbot seems to have held a market from very early times, and 
charters for the holding of markets and fairs mere granted by 
various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II. In the 13th 
and 14th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agricultural 
centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weaving 
and clothing manufacture.  The latter industry declined 
before the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived. 

The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to 
the Gild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which 
Edward VI. founded the hospital under its present name. 

See Victoria County History, Berkshire; Joseph 
Stevenson, Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, A.D. 
201--1189 (Rolls Series, 2 vols., London, 1858). 

ABINGER, JAMES SCARLETT, 1ST BARON (1769-1844), English 
judge, was born on the 13th of December 1760 in Jamaica, where 
his father, Robert Scarlett, had property.  In the summer of 
1785 he was sent to England to complete his education, and 
went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 
1789.  Having entered the Inner Temple he was called to the 
bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the Lancashire 
sessions.  Though he had no professional connexions, by steady 
application he gradually obtained a large practice, ultimately 
confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and the northern 
circuit.  He took silk in 1816, and from this time till the 
close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the bar; 
he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income 
reached the high-water mark of L. 18,500, a large sum for that 
period.  He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament in 
1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constituency 
with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected 
for the borough of Malton.  He became attorney-general, and was 
knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and though 
he resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power in 
1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of 
Wellington in 1830.  His opposition to the Reform Bill caused 
his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the 
Tories he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 
for Norwich, for which borough he sat until the dissolution of 
parliament.  He was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer 
in 1834, and presided in that court for more than nine 
years.  While attending the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of 
April he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and died in his 
lodgings at Bury on the 7th of April 1844.  He had been raised 
to the peerage as Baron Abinger in 1835, taking his title from 
the Surrey estate he had bought in 1813.  The qualities which 
brought him success at the bar were not equally in place on 
the bench; he was partial, dictatorial and vain; and complaint 
was made of his domineering attitude towards juries.  But his 
acuteness of mind and clearness of expression remained to the 
end.  Lord Abinger was twice married (the second time only 
six months before his death), and by his first wife (d. 1829) 
had three sons and two daughters, the title passing to his 
eldest son Robert (1794-1861).  His second son, General Sir 
James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), leader of the heavy cavalry 
charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate article; and 
his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron Campbell, and 
was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady Stratheden and 
Campbell) (d. 1860).  Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett (d. 1831), 
Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of Jamaica. 

See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of Jaimes, 1st Lord Abinger (1877); 
Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). 

ABINGTON, FRANCES (1737-1815), English actress, was the 
daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at 
first, a flower girl and a street singer.  She then became 
servant to a French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress 
and a knowledge of French which afterwards stood her in good 
stead.  Her first appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket 
in 1755 as Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. In 1756, on 
the recommendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the 
Drury Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard 
and Kitty Clive.  In 1759, after an unhappy marriage with her 
music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in 
the bills as Mrs Abington.  Her first success was in Ireland 
as Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the 
pressing invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury 
Lane.  There she remained for eighteen years, being the 
original of more than thirty important characters, notably 
Lady Teazle (1777).  Her Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and 
Ophelia were no less liked than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, 
Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue.  It was in the last character in 
Love for Love that Reynolds painted his best portrait of 
her.  In 1782 she left Drury Lane for Covent Garden.  After an 
absence from the stage from 1790 until 1797, she reappeared, 
quitting it finally in 1799.  Her ambition, personal wit 
and cleverness won her a distinguished position in society, 
in spite of her humble origin.  Women of fashion copied her 
frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely adopted and known 
as the ``Abington cap.'' She died on the 4th of March 1815. 

ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older 
terms ``spontaneous generation,'' Generatio acquivoca, 
Generatio primaria, and of more recent terms such as 
archegenesis and archebiosis, for the theory according to which 
fully formed living organisms sometimes arise from not-living 
matter.  Aristotle explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it 
down as an observed fact that some animals spring from putrid 
matter, that plant lice arise from the dew which falls on 
plants, that fleas are developed from putrid matter, and so 
forth.  T. J. Parker (Elementary Biology) cites a passage from 
Alexander Ross, who, commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt 
as to ``whether mice may be bred by putrefaction,'' gives a 
clear statement of the common opinion on abiogenesis held until 
about two centuries ago.  Ross wrote: ``So may he (Sir Thomas 
Browne) doubt whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; 
or if beetles and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, 
locusts, grasshoppers, shell-fish, snails, eels, and such like, 
be procreated of putrefied matter, which is apt to receive 
the form of that creature to which it is by formative power 
disposed.  To question this is to question reason, sense and 
experience.  If he doubts of this let him go to Egypt, and 
there he will find the fields swarming with mice, begot of 
the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the inhabitants.'' 

The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory 
of abiogenesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in 1668, 
proved that no maggots were ``bred'' in meat on which flies 
were prevented by wire screens from laying their eggs.  
From the 17th century onwards it was gradually shown that, 
at least in the case of all the higher and readily visible 
organisms, abiogenesis did not occur, but that omne vivum e 
vivo, every living thing came from a pre-existing living thing. 

The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation 
further.  In 1683 A. van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, 
and it was soon found that however carefully organic matter 
might be protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered 
receptacles, putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied 
by the appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low 
organisms.  As knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, 
so the apparent possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and 
it became a tempting hypothesis that whilst the higher forms 
of life arose only by generation from their kind, there was 
a perpetual abiogenetic fount by which the first steps in the 
evolution of living organisms continued to arise, under suitable 
conditions, from inorganic matter.  It was due chiefly to L. 
Pasteur that the occurrence of abiogenesis in the microscopic 
world was disproved as much as its occurrence in the macroscopic 
world.  If organic matter were first sterilized and then 
prevented from contamination from without, putrefaction did 
not occur, and the matter remained free from microbes.  The 
nature of sterilization, and the difficulties in securing 
it, as well as the extreme delicacy of the manipulations 
necessary, made it possible for a very long time to be doubtful 
as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e vivo to 
the microscopic world, and there still remain a few belated 
supporters of abiogenesis.  Subjection to the temperature of 
boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient mode 
of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of 
bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only 
prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as an 
efficient process of sterilization.  Moreover, the presence of 
bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme 
precautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized 
material.  It may now be stated definitely that all known 
living organisms arise only from pre-existing living organisms. 

So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved.  
It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only 
to known existing organisms.  All these are composed of a 
definite substance, known as protoplasm (q.v.), and the 
modern refutation of abiogenesis applies only to the organic 
forms in which protoplasm now exists.  It may be that in the 
progress of science it may yet become possible to construct 
living protoplasm from non-living material.  The refutation 
of abiogenesis has no further bearing on this possibility than 
to make it probable that if protoplasm ultimately be formed in 
the laboratory, it will be by a series of stages, the earlier 
steps being the formation of some substance, or substances, 
now unknown, which are not protoplasm.  Such intermediate 
stages may have existed in the past, and the modern refutation 
of abiogenesis has no application to the possibility of 
these having been formed from inorganic matter at some past 
time.  Perhaps the words archebiosis, or archegenesis, 
should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm in the 
remote past has been developed from not-living matter by a 
series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley, who 
took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary 
abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial 
archebiosis. (See BIOGENESIS and LIFE.) (P. C. M.) 

ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran 
stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa 
Fe and St Iago.  They originally occupied the Chaco district 
of Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the 
Spaniards.  According to Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, 
who, towards the end of the 18th century, lived among them 
for a period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 
5000.  They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black 
eyes and aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards.  
The hair from the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled 
out, this constituting a tribal mark.  The faces, breasts and 
arms of the women were covered with black figures of various 
designs made with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture 
of ashes and blood.  The lips and ears of both sexes were 
pierced.  The men were brave fighters, their chief weapons 
being the bow and spear.  No child was without bow and arrows; 
the bow-strings were made of foxes' entrails.  In battle 
the Abipones wore an armour of tapir's hide over which a 
jaguar's skin was sewn.  They were excellent swimmers and good 
horsemen.  For five months in the year when the floods were 
out they lived on islands or even in shelters built in the 
trees.  They seldom married before the age of thirty, and were 
singularly chaste. ``With the Abipones,'' says Darwin, ``when 
a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the parents about the 
price.  But it frequently happens that the girl rescinds 
what has been agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, 
obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage.  She often 
runs away and hides herself, and thus eludes the bridegroom.'' 
Infanticide was systematic, never more than two children being 
reared in one family, a custom doubtless originating in the 
difficulty of subsistence.  The young were suckled for two 
years.  The Abipones are now believed to be extinct as a tribe. 

Martin Dobrizhoffer's Latin Historia de Abiponibus 
(Vienna, 1784) was translated into English by Sara 
Coleridge, at the suggestion of Southey, in 1822, under 
the title of An Account of the Abipones (3 vols.). 

ABITIBBI, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada.  The lake, 
in 49 deg.  N., 80 deg.  W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands.  
It is shallow, and the shores in its vicinity are covered 
with small timber.  It was formerly employed by the Hudson's 
Bay Company as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the 
north.  The construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway 
through this district has made it of some importance.  Its 
outlet is Abitibbi river, a rapid stream, which after a course 
of 200 m. joins the Moose river, flowing into James Bay. 

ABJURATION (from Lat. abjurare, to forswear), a solemn 
repudiation or renunciation on oath.  At common law, it 
signified the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to 
leave the realm for ever; this was abolished in the reign of 
James I. The Oath at Abjuration, in English history, was 
a solemn disclaimer, taken by members of parliament, clergy 
and laymen against the right of the Stuarts to the crown, 
imposed by laws of William III., George I. and George III.; 
but its place has since been taken by the oath of allegiance. 

ABKHASIA, or ABHASIA, a tract of Russian Caucasia, 
government of Kutais.  The Caucasus mountains on the N. and 
N.E. divides it from Circassia; on the S.E. it is bounded 
by Mingrelia; and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the 
country is generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and 
walnut, there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the 
climate is mild.  The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, 
grapes, figs, pomegranates and wine.  Cattle and horses are 
bred.  Honey is produced; and excellent arms are made.  This 
country was subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who 
introduced Christianity.  Native dynasties ruled from 735 to 
the 15th century, when the region was conquered by the Turks 
and became Mahommedan.  The Russians acquired possession 
of it piecemeal between 1829 and 1842, but their power was 
not firmly established until after 1864.  Area, 2800 sq. 
m.  The principal town is Sukhum-kaleh.  Pop. 43,000, of whom 
two-thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess 
or Circassian race.  The total number of Abkhasians in the 
two governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1897; large 
numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878. 

ABLATION (from Lat. ablatus, carried away), the process of 
removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the wearing 
away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative removal. 

ABLATITIOUS (from Lat. ablatus, taken away). reducina 
or withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes 
between the moon and the earth to lessen the strength 
of gravitation is called ``ablatitious,'' just as it is 
called ``addititious'' when it increases that strength. 

ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. casus, from ablatum, taken 
away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense 
of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in 
which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without 
a preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the 
place or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done.  The 
case is also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and 
traces remain in other languages.  The ``Ablative Absolute,'' 
a grammatical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in 
the ablative case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying 
word agreeing with it, not depending on any other part of the 
sentence, to express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact. 

ABLUTION (Lat. ablutio, from ablucre, ``to wash off''), 
a washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that 
ceremonial or ritualistic purity which must not be confused 
with the physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and 
things obtained by the use of soap and water.1 Indeed the 
two states may contradict each other, as in the case of the 
4th-century Christian pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that 
she had not washed ner face for eighteen years for fear of 
removing therefrom the holy chrism of baptism.  The purport, 
then, of ablutions is to remove, not dust and dirt, but the---to 
us imaginary--stains contracted by contact with the dead, 
with childbirth, with menstruous women, with murder whether 
wilful or involuntary, with almost any form of bloodshed, with 
persons of inferior caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. 
leather or excrement, with leprosy, madness and any form of 
disease.  Among all races in a certain grade of development 
such associations are vaguely felt to be dangerous and to impair 
vitality.  In a later stage the taint is regarded as alive, 
as a demon or evil spirit alighting on and passing into the 
things and persons exposed to contamination.  In general, 
water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the materials used in 
ablutions.  Of these water is the commonest, and its efficacy 
is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a magical or 
sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual blessing or 
consecration.  Some concrete examples will best illustrate the 
nature of such ablutions.  In the Atharva-Veda, vii. 116, 
we have this allopathic remedy for fever.  The patient's skin 
burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to 
the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread, 
and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls 

1 in its technical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is 
the ritual washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers 
after the celebration of Holy Communion in the Catholic 
Church.  The wine and water used for this purpose are themselves 
sometimes called ``the ablution.'' on the frog.  Let the 
medicine man or magician pray that the fever may pass into 
the frog, and the frog be forthwith re-leased, and the cure 
will be effected.  In the old Athenian Anthesteria the blood 
of victims was poured over the unclean.  A bath of bulls' 
blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the mysteries of 
Attis.  The water must in ritual washings run off in order 
to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease; and 
accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or 
running water.  Nor was it enough that the person baptized 
should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it 
over his head, so that it run down his person.  Similarly 
the Brahman takes care, after ablution of a person, to wipe 
the cathartic water off from head to feet downwards, that the 
malign influence may pass out through the feet.  The same care 
is shown in ritual ablutions in the Bukovina and elsewhere. 

Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual 
cleansings, says Iamblichus in his book on mysteries (v. 23), 
as being specially full of the divine nature.  Nevertheless in 
all religions, and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, 
the cathartic virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction 
into it by means of suitable prayers and incantations of 
a divine or magical power.  Ablutions both of persons and 
things are usually cathartic, that is, intended to purge 
away evil influences (kathairein, to make katharos, 
pure).  But, as Robertson Smith observes, ``holiness is 
contagious, just as uncleanness is''; and common things and 
persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous 
and useless for daily life through the mere infection of 
holiness.  Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo 
for one whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew 
sin-offering fell on a garment it had to be ritually washed 
off.  It was as necessary in the Hebrew religion for the 
priest to wash his hands ofter handling the sacred volume as 
before.  Christians might not enter a church to say their 
prayers without first washing their hands.  So Chrysostom 
says: ``Although our hands may be already pure, yet unless 
we have washed them thoroughly, we do not spread them upwards 
in prayer.'' Tertullian (c. 200) had long before condemned 
this as a heathen custom; none the less, it was insisted on 
in later ages, and is a survival of the pagan lustrations or 
perirranteria. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest sprinkled 
Julian and Valentinian with water according to the heathen custom 
as they entered his temple.  The same custom prevails among 
Mahommedans.  Porphyry (de Abst. ii. 44) relates that one 
who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine anger must bathe 
and wash his clothes in running water before returning to his 
city and home, and similar scruples in regard to holy objects 
and persons have been observed among the natives of Polynesia, 
New Zealand and ancient Egypt.  The rites, met within all 
lands, of pouring out water or bathing in order to produce 
rain from heaven, differ in their significance from ablutions 
with water and belong to the realm of sympathetic magic. 

There are certain forms of purification which one does not 
know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings.  Thus 
Demosthenes in his speech ``On the crown', accused Aeschines 
of having ``purified the initiated and wiped them clean 
with (not from) mud and pitch.'' Smearing with gypsum 
(titanos. titanos) had a similar purifying effect, 
and it has been suggested i that the Titans were no more 
than old-world votaries who had so disguised themselves.  
Perhaps the use of ashes in mourning had the same origin.  
In the rite of death-bed penance given in the old Mozarabic 
Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured over the sick man. 

AUTHORITIES.--W.  R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; 
Jul. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums (=Skizzen und 
Verarbeiten, ritualibus (Tubingae, 1732); Art. ``Clean 
and Unclean'' in Hastings' Bible Dictionary and in Jewish 
Encyclopedia, vol. iv.; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, 
Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities 
(of the Christian Church, bk. viii.; Hermann Oldenberg, 
Die Religion des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (F. C. C.) 

ABNAKI (``the whitening sky at daybreak,'' i.e. Easterners), 
a confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock, 


1 By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Creek Religion, p. 493. 


called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial 
writers.  It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridgewock, 
Malecite and other tribes.  It formerly occupied what is now 
Maine and southern New Brunswick.  All the tribes were loyal 
to the French during the early years of the 18th century, but 
after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew to St 
Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement with 
the British authorities.  The Abnaki now number some 1600. 

For details see Handbook of American Indians, 
edited by F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907). . 

ABNER (Hebrew for ``father of [or is a light''), in 
the Bible, first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of 
his army (I Sam. xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred 
to incidentally in Saul's history (1 Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 
5), and is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous 
battle of Gilboa when Saul's power was crushed.  Seizing 
the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set him up as king over 
Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan.  David, who was 
accepted as king by Judah alone, was meanwhile reigning at 
Hebron, and for some time war was carried on between the two 
parties.  The only engagement between the rival factions which 
is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded 
by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve chosen men from each 
side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished 
(2 Sam. ii. 12).i In the general engagement which followed, 
Abner was defeated and put to flight.  He was closely pursued 
by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have been ``light 
of foot as a wild roe.'' As Asahel would not desist from the 
pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in 
self-defence.  This originated a deadly feud between the 
leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to 
Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger 
of his blood.  For some time afterwards the war was carried 
on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David.  At 
length Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by 
remonstrating with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's 
concubines, an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, 
implied pretensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam. xvi. 21 sqq.; 1 
Kings ii. 21 sqq.).  Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, 
and immediately opened negotiations with David, who welcomed 
him on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to 
him.  This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a 
feast.  Almost immediately after, however.  Joab, who had 
been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew 
Abner at the gate of Hebron.  The ostensible motive for the 
assassination was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would 
be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the 
moral standard of the time.  The conduct of David after the 
event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the 
act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators 
(2 Sam. iii. 31-39; cp. 1 Kings ii. 31 seq.). (See DAVID.) 

1 The object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name 
Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency.  Bib. col. 
2006; Batten in Zeit. f. alt-test.  Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.). 

ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital 
of the province of Abo-Bjorneborg, in the grand duchy of 
Finland, on the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls 
into the gulf of Bothnia.  Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; 
(1904) 42,639.  It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg 
via Tavastehus, and is in regular steamer communication 
with St Petersburg, Vasa, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull.  
It was already a place of importance when Finland formed 
part of the kingdom of Sweden.  When the Estates of Finland 
seceded from Sweden and accepted the Emperor Alexander of 
Russia as their grand duke at the Diet of Borga in 1809, 
Abo became the capital of the new state, and so remained 
till 1819 when the seat of government was transferred to 
Helsingfors.  In November 1827 nearly the whole city was burnt 
down, the university and its valuable library being entirely 
destroyed.  Before this calamity Abo contained 1110 houses 
and 13,000 inhabitants; and its university had 40 professors, 
more than 500 students, and a library of upwards of 30,000 
volumes, together with a botanical garden, an observatory and 
a chemical laboratory.  The university has since been removed 
to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesiastical capital of 
Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop and contains a 
fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored after the fire of 
1827.  The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry, the patron saint 
of Finland, an English missionary who introduced Christianity 
into the country in the 12th century.  Abo is the seat of the 
first of the three courts of appeal of Finland.  It has two high 
schools, a school of commerce and a school of navigation.  The 
city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade; sail-cloth, 
cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are extensive 
saw-mills.  There is also a large trade in timber and a 
considerable butter export.  Ship-building has considerably 
developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian 
navy.  Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, 
but ships of greater draught are laden and discharged at its 
harbour (Bornholm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered 
yearly by from 700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons. 

ABO-BJORNEBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of 
Finland and including the Aland islands.  It has a total 
area of 24,171 square kilometres and a population (1900) of 
447,098, of whom 379,622 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 
446,900 were of the Lutheran religion.  The province occupies 
a prominent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, 
sugar refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c. 
Its chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), 
Raumo (5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1171), Nadendal (917). 

ABODE (from ``abide,'' to dwell, properly ``to wait for'', to 
bide), generally, a dwelling.  In English law this term has a 
more restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate 
the place of a man's residence or business, whether that be 
either temporary or permanent.  The law may regard for certain 
purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on 
business, though he may reside elsewhere) so that the term 
has come to have a looser significance than residence, 
which has been defined as ``where a man lives with his family 
and sleeps at night'' (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 
772).  In serving a notice of action, a solicitor's place of 
business may be given as his abode (Roberts v. Williams, 
1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more recent decisions it 
has been similarly held that where a notice was required 
to be served under the Public Health Act 18l5, either 
personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's 
``place of abode,'' a place of business was sufficient. 

ABOMASUM (caillette), the fourth or rennet stomach of 
Ruminantia.  From the omasum the food is finally deposited 
in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the 
second or third stomach, although less than the first.  The base 
of the abomasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular 
conical form.  It is that part of the digestive apparatus 
which is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as 
the food there undergoes the process of chymification, after 
being macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs. 

ABOMEY, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West 
Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name.  
It is 70 m.  N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has 
a population of about 15,000.  Abomey is built on a rolling 
plain, 800 ft. above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to 
the N.W., where it is bounded by a long depression.  The town 
was surrounded by a mud wall, pierced by six gates, and was 
further protected by a ditch 5 ft. deep, filled with a dense 
growth of prickly acacia, the usual defence of West African 
strongholds.  Within the walls, which had a circumference of 
six miles, were villages separated by fields, several royal 
palaces, a market-place and a large square containing the 
barracks.  In November 1892, Behanzin, the king of Dahomey, 
being defeated by the French, set fire to Abomey and fled 
northward.  Under French administration the town has been 
rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway communication with the coast, 
and given an ample water supply by the sinking of artesian wells. 

ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and ominare, to forebode), 
anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with aversion; 
a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines 
or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect
derivation was ab homine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the 
adjective ``abominable'' in the first Shakespeare folio is always 
``abhominable.'' Colloquially ``abomination'' and ``abominable'' 
are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense. 

ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of 
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors.  It 
lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern 
Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishmi Hills 
and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe 
extending to the Dibong river.  The term Abor is an Assamese 
word, signifying ``barbarous'' or ``independent,'' and is applied 
in a general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; 
but in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above 
tract.  The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, 
Daphlas and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan 
stock.  They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided 
in their political relations.  In former times they committed 
frequent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the 
object of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British 
government.  In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition. 
home military police sepoys were murdered in British territory, 
and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor 
country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder 
and all other villages that opposed the expedition.  A second 
expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having 
been treacherously murdered; and a force of 100 British troops 
traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes, 
while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900. 

See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872. 

ABORIGINES, 
a mythical people of central Italy, connected in legendary 
history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander.  They were supposed 
to have descended from their mountain home near Reate (an 
ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they expelled the 
Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini under a King 
Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most generally accepted 
etymology of the name (ab origine), according to which they 
were the original inhabitants ( = Gk. autochthones) of the 
country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities 
(e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic 
immigrants, not as a native Italian people.  Other explanations 
suggested are arborigines, ``tree-born,'' and aberrigines, 
``nomads.'' Historical and ethnographical discussions have 
led to no result; the most that can be said is that, if not 
a general term, ``aborigines'' may be the name of an Italian 
stock, about whom the ancients knew no more than ourselves` 

In modern times the term ``Aborigines'' has been extended in 
signification, and is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a 
country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or 
new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is known. 

The Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in 
England as the result of a royal commission appointed at 
the instance of Sir T. Fowell Buxton to inquire into the 
treatment of the indigenous populations of the various British 
colonies.  The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice 
with which the natives had been often treated.  Since its 
foundation the society has done much to make English colonization 
a synonym for humane and generous treatment of savage races. 

ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish), 
in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the 
contents of the pregnant uterus.  It is a common terminology to 
call premature labour of an accidental type a ``miscarriage,', 
in order to distinguish ``abortion', as a deliberately induced 
act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as 
a criminal proceeding (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE); otherwise 
the term ``abortion'' would ordinarily be used when occurring 
before the eighth month of gestation, and ``premature labour'' 
subsequently.  As an accident of pregnancy, it is far fram 
uncommon, although its relative frequency'' as compared 
with that of completed gestation, has been very differently 
estimated by accoucheurs.  It is more liable to occur in 
the earlier than in the later months of pregnancy, and 
it would also appear to occur more readily at the periods 
corresponding to those of the menstrual discharge.  It may 
be induced by numerous causes, both of a local and general 
nature.  Malformations of the pelvis, accidental injuries 
and the diseases and displacements to which the uterus is 
liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various morbid 
conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death of 
the foetus, are among the direct local causes.  The general 
causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to 
exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of 
utero-gestation.  The tendency to recurrence in persons who 
have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever 
be borne in mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely 
to lead to a repetition of the accident.  Abortion resembles 
ordinary labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in 
the former hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of 
the leading symptoms.  The treatment embraces the means to 
be used by rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the 
occurrence when it merely threatens; or when, on the contrary, 
it is inevitable, to accomplish as speedily as possible 
the complete removal of the entire contents of the uterus. 

Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a 
far less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a 
simpler way of getting rid of inconvenient progeny.  But it 
is common among the American Indians, as well as in China, 
Cambodia and India, although throughout Asia it is generally 
contrary both to law and religion.  How far it was considered 
a crime among the civilized nations of antiquity has long been 
debated.  Those who maintain the impunity of the practice rely 
for their authority upon certain passages in the classical 
authors, which, while bitterly lamenting the frequency of this 
enormity, yet never allude to any laws by which it might be 
suppressed.  For example, in one of Plato's dialogues 
(Theaet.), Socrates is made to speak of artificial 
abortion as a practice, not only common but allowable; 
and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic (lib. 
v.).  Aristotle (Polit. 222hb. vii. c. 17) gives it as his 
opinion that no child ought to be suffered to come into the 
world, the mother being above forty or the father above 
fifty-five years of age.  Lysias maintained, in one of his 
pleadings quoted by Harpocration, that forced abortion could 
not be considered homicide, because a child in utero was 
not an animal, and had no separate existence.  Among the 
Romans, Ovid (Amor. hb. ii.), Juvenal (Sat. vi. 594) and 
Seneca Consol. ad Hel. 16) mention the frequency of the 
offence, but maintain silence as to any laws for punishing 
it.  On the other hand, it is argued that the authority of 
Galen and Cicero (pro Cluentio) place it beyond a doubt 
that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity, the 
offence in question was sometimes punished by death; that the 
authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and that the 
speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters of 
legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state 
of the laws.  Moreover, Stobaeus (Serm. 73) has preserved 
a passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly 
states that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on 
females who caused themselves to abort.  After the spread of 
Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became equally 
criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian hordes 
which afterwards overran the empire also treated the offence 
as a crime punishable Fith death.  This severe penalty remained 
in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle 
Ages.  With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments 
so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion as 
to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not yet 
born.  But the exact period of transition is not clearly marked. 

In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion only 
as an ecclesiastical offence.  Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676) 
tells us that if anything is done to ``a woman quick or great 
with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within 
her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law 
of England, because it is not yet in rerum natura.'' But 
the common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a 
misdemeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an 
infant, though unsuccessful.  Blackstone (1723-1780), to be 
sure, a hundred years later, says that, ``if a woman is quick 
with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her 
womb, or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her 
body, and she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not 
murder, was, by the ancient law, homicide or manslaughter.'' 
Whatever may have been the exact view taken by the common 
law, the offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making 
the attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or 
not being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable 
with fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any 
term not exceeding fourteen years.  Should the woman have 
proved to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with 
death.  The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 
1828.  The English law on the subject is now governed by 
the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which makes the 
attempting to cause miscarriage by administering poison or 
other noxious thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally 
a felony, whether the woman be, or be not, with child.  No 
distinction is now made as to whether the foetus is or is not 
alive, legislation appearing to make the offence statutory 
with the object of prohibiting any risk to the life of the 
mother.  If a woman administers to herself any poison or 
other noxious thing, or unlawfully uses any instrument or 
other means to procure her own miscarriage, she is guilty of 
felony.  The punishment for the offence is penal servitude 
for life or not less than three years, or imprisonment 
for not more than two years.  If a child is born alive, 
but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means 
employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the 
general law as to accessories applies to the offence. 

In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now 
punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment.  
Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the 
abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several 
codes (notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize 
the life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more 
severe if abortion has been caused in the later stages of 
pregnancy, or if the woman is married.  According to the weight 
of authority in the United States abortion was not regarded 
as a punishable offence at common law, if the abortion was 
produced with the consent of the mother prior to the time 
when she became quick with child; but the Supreme Courts of 
Pennsylvania and North Carolina held it a crime at common 
law, which might be committed as soon as gestation had begun 
(Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St. 630; State v. Slagle, 83 
N.C. 630).  The attempt is a punishable offence in several 
states, but not in Ohio.  Nor was it ever murder at common 
law to take the life of the child at any period of gestation, 
even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78 Ky. 
204).  If the death of the woman results it is murder at 
common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 263).  It is 
now a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the 
woman must be actually pregnant.  In most states not only is 
the person who causes the abortion punishable, but also any 
one who supplies any drug or instrument for the purpose.  The 
woman, however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in 
Ohio, State v. M`Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty 
of any crime unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, 
sec.  295) and California (Penal Code, sec.  275) and Connecticut 
(Gen.  Stats. 1902, sec.  1156).  She may be a witness, and her 
testimony does not need corroboration.  The attempt is also a 
crime in New York (1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566). 

AUTHORITIES.---Ploncouet, Commentarius Medicus in processus 
criminales super homicidie et infanticidio, &c. (1736); 
Burao Ryan, Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention 
and History (1862); G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws 
referring to Child-Murder and Criminal Abortion (1864); 
Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion, its Nature, Evidence 
and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne, Infanticide, its 
Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857); T. R. Beck, Medical 
Jurisprudence (1842); A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice 
of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History 
of the Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell, 
Crimes and Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's 
Pleading and Evidence in Criminal:Cases (1900); Roscoe's 
Evidence in Criminall Cases (1898) Treub, van Oppenraag and 
Vlaming, The Right to Life of the Unborn Child (New 
York, 1903); L. Hochheimer, Crimes and Criminal Procedure 
(York, 1897); A. A. Tardieu, Etude medico-legal sur 
l'avortement (Paris, 1904); F. Berolzheimer, System der 
Rechts- und Wissenschaftsphilosophie (Munich, 1904). 

ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, 14 1/2 
m.  N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used 
as a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village are 
many remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and 
Roman.  About 2 m.  S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to 
mark the site of Canopus.  A little farther east the Canopic 
branch of the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean. 

Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the 
Nile is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the 1st of 
August 1798 Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often 
referred to as the battle of Aboukir.  The latter title is 
applied more properly to an engagement between the French 
expeditionary army and the Turks fought on the 25th of July 
1799.  Near Aboukir, on the 8th of March 1801, the British 
army commanded by Sir R. Abercromby landed from its transports 
in the face of a strenuous opposition from a French force 
entrenched on the beach. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) 

ABOUT, EDMOND FRANCOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885), French novelist, 
publicist and journalist, was born on the 14th of February 
1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine.  The boy's school career was 
brilliant.  In 1848 he entered the Ecole Normale, taking the 
second place in the annual competition for admission, Taine being 
first.  Among his college contemporaries were Taine, Francisque, 
Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred Prevost-Paradol.  
Of them all About was, according to Sarcey, the most highly 
vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and ``undisciplined.'' At 
the end of his college career he joined the French school in 
Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had never 
been his intention to follow the professorial career, for 
which the Ecole Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he 
returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and 
journalism.  A book on Greece, La Grece contemporaine (1855), 
which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate 
success.  In Tolla (1855) About was charged with drawing too 
freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittoria Savelii (Paris, 
1841).  This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he 
was the object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready 
enough to retaliate.  The Lettres d'un bon jeune homme, 
written to the Figaro under the signature of Valentin de 
Quevilly, provoked more animosities.  During the next few 
years, with indefatigable energy, and generally with full 
public recognition, he wrote novels, stories, a play---which 
failed,---a book-pamphlet on the Roman question, many 
pamphlets on other subjects of the day, newspaper articles 
innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders to the attacks 
of his enemies, and popular manuals of political economy, L'A 
B C du travailleur (1868), Le progres (1864).  About's 
attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend.  He 
believed in its improvability, greeted the liberal ministry 
of Emile Ollivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and 
welcomed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a 
terrible morrow.  For his own personal part he lost the loved 
home near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858 
out of the fruits of his earlier literary successes.  With 
the fall of the empire he became a republican, and, always an 
inveterate anti-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into 
the battle against the conservative reaction which made head 
during the first years of the republic.  From 1872 onwards 
for some five or six years his paper, the XIXe Siecle, 
of which he was the heart and soul, became a power in the 
land.  But the republicans never quite forgave the tardiness 
of his conversion, and no place rewarded his later zeal.  On 
the 23rd January 1884 he was elected a member of the French 
Academy, but died on the 16th of January 1885, before taking his 
seat.  His journalism---of which specimens in his earlier 
and later manners will be found in the two series of Lettres 
d'un bon jeune homme a sa cousine Madeleine (1861 and 
1863), and the posthumous Collection, Le dix-neuvieme 
siecle (1892)---was of its nature ephemeral.  So were 
the pamphlets, great and small.  His political economy 
was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch.
making.  His dramas are negligible.  His more serious novels, 
Madelon (1863), L'infame (1867), the three that form the 
trilogy of the Vieille Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un 
brave homme (1880)---a kind of counterblast to the view of 
the French workman presented in Zola's Assommoir---contain 
striking and amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are 
often suggestive of the stage, while description, dissertation, 
explanation too frequently take the place of life.  His best 
work after all is to be found in the books that are almost 
wholly farcical, Le nez d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des 
montagnes (1856); L'homme a l'oreille cassee (1862); 
Trente et quarante (1858); Le cas de M. Guerin (1862).  
Here his most genuine wit, his sprightliness, his vivacity, 
the fancy that was in him, have free play. ``You will never 
be more than a little Voltaire,'' said one of his masters when 
he was a lad at school.  It was a true prophecy. (F. T. M.) 

ABRABANEL, ISAAC, called also ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL 
(1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and 
commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which 
claimed descent from the royal house of David.  Like many of 
the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political 
ability He held a high place in the favour of King Alphonso 
V., who entrusted him with the management of important state 
affairs.  On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors 
and favourites were harshly treated by his successor John, 
and Abrabanel was compelled to flee to Spain, where he held 
for eight years (14841492) the post of a minister of state 
under Ferdinand and Isabella.  When the Jews were banished 
from Spain in 1492, no exception was made in Abrabanel's 
favour.  He afterwards resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, 
and in 1503 removed to Venice, where he held office as a 
minister of state till his death in 1508.  His repute as 
a commentator on the Scriptures is still high; in the 17th 
and 18th centuries he was much read by Christians such as 
Buxtorf.  Abrabanel often quotes Christian authorities, 
though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic passages.  
He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis it 
was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden 
times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of 
statecraft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings. 

ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas (q.v.), used as 
a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides 
in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and 
misfortune.  It is found on Abraxas stones which were worn as 
amulets.  Subsequently its use spread beyond the Gnostics, 
and in modern times it is applied contemptuously (e g. by 
the early opponents of the evolution theory) to a conception 
or hypothesis which purports to be a simple solution of 
apparently insoluble phenomena.  The Gnostic physician Serenus 
Sammonicus gave precise instructions as to its mystical use 
in averting or curing agues and fevers generally.  The paper 
on which the word was written had to be folded in the form 
of a cross, suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so 
as to rest on the pit of the stomach, worn in this way for 
nine days, and then, before sunrise, cast behind the wearer 
into a stream running to the east.  The letters were usually 
arranged as a triangle in one of the following ways:-- 


 
 ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA
 
 ABRACADABR BRACADABR
 
 ABRACADAB RACADAB
 
 ABRACADA ACADA
 
 ABRACAD CAD
 
 ABRACA A
 
 ABRAC
 
 ABRA
 
 ABR.
 
 AB
 
 A
 

ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for ``father is high''), the 
ancestor of the Israelites, the first of the great Biblical 
patriarchs.  His life as narrated in the book of Genesis 
reflects the traditions of different ages.  It is the latest 
writer (P) who mentions Abram (the original form of the name), 
Nahor and Haran, sons of Terah, at the close of a genealogy 
of the sons of Shem, which includes among its members Eber 
the eponym of the Hebrews.  Terah is said to have come from 
Ur of the Chaldees, usually identified with Mukayyar in south 
Babylonia.  He migrated to Haran1 in Mesopotamia, apparently 
the classical Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor.  Thence, 
after a short stay, Abram with his wife Sarai, and Lot 
the son of Haran, and all their followers, departed for 
Canaan.  The oldest tradition does not know of this twofold 
move, and seems to locate Abram's birthplace and the homes 
of his kindred at Haran (Gen. xxiv. 4, 7, xxvii. 43). At 
the divine command, and encouraged by the promise that Yahweh 
would make of him, although hitherto childless, a great 
nation, he journeyed down to Shechem, and at the sacred tree 
(cf. xxxv. 4, Josh. xxiv. 26, Judg. ix. 6) received a new 
promise that the land would be given unto his seed.  Having 
built an altar to commemorate the theophany, he removed to a 
spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another altar and 
called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. xii. 
1-9).  Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between 
his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot 
that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first 
choice.  Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the 
Jordan, whilst Abram, after receiving another promise from 
Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron and built an 
altar.  In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction 
of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abram appears prominently in a 
fine passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of 
Sodom, and is promised that if ten righteous men can be 
found therein the city shall be preserved (xviii. 16-33). 

A peculiar passage, more valuable for the light it throws upon 
primitive ideas than for its contribution to the history of 
Abram, narrates the patriarch's visit to Egypt.  Driven by a 
famine to take refuge in Egypt (cf. xxvi. 11 xli. 57, xlii. 
1), he feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil 
designs of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety, 
and alleged that Sarai was his sister.  This did not save 
her from the Pharaoh, who took her into the royal harem and 
enriched Abram with herds and servants.  But when Yahweh 
``plagued Pharaoh and his house with great plagues'' suspicion 
was aroused, and the Pharaoh rebuked the patriarch for his 
deceit and sent him away under an escort (xii. 10-xiii. 
1). This story of Abram and his increased wealth (xiii. 2) 
receives no comment at the hands of the narrator, and in its 
present position would make Sarai over sixty years of age 
(xii. 4, xvii. 1, 17). A similar experience is said to have 
happened to Abraham and Sarah at Gerar with the Philistine 
king Abimelech (xx. E), but the tone of the narrative is 
noticeably more advanced, and the presents which the patriarch 
receives are compensation for the king's offence.  Here, 
however, Sarah has reached her ninetieth year (xvii. 17). 
(The dates are due to the post-exilic framework in which 
the stories are inserted.) Still another episode of the same 
nature is re-corded of Isaac and Rebekah at Gerar, also with 
Abimelech.  Ethically it is the loftiest, and Isaac obtains 
his wealth simply through his successful farming.  Arising out 
of the incident is an account of a covenant between Abimelech 
and Isaac (xxvi. 16-33, J), a duplicate of which is placed in 
the time of Abraham (xxi. 22-34, J and E). Beersheba, which 
figures in both, is celebrated by the planting of a sacred 
tree and (like Bethel) by the invocation of the name of 
Yahweh.  This district is the scene of the birth of Ishmael 
and Isaac.  As Sarai was barren (cf. xi. 30)2 the promise 
that his seed should possess the land seemed incapable of 
fulfilment.  According to one rather obscure narrative, 
Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his household, 
apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus3 (xv. 2, the text is 
corrupt).  He is now promised as heir one of his own flesh, 
and a remarkable and solemn passage records bow the promise 
was ratified by a covenant.  The description is particularly 
noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey, 
which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial 
covenant.  The interpretation of the evil omen is explained 
by an allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt 
and their return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast 
v. 13, after four hundred years; the chapter is extremely 
intricate and has the appearance of being of secondary 
origin).  The main narrative now relates how Sarai, in 
accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid 
Hagar, who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon 
her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the 
reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of Hannah, 1 Sam. i. 
6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (xvi. 
1-14, J; on the details see ISHMAEL.) Another tradition 
places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac.  
It was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according 
to the latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with 
a renewed promise that his posterity should inhabit the 
land.  To mark the solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's 
name was changed to Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah.4 
A covenant was concluded with him for all time, and as a sign 
thereof the rite of circumcision was instituted (xvii.  P). 
The promise of a son to Sarah made Abraham ``laugh'', a punning 
allusion to the name Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other 
forms.  Thus, it is Sarah herself who ``laughs'' at the 
idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, 
J), or who, when the child is horn cries ``God hath made 
me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me'' (xxi. 
6, E). Finally, there is yet another story which attributes 
the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's jealousy at the 
sight of Ishmael's ``mocking'' (rather dancing or playing, the 
intensive form of the verb ``to laugh'') on the feast day when 
Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.).  But this last story is clearly 
out of place, since a child who was then fourteen years old 
(cf. xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak 
babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries). 

Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in the land of 
Moriah.  Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an angel as 
he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram which he 
found on the spot.  As a reward for his obedience he received 
another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity 
(xxii.  E). Thence he returned to Beersheba.  The story is 
one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that human 
sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic. vi. 7 
seq.).  The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac 
alone.  To his ``only son'' (cp. xxii. 2, 12) Abraham gave 
all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the 
lands outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less 
intimately related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 
6). The measures taken by the patriarch for the marriage 
of Isaac are circumstantially described.  His head-servant 
was sent to his master's country and kindred to find a 
suitable bride, and the necessary preparation for the story 
is contained in the description of Nahor's family (xxii. 
20-24).  The picturesque account of the meeting with Rebekah 
throws interesting light on oriental custom.  Marriage with 
one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxvii. 46, xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), 
and especially with a cousin, is recommended now even as in the 
past.  For its charm the story is comparable with the account 
of Jacob's experiences in the same land (xxix.).  For the 
completion of the history of Abraham the compiler of Genesis 
has used P's narrative.  Sarah is said to have died at a good 
old age, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, 
which the patriarch had purchased, with the adjoining field, 
from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.); and here he himself was 
buried.  Centuries later the tomb became a place of pilgrimage 
and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque.5 

The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of 
Old Testament theology than for the history of Israel.  He 
became to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and 
stood at their head as the founder of the nation, the one to 
whom Yahweh had manifested his love by frequent promises and 
covenants.  From the time when he was bidden to leave his 
country to enter the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to 
encourage him to trust in the future when his posterity should 
possess the land, and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could 
turn for consolation to the promises of the past which enshrined 
in Abraham its hopes for the future.  Not only is Abraham the 
founder of religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, 
stands out most prominently as the recipient of the promises 
(xii. 2 seq. 7, xiii. 14-17, xv., xvii., xviii. 17-19, xxii. 
17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these the apostle Paul associates 
with the coming of Christ, and, adopting a characteristic 
and artificial style of interpretation prevalent in his time, 
endeavours to force a Messianic interpretation out of them.6 

For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the 
same value as other stories of traditional ancestors.  The 
narratives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an 
idealized sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., 
see below), about whose person a number of stories have 
gathered.  As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately 
the common ancestor of the Israelites and their nomadic 
fierce neighbours, men roving unrestrainedly like the wild 
ass, troubled by and troubling every one (xvi. 12). As the 
father of Midian, Sheba and other Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), 
it is evident that some degree of kinship was felt by the 
Hebrews with the dwellers of the more distant south, and 
it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers 
(Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending scale as 
regards purity of blood.  This great ancestral figure came, 
it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence to 
Canaan.  Late tradition supposed that the migration was 
to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.; 
cf.  Josh. xxiv. 2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape 
from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance 
in Is. xxix. 22). The route along the banks of the Euphrates 
from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating 
tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, 
but the prominence given in the older narratives to the view 
that Haran was the home gives this the preference.  It was 
thence that Jacob, the father of the tribes of Israel, came 
and the route to Shechem and Bethel is precisely the same in 
both.  A twofold migration is doubtful, and, from what is 
known of the situation in Palestine in the 15th century 
B.C., is extremely improbable.  Further, there is yet 
another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua 
(q.v.), partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. 
also Josh. viii. 9 with Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3), whence it would 
appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any 
ethnological interpretation which fails to account for the three 
versions.  That similar traditional elements have influenced 
them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical 
foundation is difficult.  The invasion or immigration of 
certain tribes from the east of the Jordan; the presence 
of Aramaean blood among the Israelites (see JACOB); the 
origin of the sanctity of venerable sites,---these and other 
considerations may readily be found to account .for the 
traditions.  Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham 
and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctuating state of 
traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life 
has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular 
lore.7 More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at 
Bethel.  The district was the scene of contests between 
Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.), and if this 
explains part of the story, the physical configuration of 
the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the destruction of 
inhospitable and vicious cities (see SODOM AND GOMORRAH.) 

Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently.  
He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (q.v.), 
as the head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; 
or, since Ur and Haran were seats of Moon-worship, he has 
been identified with a moon-god.  From the character of 
the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it 
has been held that Abraham was originally associated with 
Hebron.  The double name AbramAbraham has even suggested 
that two personages have been combined in the Biblical 
narrative; although this does not explain the change from 
Sarai to Sarah.8 But it is important to remember that the 
narratives are not contemporary, and that the interesting 
discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on Babylonian contracts 
of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the Abram of the Old 
Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that 
there were ``Amorites'' in Babylonia at the same period 
does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their 
number.  One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with 
kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.).  No longer a peaceful 
sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers,9 
he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have 
ravaged the land.  The genuineness of the narrative has been 
strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds. 

``It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite 
an isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the 
only passage which presents Abraham in the character of a 
warrior, and connects him with historical names and political 
movements, and there are no clear marks by which it can be 
assigned to any one of the documents of which Genesis is made 
up.  Thus, while one school of interpreters finds in the chapter 
the earliest fragment of the political history of western Asia, 
some even holding with Ewald that the narrative is probably 
based on old Canaanite records, other critics, as Noldeke, 
regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively late in 
origin.  On the latter view, which finds its main support 1n the 
intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible 
to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest 
additions to the Pentateuch (Wellhausen and many others).'' 

On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in 
remote days may have been current, considerable interest is 
attached to the names.  Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar 
(i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with 
Khammurabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings 
(c. 2000 B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as 
far west as the Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found 
considerable favour.  Apart from chronological difficulties, 
the identification of the king and his country is far from 
certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible.  
Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been connected with Eriaku of 
Larsa--the reading has been questioned---a contemporary with 
Khammurabi.  Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, bears what is 
doubtless a genuine Elamite name.  Finally, the name of Tid'al, 
king of Goiim, may be identical with a certain Tudhulu the 
son of Gazza, a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is 
mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and Goiim may stand 
for Gutim, the Guti being a people who lived to the east of 
Kurdistan.  Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental 
evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story, and at 
the most it can only be said that the author (of whatever 
date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, 
and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian 
overlords has given expression to a possible situation.11 
The improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative 
remain untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be 
historical.  If, as most critics agree, it is a historical 
romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible 
that a writer, preferably one who lived in the post-exilic 
age and was acquainted with Babylonian history, desired to 
enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military 
success against the monarchs of the Tigris and Euphrates, 
the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his lofty 
character as displayed in his interview with Melchizedek. 

See further, Pinches, Old Test. in Light of Hist.  Records, 
pp. 208. 236) Driver, Genesis, p. xlix., and notes on ch. 
xiv.; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, ii. pp. 208-213; 
Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, i. pp. 
157-159, 168, Bezold, Bab.-Assyr. Keilinschriften, pp. 24 
sqq., 54 sqq.; A. Jeremias, Altes Test. im Lichte d.  Alten 
Orients,2,, pp. 343 seq.; also the literature to the art. 
GENESIS.  Many fanciful legends about Abraham founded on 
Biblical accounts or spun out of the fancy are to be found in 
Josephus, and in post-Biblical and Mahommedan literature; 
for these, reference may be made to Beer, Leben Abrahams 
(1859); Grunbaum, Neue Beitrage z. semit.  Sagenkunde, 
pp. 89 seq. (1893); the apocryphal ``Testament of Abraham'' 
(M. R. James in Texts and Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, 
Original Sources of the Quran, passim (1905). (S. A. C.) 

1 The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son of Terah. 

2 Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories 
of Rebekah, Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah 
(Gen. xxv. 21, xxix. 31; Judg. xiii. 2; 1 Sam. i. 5). 

3Ebram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the traditions 
of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq. 1. 7. 2). 

4 Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning 
``(my) father is exalted''; the meaning of Abraham is obscure a,nd 
the explanation Gen. xvii. 3 is mere word-play.  It is possible 
that raham was originally only a dialectical form of ram. 

5 See Sir Charles Warren's description, Hasting's Dict.  
Bible, vol. iii. pp. 200 seq.  The so-called Babylonian colouring 
of Gen. xxiii. has been much exaggerated; see S. R. Driver, 
Genesis, ad loc.; S. A, Cook, Laws of Moses, p. 208. 

6 See H. St. J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to 
Contemporary Jewish Thought, p. 69 seq. (1900). 

7 On the other hand, the coincidences in xx. xxi. 
are due to E, who is also the author of xxii.  Apart 
from these the narratives of Abraham are from J and P. 

8 According to Breasted (Amer.  Journ. of Sem. Lit., 
1904, p. 56), the ``field of Abram'' occurs among the places 
mentioned in the list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) 
in the 10th century.  See also his History of Egypt, p. 530. 

9 The number is precisely that of the total numerical 
value of the consonants of the name ``Eliezer'' (Gen. 
xv. 2); an astral signification has also been found. 

10 W. R. Smith, Ency.  Brit. (9th ed., 1883), art. ``Melchizedek.'' 

11 That the names may be those of historical personages 
is no proof of historical accuracy: ``We cannot therefore 
conclude that the whole account is accurate history, any more 
than we can argue that Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geirstein 
is throughout a correct account of actual events because we 
know that Charles the Bold and Margaret of Anjou were real 
people'' (W. H. Bennett, Century Bible: Genesis, p. 186). 

ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1709), Austrian divine, 
was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 
1644.  His real name was Ulrich Megerle.  In 1662 he joined 
the order of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name 
by which he is known.  In this order he rose step by step 
until he became prior provincialis and definitor of his 
province.  Having early gained a great reputation for pulpit 
eloquence, he was appointed court preacher at Vienna in 
1669.  The people flocked to hear him, attracted by the 
force and homeliness of his language, the grotesqueness of 
his humour, and the impartial severity with which he lashed 
the follies of all classes of society and of the court in 
particular.  In general he spoke as a man of the people, the 
predominating quality of his style being an overflowing and 
often coarse wit.  There are, however, many passages in his 
sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and uses more 
dignified language.  He died at Vienna on the 1st of December 
1709.  In his published writings he displayed much the same 
qualities as in the pulpit.  Perhaps the most favourable 
specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled 
Judas der Erzschelm (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695). 

His works have been several times reproduced in whole or 
in part though with many serious interpolations.  The best 
edition is that published in 21 vols. at Passau and Lindau 
(1835-1854).  See Th. G. von Karaiesn, Abraham a Sancta 
Clara (Vienna, 1867); Wanckenburr, Studien uber die Sprache 
Abrahams al S. C. (Halle, 1897); Sexto, Abraham a S. C. 
(Sigmaringen, 1896); Schnell, Pater A. a S. C. (Munich, 
1895); H. Mareta, Uber Judas d.  Erzschelm (Vienna, 1875). 

ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer 
and philosopher of Toledo.  His historical work was the 
Book of Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down 
to the year 1161.  This was a defence of the traditional 
record, and also contains valuable information for the 
medieval period.  It was translated into Latin by Genebrad 
(1519).  His philosophy was expounded in an Arabic work 
better known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah Ramah 
(Sublime Faith.) This was translated into German by Well 
(1882).  Ibn Daud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to 
adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly 
neo-Platonists.  Maimonides owed a good deal to him. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the 18th 
century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised 
Abraham.  Believing in one God, they contented themselves 
with the Decalogue and the Paternoster.  Declining to be 
classed either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from 
the edict of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph 
II. in 1781, and deported to various parts of the country, 
the men being drafted into frontier regiments.  Some became 
Roman Catholics, and those who retained their ``Abrahamite', 
views were not able to hand them on to the next generation. 

ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested England 
in Tudor times.  The phrase is certainly as old as 1561, and 
was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients 
discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam.  The genuine 
Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge, 
soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane
privilege was grossly abused, and thus gave 
rise to the slang phrase ``to sham Abraham.'' 

ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of 
Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 
on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of 
the Madrid-Badajoz--Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantes 
line.  Pop. (1900) 7255.  Abrantes, which occupies the crest 
of a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a 
fortified town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and 
grain.  As it commands the highway down the Tagus valley to 
Lisbon, it has usually been regarded as an important military 
position.  Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 
300 B.C., it received the name Aurantes from the Romans; 
perhaps owing to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the 
Tagub.  Roman mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and 
other antiquities have been discovered in the neighbourhood.  
Abrantes was captured on the 24th of November 1807 by the 
French under General Junot, who for this achievement was created 
duke of Abrantes.  By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 
1808) the town was restored to the British and Portuguese. 

ABRASION (from Lat. ab, off, and radere, to scrape), the 
process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving 
ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of 
such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin.  In 
machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented as 
much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting and 
lubrication.  Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive use 
of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery and 
carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their work. 

ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-salze, salts 
to be removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of 
salts, including halite, carnallite, kieserite, &c., found 
in association with rocksalt at Stassfurt in Prussia. 

ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX, a word engraved on certain antique 
stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used 
as amulets or charms.  The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached 
importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into 
use.  The letters of abraxas, in the Greek notation, make 
up the number 365, and the Basilidians gave the name to the 
365 orders of spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in 
succession from the Supreme Being.  These orders were supposed 
to occupy 365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior 
to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was thought 
to be the abode of the spirits who formed the earth and its 
inhabitants, and to whom was committed the administration of 
its affairs.  Abraxas stones are of very little value.  In 
addition to the word Abraxas and other mystical characters, 
they have often cabalistic figures engraved on them.  The 
commonest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms and 
bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of a serpent. 

ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law; 
rogare, literally ``to ask,'' to propose a law), the 
annulling or repealing of a law by legislative action.  
Abrogation, which is the total annulling of a law, is to 
be distinguished from the term derogation, which is used 
where a law is only partially abrogated.  Abrogation may be 
either express or implied.  It is express either when the new 
law pronounces the annulment in general terms, as when in a 
concluding section it announces that all laws contrary to the 
provisions of the new one are repealed, or when in particular 
terms it announces specifically the preceding laws which it 
repeals.  It is implied when the new law contains provisions 
which are positively contrary to the former laws without 
expressly abrogating those laws, or when the condition of things 
for which the law had provided has changed and consequently 
the need for the law no longer exists.  The abrogation of 
any statute revives the provisions of the common law which 
had been abrogated by that statute.  See STATUTE; REPEAL. 

ABRUZZI E MOLISE, a group of provinces (compartimento) 
of Southern Italy, bounded N. by the province of Ascoli, N.W. 
and W. by Perueia, S.W. by Rome and Casertz, S. by Benevento.  
E. by Foggia and N.E. by the Adriatic Sea. It comprises the 
provinces of Teramo (population in 1901, 307,444), Aquila 
(396,620), Chieti (370,907) and Campobasso (366,571), which, 
under the kingdom of Naples, respectively bore the names 
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulteriore II., Abruzzo Citeriore 
(the reference being to their distance from the capital) and 
Molise.  The total area is 6567 sq. m. and the population 
(1901) 1,441,551.  The district is mainly mountainous in the 
interior, including as it does the central portion of the 
whole system of the Apennines and their culminating point, 
the Gran Sasso d'Italia. Towards the sea the elevation 
is less considerable, the hills consisting mainly of somewhat 
unstable clay and sand, but the zone of level ground along 
the coast is quite inconsiderable.  The coast line itself, 
though over 100 miles in length, has not a single harbour of 
importance.  The climate varies considerably with the 
altitude, the highest peaks being covered with snow for the 
greater part of the year, while the valleys running N.E. 
towards the sea are fertile and well watered by several small 
rivers, the chief of which are the Tronto, Vomano, Pescara, 
Sangro, Trigno and Biferno.  These are fed by less important 
streams, such as the Aterno and Gizio, which water the valleys 
between the main chains of the Apennines.  They are liable to 
be suddenly swollen by rains, and floods and landslips often 
cause considerable damage.  This danger has been increased, 
as elsewhere in Italy, by indiscriminate timber-felling on 
the higher mountains without provision for re-afforestation, 
though considerable oak, beech, elm and pine forests still 
exist and are the home of wolves, wild boars and even 
bears.  They also afford feeding-ground for large herds of 
swine, and the hams and sausages of the Abruzzi enjoy a high 
reputation.  The rearing of cattle and sheep was at one time 
the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and many of them 
still drive their flocks down to the Campagna di Roma for the 
winter months and back again in the summer, but more attention 
is now devoted to cultivation.  This flourishes especially in 
the valleys and in the now drained bed of the Lago Fucino.  
The industries are various, but none of them is of great 
importance.  Arms and cutlery are produced at Campobasso and 
Agnone.  At the exhibition of Abruzzese art, held at Chieti 
in 1905, fine specimens of goldsmiths' work of the 15th and 
16th centuries, of majolica of the 17th and 18th centuries, 
and of tapestries and laces were brought together; and the 
reproduction of some of these is still carried on, the small 
town of Castelli being the centre of the manufacture.  The river 
Pescara and its tributary the Tirino form an important source 
of power for generating electricity.  The chief towns are (1) 
Teramo, Atri, Campli, Penne, Castellammare Adriatico; (2) 
Aquila, Avezzano, Celano, Tagliacozzo, Sulmona; (3) Chieti, 
Lanciano, Ortona, Vasto; (4) Campobasso, Agnone, Iscrnia.  
Owing to the nature of the country, communications are not 
easy.  Railways are (i) the coast railway (a part of the 
Bologna-Gallipoli line), with branches from Giulianova to 
Teramo and from Termoli to Campobasso; (2) a line diverging 
S.E. from this at Pescara and running via Sulmona (whence 
there are branches via Aquila and Rieti to Terni, and via 
Carpinone to (a) Isernia and Caianello, on the line from 
Rome to Naples, and (b) Campobasso and Benevento), and 
Avezzano (whence there is a branch to Roccasecca) to Rome. 

The name Abruzzi is conjectured to be a medieval corruption of 
Praetuttii.  The district was, in Lombard times, part of the 
duchy of Spoleto, and, under the Normans, a part of that of 
Apulia; it was first formed into a single province in 1240 by 
Frederick II., who placed the Justiciarius Aprutii at Solmona 
and founded the city of Aquila.  After the Hohenstauffen lost 
their Italian dominions, the Abruzzi became a province of the 
Angevin kingdom of Naples, to which it was of great strategic 
importance.  The division into three parts was not made until 
the 17th century.  The Molise, on the other hand, formed part 
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and was placed under the 
Justiciarius of Terra di Lavoro by Frederick II.: after various 
changes it became part of the Capitanata, and was only formed 
into an independent province in 1811.  The people are remark. 
ably conservative in beliefs, superstitions and traditions. 

See V. Bindi, Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi (Naples, 
1889); A. de Nino, Ulsi e costumi Abruzzesi (Florence, 1879-1883). 

ABSALOM (Hebrew for ``father of [or is] peace''), in the 
Bible, the third son of David, king of Israel.  He was deemed 
the handsomest man in the kingdom.  His sister Tamar having 
been violated by David's eldest son Amnon, Absalom, after 
waiting two years, caused his servants to murder Amnon at 
a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 Sam. 
xiii.).  After this deed he fled to Talmai, ``king'' of Geshur 
(see Josh. xii. 5 or xiii. 2), his maternal grandfather, and 
it was not until five years later that he was fully reinstated 
in his father's favour (see JOAB.) Four years after this he 
raised a revolt at Hebron, the former capital.  Absalom was 
now the eldest surviving son of David, and the present position 
of the narratives (xv.-xx.)--after the birth of Solomon and 
before the struggle between Solomon and Adonijah---may represent 
the view that the suspicion that he was not the destined 
heir of his father's throne excited the impulsive youth to 
rebellion.  All Israel and Judah flocked to his side, and 
David, attended only by the Cherethites and Pelethites 
and some recent recruits from Gath, found it expedient to 
flee.  The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, and their 
sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies.  Absalom reached 
the capital and took counsel with the renowned Ahithophel.  
The pursuit was continued and David took refuge beyond the 
Jordan.  A battle was fought in the ``wood of Ephraim'' (the 
name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's 
army was completely routed.  He himself was caught in the 
boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly charged his 
men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was informed.  
What a common soldier refused to do even for a thousand 
shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.  
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he 
struggled in the branches, and as though this were not enough, 
his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him.  The king's 
overwhelming grief is well known.  A great heap of stones was 
erected where he fell, whilst another monument near Jerusalem 
(not the modern ``Absalom's Tomb,'' which is of later origin) 
he himself had erected in his lifetime to perpetuate his name 
(2 Sam. xviii. 17 seq.).  But the latter notice does not seem 
to agree with xiv. 27 (cf. 1 Kings xv. 2). On the narratives 
in 2 Sam. xiii.-xix., see further DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 

ABSALON (c. 1128-1201), Danish archbishop and statesman, 
was born about 1128, the son of Asser Rig of Fjenneslev, 
at whose castle he and his brother Esbjorn were brought up 
along with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar 
I. The Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were 
rich.  They founded the monastery of Soro as a civilizing 
centre, and after giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound 
education at home, which included not only book-lore but every 
manly and martial exercise, they sent him to the university of 
Paris.  Absalon first appears in Saxo's Chronicle as a 
fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the banquet given, in 1157, by 
King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and Valdemar.  Both Absalon and 
Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of their 
treacherous host on this occasion, but at length escaped to 
Jutland, whither Sweyn followed them, but was defeated and slain 
at the battle of Grathe Heath.  The same year (1158) which saw 
Valdemar ascend the Danish throne saw Absalon elected bishop of 
Roskilde.  Henceforth Absalon was the chief counsellor of 
Valdemar, and the promoter of that imperial policy which, for 
three generations, was to give Denmark the dominion of the 
Baltic.  Briefly, it was Absalon's intention to Clear the 
northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who inhabited that portion 
of the Baltic littoral which we now call Pomerania, and ravaged 
the Danish coasts so unmercifully that at the accession of 
Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark lay wasted and 
depopulated.  The very existence of Denmark demanded the 
suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked pagan 
freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the 
best part of his life.  The first expedition against the 
Wends, conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160, 
but it was not till 1168 that the chief Wendish fortress, 
at Arkona in Rugen, containing the sanctuary of their god 
Svantovit, was surrendered, the Wends agreeing to accept 
Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same 
time.  From Arkona Absalon proceeded by sea to Garz, in south 
Rugen, the political capital of the Wends, and an all but 
impregnable stronghold.  But the unexpected fall of Arkona 
had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally 
at the first appearance of the Danish ships.  Absalon, with 
only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve ``house carls,'' 
thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish 
warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the 
morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the 
temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol to 
be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt.  The whole population 
of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations 
of twelve churches in the isle of Rugen.  The destruction of 
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon 
considerably to reduce the Danish fleet.  But he continued 
to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed 
another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow 
on the isle of Wollin.  Absalon's last military exploit was 
the annihilation, off Strela (Stralsund), on Whit-Sunday 
1184, of a Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's 
vassal, Jaromir of Rugen.  He was now but fifty-seven, but 
his strenuous life had aged him, and he was content to resign 
the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke 
Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar II., and to confine himself 
to the administration of the empire which his genius had 
created.  In this sphere Absalon proved himself equally 
great.  The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from the German 
yoke.  It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar 
I. rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at 
Dole in 1162; and when, on the accession of Canute V. in 
1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to receive 
the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood 
him. ``Return to the emperor,'' cried he, ``and tell him that 
the king of Denmark will in no wise show him obedience or 
do him homage.'' As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also 
rendered his country inestimable services, building churches 
and monasteries, introducing the religious orders, founding 
schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and 
enlightenment.  It was he who held the first Danish Synod at 
Lund in 1167.  In 1178 he became archbishop of Lund, but very 
unwillingly, only the threat of excommunication from the 
holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium.  Absalon 
died on the 21st of March 1201, at the family monastery of 
Soro, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. 

Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque 
figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as 
churchman, statesman and warrior.  That he enjoyed warfare 
there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early 
training had well fitted him for martial exercises.  He 
was the best rider in the army and the best swimmer in the 
fleet.  Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops 
of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred 
calling was to avoid the ``shedding of blood'' by using a mace 
in battle instead of a sword.  Absalon never neglected his 
ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of 
Crusades.  Moreover, all his martial energy notwithstanding, 
his personality must have been singularly winning; for it is 
said of him that he left behind not a single enemy, all his 
opponents having long since been converted by him into friends. 

See Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed.  Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books 
xvi.; Steinstrup, Danmark's Riges Historic.  Oldtiden og den (eldre 
Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.) 

ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate), in pathology, 
a collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result 
of bacterial inflammation.  Without the presence of septic 
organisms abscess does not occur.  At any rate, every acute 
abscess contains septic germs, and these may have reached the 
inflamed area by direct infection, or may have been carried 
thither by the blood-stream.  Previous to the formation of 
abscess something has occurred to lower the vitality of the 
affected tissue--- some gross injury, perchance, or it may be 
that the power of resistance against bacillary invasion was 
lowered by reason of constitutional weakness.  As the result, 
then, of lowered vitality, a certain area becomes congested and 
effusion takes place into the tissues.  This effusion coagulates 
and a hard, brawny mass is formed which softens towards the 
centre.  If nothing is done the softened area increases in 
size, the skin over it becomes thinned, loses its vitality 
(mortifies) and a small ``slough'' is formed.  When the slough 
gives way the pus escapes and, tension being relieved, pain 
ceases.  A local necrosis or death of tissue takes place at 
that part of the inflammatory swelling farthest from the healthy 
circulation.  When the attack of septic inflammation is very 
acute, death of the tissue occurs en masse, as in the 
core of a boil or carbuncle.  Sometimes, however, no such 
mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes 
when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus.  In 
the latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular 
form.  After the escape of the core or slough along with a 
certain amount of pus, a space, the abscess-cavily', is left, 
the walls of which are lined with new vascular tissue which 
has itself escaped destruction.  This lowly organized material 
is called granulation tissue, and exactly resembles the 
growth which covers the floor of an ulcer.  These granulations 
eventually fill the contracting cavity and obliterate it by 
forming interstitial scar-tissue.  This is called healing 
by second intention. Pus may accumulate in a normal cavity, 
such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic or 
abdominal cavity.  In all these situations, if the diagnosis 
is clear, the principle of treatment is evacuation and 
drainage.  When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable 
to scrape away the lining of unhealthy granulations and 
to wash out the cavity with an antiseptic lotion.  If the 
after-drainage of the cavity is thorough the formation of 
pus ceases and the watery discharge from the abscess wall 
subsides.  As the cavity contracts the discharge becomes less, 
until at last the drainage tube can be removed and the external 
wound allowed to heal.  The large collections of pus which 
form in connexion with disease of the spinal column in the 
cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are now treated by free 
evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with careful antiseptic 
measures.  The opening should be in as dependent a position as 
possible in order that the drainage may be thorough.  If tension 
recurs after opening has been made, as by the blocking of the 
tube, or by its imperfect position, or by its being too short, 
there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus, and without 
delay the whole procedure must be gone through again. (E. O.*) 

ABSCISSA (from the Lat. abscissus, cut off), in the 
Cartesian system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point 
from the axis of y measured parallel to the horizontal 
axis (axis of x.) Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa of 
P. The word appears for the first time in a Latin work 
written by Stefano degli Angeli (1623-1697), a professor 
of mathematics in Rome. (See GEOMETRY, sec.  Analytical.) 

ABSCISSION (from Lat. abscinidere), a tearing away, or 
cutting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of 
a vowel before another, and in surgery especially for abscission 
of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball 
situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in 
botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion. 

ABSCOND (Lat. abscondcre, to hide, put away), to depart in 
a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the 
courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction.  
A person may ``abscond'' either for the purpose of avoiding 
arrest for a crime (see ARREST), or for a fraudulent purpose, 
such as the defrauding of his creditors (see BANKRUPTCY.) 

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia), the fact of being ``away,'' 
either in body or mind; ``absence of mind'' being a 
condition in which the mind is withdrawn from what is 
passing.  The special occasion roll-call at Eton College 
is called ``Absence,'' which the boys attend in their tall 
hats.  A soldier must get permission or ``leave of absence' 
before he can be away from his regiment.  Seven years' 
absence with no sign of life either by letter or message 
is held presumptive evidence of death in the law courts. 

ABSENTEEISM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors who 
absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend their 
incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it includes 
all those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a country 
or locality but derive their income from some source within 
it.  Absenteeism is a question which has been much debated, 
and from both the economic and moral point of view there is 
little doubt that it has a prejudicial effect.  To it has been 
attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition of the 
rural districts of France before the Revolution, when it was 
unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless 
compelled to do so by a sentence involving their ``exile'' from 
Paris.  It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and 
many attempts were made to combat it.  As early as 1727 a 
tax of four shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons 
holding offices and employments in Ireland and residing in 
England.  This tax was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 
1769.  In 1774 the tax was reduced to two shillings in the 
pound, but was dropped after some years.  It was revived by the 
Independent Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in 
a substantial amount to the revenue, yielding in 1790 as much as 
63,089 pounds.

AUTHORITIES.--For a discussion of absenteeism from the economic 
point of view see N. W. Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, 
Political Economy; J. S. Mill, Political Economy; J. R. 
Mcculloch, Treatises and Essays on Money, &c., article 
``Absenteeism''; A. T. Hadley, Economics; on absenteeism in 
Ireland see A. Young, Tour in Ireland (1780); T. Prior, List 
of.  Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield, Account of Iteland (1812); 
W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the 18th Century (1892): A. E. 
Murray, History of the Commercial and Financial Relations 
between England and Helanid (1903); Parliamentary Papers, 
Ireland, 1830, vii., ditto, 1845, xix.-xxii.; in France, A. 
de Monchretien, Traicte de l'oekonomie politique (1615); 
A. de Tocqueville, L'Ancien Regime (1857); H. Taine, Les 
Origines de la France contemporaine, l'ancien Regime (1876). 

ABSINTHE a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic 
flavouring matter of which is derived from various species of 
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium.) Among the other substances 
generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, 
sweet flag, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and 
hyssop.  A colourless ``alcoholate'' (see LIQUEURS) is 
first prepared, and to this the well-known green colour of 
the beverage is imparted by maceration with green leaves of 
wormwood, hyssop and mint.  Inferior varieties are made by 
means of essences, the distillation process being omitted.  
There are two varieties of absinthe, the French and the Swiss, 
the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic strength than the 
former.  The best absinthe contains 70 to 80% of alcohol.  It is 
said to improve very materially by storage.  There is a popular 
belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently adulterated 
with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart the green 
colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case.  There 
is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking 
leads to effects which are specifically worse than those 
associated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol. 

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free), a term 
having the general signification of independent, self-existent, 
unconditioned.  Thus we speak of ``absolute'' as opposed to 
``limited'' or ``constitutional'' monarchy, or, in common 
parlance, of an ``absolute failure,'' i.e. unrelieved by 
any satisfactory circumstances.  In philosophy the word has 
several technical uses. (1) In Logic, it has been applied 
to non-connotative terms which do not imply attributes 
(see CONNOTATION), but more commonly, in opposition to 
Relative, to terms which do not imply the existence of some 
other (correlative) term; e.g. ``father'' implies ``son,'' 
``tutor'' ``pupil,'' and therefore each of these terms is 
relative.  In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, 
though convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, 
cannot be strictly maintained.  The term ``man,'' for example, 
which, as compared with ``father,'' ``son,'' ``tutor,'' seems 
to be absolute, is obviously relative in other connexions; in 
various contexts it implies its various possible opposites, 
e.g. ``woman,'' ``boy,'' ``master'', ``brute.'' In other 
words, every term which is susceptible of definition is ipso 
facto relative, for definition is precisely the segregation 
of the thing defined from all other things which it is not, 
i.e. implies a relation.  Every term which has a meaning 
is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory. 

(2) The term is used in the phrase ``absolute knowledge'' to 
imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, 
since all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known 
object, absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see 
RELATIVITY.) So also Herbert Spencer spoke of ``absolute 
ethics,'' as opposed to systems of conduct based on particular 
local or temporary laws and conventions (see ETHICS.) 

(3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase 
``the Absolute'' (see METAPHYSICS.) It is sufficient here 
to indicate the problems involved in their most elementary 
form.  The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect 
as in that of natural science is one of generalization, 
i.e. the co-ordination of particular facts under general 
statements, or in other words, the explanation of one fact by 
another, and that other by a third, and so on.  In this way 
the particular facts or existences are left behind in the 
search for higher, more inclusive conceptions; as twigs are 
traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk, so, it is 
held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed in 
a unity which is all-inclusive and self-existent, and has no 
``beyond.'' By a metaphor this process has been described as 
the odos ano (as of tracing a river to its source).  Other 
phrases from different points of view have been used to describe 
the idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion 
with the origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all 
being), Unity, Truth (i.e. the sum and culmination of all 
knowledge), Causa Causans, &c. The idea in different senses 
appears both in idealistic and realistic systems of thought. 

The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly 
as follows. (1) The Absolute does not exist, and is not 
even in any real sense thinkable.  This view is held by 
the empiricists, who hold that nothing is knowable save 
phenomena.  The Absolute could not be conceived, for all 
knowledge is susceptible of definition and, therefore, 
relative.  The Absolute includes the idea of necessity, which 
the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute exists for thought 
only.  In this theory the absolute is the unknown x which 
the human mind is logically compelled to postulate a priori 
as the only coherent explanation and justification of its 
thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable, because 
it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as it 
were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot 
go.  Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all 
demonstration would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal 
exercise, because the existence of separate things implies some 
one thing which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute 
both exists and is conceivable.  It is argued that we do in 
fact conceive it in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, 
Truth.  The conception is so clear that its inexplicability 
(admitted) is of no account.  Further, since the unity of 
our thought implies the absolute, and since the existence 
of things is known only to thought, it appears absurd that 
the absolute itself should be regarded as non-existent.  
The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate basis and 
matter of existence.  All things are merely manifestations of 
it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it. 
(5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a 
different way.  For them nothing exists save thought; the only 
existence 1hat can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, 
of the Absolute, is that it is thought.  Thought creates 
God, things, the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that 
we can conceive the Absolute, though our conception is only 
partial, just as our concepuon of all things is limited by 
the imperfect powers of human intellect.  Thus the Absolute 
exists for us only in our thought of it (4 above).  But 
thought itself comes from the Absolute which, being itself 
the pure thought of thoughts, separates from itself individual 
minds.  It is, therefore, perfectly natural that human thought, 
being essentially homogeneous with the Absolute, should be 
able by.the consideration of the universe to arrive at some 
imperfect conception of the source from which all is derived. 

The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties in 
terminology.  The fundamental problem is whether a thing which 
is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and if 
it is not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or 
thought.  It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything 
which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including 
subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the 
limits of the knower.  Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute. 

ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from absolvo, loosen, acquit), 
a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the 
act of setting free or acquitting.  In a criminal process it 
signifies the acquittal of an accused person on the ground 
that the evidence has either disproved or failed to prove the 
charge brought against him.  In this sense it is now little 
used, except in Scottish law in the forms assoilzie and 
absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the word is essentially 
different from the civil.  It refers not to an accusation, 
but to sin actually committed (after baptism); and it denotes 
the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin, or 
from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from 
both.  The authority of the church or minister to pronounce 
absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt. xviii. 18; James v. 
16, &c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made 
before the congregation, the absolution was deferred till 
the penance was completed; and there is no record of the use 
of any special formula.  Men were also encouraged, e.g. by 
Chrysostom, to confess their secret sins secretly to God. In 
course of time changes grew up. (1) From the 3rd century onwards, 
secret (auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was 
practised.  For various reasons it became more and more common, 
until the fourth Lateran council (1215) ordered all Christians 
of the Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at 
least.  In the Greek church also private confession has become 
obligatory. (2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled 
by imposition of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: 
gradually the office was left to be discharged by priests, 
and the outward action more and more disused. (3) It became 
the custom to give the absolution to penitents immediately 
after their confession and before the penance was performed. 
(4) Until the Middle Ages the form of absolution after private 
confession was of the nature of a prayer, such as ``May the 
Lord absolve thee''; and this is still the practice of the Greek 
church.  But about the 13th century the Roman formula was 
altered, and the council of Trent (1551) declared that the 
``form'' and power of the sacrament of penance lay in the 
words Ego te absolvo, &c., and that the accompanying prayers 
are not essential to it.  Of the three forms of absolution 
in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in the Visitation of the 
Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by decision of the 
Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs ``I absolve thee,'' tracing 
the authority so to act through the church up to Christ: 
the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that 
in Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so 
general as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of 
absolution.  In the Lutheran church also the practice of 
private confession survived the Reformation, together with 
both the exhibitive (I forgive, &c.) and declaratory (I declare 
and pronounce) forms of absolution.  In granting absolution, 
even after general confession, it is in some places still 
the custom for the minister, where the numbers permit of 
it, to lay his hands on the head of each penitent. (W. O. B.) 

ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory 
that beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely 
a subjective feeling of pleasure in him who perceives.  It 
follows that there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by 
which all objects can be judged.  The fact that, in practice, 
the judgments even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, 
and that the so-called criteria of one place or period are 
more or less opposed to those of all others, is explained away 
by the hypothesis that individuals are differently gifted in 
respect of the capacity to appreciate. (See AESTHETICS.) 

In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitutional 
government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained by 
laws and based directly upon force.  In the strict sense such 
governments are rare. but it is customary to apply the term to a 
state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional development. 

ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term ``absorption'' (from Lat. 
absorbere) means literally ``sucking up'' or ``swallowing,'' and 
thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figuratively; 
it is technically used in animal physiology for the function of 
certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light and optics 
absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms used in 
the discussion of the transformation of rays in various media. 

If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light 
which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels 
outwards.  The intensity of the light diminishes merely 
because the total energy, though unaltered, is distributed 
over a wider and wider surface as the rays diverge from the 
source.  To prove this, it will be sufficient to mention that 
an exceedingly small deficiency in the transparency of the free 
aether would be sufficient to prevent the light of the fixed 
stars from reaching the earth, since their distances are so 
immense.  But when light is transmitted through a material 
medium, it always suffers some loss, the light energy being 
absorbed by the medium, that is, converted partially or 
wholly into other forms of energy such as heat, a portion of 
which transformed energy may be re-emitted as radiant energy 
of a lower frequency.  Even the most transparent bodies known 
absorb an appreciable portion of the light transmitted through 
them.  Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of the sun's 
rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have to 
traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, 
so that on this account the sun appears less bright towards 
sunset.  On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance 
into all substances, even the most opaque, the absorption 
being, however, extremely rapid in the latter case. 

The nature of the surface of a body has considerable 
influence on its power of absorbing light.  Platinum 
black, for instance, in which the metal is in a state of 
fine division, absorbs nearly all the light incident on 
it, while polished platinum reflects the greater part.  In 
the former case the light penetrating between the particles 
is unable to escape by reflexion, and is finally absorbed. 

The question of absorption may be considered from either of 
two points of view.  We may treat it as a superficial effect, 
especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or 
thick enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we 
may investigate how much is reflected at the surface and how 
much is absorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our 
attention to the light which enters the body and inquire into 
the relation between the decay of intensity and the depth of 
penetration.  We shall take these two cases separately. 

Absorptive Power.--When none of the radiations which fall 
on a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio 
of the amount of radiation of a given wave-length which 
is absorbed to the total amount received is called the 
``absorptive power'' of the body for that wave-length.  
Thus if the body absorbed half the incident radiation its 
absorptive power would be  1/2, and if it absorbed all the 
incident radiation its absorptive power would be 1. A body 
which absorbs all radiations of all wavelengths would be 
called a ``perfectly black body.'' No such body actually 
exists, but such substances as lamp-black and platinum-black 
approximately fulfil the condition.  The fraction of the 
incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body gives a 
measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here 
concerned.  Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, 
that is to say, they readily absorb light of particular 
wave-lengths, light of other wave-lengths not being largely 
absorbed.  All bodies when heated emit the same kind of 
radiations which they absorb---an important principle known 
as the principle of the equality of radiating and absorbing 
powers.  Thus black substances such as charcoal are very 
luminous when heated.  A tile of white porcelain with a black 
pattern on it mill, if heated red-hot, show the pattern bright 
on a darker ground.  On the other hand, those substances 
which either are good reflectors or good transmitters, are 
not so luminous at the same temperature; for instance, melted 
silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous as carbon 
at the same temperature, and common salt, which is very 
transparent for most kinds of radiation, when poured in a 
fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost 
like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or 
two.  But all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive 
properties when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, 
for in that case those radiations which they do not emit are 
either transmitted through them from the walls of the vessel 
behind, or else reflected from their surface.  This fact may 
be expressed by saying that the radiation within a heated 
enclosure is the same as that of a perfectly black body. 

Coefficient of Absorption, and Law of Absorption.---The law 
which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing 
through any medium may be readily obtained.  If I0 represents 
the intensity of the light which enters the surface, I1 the 
intensity after passing through 1 centimetre, I2 the intensity 
after passing through 2 centimetres, and so on; then we should 
expect that whatever fraction of I0 is absorbed in the first 
centimetre, the same fraction of I1 will be absorbed in the 
second.  That is, if an amount jI0 is absorbed in the first 
centimetre, JI1 is absorbed in the second, and so on.  We have then 
               I1 = I0(1--j)
               I2 = I1(1--j) = I0(1--j)2
               I3 = I2(1--j) = I0(1--j)3
and so on, so that if I is the intensity after 
passing through a thickness t in centimetres 
                   I = I0(1--j)t                    (1).
We might call j, which is the proportion absorbed in one 
centimetre, the ``coefficient of absorption'' of the medium. 
 1/2t would, however, not then apply to the case of a body 
for which the whole light is absorbed in less than one 
centimetre.  It is better then to define the coefficient of 
absorption as a quantity k such that k/n of the light is 
absorbed in 1/nth part of a centimetre, where n may be 
taken to be a very large number.  The formula (1) then becomes 
                    I=I0e-kt                    (2)
where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and 
k is a constant which is practically the same 
as for bodies which do not absorb very rapidly. 

There is another coefficient of absorption (k) which occurs 
in Helmholtz's theory of dispersion (see DISPERSION.) 
It is closely related to the coefficient k which we have 
just defined, the equation connecting the two being k=4
pk/l, l being the wavelength of the incident light. 

The law of absorption expressed by the formula (2) has been 
verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and 
gases.  The method consists in comparing the intensity after 
transmission through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent 
with the intensity of light from the same source which has 
not passed through the medium, k being thus obtained for 
various thicknesses and found to be constant.  In the case of 
solutions, if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the 
eflect of increasing the concentration of the absorbing solute 
is the same as that of increasing the thickness in the same 
ratio.  In a similar way the absorption of light in the 
coloured gas chlorine is found to be unaltered if the thickness 
is reduced by compression, because the density is increased 
in the same ratio that the thickness is reduced.  This is 
not strictly the case, however, for such gases and vapours 
as exhibit well-defined bands of absorption in the spectrum, 
as these bands are altered in character by compression. 

If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured 
solutions, the transmitted light is of one colour when the 
thickness of the solution is small, and of quite another 
colour if the thickness is great.  This curious phenomenon 
is known as dichromatism (from di-, two, and chroma, 
colour).  Thus, when a strong light is viewed through a 
solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a brilliant green 
if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red for thicker 
layers.  This effect can be explained as follows.  The solution 
is moderately transparent for a large number of rays in the 
neighborhoodood of the green part of the spectrum; it is, 
on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily 
penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region 
of the spectrum.  The small amount of red transmitted is at 
first quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller 
coefficient of absorption, it becomes finally predominant.  
The effect is complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and 
many other bodies, by selective reflexion and fluorescence. 

For the molecular theory of absorption, see SPECTROSCOPY. 
REFERENCES.---A.  Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904); P. K. L. 
Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902); F. H. Wullner's 
Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv. (1899). (J. R. C.) 

ABSTEMII (a Latin word. from abs. away from. temetum. 
intoxicating liquor, from which is derived the English 
``abstemious'' or temperate), a name formerly given to such 
persons as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist 
on account of their natural aversion to wine.  Calvinists 
allowed these to communicate in the species of bread only, 
touching the cup with their lip; a course which was deemed a 
profanation by the Lutherans.  Among several Protestant sects, 
both in Great Britain and America, abstemii on a somewhat 
different principle have appeared in modern times.  These are 
total abstainers, who maintain that the use of stimulants is 
essentially sinful, and allege that the wine used by Christ and 
his disciples at the supper was unfermented.  They accordingly 
communicate in the unfermented ``juice of the grape.'' 

ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain), the fact 
or habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the 
indulgence of the appetite and especially from strong drink. 
``Total abstinence'' and ``total abstainer'' are associated 
with taking the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see 
TEMPERANCE.) In the discipline of the Christian Church 
abstinence is the term for a less severe form of Fasting (q.v..) 

ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere), the process or 
result of drawing away; that which is drawn away, separated or 
derived.  Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium 
or epitome of a larger work, the gist of which is given in 
a concentrated form.  Similarly an absent-minded man is said 
to be ``abstracted,'' as paying no attention to the matter in 
hand.  In philosophy the word has several closely related 
technical senses. (1) In formal logic it is applied to those 
terms which denote qualities, attributes, circumstances, 
as opposed to concrete terms, the names of things; thus 
``friend'' is concrete, ``friendship'' abstract.  The term 
which expresses the connotation of a word is therefore an 
abstract term, though it is probably not itself connotative; 
adjectives are concrete, not abstract, e.g. ``equal'' is 
concrete, ``equality'' abstract (cf. Aristotle's aphaeresis 
and prosthesis.) (2) The process of abstraction takes 
an important place both in psychological and metaphysical 
speculation.  The psychologist finds among the earliest 
of his problems the question as to the process from the 
perception of things seen and heard to mental conceptions, 
which are ultimately distinct from immediate perception 
(see PSYCHOLOGY.) When the mind, beginning with isolated 
individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived 
resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process 
by which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated 
on a single inclusive concept (i.e. classification) is one of 
abstraction.  All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge 
depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion 
between particular things and general ideas, rules and 
principles.  The nature of the resultant concepts belongs 
to the great controversy between Nominalism, Realism and 
Conceptualism.  Metaphysics, again, is concerned with the 
ultimate problems of matter and spirit; it endeavours to go 
behind the phenomena of sense and focus its attention on the 
fundamental truths which are the only logical bases of natural 
science.  This, again, is a process of abstraction, the 
attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from the concrete 
individuals, are conceived as having a substantive existence.  
The final step in the process is the conception of the Absolute 
(q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense. 

Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object is to 
select a particular quality for consideration in itself as it is 
found in all the ob)ects to which it belongs, whereas analysis 
considers all the qualities which belong to a single object. 

ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the 
various instruments and events under and in consequence 
of which the vendor of an estate derives his title 
thereto.  Such an abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage 
of an estate, prepared by some competent person for the 
purchaser or mortgagee, and verified by his solicitor by a 
comparison with the original deeds. (See CONVEYANCING.) 

ABT, FRANZ (1819-1885), German composer, was born on the 
22nd of December 1819 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at 
Wiesbaden on the 31st of March 1885.  The best of his popular 
songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of 
Germany; his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c., enjoyed 
an extraordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the 
19th century, but in spite of their facile tunefulness have 
few qualities of lasting beauty.  Abt was kapellmeister 
at Bernburg in 1841, at Zurich in the same year and at 
Brunswick from 1852 to 1882, when he retired to Wiesbaden. 

ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24 deg.  36' N. 
lat. and 72 deg.  43' E. long., within the Rajputana state of 
Sirohi.  It is an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being 
completely detached from that chain by a narrow valley 7 
miles across, in which flows the western Banas.  It rises 
from the surrounding plains of Marwar like a precipitous 
granite island, its various peaks ranging from 4000 to 5653 
feet.  The elevations and platforms of the mountain are 
covered with elaborately sculptured shrines, temples and 
tombs.  On the top of the hill is a small round platform 
containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the 
impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of 
Vishnu.  This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the 
Jains, Shrawaks and Banians.  The two principal temples are 
situated at Deulwara, about the middle of the mountain, and 
five miles south-west of Guru Sikra, the highest summit.  
They are built of white marble, and are pre-eminent alike for 
their beauty and as typical specimens of Jain architecture in 
India.  The more modern of the two was built by two brothers, 
rich merchants, between the years 1197 and 1247, and for 
delicacy of carving and minute beauty of detail stands 
almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and lavish 
labour.  The other was built by another merchant prince, Vimala 
Shah, apparently about A.D. 1032, and, although simpler and 
bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow 
in a purely architectural object.  It is one of the oldest as 
well as one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture 
known.  The principal object within the temple is a cell 
lighted only from the door, containing a cross-legged seated 
figure of the god Parswanath.  The portico is composed of 
forty-eight pillars, the whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard 
about 140 feet by 90 feet, surrounded by a double colonnade 
of smaller pillars, forming porticos to a range of fifty-five 
cells, which enclose it on all sides, exactly as they do in 
a Buddhist monastery (vihara.) In this temple, however, 
each cell, instead of being the residence of R monk, is 
occupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door, or on 
the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life. of the 
deity.  The whole interior is magnificently ornamented. 

Abu is now the summer residence of the governor-general's agent 
for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the hot 
weather.  It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the Rajputana 
railway.  The annual mean temperature is about 70 deg. , rising to 
90 deg.  in April; but the heat is never oppressive.  The annual 
rainfall is about 68 inches.  The hills are laid out with 
driving-roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little 
lake.  The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a 
Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers. 

ABU-BEKR (573-634), the name (``Father of the virgin'') of 
the first of the Mahommedan caliphs (see CALIPH.) He was 
originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba (``servant of the temple''), 
and received the name by which he is known historically in 
consequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to 
Mahomet.  He was born at Mecca in the year A.D. 573, a 
Koreishite of the tribe of Beni-Taim.  Possessed of immense 
wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and 
held in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams 
and a depositary of the traditions of his race, his early 
accession to Islamism was a fact of great importance.  On 
his conversion he assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of 
God).  His own belief in Mahomet and his doctrines was 
so thorough as to procure for him the title El Siddik 
(the faithful), and his success in gaining converts was 
correspondingly great.  In his personal relationship to the 
prophet he showed the deepest veneration and most unswerving 
devotion.  When Mahomet fled from Mecca, Abu-Bekr was 
his sole companion, and shared both his hardships and his 
triumphs, remaining constantly with him until the day of his 
death.  During his last illness the prophet indicated Abu-Bekr 
as his successor by desiring him to offer up prayer for the 
people.  The choice was ratified by the chiefs of the army, 
and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mahomet's son-in-law, 
disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity.  After 
a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his 
claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the 
followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and 
Shiites.  Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position 
(632), under the title Califet-Resul-Allah (successor of the 
prophet of God), when he was called to suppress the revolt 
of the tribes Hejaz and Nejd, of which the former rejected 
Islamism and the latter refused to pay tribute.  He encountered 
formidable opposition from different quarters, but in every 
case he was successful, the severest struggle being that with 
the impostor Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid 
at the battle of Akraba.  Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of 
the new faith was as conspicuous as that of its founder had 
been.  When the internal disorders had been repressed and 
Arabia completely subdued, he directed his generals to foreign 
conquest.  The Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single 
campaign, and there was also a successful expedition into 
Syria.  After the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing 
that the sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten 
when those who had listened to them had all been removed by 
death, induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written 
form.  The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa, 
daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet.  It was held 
in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess 
canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out 
of which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared.  When 
the authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's 
record were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and 
divisions.  Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly 
before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, 
another to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, 
after the manner Mahomet had observed in his own case. 

ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the right 
bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N. of Khartum.  It stands 
a4 the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and 
from it the railway to Wadi Halfa strikes straight across 
the Nubian desert, a little west of the old caravan route to 
Korosko.  A branch railway, 138 m. long, from Abu Hamed 
goes down the right bank of the Nile to Kareima in the 
Dongola mudiria.  The town is named after a celebrated 
sheikh buried here, by whose tomb travellers crossing the 
desert used formerly to deposit all superfluous goods, 
the sanctity of the saint's tomb ensuring their safety. 

ABU HANIFA AN-NU`MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan canon 
lawyer, was born at Kufa in A.H. 80 (A.D. 699) of non-Arab 
and probably Persian parentage.  Few events of his life are 
known to us with any certainty.  He was a silk-dealer and a 
man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his 
time to legal studies.  He lectured at Kufa upon canon law 
(fiqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused 
steadily to take any public post.  When al-Mansur, however, 
was building Bagdad (145--140) Abu Hanifa was one of the 
four overseers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G. Le 
Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 17). In 
A.H. 150 (A.D. 767) he died there under circumstances which 
are very differently reported.  A persistent but apparently 
later tradition asserts that he died in prison after severe 
beating, because he refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act 
as a judge (cadi, qadi.) This was to avoid a responsibility 
for which he felt unfit ---a frequent attitude of more pious 
Moslems.  Others say that al-Mahdi, son of al-Mansur, actually 
constrained him to be a judge and that he died a few days 
after.  It seems certain that he did suffer imprisonment and 
beating for this reason, at the hands of an earlier governor 
of Kufa under the Omayyads (Ibn Qutaiba, Ma`arif, p. 
248).  Also that al-Mansur desired to make him judge, but 
compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings (so in Tabari).  
A late story is that the judgeship was only a pretext with 
al-Mansur, who considered him a partisan of the `Alids and 
a helper with his wealth of Ibrahim ibn'Abd Allah in his 
insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Geschichte, ii. 53 ff.). 

For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of 
Ibn Khalhkan iii. 555 ff., iv. 272 ff.  For his place 
as a speculative jurist in the history of canon law, see 
MAHOMMEDAN LAW.  He was buried in eastern Bagdad, where 
his tomb still exists, one of the few surviving sites from 
the time of ahmansur, the founder. (Le Strange 191 ff.) 

See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 169 ff.; Nawawi's Biogr.  
Dict. pp. 698-770: Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ.  Cairo, 
A.H. 1304; legal bibliography under MAHOMMEDAN LAW) (D. B. MA.) 

ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda 
Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.  It is on the road from Merawi 
to Metemma and 20 m.  N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned 
place.  Near this spot, on the 17th of January 1885, a British 
force marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum 
was attacked by the Mahdists, who were repulsed.  On the 
19th, when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists 
renewed the attack, again unsuccessfully.  Sir Herbert 
Stewart, the commander of the British force, was mortally 
wounded on the 19th, and among the killed on the 17th was 
Col. F. G. Burnaby (see EGYPT, Military Operations.) 

ABU-L-`ALA UL-MA.ARRI [Abu-l-`Alaa Ahmad ibn `Abdallah 
ibn Sulaiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter-writer, 
belonged to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh, a part of which 
had migrated to Syria before the time of Islam.  He was born 
in 973 at Ma'arrat un-Nu`man, a Syrian town nineteen hours' 
journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was 
subject at that time.  He lost his father while he was still 
an infant, and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to 
smallpox.  This, however, did not prevent him from attending 
the lectures of the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and 
Tripoli.  These teachers were men of the first rank, who 
had been attracted to the court of Saif-ud-Daula, and their 
teaching was well stored in the remarkable memory of the 
pupil.  At the age of twenty-one Abu-l-'Ala returned to 
Ma`arra, where he received a pension of thirty dinars 
yearly.  In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was admitted 
to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies 
and mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he 
addressed some of his letters later.  In 1009 he returned to 
Ma`arra, where he spent the rest of his life in teaching and 
writing.  During this period of scholarly quiet he developed 
his characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation 
of the dead and the desire for extinction after death. 

Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and 
two of his letters.  The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the 
kind usual at the time.  Under the title of Saqt uz-Zand they 
have been published in Bulaq (1869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo 
(1886).  The poems of the second collection, known as the 
Luzum ma lam ralzann, or the Luzumiy'yat, are written 
with the difficult rhyme in two consonants instead of one, 
and contain the more original, mature and somewhat pessimistic 
thoughts of the author on mutability, virtue, death, &c. 
They have been published in Bombay (1886) and Cairo (1889) 
. The letters on various literary and social subjects were 
published with commentary by Shain Effendi in Beirut (1894), 
and with English translation, &c., by prof.  D. S. Margoliouth 
in Oxford (1898).  A second collection of letters, known 
as the Risalat ul-Ghufran, was summarized and partially 
translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society (1900, pp. 637 ff.; 1902, pp. 75 ff., 337 
ff., 813 ff.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---C.  Rieu, De Abu-l-`Alae 
Poetae Arabici vita et carminibus (Bonn, 1843); A. von 
Kremer, Uber die philosophischen Gedichte des Abu-l-.Ala 
(Vienna, 1888); cf. also the same writer's articles in the 
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft 
(vols. xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.).  For his life see the 
introduction to D. S. Margoliouth's edition of the letters, 
supplemented by the same writer's articles ``Abu-l-`Ala 
al-Ma`arri's Correspondence on Vegetarianism'' in the Journal 
of the Royal Asiatic Society (1902, pp. 289 ff.). (G. W. T.) 

ABU-L-`ATAHIYA [Abu Ishaq Isma`il ibn Qasim 
al-`Anazi] (748-828), Arabian poet, was born at Ain ut-Tamar 
in the Hijaz near Medina.  His ancestors were of the tribe of 
Anaza.  His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged 
for some time in selling pottery.  Removing to Bagdad, he 
continued his business there, but became famous for his 
verses, especially for those addressed to Utba, a slave of 
the caliph al-Mahdi.  His affection was unrequited, although 
al-Mahdi, and after him Harun al-Rashid, interceded for 
him.  Having offended the caliph, he was in prison for a short 
time.  The latter part of his life was more ascetic.  He died in 
828 in the reign of al-Ma`mun.  The poetry of Abu-l-'Atahiya 
is notable for its avoidance of the artificiality almost 
universal in his days.  The older poetry of the desert had 
been constantly imitated up to this time, although it was 
not natural to town life.  Abu-l-'Atahiya was one of the 
first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form.  He was very 
fluent and used many metres.  He is also regarded as one of 
the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs.  Much of his 
Poetry is concerned with the observation of common life and 
morality, and at times is pessimistic.  Naturally, under 
the circumstances, he was strongly suspected of heresy. 

His poems (Diwan) with life from Arabian sources have 
been published at the Jesuit Press in Beirut (1887, 
2nd ed. 1888).  On his position in Arabic literature 
see W. Ahlwardt, Diwan des Abu Nowas (Greifswald, 
1861), pp. 21 ff.; A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des 
Orients (Wien, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W. T.) 

ABULPARAJ [Abu-l-Faraj,Ah ibn ul-Husain ul-Isbahani] 
(897--967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the 
Quraish (Koreish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last 
of the Omayyad caliphs.  He was thus connected with the Omayyad 
rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with 
them and to have sent them some of his works.  He was born in 
Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his early studies in 
Bagdad.  He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian 
antiquities.  His later life was spent in various parts of 
the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-Daula (to whom he 
dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid vizier 
Ibn'Abbad and elsewhere.  In his last years he lost his 
reason.  In religion he was a Shiite.  Although he wrote 
poetry, also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of 
Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests 
upon his Book of Songs (Kitab ul-Aghani), which gives 
an account of the chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, 
with the stories of the composers and singers.  It contains 
a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early 
Arabs, and is the most Valuable authority we have for their 
pre-Islamic and early Moslem days.  A part of it was published 
by J. G. L. Rosegarten with Latin translation (Greifswald, 
1840).  The text was published in 20 vols. at Bulaq in 
1868.  Vol. xxi. was edited by R. E. Brunnow (Leyden, 
1888).  A volume of elaborate indices was edited by I. Guidi 
(Leyden, 1900), and a missing fragment of the text was 
published by J. Wellhausen in the Zeitschrift der deutschen 
morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, vol; 50, pp. 146 ff. 
Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W. T.) 

ABUL PAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul 
emperor, Akbar, was born in the year A.D. 1551.  His 
career as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, 
would probably have been by this time forgotten but for the 
record he himself has left of it in his celebrated history.  
The Akbar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, as Abul Fazl's chief 
literary work, written in Persian, is called, consists of two 
parts--the first being a complete history of Akbar's reign 
and the second, entitled Ain-i-Akbari, or Institutes of 
Akbar, being an account of the religious and political 
constitution and administration of the empire.  The style is 
singularly elegant, and the contents of the second part possess 
a unique and lasting interest.  An excellent translation 
of the Ain by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta, 
1783-1786.  It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, 
and copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare 
and correspondingly valuable.  It was also translated by 
Professor Blockmann in 1848.  Abul Fazl died by the hand of 
an assassin, while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 
1602.  The murderer was instigated by Prince Sehm, afterwards 
Jahangir, who had become jealous of the minister's influence. 

ABULFEDA [Abud-Fida' Isma'Il ibn'Ah,Imad-ud-Dni] 
(1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer, was born at 
Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of 
the prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols.  He was a 
descendant of Ayyub, the father of Saladin.  In his boyhood 
he devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences, 
hut from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in 
military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders.  In 1285 
he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights 
of St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre 
and Qal'at ar-Rum.  In 1298 he entered the service of the 
Mameluke Sultan Malik al-Nasir and after twelve years was 
invested by him with the governorship of Hamah.  In 1312 he 
became prince with the title Malik us-Salhn, and in 1320 
received the hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik 
ul-Mu'ayyad.  For more than twenty years altogether he reigned 
in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties 
of government and to the composition of the works to which 
he is chiefly indebted for his fame.  He was a munificent 
patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his 
court.  He died in 1331.  His chief historical work in 
An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race, in the 
form of annals extending from the creation of the world 
to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols. 1869).  Various 
translations of parts of it exist, the earliest being a Latin 
rendering of the section relating to the Arabian conquests in 
Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo, in 1610 
(preserved in Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, vol. 
i.).  The section dealing with the pre-Islamitic period 
was edited with Latin translation by H. O. Fleischer under 
the title Abulfedae Historia Ante-Islamica (Leipzig, 
1831).  The part dealing with the Mahommedan period was 
edited, also with Latin translation, by J. J. Reiske as 
Annales Muslemici (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789--1794) . His 
Geography is, like much of the history, founded on the 
works of his predecessors, and so ultimately on the work of 
Ptolemy.  A long introduction on various geographical matters 
is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular 
form with the chief towns of the world.  After each name 
are given the longitude, latitude, ``climate,'' spelling, 
and then observations generally taken from earlier authors.  
Parts of the work were published and translated as early 
as 1650 (cf. Carl Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen 
Litteratur, Berlin, 1902, vol. ii. pp. 44-46).  The text 
of the whole was published by M`G. de Slane and M. Reinaud 
(Paris, 1840), and a French translation with introduction by 
M. Reinaud and Stanislas Guyard (Paris, 1848-1883). (G. W. T.) 

ABU-L-QASIM [Khalaf ibn'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian 
physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as 
ABULCASIS, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as 
physician to the caliph 'Abdur-Rahman III. (912--961).  No 
details of his life are known.  A part of his compendium 
of medicine was published in Latin in the 16th century as 
Liber theoricae nec non practicae Alsaharavii (Augsburg, 
1519).  His manual of surgery was published at Venice in 
1497, at Basel in 1541, and at Oxford Abulcasis de Chirurgia 
arabice et latine cura Johannis Channing (2 vols. 1778). 

For his other works see Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen 
Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 239-240. (G. W. T.) 

ABUNDANTIA (``Abundance''), a Roman goddess, the personification 
of prosperity and good fortune.  Modelled after the Greek Demeter, 
she is practically identical with Copia, Annona and similar 
goddesses.  On the coins of the later Roman emperors she is 
frequently represented holding a cornucopia, from which she 
shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in- dicating the 
liberality of the emperor or empress.  She may be compared 
with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde, Notre Dame 
d'Abondance), whose name often occurs in poems of the Middle 
Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to those whom she 
visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. 1880, i. 286-287). 

ABU NUWAS [Abu,Ah Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-Hakami] (c. 
756-810), known as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al 
Ahwaz, probably about 756. His mother was a Persian, his 
father a soldier, a native of Damascus.  His studies were made 
in Basra under Abu Zaid and Abu'Ubaida (q.v.), and in 
Kufa under Khalaf al-Ahmar.  He is also said to have spent a 
year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language.  
Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of Harun al-Rashid 
and al-Amin, and died there probably about 810. The greater 
part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness 
and disregard of religion, but in his later days he became 
ascetic.  Abu Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his 
time.  His mastery of language has led to extensive quotation 
of his verses by Arabian scholars.  Genial, cynical, immoral, he 
drew on all the varied life of his time for the material of his 
poems.  In his wine-songs especially the manners of the upper 
classes of Bagdad are revealed.  He was one of the first to 
ridicule the set form of the qasida (elegy) as unnatural, 
and has satirized this form in several poems.  See I. Goldziher, 
Abhandlungen zur Arabischen Philologie (Leyden, 1896), 
i. pp. 145 ff.  His poems were collected by several Arabian 
editors.  One such collection (the MS. of which is now in 
Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped under the ten 
headings: wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of youths, love 
of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation of the 
world.  His collected poems (Diwan) have been published 
in Cairo (1860) and in Beirut (1884).  The wine-songs 
were edited by W. Ahlwardt under the title Diwan des Abu 
Nowas. 1. Die lveinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). (G. W. T.) 

ABU SIMBEL, or IPSAMBUL, the name of a group of temples 
of Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.C.) in Nubia, on the left 
bank of the Nile, 56 m. by river S. of Korosko.  They are 
hewn in the cliffs at the riverside, at a point where the 
sandstone hills on the west reach the Nile and form the 
southern boundary of a wider portion of the generally barren 
valley.  The temples are three in number.  The principal 
temple, probably the greatest and most imposing of all rock-hewn 
monuments, was discovered by Burckhardt in 1812 and opened by 
Belzoni in 1817. (The front has been cleared several times, 
most recently in 1892, but the sand is always pressing forward 
from the north end.) The hillside was recessed to form the 
facade, backed against which four immense seated colossi of 
the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance, rise from 
a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight of 
steps.  The colossi are no less than 65 ft. in height, of 
nobly placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures 
of Rameses' queen and their sons and daughters; behind and 
over them is the cornice, with the dedication below in a 
line of huge hieroglyphs, and a long row of apes, standing in 
adoration of the rising sun above.  The temple is dedicated 
primarily to the solar gods Amenre of Thebes and Raharakht of 
Heliopolis, the true sun god; it is oriented to the east so 
that the rays of the sun in the early morning penetrate the 
whole length of two great halls to the innermost sanctuary and 
fall upon the central figures of Amenre and Rameses, which are 
there enthroned with Ptah of Memphis and Raharakht on either 
side.  The interior of the temple is decorated with coloured 
sculpture of fine workmanship and in good preservation; the 
scenes are more than usually interesting; some are of religious 
import (amongst them Rameses as king making offerings to 
himself as god), others illustrate war in Syria, Libya and 
Ethiopia: another series depicts the events of the famous 
battle with the Hittites and their allies at Kadesh, in which 
Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and army by his personal 
valour.  Historical stelae of the same reign are engraved 
inside and outside the temple; the most interesting is that 
recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the 34th 
year.  Not the least important feature of the temple belongs 
to a later age, when some Greek, Carian and Phoenician 
soldiers of one of the kings named Psammetichus (apparently 
Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.) inscribed their names upon 
the two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then clear of 
sand.  These graffiti are of the highest value for the early 
history of the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek 
mercenaries in the Egyptian armies of the period.  The upper 
part of the second colossus (from the south) has fallen; 
the third was repaired by Sethos II. not many years after 
the completion of the temple.  This great temple was wholly 
rock-cut, and is now threatened by gradual ruin by sliding 
on the planes of stratification.  A small temple, immediately 
to the south of the first, is believed to have had a built 
antechamber: it is the earliest known example of a ``birth 
chapel,'' such as was usually attached to Ptolemaic temples 
for the accommodation of the divine mother-consort and her 
son.  The third and northernmost temple, separated from 
the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the colossi of 
the facade are six in number and 53 ft. high, representing 
Rameses and his queen Nefrere, who dedicated the temple 
to the goddess Hathor.  The whole group forms a singular 
monument of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification. 

See EGYPT; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, 
vol. iii. pp. 124 et seq., esp. 212; ``The Temples 
of Lower Nubia,'' in the American Journal of Semitic 
Languages and Literatures, October 1906. (F. LL. G.) 

ABU TAMMAM [Habib ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, 
was, like Buhturi, of the tribe of Tai (though some say 
he was the son of a Christian apothecary named Thaddeus, 
and that his genealogy was forged).  He was born in Jasim 
(Josem), a place to the north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or 
near Manbij (Hierapolis).  He seems to have spent his youth 
in Homs, though, according to one story, he was employed 
during his boyhood in selling water in a mosque in Cairo.  
His first appearance as a poet was in Egypt, but as he failed 
to make a living there he went to Damascus and thence to 
Mosul.  From this place he made a visit to the governor of 
Armenia, who awarded him richly.  After 833 he lived mostly in 
Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo,tasim.  From Bagdad he 
visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour of Abdallah ibn 
Tahir.  About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un Nu`man, where he met 
Buhturi.  He died in Mosul.  Abu Tammam is best known in 
literature as the compiler of the collection of early poems 
known as the Hamasa (q.v..) Two other h collections of 
a similar nature are ascribed to him.  His own poems I 
have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his 
compilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, 
and were distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit 
of the verse and the excellent manner of treating subjects.  
His poems (Diwan) were published in Cairo (A.D. 1875). 

See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, 
trans. by M`G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. i. 
pp. 348 ff.; and in the Kitab ul-Aghani (Book of Songs) 
of Abulfaraj (Bulaq, 1869), vol. xv. pp. 100-108. (G.W.  T.) 

ABUTILON (from the Arabic aubutilun, a name given by 
Avicenna to this or an allied genus), in botany, a genus of 
plants, natural order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about 
eighty species, and widely distributed in the tropics.  They 
are free-growing shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and 
are favorite greenhouse plants.  They may be grown outside 
in England during the summer months, but a few degrees of 
frost is fatal to them.  They are readily propagated from 
cuttings taken in the spring or at the end of the summer.  A 
large number of horticultural varieties have been developed 
by hybridization, some of which have a variegated foliage. 

ABUTMENT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed to 
receive and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or 
strut.  When built outside a wall it is termed a buttress. 

ABU UBAIDA [Ma,mar ibn ul-Muthanna] (728-825), Arabian 
scholar, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Basra, 
and in his youth was a pupil of Abu,Amr ibn ul-,Ala.  In 
803 he was called to Bagdad by Harun al-Rashjd.  He died in 
Basra.  He was one of the most learned and authoritative 
scholars of his time in all matters pertaining to the Arabic 
language, antiquities and stories, and is constantly cited by 
later authors and compilers.  Juhiz held him to be the most 
learned scholar in all branches of human knowledge, and Ibn 
Hisbam accepted his interpretation even of passages in the 
Koran.  The titles of 105 of his works are mentioned in the 
Fihrist, and his Book of Days is the basis of parts of 
the history of Ibn al-Athir and of the Book of Songs 
(see ABULFARAJ), but nothing of his (except a song) seems to 
exist now in an independent form.  He is often described as a 
Kharijite.  This, however, is true only in so far as he 
denied the privileged position of the Arab people before 
God. He was, however, a strong supporter of the Shu'ubite 
movement, i.e. the movement which protested against the 
idea of the superiority of the Arab race over all others.  
This is especially seen in his satires on Arabs (which made 
him so hated that no man followed his bier when he died).  He 
delighted in showing that words, fables, customs, &c., which 
the Arabs believed to be peculiarly their own, were derived 
from the Persians.  In these matters he was the great rival 
of Asma'i (q.v..) M`G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), 
vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also I. Goldziher's Muhammedanische 
Studien (Halle, 1888), vol. i. pp. 194-206. (G. W. T.) 

ABYDOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated at 
Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile 
broad.  It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was 
afterwards colonized by Milesians.  Here Xerxes crossed the 
strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece.  Abydos 
is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip 
V. of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves 
of Hero and Leander.  The town remained till late Byzantine 
times the toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being 
transferred to the Dardanelles (q.v.), after the building 
of the ``Old Castles'' by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456). 

See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage dans l'empire ottoman (Paris, 1842). 

ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, 
about 7 m.  W. of the Nile in lat. 26 deg.  10' N. The Egyptian 
name was Abdu, ``the hill of the symbol or reliquary,'' 
in which the sacred head of Osiris was preserved.  Thence 
the Greeks named it Abydos, like the city on the Hellespont; 
the modern Arabic name is Arabet el Madfuneh. The history 
of the city begins in the late prehistoric age, it having 
been founded by the pre-Menite kings (Petrie, Abydos, 
ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been found 
there.  The kings of the Ist dynasty, and some of the IInd 
dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed 
and enlarged by them.  Great forts were built on the desert 
behind the town by three kings of the IInd dynasty.  The 
temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down 
to the times of the XXXth dynasty, and the cemetery was used 
continuously.  In the XIIth dynasty a gigantic tomb was 
cut in the rock by Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in 
the XIXth dynasty founded a great new temple to the south 
of the town in honour of the ancestral kings of the early 
dynasties; this was finished by Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who 
also built a lesser temple of his own.  Mineptah (Merenptah) 
added a great Hypogeum of Osiris to the temple of Seti.  The 
latest building was a new temple of Nekhtnebf in the XXXth 
dynasty.  From the Ptolemaic times the place continued to decay 
and no later works are known (Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.). 

The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophols, 
Wepwoi), who ``opened the way'' to the realm of the dead, 
increasing from the Ist dynasty to the time of the XIIth 
dynasty and then disappearing after the XVIIIth.  Anher 
appears in the XIth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the 
western Hades, rises to importance in the middle kingdom and 
then vanishes in the XVIIIth.  The worship here of Osiris 
in his various forms begins in the XIIth dynasty and becomes 
more important in later times, so that at last the whole 
place was considered as sacred to him (Abydos, ii. 47). 

The temples successively built here on one site were nine 
or ten in number, from the Ist dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the 
XXVIth dynasty, 500 B.C..  The first was an enclosure, 
about 30X 50 ft., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked 
bricks.  Covering one wall of this came the second temple of 
about 40 ft. square in a wall about 10 ft. thick.  An outer 
temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded the ground.  This outer 
wall was thickened about the IInd or IIIrd dynasty.  The old 
temple entirely vanished in the IVth dynasty, and a smaller 
building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black 
ashes.  Pottery models of offerings are found in the ashes, 
and these were probably the substitutes for sacrifices decreed 
by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms.  A great clearance of 
temple offerings was made now, or earlier, and a chamber full 
of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed 
figures and tiles which show the splendid work of the Ist 
dynasty.  A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hieroglyphs 
in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the 
most important pieces.  The noble statuette of Cheops in 
ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives 
the only portrait of this greatest ruler.  The temple was 
rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by Pepi I. in the VIth 
dynasty.  He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an 
outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the 
gates.  His temple was about 40X50 ft. inside, with stone 
gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional 
type.  In the XIth dynasty Menthotp (Mentuhotep) III. added 
a colonnade and altars.  Soon after, Sankhkere entirely 
rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, 
about 45 ft. square, besides subsidiary chambers.  Soon after 
Senwosri (Senusert) I. in the XIIth dynasty laid massive 
foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor.  A 
great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area, and 
the temple itself was about three times the earlier size. . 

The XVIIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis 
(Ahmosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes) 
III. built a far larger temple, about 130X200 ft.  He made 
also a processional way past the side of the temple to the 
cemetery beyond, with a great gateway of granite.  Rameses III. 
added a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty 
rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith 
shrine of red granite, finely wrought.  The foundations of 
the successive temples were comprised within about 18 ft. 
depth of ruins; these needed the closest examination to 
discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by over 
4000 measurements and 1000 levellings (Petrie, Abydos, ii.). 

The temple of Seti I. was built on entirely new ground 
half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just 
described.  This is the building best known as the Great 
Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive 
sight.  A principal object of it was the adoration of the early 
kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary 
chapel, lies behind it.  The long list of the kings of the 
principal dynasties carved on a wall is known as the ``Table 
of Abydos.'' There were also seven chapels for the worship of 
the king and principal gods.  At the back were large chambers 
connected with the Osiris worship (Caulfield, Temple of the 
Kings); and probably from these led out the great Hypogeum 
for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Mineptah 
(Murray, Osireion.) The temple was originally 550 ft. long, 
but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part in 
good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, including 
the wing at the side.  Excepting the list of kings and a 
panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but 
mythological.  The work is celebrated for its delicacy and 
refinement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier 
ages.  The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, 
not facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i.  The adjacent 
temple of Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but 
it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, 
of which the lower parts remain.  A list of kings, similar 
to that of Seti, formerly stood here; but the fragments were 
removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum. 

The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about 
a mile back on the great desert plain.  The earliest is about 
10X20ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally 
roofed with timber and matting.  Others also before Menes 
are 15X25 ft.  The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter 
size.  After this the tombs increase 111 size and complexity.  
The tomb-pit is surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, 
the actual sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the 
midst of the brick-lined pit.  Rows of small tomb-pits for the 
servants of the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens 
of such burials being usual.  By the end of the IInd dynasty 
the type changed to a long passage bordered with chambers 
on either hand, the royal burial heing in the middle of the 
length.  The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies 
covered a space of over 3000 square yards.  The contents of 
the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; 
enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the 
mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones 
from the royal table service stood about the body, the 
store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed 
ointment and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of 
ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the 
reigns.  The sealings of the various officials, of which 
over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into 
the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii.). 

The cemetery of private persons begins in the Ist dynasty with 
some pit tombs in the town.  It was extensive in the XIIth 
and XIIIth dynasties and contained many rich tombs.  In the 
XVIIIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were made, 
and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times.  Many 
hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, 
without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and 
iii.).  Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos, 
iii.; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Garstang, El Arabah. 

The forts lay behind the town.  That known as Shunet ez 
Zebib is about 450X250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. 
high.  It was built by Rhasekhemui, the last king of the IInd 
dynasty.  Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and 
is probably rather older.  A third fort of a squarer form 
is now occupied by the Coptic convent; its age cannot 
be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, iii.). (W. M. F. P.) 

ABYSS (Gr. a-, privative, bussos, bottom), a bottomless 
depth; hence any deep place.  From the late popular abyssimus 
(superlative of Lon Latin abyssus) through the French abisme 
(i.e. abime) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced 
as late as 1616 to rhyme with time. The adjective ``abyssal'' 
or ``abysmal'' has been used by zoologists to describe deep 
regions of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and 
fauna, abysmal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal 
bed of the ocean.  In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an 
escutcheon.  In the Greek version of the Old Testament the 
word represents (1) the,-original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) 
the Hebrew tehom (``a surging water-deep''), which is used 
also in apocalyptic and kabbalistic literature and in the New 
Testament for hell; the place of punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. 
for the ``yawning chasm of Tartarus''); in the Revised (not 
the Authorized) version abyss is generally used for this 
idea.  Primarily in the Septuagint cosmography the word is 
applied (a) to the waters under the earth which originally 
covered it, and from which the springs and rivers are supplied, 
(b) to the waters of the firmament which were regarded as 
closely connected with those below.  Derivatively, from the 
general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of the place 
of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as Sheol.  
In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence they 
may occasionally be let loose, and where Satan is doomed to 
spend 1000 years.  Beneath the altar in the temple of Jerusalem 
there was believed to be a passage which led down to the abyss 
of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was 
laid.  In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of 
Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or 
seven parts imposed one above the other.  In the Kabbalah the 
abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil 
spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the 
world above.  In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a 
place of indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow. 

See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in tha Old 
Testament (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1905). 

ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA), an inland country and 
empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5 deg.  and 15 deg.  N. 
and 35 deg.  and 42 deg.  E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian).  
W. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, 
S.E. and E. by' the British.  Ita!ian and French possessions 
in Somaliland and on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by 
European powers, which cut off Abyssinia from access to the 
sea, vary in width from 40 to 250 miles.  The country approaches 
nearest to the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is 
drawn about 40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is 
narrowest in the north, being here 230 n1. across from east to 
west.  It broadens out southward to a width of 900 m. along 
the line of 9 deg.  N., and resembles in shape a triangle with 
its apex to the north.  It is divided into Abyssinia proper 
(i.e. Tigre, Amhara, Gojam, &c.), Shoa, Kaffa and Galla 
land----all these form a geographical unit---and central 
Somaliland with Harrar.  To the S.W. Abyssinia also includes 
part of the low country of the Sobat tributary of the 
Nile.  The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. 
m., of which Abyssinian Somaliland covers fully a third. 

(1) Physical Features.-- Between the valley of the Upper Nile 
and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the 
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus 
from which rise various mountain ranges.  These tablelands 
and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla 
land.  On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise 
with considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting 
outer mountain chains.  The Abyssinian highlands are thus 
a clearly marked orographic division.  From Ras Kasar (18 deg.  
N.) to Annesley Bay (15 deg.  N.) the eastern wall of the plateau 
runs parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows 
closely the line of 40 deg.  E. for some 400 m.  About 9 deg.  N. there 
is a break in the wall, through which the river.  Hawash flows 
eastward.  The main range at this point trends S.W., while 
south of the Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the 
level of the mountains, another massif rises in a direct line 
south.  This second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) 
eastward to the Gulf of Aden.  The two chief eastern ranges 
maintain a parallel course S. by W., with a broad upland 
valley between---in which valley are a series of lakes---to 
about 3 deg.  N., the outer (eastern) spurs of the plateau still 
keeping along the line of 40 deg.  E. The southern escarpment of 
the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general direction 
N.W. and S.E. from 6 deg.  N. to 3 deg.  N. It overlooks the depression 
in which is Lake Rudolf and---east of that lake--southern 
Somaliland.  The western wall of the plateau from 6 deg.  N. 
to 11 deg.  N. is well marked and precipitous.  North of 11 deg.  
N. the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually 
to the plains at their base.  On its northern face also 
the plateau falls in terraces to the level of the eastern 
Sudan.  The eastern escarpment is the best defined of these 
outer ranges.  It has a mean height of from 7000 to 8000 
ft., and in many places rises almost perpendicularly from the 
plain.  Narrow and deep clefts, through which descend mountain 
torrents to lose themselves in the sandy soil of the coast 
land, afford means of reaching the plateau, or the easier 
route through the Hawash valley may be chosen.  On surmounting 
this rocky barrier the traveller finds that the encircling 
rampart rises little above the normal level of the plateau. 

(2) The aspect of the highlands is most impressive.  The 
northern portion, lying mainly between 10 deg.  and 15 deg.  N., 
consists of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height 
of from 7000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, and is fl00ded in a 
deep central depression by the waters of Lake Tsana.  Above 
the plateau rise several irregular and generally ill-defined 
mountain ranges which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 
15,000 ft.  Many of the mountains are of weird and fantastic 
shape.  Characteristic of the country are the enormous 
fissures which divide it, formed in the course of ages by 
the erosive action of water.  They are in fact the valleys 
of the rivers which, rising on the uplands or mountain 
sides, have cut their way to the surrounding lowlands.  Some 
of the valleys are of considerable width; in other cases the 
opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three hundred 
yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of feet, 
representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of cubic 
feet.  One result of the action of the water has been the 
formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small 
plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides.  
The highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam 
ranges.  The Simen Mountains he N.E. of Lake Tsana and 
culminate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which 
has an altitude of 15,160 ft.  A few miles east and north 
respectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose 
summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan.  In the Chok 
Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft. 

Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of Baila 
(12,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (13,780 ft.), and Kollo (14,100 
ft.), the last-named being S.W. of Magdala.  The valley 
between these hills and the eastern escarpment is one of 
the longest and most profound chasms in Abyssinia.  Between 
Lake Tsana and the eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13,800 
ft.) and Uara Sahia (13,000 ft.).  The figures given are, 
however, approximate only.  The southern portion of the 
highlands---the 10 deg.  N. roughly marks the division between 
north and south---has more open tableland than the northern 
portion and fewer lofty peaks.  Though there are a few heights 
between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do not exceed 8000 
ft.  But the general character of the southern regions is 
the same as in the north---a much-broken hilly plateau. 

Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope to the 
north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way 
in that direction to the Nile.  Such are the Takazze in the 
north, the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and 
through these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths 
of the entire drainage.  The rest is carried off, almost due 
north by the Khor Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red 
Sea south of Suakin; by the Hawash, which runs out in the 
saline lacustrine district near the head of Taiura Bay; by the 
Webi Shebeli (Wabi Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E. through 
Somaliland, though the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; 
and by the Omo. the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf. 

The Takazze, which is the true upper course of the Atbara, 
has its head-waters in the central tableland; and falls from 
about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through 
which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the 
western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan 
territory.  During the rains the Takazze (i.e. the 
``Terrible'') rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and 
at this time forms an impassable barrier between the northern 
and central provinces.  In its lower course the river is 
known by the Arab name Setit.  The Setit is joined (14 deg.  10' 
N., 36 deg.  E.) by the Atbara, a river formed by several streams 
which rise in the mountains W. and N.W. of Lake Tsana.  
The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly of the Abyssinian 
rivers which flow towards the Nile valley.  Its head-waters 
rise on the landward side of the eastern escarpment within 
50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It reaches the 
Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its waters are 
dissipated in the sandy soil.  The Mareb is dry for a great 
part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden 
freshets during the rains.  Only the left bank of the upper 
course of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb 
here forming the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia. 

(3) The Abai---that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile--has 
its source near Mount Denguiza in the Goiam highlands (about 
11 deg.  N. and 37 deg.  E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due 
north to the south side of Lake Tsana.  Tsana (q.v.), which 
stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the 
plateau, has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater.  It has 
an area of about 1100 sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 
ft.  At the south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as 
it were. breached by a deep crevasse through which the Abai 
escapes, and here dovelb. ps a great semicircular bend like that 
of the Takazzo, but in the reverse direction---east, south 
and north-west---down to the plains of Sennar, where it takes 
the name of Bahr-el-Azrak or Blue Nile.  The Abai has many 
tributaries.  Of these the Bashilo rises near Magdala and 
drains eastern Amhara; the Jamma rises near Ankober and drains 
northern Shoa; the Muger rises near Adis Ababa and drains 
south-western Shoa; the Didessa, the largest of the Abai's 
affluents, rises in the Kaffa hills and has a generally S. to 
N. course; the Yabus runs near the western edge of the plateau 
escarpment.  All these are perennial rivers.  The right-hand 
tributaries, rising mostly on the western sides of the 
plateau, have steep slopes and are generally torrential in 
character.  The Bolassa, however, is perennial, and the 
Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time. 

In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the 
south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and 
other of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the 
Nile.  The Akobo, in about 7 deg.  50' N. and 33 deg.  E., joins the 
Pibor, which in about 8 1/2 deg.  N. and 33 deg.  20' E. unites with 
the Baro, the river below the confluence taking the name of 
Sobat.  These rivers descend from the mountains in great 
falls, and like the other Abyssinian streams are unnavigable in 
their upper courses.  The Baro on reaching the plain becomes, 
however, a navigable stream affording an open waterway to the 
Nile.  The Baro, Pibor and Akobo form for 250 m. the W. and 
S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see NILE, SOBAT and SUDAN.) 

The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash 
(Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes 
a semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the 
Afar (Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern 
escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its 
left bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and 
then trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the 
Hawash is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. 
deep, even in the dry season, and during the floods rising 
50 or 60 ft. above low-water mark, thus inundating the plains 
for many miles along both its banks.  Yet it fails to reach 
the coast, and after . a winding course of about 500 m. 
passes (in its lower reaches) through a series of badds 
(lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or 70 m. from the head.of 
Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is lost.  This remarkable 
phenomenon is explained by the position of Aussa in the 
centre of a saline lacustrine depression several hundred 
feet below sea-level.  While most of the other lagoons are 
highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their 
margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to 
the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash. 

Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights 
south-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression.  
In this chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some 
brackish, some completely closed, others connected by short 
channels, the chief links in their order from north to south 
are:---Zwai, communicating southwards with Hara and Lamina, 
all in the Arusi Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet 
to a smaller tarn in the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, 
skirted on the west sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges 
from 6000 to nearly 9000 ft. high; lastly, in the Asille 
country, Lake Stefanie, the Chuwaha of the natives, completely 
closed and falling to a level of about 1800 ft. above the 
sea.  To the same system obviously belongs the neighbouring 
Lake Rudolf (q.v.), which is larger than all the rest put 
together.  This lake receives at its northern end the waters 
of the ()mo, which rises in the Shoa highlands and is a 
perennial river with many affluents.  In its course of some 
370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 
at its source to 1600 at lake-level), and is consequently 
a very rapid stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other 
falls, and navigable only for a short distance above its 
mouth.  The chief rivers of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi 
Shebeli and the Juba (q.v.), have their rise on the 
south-eastenn slopes of the Abyssinian escarpment, and the 
greater part of their course is through territory belonging to 
Abyssinia.  There are numerous hot springs in Abyssinia, and 
earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not uncommon. 

(4) Geology.----The East African tableland is continued 
into Abyssinia.  Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 
1870 the geology has received little attention from 
travellers.  The following formations are represented:-- 


 
                    Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
 Recent.                        Coral, alluvium, sand.
 Tertiary.                      (?) Limestones of Harrar.
 Jurassic.                      Antalo Limestones.
 Triassic (?).                  Adigrat Sandstones.
 Archaean.                      Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks.
 
                            Igneous.
 Recent.                        Aden Volcanic Series.
 Tertiary, Cretaceous (?).      Magdala group.
 Jurassic.                      Ashangi group.
 

Archaean.--The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass 
of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley 
in Tigre and along the valley of the Blue Nile.  Mica 
schists form the prevalent rocks.  Hornblende schist 
also occur and a compact felspathic rock in the Suris 
defile.  The foliae of the schists strike north and south. 

Triassic (?).---In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic 
rocks are invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, 
unfossiliferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 
feet.  They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of 
the Antalo group.  Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds 
occur, which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the 
coal-bearing strata of India.  The Adigrat Sandstone possibly 
represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South Africa. 

Jurassic.---The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are 
generally horizontal, but are in places much disturbed 
when interstratified with trap rocks.  The fossils are 
all characteristic Oolite forms and include species of 
Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya, Trigonia and Alaria. 

Igneous Rocks.---Above a height of 8000 ft. the country consists 
of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconformable 
groups.  The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts and 
dolerites often amygdaloidal.  Their relation to the Antalo 
limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be 
not later in age than the Oolite.  The upper (Magdala group) 
contains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, 
lying perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of 
terraced ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia.  They are 
interbedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales.  Of 
more recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, 
rich in alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern 
Abyssinia.  Of still more recent date are the basalts and 
ashes west of Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as 
the Aden Volcanic Series.  With regard to the older igneous 
rocks, the enormous amount they have suffered from denudation 
is a prominent feature.  They have been worn into deep and 
narrow ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft. 

(5) Climate.---The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent 
territories varies greatly.  Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands 
have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the 
country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and 
malarious.  But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well 
as the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and 
temperate.  The country lies wholly within the tropics, but 
its nearness to the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation 
of the land.  In the deep valleys of the Takazze and Abai, 
and generally in places below 4000 ft., the conditions are 
tropical and fevers are prevalent.  On the uplands, however, 
the air is cool and bracing in summer, and in winter very 
bleak.  The mean range of temperature is between 60 deg.  and 
80 deg.  F. On the higher mountains the climate is Alpine in 
character.  The atmosphere on the plateaus is exceedingly 
clear, so that objects are easily recognizable at great 
distances.  In addition to the variation in climate dependent 
on elevation, the year may be divided into three seasons.  
Winter, or the cold season, lasts from October to February, 
and is followed by a dry hot period, which about the middle of 
June gives place to the rainy season.  The rain is heaviest in 
the Takazze basin in July and August.  In the more southern 
districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains continue till 
the middle of September, and occasionally October is a wet 
month.  There are also spring and winter rains; indeed rain 
often falls in every month of the year.  But the rainy season 
proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from June to 
mid-September, and commencing in the north moves southward.  
In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin earlier 
and last longer.  The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a 
year in Tigre and Amhara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla 
land.  The rainy season is of great importance not only to 
Abyssinia but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the 
prosperity of the eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent 
upon the rainfall.  A season of light rain may be sufficient 
for the needs of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water 
to find its way to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means 
a low Nile, as practically all the flood water of that river 
is derived from the Abyssinian tributaries (see NILE.) 

(6) Flora and Fauna.--As in a day's journey the traveller 
may pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of 
climate, so great also is the range of the flora and fauna.  
In the valleys and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but 
the general appearance of the plateaus is of a comparatively 
bare country with trees and bushes thinly scattered over 
it.  The glens and ravines on the hillside are often thickly 
wooded, and offer a delightful contrast to the open downs.  
These conditions are particularly characteristic of the northern 
regions; in the south the vegetation on the uplands is more 
luxuriant.  Among the many varieties of trees and plants 
found are the date palm, mimosa, wild olive, giant sycamores, 
junipers and laurels, the myrrh and Other gum trees (gnarled 
and stunted, these flourish most on the eastern foothills), 
a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine, which resists the 
attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime, pomegranate, 
peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees; the grape vine 
(rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton and indigo 
Plants, and occasionally the sugar cane.  There are in the 
south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the coffee 
plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes its 
name.  Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound.  Large areas 
are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose family, 
which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant pendent red 
blossoms.  The flowers and the leaves of this plant are 
highly prized for medicinal purposes.  The fruit of the 
hurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields 
a black grain highly esteemed as a spice.  On the tableland 
a great variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated.  
A fibrous plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild 
state in the semi-desert regions of the north and south-east. 

In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below (sec.  8) the 
fauna is very varied.  Elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in 
certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat valley.  
The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin has no 
folds.  The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the larger 
rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in which, 
however, otters of large size are plentiful.  Lions abound 
in the low countries and in Somaliland.  In central Abyssinia 
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river 
valleys.  Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and 
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are 
hardy and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also 
common.  Boars and badgers are more rarely seen.  The giraffe 
is found in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass 
frequent the lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the 
north.  There are large herds of buffalo and antelope, and 
gazelles of many varieties and in great numbers are met 
with in most parts of the country.  Among the varieties are 
the greater and lesser kudu (both rather rare); the duiker, 
gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most common--it has 
long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klipspringer, found 
on the high plateaus as well as in the lower districts; 
and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight 
rarely exceeding 10 lb. , common in the low countries and the 
foothills.  The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, 
but chiefly in the Galla regions.  Squirrels and hares 
are numerous, as are several kinds of monkeys, notably 
the guereza, gelada, guenon and dog-faced baboon.  They 
range from the tropical lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft. 

Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the 
beauty of their plumage.  Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, 
bustards and other birds of prey are met with; and partridges, 
duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, woodcock, snipe, 
pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful.  A fine 
variety of ostrich is commonly found.  Among the birds prized 
for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, blacks bird, 
parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance, 
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey 
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the 
inhabitants.  Of an opposite class is the locust.  Serpents 
are not numerous, but several species are poisonous.  There 
are thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. 

(7) Provinces and Towns.--Politically, Abyssinia is divided 
into provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories.  The 
chief provinces are Tigro, which occupies the N.E. of the 
country; Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district 
enclosed by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa 
(q.v.), which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara.  
Besides these ancient provinces and several others of smaller 
size, the empire includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of 
Gojam; the Harrar province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla 
land, S.W. and S. of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland. 

With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab 
foundation, there are no large towns in Abyssinia.  Harrar 
is some 30 m.  S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway 
(188 m. long) to Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden.  The absence 
of large towns in Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces 
into which the country is divided having been for centuries 
in a state of almost continual warfare, and to the frequent 
change of the royal residences on the exhaustion of fuel 
supplies.  The earliest capital appears to have been Axum 
(q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive ruins.  In 
the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital of the 
country and was so regarded up to the middle of the 19th 
century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the
kingdom of Shoa. 

The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be grouped 
according to their geographical position.  None of them has 
a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several large 
markets are held periodically.  In Tigre there are Adowa 
or Adua ( 17 m.  E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and 
Antalo The three last-named places are on the high plateau 
near its eastern escarpment and on the direct road south 
from Massawa to Shoa.  West of Adigrat is the monastery of 
Debra-Domo, one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia. 

In Amhara there are:---Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence 
of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British 
captives in 1866.  Debra-Tabor (``Mount Tabor''), the chief 
royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong 
strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake 
Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea; it has 
a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of 
Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the 
time of King Theodore.  Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station 
midway between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east 
side of Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the 
famous shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the 
name of the place, ``Fort St Mary.'' Mahdera-Mariam (``Mary's 
Rest''), for some time a royal residence, and an important 
market and great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west 
of Debra-Tabor; its two churches of the ``Mother'' and the 
``Son'' are held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it 
has a permanent population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and 
Amharas, the former mostly Mahommedan.  Sokota, one of the 
great central markets, and capital of the province of Waag in 
Amhara, at the converging point of several main trade routes; 
the market is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the 
salt blocks which come from Lake Alalbed.  The following towns 
are in Shoa:---Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; 
Aliu-Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of 
Aden; Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (``Mountain of Light''), 
once a royal residence; Liche (Litche), one of the largest 
market towns in southern Abyssinia.  Licka, the largest market 
in Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and 
other parts of the empire.  Bonga, the commercial centre of 
Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of 
Jimma, are frequented by traders from all the surrounding 
provinces, and also by foreign merchants from the seaports 
on the Gulf of Aden.  Apart from these market-places there 
are no settlements of any size in southern Abyssinia. 

Communications.--The J'buti-Dire Dawa railway has been mentioned 
above.  The continuation of this railway to the capital was 
begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end.  There are few roads 
in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic.  Transport is 
usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the 
lower regions) camels.  From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a 
well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the 
caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being 
spanned by an iron bridge.  There is also a direct trade 
route from Dire Dawa to the capital.  Telegraph lines connect 
Adis Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia 
with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti.  There is also a telephonic 
service, the longest line being from Harrar to the capital. 

(8) Agriculture.--The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is 
evident from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its 
fertility to the sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian 
tributaries.  Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly 
by the Gallas, the indolence of the Abyssinians preventing 
them from being good farmers.  In the lower regions a wide 
variety of crops are grown --among them maize, durra, wheat, 
barley, rye, teff, pease, cotton and sugar-cane---and many 
kinds of fruit trees are cultivated. Teff is a kind of 
millet with grains about the size of an ordinary pin-head, 
of which is made the bread commonly eaten.  The low grounds 
also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black bread is 
made.  Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the 
suf, nuc and selite (there are no European equivalents 
for the native names), and the ground-nut are largely 
grown.  The castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the 
low, damp regions, the red castor at medium altitudes.  The 
kat plant, a medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is 
largely grown in the Harrar province.  On the higher plateaus 
the hardier cereals only are cultivated.  Here the chief 
crops are wheat, barley, teff, peppers, vegetables of all 
kinds and coffee.  Above 10,000 ft. the crops are confined 
practically to barley, oats, beans and occasionally wheat. 

Coffee is one of the most important products of the country, 
and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands.  
It is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to 
a less extent in the central districts.  Two qualities of 
coffee are cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as 
Harrar-Mocha.  The ``Abyssinian'' coffee is grown very extensively 
throughout the southern highlands.  Little attention is paid 
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the 
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low 
grade. ``Harrar-Mocha'' is of first-class quality.  It is 
grown in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme 
care.  The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus 
in the early years of the 20th century.  The soil of the 
Hawash valley proved particularly suitable for raising this 
crop.  In the high plateaus the planting of seeds begins in 
May, in the lower plateaus and the plains in June, but in 
certain parts where the summer is long and rain abundant 
sowing and reaping are going on at the same time.  Most 
regions yield two, many three crops a year.  The methods 
of culture are primitive, the plough commonly used being a 
long pole with two vertical iron teeth and a smaller pole 
at right angles to which oxen are attached.  This implement 
costs about four shillings.  The ploughing is done by the 
men, but women and girls do the reaping.  The grain is usually 
trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay-lined 
pits.  Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to tenfold 
the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields twenty to 
thirtyfold.  In the northern parts of the empire very little 
land is left uncultivated.  The hillsides are laid out in 
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the 
channels being often two miles or more long.  Of all the 
cereals barley is the most widely grown.  The average rate 
of pay to an agricultural labourer is about threepence a 
day in addition to food, which may cost another penny a day. 

The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals.  Among 
cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common.  The bulls 
are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for 
meat.  Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed 
variety, hut there are also two breeds----one large, the other 
resembling the Jersey cattle---which are straight-backed.  
The horns of the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long.  
Sheep, of which there are very large flocks, belong to the short 
and fat-tailed variety.  The majority are not wool-bearing, 
but in one district a very small black sheep is raised for 
wool.  The small mountain breed of sheep weigh no more than 20 
to 30 lb. apiece.  Goats are of both the long and short-haired 
varieties.  The horns of the large goats are often thirty 
inches in length and stand up straight from the head.  The 
goats from the Arusi Galla country have fine silky hair which 
is sometimes sixteen inches long.  The meat of both sheep and 
goats is excellent; that of the latter is preferred by the 
natives.  In 1904 the estimated number of sheep and goats 
in the country was 20,000,000.  Large quantities of butter, 
generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats and 
sheep.  In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in 
considerable numbers.  The horses (very numerous) are small hut 
strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height.  The best 
breeds come from the Shoa uplands.  The ass is also small and 
strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent 
quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is 
preferred to the horse.  The mule thrives in every condition 
of climate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult 
mountain passes with absolute security, and can carry with 
ease a load of 200 lb.  The average height of a mule is 124 
hands.  The country is admirably adapted for stock-raising. 

(9) Minerals.---In the south and south-west provinces 
placer gold mines by the banks of watercourses are worked by 
Gallas as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and 
fields.  In the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing 
quartz, mined to a certain extent.  There are also gold 
mines in southern Shoa The annual output of gold is worth not 
less than L. 500,000.  Only a small proportion is exported.  
Besides gold, silver, iron, coal and other minerals are 
found.  Rock-salt is obtained from the province of Tigre. 

Trade and Currency.---Abyssinia being without seaports, 
the external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the 
north, Jibuti (French), Zaila and Berbera (British) in the 
south, and for all these ports Aden is a distributing 
centre.  For Tigre and Amhara products Massawa is the best 
port, for the rest of the empire, Jibuti.  For southern 
Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands, Harrar is the great 
entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to Jibuti and the other 
Somaliland ports.  There is also a considerable trade with the 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the frontier towns of Rosaires and 
Gallabat.  At the French and British ports thore is freedom 
of trade, but on goods for Abyssinia entering Massawa a 
discriminating tax is levied if they are not imported from Italy. 

The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet, 
ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for 
its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and 
live stock.  The trade in skins is mainly with the L 1ited 
States through Aden; America also takes a large proportion 
of the coffee exported.  For live stock there is a good 
trade with Madagascar.  The chief imports are cotton goods, 
the yearly value of this trade being fully L. 250,000; the 
sheetings are largely American; the remainder English and 
Indian.  No other article of import approaches cotton in 
importance, but a considerable trade is done in arms and 
ammunition, rice, sugar, flour and other foods, and a still 
larger trade in candles and matches (from Sweden), oil, 
carpets (oriental and European), hats and umbrellas.  Commerce 
long remained in a backward condition; but under the Emperor 
Menelek II. efforts were made to develop the resources of 
the country, and in 1905 the total volume of trade exceeded 

Until the end of the 19th century the usual currency was the 
Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges.  In 
1894 a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar 
or talari, worth about two shillings, as the standard.  
This new coinage gradually superseded the older currency.  
In 1905 the Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the 
country, was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa.  
The bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in 
the empire for fifty years, has a capital of L. 500,000, has 
the power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, 
and to engage in commercial operations.  It was founded under 
Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which institution 
had previously obtained a concession from the emperor Menelek. 

(10) Government.---The political institutions are of a feudal 
character.  Within their provinces the rases (princes) 
exercise large powers.  The emperor, styled negus negusti 
(king of kings), is occasionally assisted by a council of 
rases.  In October 1907 an imperial decree announced the 
constitution of a cabinet on European lines, ministers 
being appointed to the portfolios of foreign affairs, war, 
commerce, justice and finance.  The legal system is said to 
be based on the Justinian code.  From the decisions of the 
judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor.  The chief 
judicial official is known as the affh-negus (breath of the 
king).  The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over 
by an abuna, or archbishop.  The land is not held in fee 
simple, but is subject to the control of the emperor or the 
church.  Revenue is derived from an ad valorem tax on all 
imports; the purchase and sale of animals; from royalties on 
trading concessions, and in other ways, including fees for 
the administration of justice.  Education, of a rudimentary 
character, is given by the clergy.  In 1907 a system of compulsory 
education ``of all male children over the age of 12'' was 
decreed.  The education was to be state provided, Coptic teachers 
were brought from Egypt and school buildings were erected. 

The Abyssinian calendar is as follows:---The Abyssinian year 
of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the 1st of Maskarram, 
which corresponds to about the 10th of September.  The 
months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram, 
Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah, 
Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas'hi.  The remaining five days in 
the year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the 
extra day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the 
end and treated as holidays.  Abyssinian reckoning is about 
seven years eight months behind the Gregorian.  Festivals, 
such as Easter, fall a week later than in western Europe. 

Army.--A small standing army is maintained in each province 
of Abyssinia proper.  Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected 
to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with 
modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field.  
The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.) 

ETHNOLOGY (i1) The population of the empire is estimated 
at from 3,500,000 to 5,000,000.  The inhabitants consist 
mainly of the Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two 
last-named peoples are separately noticed).  Of non-African 
races the most numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and 
Greeks.  There is a small colony of British, French, Italians and 
Russians.  The following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia 
proper and its inhabitants.  It should be remembered that the 
term ``Abyssinian'' is purely geographical, and has little 
or no ethnical significance; it is derived from the Arabic 
Habesh, ``mixed,'' and was a derisive name applied by the 
Arabs to the heterogeneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau. 

Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the eastern 
branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this region 
from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great bulk 
of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly 
Semitized.  The prevailing colour in the central provinces 
(Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigre, Lasta) 
it is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are 
seen.  Southwards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate 
and almost sooty black is the rule.  Many of the people 
are distinctly negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad 
at the base, and frizzly or curly black hair.  The negroid 
element in the population is due chiefly to the number of 
negro women who have been imported into the harems of the 
Abyssinians.  The majority, however, may be described as a 
mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who are in general well formed and 
handsome, with straight and regular features, lively eyes, 
hair long and straight or somewhat curled and in colour dark 
olive, approaching to black.  The Galla, who came originally 
from the south, are not found in many parts of the country, 
but predominate in the Wollo district, between Shoa and 
Amhara.  It is from the Galla that the Abyssinian army is 
largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few of the chiefs 
who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their veins. 

As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as 
the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (``Agao 
land'') and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called ``Jews'' 
of Abyssinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic 
tongue.  But the official language and that of all the 
upper classes is of Semitic origin, derived from the ancient 
Himyaritic, which is the most archaic member of the Semitic 
linguistic family.  Geez, as it is called, was introduced 
with the first immigrants from Yemen, and although no longer 
spoken is still studied as the liturgical language of the 
Abyssinian Christians.  Its literature consists of numerous 
translations of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works, besides a 
valuable version of the Bible. (See ETHIOPIA.) The best 
modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigre and 
Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic 
dialect, which is used in state documents, is current in the 
central and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic 
elements.  All are written in a peculiar syllabic script 
which, un- like all other Semitic forms, runs from left to 
right, and is derived from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, 
still extant in the very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia. 

The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their 
political and social institutions, and especially in their 
religious beliefs and practices.  On a seething mass of African 
heathendom, already in early times affected by primitive 
Semitic ideas, was suddenly imposed a form of Christianity 
which became the state religion.  While the various ethnical 
elements have been merged in the composite Abyssinian nation, 
the primitive and more advanced religious ideas have nowhere 
been fused in a uniform Christian system.  Foreigners are 
often surprised at the strange mixture of savagery and lofty 
notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounts 
accidental manslaughter as wilful murder.  Recourse is still 
had to dreams as a means of detecting crime.  A priest is 
summoned, and, if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is 
drugged, and ``whatever person he dreams of is fixed on as 
the criminal. . . . If the boy does not dream of the person 
whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he is kept 
under drugs until he does what is required of him'' (Count 
Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap. xvi., 1898). 

The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history.  
Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked 
feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their 
prisoners.  When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed 
over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him 
to death or accept a ransom.  When the murdered person has no 
relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of 
avengers.  The natural indolence of the people has been 
fostered by the constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful 
occupations.  The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms.  
The haughtiest Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself 
with the remark, ``God has given us speech for the purpose of 
begging.'' The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but 
easily appeased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of 
gaiety.  On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, 
marriage, &c., it is customary for a rich man to collect 
his friends and neighbours, and kill a cow and one or two 
sheep.  The principal parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet 
warm and quivering, the remainder being cut into small pieces 
and cooked with the favourite sauce of butter and red pepper 
paste.  The raw meat eaten in this way is considered to 
be very superior in taste and much more tender than when 
cold.  The statement by James Bruce respecting the cutting 
of steaks from a live cow has frequently been called in 
question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce actually saw 
what he narrates.  Mutton and goat's flesh are the meats 
most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and the 
hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from 
superstition.  Many forms of game are forbidden; for 
example, all water-fowl.  The principal drinks are me'mse, 
a kind of mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from 
fermented cakes.  The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and 
drinkers, and any occasion is seized as an excuse for a 
carouse.  Old and young, of both sexes, pass days and nights 
in these symposia, at which special customs and rules 
prevail.  Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian preferring 
a thin cake of durra meal or teE, kneaded with water and 
exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is 
baked.  Salt is a luxury; ``he eats salt'' being said of a 
spendthrift.  Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, 
when broken up, used as food.  There is a general looseness of 
morals: marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved 
at any time by either husband or wife.  Polygamy is by no means 
uncommon.  Hence there is little family affection, and what 
exists is only between children of the same father and mother.  
Children of the same father, but of different mothers, are 
said to be ``always enemies to each other.'' (Samuel Gobat's 
Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.) 

The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the 
Arabs.  It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the 
knees, with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe.  The 
Abyssinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes 
on the upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming 
common.  The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, 
in contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather 
sandals.  The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to the 
wrist, where they fit tightly.  The priests wear a white jacket 
with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special 
type of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the 
heel.  In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow 
cloths, while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed 
red.  Clothes are made of cotton, though the nobles and great 
people wear silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of 
honour.  The possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in 
the royal presence wearing it instead of having one shoulder 
bared, as is the usual Abyssinian method of showing respect.  
A high-born man covers himself to the mouth in the presence of 
inferiors.  The men either cut their hair short or plait it; 
married women plait their hair and wind round the head a black 
or parti-coloured silk handkerchief; girls wear their hair 
short.  In the hot season no Abyssinian goes without a 
flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes.  The Christian Abyssinians, 
men and women, wear a blue silk cord round the neck, to 
which is often attached a crucifix.  For ornament women wear 
silver ankle-rings with bells, silver necklaces and silver 
or gold rosettes in the ears.  Silver rings on fingers and 
also on toes are common.  The women are very fond of strong 
scents, which are generally oils imported from India and 
Ceylon.  The men scarcely ever appear without a long curved 
knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well.  Although 
the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the common 
weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are still in 
use.  The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword, spear and 
shield.  The Abyssinians are great hunters and are also 
clever at taming wild beasts.  The nobles hunt antelopes with 
leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and greyhound.  
In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of a pound 
are used; throwing-clubs are employed for small game, and 
lions are hunted with the spear.  Lion skins belong to the 
emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield. 

Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian 
houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, 
ill made and thatched with grass.  These huts are sometimes 
made simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, 
but, in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, 
the roof sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, 
and some with pitched thatched roofs, are common.  The inside 
walls are plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped 
straw.  None of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon 
colours the interior a dark brown.  Generally the houses are 
filthy and ill ventilated and swarm with vermin.  Drainage 
and sanitary arrangements do not exist.  The caves of the 
highlands are often used as dwellings.  The most remarkable 
buildings in Abyssinia are certain churches hewn out of the 
solid rock.  The chief native industries are leather-work, 
embroidery and filigree metal-work; and the weaving of straw 
mats and baskets is extensively practised.  The baskets are 
particularly well made, and are frequently used to contain milk. 

Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough 
frescoes in the churches.  These frescoes, however, often 
exhibit considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively 
imagination of their painters.  They are in the Byzantine style 
and the colouring is gaudy.  Saints and good people are always 
depicted full face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in 
profile.  Among the finest frescoes are those in the church 
of the Holy Trinity at Adowa and those in the church at 
Kwarata, on the shores of Lake Tsana.  The churches are usually 
circular in form, the walls of stone, the roof thatched. 

The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets and 
flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular harps. 

HISTORY 

(12) Abyssiania, or at least the northern portion of it, was 
included in the tract of country known to the ancients as 
Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time to 
about Syene.  The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia was in 
early times very intimate, and occasionally the two countries 
were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization 
of the one naturally found their way into the other.  In early 
times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the 
Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen 
of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country, 
and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim 
descent.  During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here 
and brought with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion.  
Under the Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the 
Greeks entered Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek 
colonies.  A Greek inscription at Adulis, no longer extant, 
but copied by Cosmas of Alexandria, and preserved in his 
Topographia Christiana, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, the 
third of the Greek dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries 
on both sides of the Red Sea, and having reduced most of the 
provinces of Tigre to subjection, returned to the port of 
Adulis, and there offered sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and 
Neptune.  Another inscription, not so ancient, found at Axum, 
states that Aizanas, king of the Axumites, the Homerites, 
&c., conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned thanks 
to his father, the god Mars, for his victory.  Out of these 
Greek colonies appears to have arisen the kingdom of Auxume 
which flourished from the ist to the 7th century A.D. 
and was at one time nearly coextensive with Abyssinia 
proper.  The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis were then 
the chief centres of the trade with the interior of Africa 
in gold dust, ivory, leather, aromatics, &c. At Axum, the 
site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former 
greatness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was 
once a seaport on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. 
from the shore (see ETHIOPIA, The Axumite Kingdom.) 

Introduction of Christianity. 

(13) Christianity was introduced into the country by Frumentius 
(q.v.), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by St 
Athanasius of Alexandria about A.D. 330. From the scanty 
evidence available it would appear that the new religion 
at first made little progress, and the Axumite kings seem 
to have been among the latest converts.  Towards the close 
of the 5th century a great company of monks are believed to 
have established themselves in the country.  Since that time 
monachism has been a power among the people and not without 
its influence on the course of events.  In the early part of 
the 6th century the king of the Homerites, on the opposite 
coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the Christians, the 
emperor Justinian I. requested the king of Auxume, Caleh or 
El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause.  He accordingly collected 
an army, crossed over into Arabia, and conquered Yemen (c. 
525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for about fifty 
years.  This was the most flourishing period in the annals 
of the country.  The Ethiopians possessed the richest part of 
Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far as 
India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with 
the Greek empire.  Their expulsion from Arabia, followed 
by the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle 
of the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the 
continued advances of the followers of the Prophet at length 
cut them off from almost every means of communication with 
the civilized world; so that, as Gibbon says, ``encompassed 
by the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for 
near a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they 
were forgotten.'' About A.D. 1000, a Jewish princess, 
Judith, conceived the design of murdering all the members 
of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their 
stead.  During the execution of this project, the infant king 
was carded off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to 
Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith 
reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and 
transmitted the crown to her descendants.  In 1268 the kingdom 
was restored to the royal house in the person of Yekunu Amlak. 

Portuguese Influence. 

(14) Towards the close of the 15th century the Portuguese 
missions into Abyssinia began.  A belief had long prevailed 
in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far 
east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various 
expeditions had been sent in quest of it.  Among others who 
had engaged in this search was Pedro de Covilham, who arrived 
in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he had at length 
reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the negus, or 
emperor of the country, a letter from his master the king of 
Portugal, addressed to Prester John.  Covilham remained in the 
country, but in 1507 an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the 
negus to the king of Portugal to request his aid against the 
Mahommedans.  In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on 
board, entered the Red Sea in compliance with this request, 
and an embassy from the fleet visited the negus, Lebna Dengel 
Dawit (David) II., and remained in Abyssinia for about six 
years.  One of this embassy was Father Francisco Alvarez, 
from whom we have the earliest and not the least interesting 
account of the country.  Between 1528 and 1540 armies of 
Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommed Gran (or 
Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla), entered Abyssinia 
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the 
kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain 
fastnesses.  In this extremity recourse was again had to the 
Portuguese.  John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the 
mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the 
departure of the embassy, was, according to his own statement 
(which is untrustworthy), ordained successor to the abuna 
(archbishop), and sent to Lisbon.  Bermudez certainly came to 
Europe, but with what credentials is not known.  Be that as 
it may, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of Stephen da 
Gama, was sent from India and arrived at Massawa in February 
1541.  Here he received an ambassador from the negus beseeching 
him to send help against the Moslems, and in the July following 
a force of 450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher 
da Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the 
interior, and being joined by native troops were at first 
successful against the enemy; but they were subsequently 
defeated, and their commander taken prisoner and put to death 
(August 1542).  On the 21st of February 1543, however, Mahommed 
Granye was shot in an engagement and his forces totally 
routed.  After this, quarrels arose between the negus and 
Bermudez, who had returned to Abyssinia with Christopher 
da Gama and who now wished the emperor publicly to profess 
himself a convert to Rome.  This the negus refused to do, 
and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the 
country.  The Jesuits who had accompanied or followed the da 
Gama expedition into Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters 
at Fremona (near Adowa), were oppressed and neglected, but 
not actually expelled.  In the beginning of the 17th century 
Father Pedro Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and 
judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained 
over the emperor to his faith.  He directed the erection of 
churches, palaces and bridges in different parts of the 
country, and carried out many useful works.  His successor 
Mendez was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and 
the feelings of the people became strongly excited against 
the intruders, till at length, on the death of the negus 
Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his son 
Fasilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, after 
having had a footing there for nearly a century and a half. 

Visits of Poncet and Bruce. 

The French physician C. J. Poncet, who went there in 1698, 
via Sennar and the Blue Nile, was the only European 
that afterwards visited the country before Bruce in 
1769.  James Bruce's main object was to discover the sources 
of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in Abyssinia.  
Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, he travelled 
via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received by King 
Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a warlike 
expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the eastern 
shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its 
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western 
shore.  On a second expedition of his own he proved to his 
own satisfaction that the river originated some 4o miles 
S.W. of the lake at a place called Geesh (4th of November 
1770).  He showed that this river flowed into the lake, and 
left it by its now well-known outlet.  Bruce subsequently 
returned to Egypt (end of 1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, 
Sennar, the Nile, and the Korosko desert (see BRUCE, JAMES). 

(15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian 
history, as distinct from the visits and influence of 
Europeans, it must be borne in mind that during the last 
three hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for 
the old chroniclers may be trusted to have given a somewhat 
distorted view of the importance of the particular chieftains 
with whom they came in contact, the country has been merely 
a conglomeration of provinces and districts, ill defined, 
loosely connected and generally at war with each other.  Of 
these the chief provinces have been Tigre (northern), Amhara 
(central) and Shoa (southern).  The seat of government, or 
rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara, the ruler 
of which, calling himself negus negusti (king of kings, or 
emperor), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other 
provinces.  The title of negus negusti has been to a 
considerable extent based on the blood in the veins of the 
claimant.  All the emperors have based their claims on their 
direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it 
is needless to say that in many, if not in most, cases their 
success has been due more to the force of their arms than 
to the purity of their lineage.  Some of the rulers of the 
larger provinces have at times been given, or have given 
themselves, the title of negus or king, so that on occasion 
as many as three, or even more, neguses have been reigning 
at the same time; and this must be borne in mind by the 
student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion of 
rulers.  The whole history of the country is in fact one 
gloomy record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable 
governments, of adventurers usurping thrones, only to be 
themselves unseated, and of raids, rapine and pillage.  Into 
this chaos enter from time to time broad rays of sunshine, 
the efforts of a few enlightened monarchs to evolve order from 
disorder, and to supply to their people the blessings of peace and 
civilization.  Bearing these matters in mind, we find that during 
the 18th century the most prominent and beneficent rulers were 
the emperor Yesu of Gondar, who died about 1720, Sebastie, 
negus of Shoa (1703-1718), Amada Yesus of Shoa, who extended 
his kingdom and founded Ankober (1743-1774), Tekla Giorgis 
of Amhara (1770-1798?) and Asfa Nassen of Shoa (1774-1807), 
the latter being especially renowned as a wise and benevolent 
monarch.  The first years of the 19th century were disturbed 
by fierce campaigns between Guxa, ras of Gondar, and Wolda 
Selassie, ras of Tigre, who were both striving for the 
crown of Guxa's master, the emperor Eguala Izeion.  Wolda 
Selassie was eventually the victor, and practically ruled 
the whole country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty. 

British mission and missionary enterprise. 

(16) Mention must here be made of the first British mission, 
under Lord Valentia and Mr Henry Salt, which was sent in 1805 
to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia, and obtain a port on 
the Red Sea in case France secured Egypt by dividing up the 
Turkish empire with Russia.  This mission was succeeded by many 
travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and 
the stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's 
reign.  For convenience' sake we insert at this point a 
partial list of missionaries and others who visited the country 
during the second third of the 19th century---merely calling 
attention to the fact that their visits were distributed 
over widely different parts of the country, ruled by distinct 
lines of monarchs or governors.  In 1830 Protestant missionary 
enterprise was begun by Samuel Gobat and Christian Kugler, 
who were sent out by the Church Missionary Society, and were 
well received by the ras of Tigre.  Mr Kugler died soon 
after his arrival, and his place was subsequently supplied 
by Mr C. W. Isenberg, who was followed by Dr Ludwig Krapf, 
the discoverer of Mount Kenya, and others.  Mr (afterwards 
Bishop) Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he also met with 
a favourable reception.  In 1833 he returned to Europe, and 
published a journal of his residence in Abyssinia.  In 1834 
Gobat went back to Tigre, but in 1836 ill health compelled 
him to leave.  In 1838 other missionaries were obliged to 
leave the country, owing to the opposition of the native 
priests.  Messrs Isenberg and Krapf went south, and established 
themselves at Shoa.  The former soon after returned to England, 
but Mr Krapf remained in Shoa till March 1842, when he 
removed to Mombasa.  Dr E. Ruppell, the German naturalist, 
visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly two years. 
M. E. Combes and M. Tamisier arrived at Massawa in 1835, and 
visited districts which had not been traversed by Europeans 
since the time of the Portuguese.  One who did much at the 
time to extend our geographical knowledge of the country was 
Dr C. T. Boke (q.v.), who was there from 1840 to 1843.  
Mr Mansfield Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and wrote 
the most interesting book on the country since the time of 
Bruce.  Bishop Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay 
missionaries into the country, who would engage in secular 
occupations as well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf 
returned to Abyssinia in 1855 with Mr Flad as pioneers of that 
mission; Krapf, however, was not permitted to remain in the 
country.  Six lay workers came out at first, and they were 
subsequently joined by others.  Their secular work, however, 
appears to have been more valuable to Theodore than their 
preaching, so that he employed them as workmen to himself, 
and established them at Gaffat, near his capital.  Mr Stern 
arrived in Abyssinia in 1860, and after a visit to Europe 
returned in 1863, accompanied by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal.1 

Rivalry of British and French factions 

(17) Wolda Selassie of Tigre was succeeded in 1817, through 
force of arms, by Sabagadis of Agame, and the latter, as 
ras of Tigre, introduced various Englishmen, whom he much 
admired, into the country.  He increased the prosperity of 
his land considerably. but by so doing roused the jealousy 
of Ras Marie of Amhara--to whom he had refused tribute--and 
Ubie, son of Hailo Mariam, a governor of Simen.  In an 
ensuing battle (in January 1831), both Sabagadis and Marie 
were killed, and Ubie retired to watch events from his own 
province.  Marie was shortly succeeded in the ras-ship 
of Amhara by Ali, a nephew of Guxa and a Mahommedan.  But 
Ubie, who was aiming at the crown, soon attacked Ras Ali, 
and after several indecisive campaigns proclaimed himself 
negus of Tigre.  To him came many French missionaries and 
travellers, chief of whom were Lieut.  Lefebvre, charged 
(1839) with political and geographical missions, and 
Captains Galinier and Ferret, who completed for him a useful 
triangulation and survey of Tigre and Simen (1840-1842).  
The brothers Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie (q.v.) spent 
ten years (1838-1848) in the country, making scientific 
investigations of great value, and also involving themselves 
in the stormy politics of the country.  Northern Abyssinia 
was now divided into two camps, the one, Amhara and Ras 
Ali, under Protestant British, and the other, Tigre and 
Ubie, under Roman Catholic French, influence.  The latent 
hostility between the two factions threatened at one time to 
develop into a religious war, but no serious campaigns took 
place until Kassa (later Theodore) appeared on the scene. 

Rise of the emperor Theodore. 

(18) Lij (= Mr) Kassa was born in Kwara, a small district 
of Western Amhara, in 1818.  His father was a small local 
chief, and his uncle was governor of the districts of Dembea, 
Kwara and Chelga between Lake Tsana and the undefined N.W. 
frontier.  He was educated in a monastery, but preferred a 
more active life, and by his talents and energy came rapidly 
to the front.  On the death of his uncle he was made chief of 
Kwara, but in consequence of the arrest of his brother Bilawa 
by Ras Ali, he raised the standard of revolt against the 
latter, and, collecting a large force, repeatedly beat the 
troops that were sent against him by the ras (1841-1847).  
On one occasion peace was restored by his receiving Tavavich, 
daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage; and this lady is said to 
have been a good and wise counsellor during her lifetime. He 
next turned his arms against the Turks, in the direction of 
Massawa, but was defeated; and the mother of Ras Ali having 
insulted him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his 
independence.  As his power was increasing, to the detriment 
of both Ras Ali and Ubie, these two princes combined against 
him, but were heavily defeated by him at Gorgora (on the 
southern shore of Lake Tsana) in 1853.  Ubie retreated to 
Tigre, and Ras Ali fled to Begemeder, where he eventually 
died.  Kassa now ruled in Amhara, but his ambition was to 
attain to supreme power, and he turned his attention to 
conquering the remaining chief divisions of the country, 
Gojam, Tigre and Shoa, which still remained unsubdued.  
Berro, ras of Gojam, in order to save himself, attempted 
to combine with Tigre, but his army was intercepted by 
Kassa and totally destroyed, himself being taken prisoner 
and executed (May 1854). Shortly afterwards Kassa moved 
against Tigre, defeated Ubie's forces at Deragie, 
in Simen (February 1855), took their chief prisoner and 
proclaimed himself negus negusti of Ethiopia under the 
name of Theodore III. He now turned his attention to Shoa. 

Growing power of Shoa 

(19) Retracing our steps for a moment in that direction, we 
find that in 1813 Sahela (or Sella) Selassie, younger son 
of the preceding ras, Wassen Seged, had proclaimed himself 
negus or king.  His reign was long and beneficent.  He 
restored the towns of Debra-Berhan and Angolala, and founded 
Entotto, the strong stone-built town whose ruins overlook 
the modern capital, Adis Ababa.  In the terrible ``famine of 
St Luke'' in 1835, Selassie still further won the hearts of 
his subjects by his wise measures and personal generosity; 
and by extending his hospitality to Europeans, he brought 
his country within the closer ken of civilized European 
powers.  During his reign he received the missions of Major 
W. Cornwallis Harris, sent by the governor-general of India 
(1841), and M. Rochet d'Hericourt, sent by Louis Philippe 
(1843), with both of whom he concluded friendly treaties on 
behalf of their respective governments.  He also wrote to Pope 
Pius IX., asking that a Roman Catholic bishop should be sent to 
him.  This request was acceded to, and the pope despatched 
Monsigneur Massaja to Shoa.  But before the prelate could 
reach the country, Selassie was dead (1847), leaving his 
eldest son, Haeli Melicoth, to succeed him. Melicoth at once 
proclaimed himself negus, and by sending for Massaja, who 
had arrived at Gondar, gave rise to the suspicion that he 
wished to have himself crowned as emperor.  By increasing 
his dominions at the expense of the Gallas, he still further 
roused the jealousy of the northerners, and a treaty which 
he concluded with Ras Ali against Kassa in 1850 determined 
the latter to crush him at the earliest opportunity. 

Thus it was that in 1855 Kassa, under the name of the emperor 
Theodore, advanced against Shoa with a large army. Dissensions 
broke out among the Shoans, and after a desperate and futile 
attack on Theodore at Debra-Berhan, Haeli Melicoth died of 
exhaustion and fever, nominating with his last breath his 
eleven-year-old son Menelek2 as successor (November 1855). 
Darge, Haeli's brother, took charge of the young prince, but 
after a hard fight with Angeda, one of Theodore's rases, was 
obliged to capitulate.  Menelek was handed over to the negus, 
taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service. 

(20) Theodore was now in the zenith of his career.  He is 
described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, 
merciful to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, 
but subject to violent bursts of anger and possessed of 
unyielding pride and fanatical religious zeal.  He was also 
a man of education and intelligence, superior to those among 
whom he lived, with natural talents for governing and gaining 
the esteem of others. He had, further, a noble bearing and 
majestic walk, a frame capable of enduring any amount of 
fatigue, and is said to have been ``the best shot, the best 
spearman, the best runner, and the best horseman in Abyssinia.'' 
Had he contented himself with the sovereignty of Amhara and 
Tigre, he might have maintained his position; but he was led 
to exhaust his strength against the Wollo Gallas, which was 
probably one of the chief causes of his ruin.  He obtained 
several victories over that people, ravaged their country, 
took possession of Magdala, which he afterwards made his 
principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs and 
their followers in his own ranks.  As has been shown, he also 
reduced the kingdom of Shoa, and took Ankober, the capital; 
but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his 
heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts 
of his provinces, and his good queen Tavavich was now dead. 

Theodore's quarrel with great Britain 

The British consul, Walter C. Plowden, who was strongly 
attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his government 
in 1860 to return to Massawa, was attacked on his way by a 
rebel named Garred, mortally wounded, and taken prisoner.  
Theodore attacked the rebels, and in the action the murderer 
of Mr Plowden was slain by his friend and companion Mr J. T. 
Bell, an engineer, but the latter lost his life in preserving 
that of Theodore.  The deaths of the two Englishmen were 
terribly avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 
2000 rebels. Theodore soon after married his second wite 
Terunish, the proud daughter of the late governor of Tigre, 
who felt neither affection nor respect for the upstart who had 
dethroned her father, and the union was by no means a happy 
one.  In 1862 he made a second expedition against the Gallas, 
which was stained with atrocious cruelties.  Theodore had 
now given himself up to intoxication and lust.  When the 
news of Mr Plowden's death reached England, Captain C. D. 
Cameron was appointed to succeed him as consul, and arrived 
at Massawa in February 1862.  He proceeded to the camp of the 
king, to whom he presented a rifle, a pair of pistols and a 
letter in the queen's name. In October Captain Cameron was 
sent home by Theodore, with a letter to the queen of England, 
which reached the Foreign Office on the 12th of February 
1863.  This letter was put aside and no answer returned, 
and to this in no small degree are to be attributed the 
difficulties that subsequently arose with that country. In 
November despatches were received from England, but no answer 
to the emperor's letter, and this, together with a visit paid 
by Captain Cameron to the Egyptian frontier town of Kassala, 
greatly offended him; accordingly in January 1864 Captain 
Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal, were 
cast into prison.  When the news of this reached England, the 
government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to the 
emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be its 
bearer.  He arrived at Massawa in July 1864, and immediately 
despatched a messenger requesting permission to present 
himself before the emperor.  Neither to this nor a subsequent 
application was any answer returned till August 1865, when 
a curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had 
been released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the 
king, he was to proceed by the route of Gallabat.  Later 
in the year Theodore became more civil, and the British 
party on arrival at the king's camp in Damot, on the 25th 
of January 1866, were received with all honour, and were 
afterwards sent to Kwarata, on Lake Tsana, there to await 
the arrival of the captives.  The latter reached Kwarata 
on the 12th of March, and everything appeared to proceed 
favourably.  A month later they started for the coast, but had 
not proceeded far when they were ail brought back and put into 
confinement.  Theodore then wrote a letter to the queen, 
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to 
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad.  The Europeans, although 
detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated; 
but in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, where they 
were soon afterwards put in chains.  They suffered hunger, 
cold and misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the 
spring of 1869 when they were relieved by the British troops. 

Sir Robert Napier's expedition. (21) In the meantime 
the power of Theodore in the country was rapidly waning.  
Shoa had already shaken off his yoke; Gojam was virtually 
independent; Walkeit and Simen were under a rebel chief; 
and Lasta, Waag and the country about Lake Ashangi had 
submitted to Wagshum Gobassie, who had also overrun 
Tigre and appointed Dejaj Kassai his governor. The latter, 
however, in 1867 rebelled against his master and assumed 
the supreme power of that province.  This was the state of 
matters when the English troops made their appearance in the 
country.  With a view if possible to effect the release of 
the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent 
back, with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from 
the queen, stating that these would be handed over to his 
majesty on the release of the prisoners and their return to 
Massawa.  This, however, failed to influence the emperor, 
and the English government at length saw that they must have 
recourse to arms. In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved 
to send an army into Abyssinia to enforce the release of 
the captives, under Sir Robert Napier (1st Baron Napier of 
Magdala).  The landingplace selected was Mulkutto (Zula), 
on Annesley Bay, the point of the coast nearest to the site 
of the ancient Adulis, and we are told that ``the pioneers 
of the English expedition followed to some extent in the 
footsteps of the adventurous soldiers of Ptolemy. and met 
with a few faint traces of this old-world enterprise'' (C. R. 
Markham).  The force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, 
besides 12,640 belonging to the transport service, and 
followers, making in all upwards of 32,000 men.  The task to 
be accomplished was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous 
and little-known country, inhabited by savage tribes, to 
the camp or fortress of Theodore, and compel him to deliver 
up his captives.  The commander-in-chief landed on the 7th 
of January 1868, and soon after the troops began to move 
forward through the pass of Senafe, and southward through 
the districts of Agame, Tera, Endarta, Wojerat, Lasta and 
Wadela.  In the meantime Theodore had been reduced to great 
straits.  His army, which at one time numbered over 100,000 
men, was rapidly deserting him, and he could hardly obtain 
food for his followers.  He resolved to quit his captial 
Debra-Tabor, which he burned, and set out with the remains 
of his army for Magdala.  During this march he displayed an 
amount of engineering skill in the construction of roads, of 
military talent and fertility of resource, that excited the 
admiration and astonishment of his enemies.  On the afternoon 
of the 10th of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly poured 
down upon the English in the plain of Arogie, a few miles from 
Magdala.  They advanced again and again to the charge, but 
were each time driven back, and finally retired in good 
order.  Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut.  Prideaux, one 
of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief, 
to the English camp to sue for peace.  Answer was returned, 
that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, and 
submit to the queen of England, he would receive honourable 
treatment.  The captives were liberated and sent away, and 
accompanying a letter to the English general was a present 
of 1000 cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would, 
according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted. 
Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore 
that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was 
now safe; but in the evening he learned that it had not been 
received, and despair again seized him.  Early next morning 
he attempted to escape with a few of his followers, but 
subsequently returned. The same day (13th April) Magdala was 
stormed and taken, practically without loss, and within they 
found the dead body of the emperor, who had fallen by his own 
hand.  The inhabitants and troops were subsequently sent 
away, the fortifications destroyed and the town burned.  The 
queen Terunish having expressed her wish to go back to her own 
country, accompanied the British army, but died during the 
march, and her son Alamayahu, the only legitimate son of the 
emperor, was brought to England, as this was the desire of 
his father.3 The success of the expedition was in no small 
degree owing to the aid afforded by the several native chiefs 
through whose country it passed, and no one did more in this 
way than Dejaj Kassa or Kassai of Tigre.  In acknowledgment of 
this, several pieces of ordnance, small arms and ammunition, 
with much of the surplus stores, were handed over to 
him, and the English troops left the country in May 1868. 

Menelek II., king of Shoa (22) It is now time to return 
to the story of the young prince Menelek, who, as we have 
seen, had been nominated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, 
but was in Theodore's power in Tigre.  The following table 
shows his descent since the beginning of the 19th century:-- 


 
            Asfa Nassen, d. 1807
                   |
              Wassan Seged = Woizero Zenebe Work
                  d. 1811  |
                           |
             ---------------------------------
             |                               |
        Becurraye                    Sella Selassie = Woizero Betsabesh
                                        (1795-1847)    |
                                                       |
              ---------------------------------------------------
              |                              |                  |
      Haeli Melicoth = Ejigayu             Siefu             Darge
      (1825-1855)    |                   (1826-1860)         b. 1827
                     |                        |
               Menelek II. = Taitu       Mashasha
                  b. 1844  |
                           |
          ----------------------------------------
          |                |                     |
        1 son          Zauditu             Tanina Work
        (dead)         (Judith)             (daughter)
 

On the retirement of Theodore's forces from Shoa in 1855, 
Siefu, brother of Haeli Melicoth, proclaimed himself negus 
of Shoa at Ankober, and beat the local representatives of 
the northern government.  The emperor returned, however, 
in 1858, and after several repulses succeeded in entering 
Ankober, where he behaved with great cruelty, murdering or 
mutilating all the inhabitants.  Siefu kept up a gallant 
defence for two more years, but was then killed by Kebret, 
one of his own chiefs. Thus chaos again reigned supreme in 
Shoa.  In 1865, Menelek, now a desjazmach 4 of Tigre, 
took advantage of Theodore's difficulties with the British 
government and escaped to Workitu, queen of the Wollo Galla 
country.  The emperor, who held as hostage a son of Workitu, 
threatened to kill the boy unless Menelek were given up; 
but the gallant queen refused, and lost both her son and her 
throne.  The fugitive meanwhile arrived safely in Shoa, and 
was there acclaimed as negus.  For the next three years 
Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and disciplining 
his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as Liche 
(near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country), 
&c., and to repelling the incursions of the Gallas. 

King John attains supreme power. 

On the death of Theodore (13th April 1868) many Shoans, 
including Ras Darge, were released, and Menelek began to 
feel himself strong enough, after a few preliminary minor 
campaigns, to undertake offensive operations against the 
northern princes.  But these projects were of little avail, 
for Kassai of Tigre, as above mentioned, had by this time 
(1872) risen to supreme power in the north.  With the help 
of the rifles and guns presented to him by the British, 
he had beaten Ras Bareya of Tigre, Wagshum Gobassie of 
Amhara and Tekla Giorgis of Condar, and after proclaiming 
himself negus negusti under the name of Johannes or John, 
was now preparing to march on Shoa.  Here, however, Menelek 
was saved from probable destruction through the action of 
Egypt.  This power had, by the advice of Werner Munzinger 
(q.v.), their Swiss governor of Massawa, seized and 
occupied in 1872 the northern province of Bogos; and, later 
on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also, for fear Bogos 
should be attacked.  John, after futile protests, collected 
an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael, 
hereditary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyptian 
forces, who were under the command of one Arendrup, a 
Dane.  Meeting near the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in 
detail, and almost annihilated at Gundet (13th November 
1875).  An avenging expedition was prepared in the spring 
of the following year, and, numbering 14,000 men under Ratib 
Pasha, Loring (American), and Prince Hassan, advanced to 
Gura and fortified a position in the neighbouthood.  Although 
reinforced by Walad Michael, who had now quarrelled with 
John, the Egyptians were a second time (25th March 1876) 
heavily beaten by the Abyssinians, and retired, losing an 
enormous quantity of both men and rifies. Colonel C. G. 
Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now ordered to 
go and make peace with John, but the king had moved south 
with his army, intending to punish Menelek for having raided 
Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyptians. 

(23) Menelek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by serious 
dissensions, which had been instigated by his concubine 
Bafana.  This lady, to whom he was much attached, had been 
endeavouring to secure the succession of one of her own sons 
to the throne of Shoa, and had almost succeeded in getting 
rid of Mashasha, son of Siefu and cousin of Menelek, who 
was the apparent heir.  On the approach of John, the Shoans 
united for a time against their common enemy.  But after a 
few skirmishes they melted away, and Menelek was obliged to 
submit and do obeisance to John.  The latter behaved with 
much generosity, but at the same time imposed terms which 
effectually deprived Shoa of her independence (March 1878).  
In 1879 Gordon was sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of 
Egypt; but he was treated with scant courtesy, and was obllgcd 
to leave the country without achieving anything permanent. 

Beginning of Italian influence. 

The Italians now come on the scene.  Assab, a port near the 
southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the 
focal sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company, which, 
after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, was bought 
out by the Italian government in 1882. In this year Count 
Pietro Antonelli was despatched to Shoa in order to improve 
the prospects of the colony by treaties with Menelek and 
the sultan of Aussa.  Several missions followed upon this 
one, with more or less successful results; but both John and 
Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north of 
Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in January 1885, and 
Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month. 
This latter act was greatly resented by the Abyssinians, for 
by a treaty concluded with a British and Egyptian mission 
under Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha 5 in the previous 
year, free transit of goods was to be allowed through this 
port.  Matters came to a head in January 1887, when the 
Abyssinians, in consequence of a refusal from General Gene 
to withdraw his troops, surrounded and attacked a detachment 
of 500 Italian troops at Dogali, killing more than 400 of 
them.  Reinforcements were sent from Italy, whilst in the 
autumn the British government stepped in and tried to mediate 
by means of a mission under Mr (afterwards Sir Gerald) 
Portal.  His mission, however proved abortive, and after many 
difficulties and dangers he returned to Egypt at the end of the 
year.  In April 1888 the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 
men, came into touch with the Abyssinian army; but negotiations 
took the place of fighting, with the result that both forces 
retired, the Italians only leaving some 5000 troops in 
Eritrea, as their colony was now called. Meanwhile John had 
not been idle with regard to the dervishes, who had in the 
meantime become masters of the Egyptian Sudan.  Although he 
had set his troops in motion too late to relieve Kassala, 
Ras Alula, his chief general, had succeeded in inflicting 
a handsome defeat on Osman Digna at Kufit in September 
1885.  Fighting between the dervishes and the Abyssinians 
continued, and in August 1887 the dervishes entered and 
sacked Gondar.  After some delay, King John took the field 
in force against the enemy, who were still harassing the 
north-west of his territory.  A great battle ensued at 
Gallabat, in which the dervishes, under Zeki Tumal, were 
beaten.  But a stray bullet struck the king, and the Abyssinians 
decided to retire. The king died during the night, and his 
body fell into the hands of the enemy (9th March 1889). 

Menelek emperor. 

(24) Immediately the news of John's death reached Menelek, 
he proclaimed himself emperor, and received the submission 
of Gondar, Gojam and several other provinces.  In common 
with other northern princes, Mangasha, reputed son and heir 
of King John, with the yellow-eyed Ras Alula,6 refused to 
acknowledge the sovereignty of Menelek; but, on the latter 
marching against them in the following January with a large 
army, they submitted.  As it happened, Count Antonelli 
was with Menelek when he claimed the throne, and promptly 
concluded (2nd of May 1889) with him on behalf of Italy a 
friendly treaty, to be known hereafter as the famous Uccialli 
treaty.  In consequence of this the Italians occupied Asmara, 
made friends with Mangasha and received Ras Makonnen7, 
Menelek's nephew, as his plenipotentiary in Italy.  Thus it 
seemed as though hostilities between the two countries had 
come to a definite end, and that peace was assured in the 
land.  For the next three years the land was fairly quiet, 
the chief political events being the convention (6th February 
1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between Italy 
and Great Britain (24th March and 15th April 1891) and a 
proclamation by Menelek (10th April 1891), all on the subject of 
boundaries.  As, however, the Italians became more and more 
friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek 
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing 
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic 
versions.  According to the former, the negus was bound 
to make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with 
other powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. 
Meanwhile the dervishes were threatening Eritrea.  A fine 
action by Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (21st 
December 1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri 
resulted in the acquisition of Kassala (17th July 1894). 

On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing 
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier 
with a large army.  At Koatit and Senafe (13th to 15th 
January 1895) Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by 
Baratieri, who occupied Adrigat in March.  But as the year 
wore on the Italian commander pushed his forces unsupported 
too far to the south. Menelek was advancing with a large 
army in national support of Mangasha, and the subsequent 
reverses at Amba Alagi (7th December 1895) and Macalle 
(23rd January 1896) forced the Italians to fall back. 

Battle of Adowa. Reinforcements of many thousands were 
meanwhile arriving at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took 
the field at the head of over 13,000 men.  Menelek's army, 
amounting to about 90,000, had during this time advanced, 
and was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima, near 
Adua (or Adowa).  Here Baratieri attacked him on the 1st 
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, 
and one of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far 
forward.  This brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, 
and on the remaining brigades advancing in support, they were 
successively cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the 
enemy.  The Italians lost over 4500 white and 2000 native 
troops killed and wounded, and over 2500 prisoners, of which 
1600 were white, whilst the Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 
3000.  General Baldissera advanced with a large body of 
reinforcements to avenge this defeat, but the Abyssinians, 
desperately short of supplies, had already retired, and beyond 
the peaceful relief of Adrigat no further operations took 
place.  It may here be remarked that the white prisoners 
taken by Menelek were exceedingly well treated by him, and 
that he behaved throughout the struggle with Italy with 
the greatest humanity and dignity.  On the 26th of October 
following a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at 
Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and recognizing 
the absolute independence of Abyssinia.  This treaty was 
ratified, and followed by other treaties and agreements 
defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian-Italian 
Somaliland frontiers (see ITALY, History, and SOMALILAND, Italian 

Menelek as independent monarch. 

(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention of 
all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous 
missions, two Russian, three French and one British, were 
despatched to the country, and hospitably received by 
Menelek.  The British one, under Mr (afterwards Sir) Rennell 
Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty with Abyssinia (15th 
of May 1897), but did not, except in the direction of 
Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for several 
years continued a subject of discussion.  During the same 
year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs Clochette 
and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile, but, after 
surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes of the 
Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return.  Another expedition 
of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompanied by three 
Europeans---Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and Artomonov 
(Russian)--started early in 1898, and reached the Nile at the 
Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major Marchand 
and his gallant companions arrived on the scene. But no 
contact was made, and the expedition returned to Abyssinia. 

In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large 
army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again 
rebelling against his authority.  After some trifling fighting 
Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force 
to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, 
Wad Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection.  This 
effected, the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the 
Egyptian troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation 
of Khartum) to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both 
sides were anxious to avoid a collision over this latter 
town, no hostile results ensued.  An excellent understanding 
was, in fact, established between these two contiguous 
countries, in spite of occasional disturbances by bandits 
on the frontier.  On this frontier question, a treaty 
was concluded on the 15th of May 1902 between England and 
Abyssinia for the delimitation of the Sudan-Abyssinian 
frontier.  Menelek, in addition, agreed not to obstruct the 
waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat, so as not 
to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he also 
agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, 
for the construction of a British railway through his 
dominions, to connect the Sudan with Uganda.  A combined 
British-Abyssinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched 
in 1901 to propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia 
on the one side and British East Africa and Uganda on the 
other; and the report of the expedition was made public by 
the British government in November 1904.  It was followed 
in 1908 by an agreement defining the frontiers concerned. 

Co-operation with Britain against the Somali mullah. 

(26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called ``mad'' mullah 
(Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders of British 
Somaliland.  An Abyssinian expedition was,  at Great 
Britain's request, sent against the mullah,  but without much 
effect.  In the spring and  summer of 1901 a fresh expedition 
from Harrar was  undertaken against the mullah, who was 
laying waste  the Ogaden country.  Two British officers 
accompanied this force, which was to co-operate with British 
troops advancing from Somaliland; but little was achieved 
by the Abyssinians, and after undergoing considerable 
privations and losses, and harassing the country generally, 
including that of some friendly tribes, it returned to 
Harrar.  During the 1902-3 campaign of General (Sir) W. H. 
Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000 to co-operate with 
the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli and south-western 
parts of the Hand.  This time the Abyssinians were more 
successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but 
the difficulties of the country again precluded effective 
co-operation.  During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) 
yet another force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards 
Somaliland. Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked 
its way southward, but did not contribute much towards the 
final solution. In any case, however, it is significant 
that the Abyssinians have repeatedly been willing to 
co-operate with the British away from their own country. 

Growth of European influence. Regarding the question of 
railways, the first concession for a railway from the coast 
at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the interior was granted 
hy Menelek to a French company in 1894.  The company having 
met with numberless difficulties and financial troubles, the 
French government, on the extinction of the company's funds, 
came to the rescue and provided money for the construction. 
(In the alternative British capitalists interested in the 
company would have obtained control of the line.) The French 
government's help enabled the railway to be completed to 
Dire Dawa, 28 m. from Harrar, by the last day of 1902.  
Difficulties arose over the continuation of the railway to 
Adis Ababa and beyond, and the proposed internationalization 
of the line.  These difficulties, which hindered the work 
of construction for years, were composed (so far as the 
European Powers interested were concerned) in 1906.  By the 
terms of an Anglo-French-Italian agreement, signed in London 
on the 13th of December of that year, it was decided that 
the French company should fund the railway as far as Adis 
Ababa, while railway construction west of that place should 
be under British auspices, with the stipulation that any 
railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red Sea with 
its Somaliland protectorate should be built under Italian 
auspices.  A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian representative 
were to be appointed to the board of the French company, and a 
French director to the board of any British or Italian company 
formed.  Absolute equality of treatment on the railway and 
at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all the Powers. 

Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened 
out cautiously to European influences.  Most of the Powers 
appointed representatives at Menelek's capital--the British 
minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel 
Sir J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after 
the British mission in 1897.  In December 1903 an American 
mission visited Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between 
the United States and Abyssinia was signed.  A German 
mission visited the country early in 1905 and also concluded 
a treaty of commerce with the negus.  Later in the year a 
German minister was appointed to the court of the emperor. 

After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no 
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the 
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was 
sensibly on the increase.  Of the remaining powers France 
occupied the most important position in the country.  Ras 
Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable 
successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in 
the same year; the question of the succession therefore 
opened up the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing 
influences, Abyssinia might still relapse in the future 
into its old state of conflict.  The Anglo-French-Italian 
agreement of December 1906 contained provisions in view of 
this contingency.  The preamble of the document declared 
that it was the common interest of the three Powers ``to 
maintain intact the integrity of Ethiopia,'' and Article 
I. provided for their co-operation in maintaining ``the 
political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia.'' Should, 
however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to 
concert to safeguard their special interests.  The terms 
of the agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text 
forthwith communicated to the negus.  After considerable 
hesitation Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the 
powers, in which, after thanking them for their intentions, 
he stipulated that the agreement should not in any way limit 
his own sovereign rights. In June 1908, by the nomination of 
his grandson, Lij Yasu (b. 1896), as his heir, the emperor 
endeavoured to end the rivalry between various princes 
claiming the succession to the throne. (See MENELEK.) A 
convention with Italy, concluded in the same year, settled 
the frontier questions outstanding with that country. (G.*) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For general information see A. B. Wylde's 
Modern Abyssinia (London, 1901), a volume giving the result 
of many years' acquaintance with the country and people; 
Voyage en Abyssinie . . . 1839-43, par une commission 
scientifique, by Th. Lefebvre and others (6 vols. and atlas, 3 
vols., Paris, 1845--54); Elisee Reclus, Nouvelle geographie 
universelle, vol. x. chap. v. (Paris, 1885).  For latest 
geographical and kindred information consult the Geographical 
Journal (London), especially ``A Journey through Abyssinia,'' 
vol. xv. (1900), and ``Exploration in the Abai Basin,'' vol. 
xxvii. (1906), both by H. Weld Blundell, and ``From the 
Somali Coast through S. Ethiopia to the Sudan,'' vol. xx. 
(1902), by C. Neumann; Antoine d'Abbadie, Geographie de 
l'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890).  The British parliamentary paper 
Africa, No. 13 (1904), is a report on the survey of the 
S.E. frontier by Capt.  P. Maud, R.E., and contains a valuable 
map.  For geology, &c., see W. T. Blanford, Observations 
on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (London, 1870); C. 
Futterer, ``Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Ost-Afrika,'' 
Zeit. Deutsch.  Geol.  Gesell. xlix. p. 568 (1897); C. 
A. Raisin, ``Rocks from Southern Abyssinia,'' Quart.  
Journ.  Geol.  Soc. vol. lix. pp. 292-306 (1903). 

Among works by travellers describing the country are---James 
Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile 1768-1773 
(Edinburgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vols.); The Highlands of 
Aethiopia (3 vols., London, 1844), by Sir W. Cornwallis 
Harris, dealing with the Danakil country, Harrar and 
Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia; being notes 
collected during three years' residence and travels (2nd 
ed., London, 1868); Antoine d'Abbadie, Douze ans dans 
La Haute Ethiopie (Paris, 1868); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, 
A Sporting Trip through Abyssinia (London, 1902); A. 
Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries (London, 
1897); M. S. Wellby, Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London, 
1901).  For history see -- A. M. H. J. Stokvis' Manuel 
d'histoire, vol. i. pp. 439-46, and vol. ii. pp. lxxiv-v 
(Leiden, 1888-89), which contains lists of the sovereigns 
of Abyssinia, Shoa and Harrar, from the earliest times, 
with brief notes.  Texts of treaties between Abyssinia and 
the European Powers up to 1896 will be found in vol. i. of 
Sir E. Hertslet's The Map of Africa by Treaty (London, 
1896).  L. J. Morie's Histoire de l'Ethiopie: Tome ii, 
``L'Abyssinie'' (Paris, 1904), is a comprehensive survey 
(the views on modern affairs being coloured by a strong 
anti-British bias). For more detailed historical study consult 
C. Beccari's Notizia e Saggi di opere e documenti inediti 
riguardanti la Storia di Etiopia durante i Secoli XVI., 
XVII. e XVIII. (Rome. 1903), a valuable guide to the period 
indicated; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien und Afrika 
(Munich, 1895); The Portuguese Expedition to Abysinnia in 
1541-1543 as narrated by Castanhoso (with the account of 
Bermudez), translated and edited by R. S. Whiteway (London, 
Hakluyt Society, 1902), which contains a bibliography; Futu 
el-Habacha, a contemporary Arab chronicle of the wars of 
Mahommed Gran, translated into French by Antoine d'Abbadie 
and P. Paulitschke (Paris,1898); A Voyage to Abyssinia by 
Father Jerome Lobo, from the French [by Samuel Johnson] 
(London, 1735); Record of the Expedition to Abyssinia, 3 
vols., an official history of the war of 1868, by Major T. J. 
Holland and Capt.  H. Hosier (London, 1870); Hormuzd Rassam, 
Narrative of the British Mission to Theodore [1865-1868] 
(2 vols., London, 1869); Henry Blanc, A Narrative of 
Captivity in Abyssinia (London, 1868 ), by one of Theodore's 
prisoners; Sir Gerald H. Portal, My Mission to Abyssinia 
(London, 1892), an account of the author's embassy to King 
John in 1887; Count A. E. W. Gleichen, With the Mission to 
Menelik, 1897 (London, 1898), containing the story of the 
Rennell Rodd mission; R. P. Skinner, Abyssinia of To-Day 
(London, 1906), a record of the first American mission to the 
country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the 
Rise of Menelik (London, 1902).  Books dealing with missionary 
enterprise are---Journal of a Three Years' Residence in 
Abyssinia, by Bishop Samuel Gobat (London, 1834); J. L. 
Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours during 
an 18 years' residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860); 
Cardinal G. Massaja, I miei Trentacinque anni di Missione 
nell' Alta Etiopia (10 vols., Milan, 1886-1893).  Political 
questions are referred to by T. Lennox Gilmour, Abyssinia: 
the Ethiopian Railway and the Powers (London, 1906); 
H. le Roux, Menelik et nous (Paris, 1901); Charles 
Michel, La question d'Ethiopie (Paris, 1905). (F. R. C.) 

1 Since Theodore's time Protestant missionary 
work, except by natives, has been stopped. 

2 Menelek means ``a second self.'' 

3 He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but 
died in his nineteenth year, on the 14th of Nnvember 
1879.  He was buried at St George's Chapel, Windsor. 

4 A title variously translated.  A dejazmach (dejaj) 
is a high official, ranking immediately belaw a ras, 

5 The main object of this mission was to seek John's 
assistance in evacuating the Egyptian garrisons in 
the Sudan, which were threatened by the dervishes. 

 6/0 Ras Alula died February 1897, aged about 52. He had 
raised himself by his military talents from being a groom and 
private soldier to the position of generalissimo of the army. 

7 Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered 
and occupied by Menelek in January 1887. 

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates, 
Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century. 
About A.D. 330 Frumentius was made first bishop of Ethiopia by 
Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria.  Cedrenus and Nicephorus 
err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian, c. 
542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break, the 
Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from Egypt, 
and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner.  Little is 
known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule, 
which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to 
1633.  But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon, 
and still remain monophysites.  Union with the Coptic Church 
(q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt.  Abu 
Sallh records (12th century) that the patriarch used always to 
send letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, 
till Al Hakim stopped the practice.  Cyril, 67th patriarch, 
sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy 
and to enforce observance of canonical consecration for all 
churches.  These examples show the close relations of the two 
churches in the Middle Ages.  But early in the 16th century 
the church was brought under the influence of a Portuguese 
mission.  In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious 
discussion between an Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank 
had led to the despatch of an embassy from Abyssinia to the 
Vatican; but the initiative in the Roman Catholic missions 
to Abyssinia was taken, not by Rome, but by Portugal, as an 
incident in the struggle with the Mussulmans for the command 
of the trade route to India by the Red Sea. In 1507 Matthew, 
or Matheus, an Armenian, had been sent as Abyssinian envoy 
to Portugal to ask aid against the Mussulmans, and in 1520 
an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Abyssinia.  
An interesting account of this mission, which remained 
for several years, was written by Francisco Alvarez, the 
chaplain.  Later, Ignatius Loyola wished to essay the task 
of conversion, but was forbidden.  Instead, the pope sent 
out Joao Nunez Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, 
with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys went to 
Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's 
adherence to Rome.  After repeated failures some measure of 
success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make 
formal submission to the pope.  Then the people rebelled and 
the king was slain.  Fresh Jesuit victories were followed 
sooner or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly 
triumphed when once for all it was overthrown.  In 1633 the 
Jesuits were expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed. 

There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely 
resembling the Coptic.  After these, two main types of 
architecture are found--one basilican, the other native.  The 
cathedral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas 
are nearly all in ruin -e.g. that at Adulis and that of 
Martula Mariam in Gojam, rebuilt in the 16th century on 
the ancient foundations. These examples show the influence 
of those architects who, in the 6th century, built the 
splendid basilicas at Sanaa and elsewhere in Arabia.  Of 
native churches there are two forms---one square or oblong, 
found in Tigre; the other circular, found in Amhara and 
Shoa.  In both, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the 
centre.  An outer court, circular or rectangular, surrounds the 
body of the church.  The square type may be due to basilican 
influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of the native 
hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based on Jewish 
tradition.  Church and outer court are usually thatched, 
with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude frescoes.  
The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having upon 
it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim 
wood, which forms its essential part.  At Martula Mariam, 
the wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid 
gold, one 500, the other 800 ounces in weight.  The ark kept 
at Axum is described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and 
gems.  The liturgy was celebrated on it in the king's palace 
at Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross. 

Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and 
practice.  The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the 
literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly 
understood.  Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored, 
but graven images are forbidden.  Fasts are long and rigid. 
Confession and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power 
to the priesthood.  The clergy must marry, but once only. 
Pilgrimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins. 

AUTHORITIES.--Tellez, Historia de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 
1660); Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc. 
by Lord Stanley of Aderley, under the title Narrative 
of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia (London, 1881); 
Ludolphus, History of Ethiopia (London, 1684, and other 
works); T. Wright, Christianity of Arabia (London, 1855); 
C. T. Beke, ``Christianity among the Gallas,'' Brit.  Mag. 
(London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Described (London, 
1868); ``Abyssinian Church Architecture,'' Royal Inst.  
Brit.  Arch.  Transactions, 1869; Ibid. Journal, March 
1897; Archaeologia, vol. xxxii.; J. A. de Graca Barreto, 
Documenta historiam ecclesiae Habessinarum illustrantia 
(Olivipone, 1879); E. F. Kromrei, Glaubenlehre und Gebrauche 
der alteren Abessinischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895); F. M. E. 
Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon, 1894); Idem, Vida do 
Abba Daniel (Lisbon, 1897); Idem, Historia dos Martyres de 
Nagran (Lisbon, 1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, 
text 1892, tr. and notes 1900); Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac 
(Coimbra, 1909); Idem, Vida de S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 
1904); Archdeacon Dowling, The Abyssinian Church, (London, 
1909); and periodicals as under COPTIC CHURCH. (A. J. B.) 

ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the family 
Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae.  The small flowers 
are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters.  The leaves are 
compound pinnate in general (see fig.).  In some instances, 
however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets 
are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically flattened, 
and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects
the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their 
edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light 
so fully as ordinary horizontally placed leaves.  There 
are about 450 species of acacia widely scattered over the 
warmer regions of the globe. They abound in Australia and 
Africa.  Various species yield gum.  True gum-arabic is the 
product of Acacia Senegal, abundant in both east and west 
tropical Africa. Acacia arabica is the gum-arabic tree of 
India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-arabic.  
An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.) or cutch, 
is procured from several species, but more especially from 
Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating 
the solution so as to get an extract.  The bark of Acacia 
arabica, under the name of babul or babool, is used 
in Scinde for tanning. The bark of various Australian 
species, known as wattles, is also very rich in tannin 
and forms an important article of export. Such are Acacia 
pycnantha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan wattle, and A. 
dealbata, silver wattle.  The pods of Acacia nilotica, 
under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species 




Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer 
                      and Schumann).
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik. 

is rich in tannin and used by tanners.  The seeds of Acacia 
niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America. 
Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia 
melanoxylon, black wood of Australia, which attains a great 
size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high 
polish; and Acacia homalophylla (also Australian), myall 
wood, which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental 
purposes. Acacia formosa supplies the valuable Cuba timber 
called sabicu. Acacia seyal is supposed to be the shittah 
tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. Acacia 
heterophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon, and Acacia koa 
from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber trees.  The 
plants often bear spines, especially those growing in arid 
districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa.  These 
sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard 
and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is 
the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. giraffae, the African 
camelthorn.  In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala 
(bullthorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like 
stipules are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on 
a secretion of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies 
at the tips of the leaflets; in return they protect the 
plant against leaf-cutting insects.  In common language the 
term Acacia is often applied to species of the genus Robinia 
(q.v.) which belongs also to the Leguminous family, but 
is placed in a different section. Robinia Pseud-acacia, 
or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of 
Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pea-like 
blossoms. The tree is sometimes called the locust tree. 

ACADEMIES. The word ``academy'' is derived from ``the 
olive grove of Academe, Plato's retirement,'' the birthplace 
of the Academic school of philosophy (see under ACADEMY, 
GREEK).  The schools of Athens after the model of the 
Academy continued to flourish almost without a break for 
nine centuries till they were abolished by a decree of 
Justinian.  It was not without significance in tracing the 
history of the word that Cicero gave the name to his villa near 
Puteoli.  It was there that he entertained his cultured 
friends and held the symposia which he afterwards elaborated in 
Academic Questions and other philosophic and moral dialogues. 

``Academy,'' in its modern acceptation, may be defined 
as a society or corporate body having for its object the 
cultivation and promotion of literature, of science and 
of art, either severally or in combination, undertaken 
for the pure love of these pursuits, with no interested 
motive.  Modern academies, moreover, have, almost without 
exception, some form of public recognition; they are either 
founded or endowed, or subsidized, or at least patronized, 
by the sovereign of the state.  The term ``academy'' is 
very loosely used in modern times; and, in essentials, other 
bodies with the title of ``society'' or ``college,'' or even 
``school,'' often embody the same idea; we are only concerned 
here, however, with those which, bearing the title of academy, 
are of historical importance in their various spheres. 

Early History.---The first academy, as thus defined, 
though it might with equal justice claim to be the first 
of universities, was the museum of Alexandria founded at 
the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. by the first of 
the Ptolemies.  There all the sciences then known were 
pursued, and the most learned men of Greece and of the 
East gathered beneath its spacious porticos.  Here, too, 
was the nucleus of the famous library of Alexandria. 

Passing over the state institute for the promotion of 
science founded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the 
9th century, and the various academies established by the 
Moors at Granada, at Corduba and as far east as Samarkand, 
we come to the academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch 
of the School of the Palace established by Charlemagne in 
782. This academy was the prototype of the learned coteries 
of Paris which Moliere afterwards satirized.  It took 
all knowledge for its province; it included the learned 
priest and the prince who could not write his own name, 
and it sought to solve all problems by witty definitions. 

The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the 
emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the 
tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been 
proved to rest on a forgery.  The academy of arts founded 
at Florence in 1270 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and 
has left no memories, and modern literary academies may 
be said to trace their lineage in direct descent from the 
troubadours of the early 14th century.  The first Floral 
Games were held at Toulouse in May 1324, at the summons of a 
gild of troubadours, who invited ``honourable lords, friends 
and companions who possess the science whence spring joy, 
pleasure, good sense, merit and politeness'' to assemble 
in their garden of the ``gay science'' and recite their 
works.  The prize, a golden violet, was awarded to Vidal 
de Castelnaudary for a poem to the glory of the Virgin.  In 
spite of the English invasion and other adversities the Floral 
Games survived till, about the year 1500, their permanence 
was secured by the munificent bequest of Clemence Isaure, 
a rich lady of Toulouse.  In 1694 the Academie des Jeux 
Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent of 
Louis XIV.; its statutes were reformed and the number Of 
members raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it was 
revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of 
gold and sliver lilies, for which there is keen competition. 

Provence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the 
soil in which academies most grew and flourished.  The 
Accademia Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, 
was founded at Florence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of 
Palermo and fostered by Laurentius Valla.  Far more famous 
was the Accademia Platonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo 
de' Medici, which numbered among its members Marsilio 
Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Machiavelli and Angelo 
Poliziano.  It was, as the name implies, chiefly occupied 
with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of Dante 
and the purification of the Italian language, and though 
it lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a 
model for similar learned societies was great and lasting. 

Modern Academies.--Academies have played an important part 
in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific 
inquiry.  They mark an age of aristocracies when letters 
were the distinction of the few and when science had not 
been differentiated into distinct branches, each with its 
own specialists. Their interest is mainly historical, and 
it cannot be maintained that at the present day they have 
much direct influence on the advancement of learning either 
by way of research or of publication.  For example, the 
standard dictionaries of France, Germany and England are 
the work, not of academies, but of individual scholars, of 
Littre, Grimm and Murray.  Matthew Arnold's plea for an 
English academy of letters to save his countrymen from 
the note of vulgarity and provinciality has met with no 
response.  Academies have been supplanted, socially by the 
modern club, and intellectually by societies devoted to 
special branches of science.  Those that survive from the past 
serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp 
on literary and scientific merit.  The principal academies 
of Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various 
classes, according to the subjects to which they are devoted. 

I. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES Austria.---The Kaiserliche Akademie 
der Wissenschaften at Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, 
was founded by the emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two 
classes---mathematics and natural science, and history and philology. 

Belgium and the Netherlands.-A literary society was founded at 
Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of Maria 
Theresa, which after various changes of name and constitution 
became in 1816 the Academie imperiale et royale des 
sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of William 
I. of the Netherlands.  It has devoted itself principally to 
natural history and antiquities.  The Royal Institute of the 
Low Countries was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte.  
It was replaced in 1851 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at 
Amsterdam, to which in 1856 a literary section was added. 

Denmark.---The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab 
(Royal Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin 
to Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists 
to arrange his cabinet of medals.  Historians and antiquaries 
were called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission 
developed into a sort of learned club.  The king took it 
under his protection, enlarged its scope by the addition 
of natural history, physics and mathematics, and in 1743 
constituted it a royal academy with an endowment fund. 

France.---The old Academie des sciences had the same 
origin as the more celebrated Academie francaise. A 
number of men of science had for some thirty years met 
together, first at the house of P. Marsenne, then at that of 
Montmort, a member of the Council of State, afterwards at 
that of Melchisedec Thevenot, the learned traveller.  It 
included Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise and Etienne Pascal.  
Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, was presented to it during 
his visit to Paris in 1640.  Colbert conceived the idea of 
giving an official status to this learned club. A number of 
chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent mathematicians, 
among whom were Christian Huyghens and Bernard Frenicle 
de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous treatise on 
magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of the new 
society.  Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each of 
the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment was 
placed at their disposal.  They began their session on the 
22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice a 
week--the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on 
Saturdays.  Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a post 
he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific 
attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded 
in Latin, and C. A. Couplet was made treasurer.  At first the 
academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an academy 
proper.  Experiments were undertaken in common and results 
discussed.  Several foreign savants, in particular the 
Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted hy the 
liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physician and 
geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were made foreign 
associates.  The death of Colbert, who was succeeded by 
Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes of the 
academy.  The labours of the academicians were diverted 
from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the 
construction of fountains and cascades at Versailles, and 
the mathematicians were employed to calculate the odds of 
the games of lansquenet and basset.  In 1699 the academy was 
reconstituted by Louis Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, 
under whose department as secretary of state the academies 
came.  By its new constitution it consisted of twenty-five 
members, ten honorary, men of high rank interested in 
science, and fifteen pensionaries, who were the working 
members.  Of these three were geometricians, three 
astronomers, three mechanicians, three anatomists, and three 
chemists.  Each of these three had two associates, and, 
besides, each pensionary had the privilege of naming a 
pupil.  There were eight foreign and four free associates.  
The officers were, a president and a vice-president, named by 
the king from among the honorary members, and a secretary and 
treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held office for 
life.  Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer of 
science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as 
secretary.  The constitution was purely aristocratical, 
differing in that respect from that of the French Academy, in 
which the principle of equality among the members was never 
violated. Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with 
the patronage of the great.  The two leading spirits of the 
academy at this period were Clairault and Reaumur.  To trace 
the subsequent fortunes of this academy would be to write 
the history of the rise and progress of science in France.  
It has reckoned among its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, 
D'Alembert, Lavoisier, and Jussieu, the father of modern 
botany.  On the 21st of December 1792 it met for the last time, 
and it was suppressed with its sister academies by the act of 
the Convention on the 8th of April 1793.  Some of its members 
were guillotined, some were imprisoned, more were reduced to 
poverty.  The aristocracy of talent was almost as much 
detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank. 

In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institut 
National which was to replace all the academies, and its first 
class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences.  
In 1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a 
branch of the Institute.  The new academy has reckoned among 
its members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the 
engineer, the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Blot, the 
chemists Gay-Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier 
and the two Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires.  In France there were 
also considerable academies in most of the large towns.  
Montpellier, for example, had a royal academy of sciences, 
founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on nearly the same footing as 
that of Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the 
counterpart.  It was reconstituted in 1847, and organized under 
three sections--medicine, science and letters.  Toulouse also 
has an academy, founded in 1640, under the name of Soeiete 
de lanternistes; and there were analogous institutions 
at Nimes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and elsewhere. 

Germany.---The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, 
founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural 
philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on 
the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted 
of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the 
death of its founder.  The early labours of the society were 
devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most
notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the 
results.  Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published by 
Sturm.  The former, Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, 
begins with an account of the diving-bell, ``a new invention''; 
next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian 
experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c. 

The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, if judged 
by the work it has produced, holds the first place in 
Germany.  Its origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, 
constituted in 1700 by Frederick I. on the comprehensive 
plan of Leibnitz, who was its first president.  Hampered and 
restricted under Frederick William I., it was reorganized 
under Frederick II. on the French model furnished by 
Maupertuis, and received its present constitution in 
1812.  It is divided into two classes and four sections 
--physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical. 
Each section has a permanent secretary with a salary of 1200 
marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks a 
year.  Among the contributors to its transactions (first 
volume published in 1710), to name only the dead, we 
find Immanuel Bekker, Bockling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P. 
Buttmann, Encke (of comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers 
Grimm, the two Humboldts, Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. 
Mommsen, J. Muller, G. Niebuhr, C. Ritter (the geographer), 
Savigny and Zumpt. Frederick II. presented in 1768 A 
Dissertation on Ennui. To the Berlin Academy we owe the 
Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, the Corpus Inscriptionum 
Latinarum, and the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. 

The Akademie der Wissenschaflen zu Mannheim was founded 
by the elector Palatine in 1755.  Since 1780 it has 
devoted itself specially to meteorology, and has published 
valuable observations under the title of Ephemerides 
Societatis Meteorologicae Theodoro-Palatinae. 

The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen was 
founded in 1759.  It is distinguished from other academies 
by the part it has played in national education.  Maximilian 
Joseph, the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of 
Bavaria, induced the government to hand over to it the 
organization and superintendence of public instruction, 
and this work was carried out by Privy-councillor Jacobi, 
the president of the academy.  In recent years the academy 
has specially occupied itself with natural history. 

The Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, 
which dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, 
and the Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which 
publishes medical transactions, also deserve mention. 

Great Britain and Ireland.--- In 1616 a scheme for founding 
a royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent 
scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to King James I., 
which was supported by George Villiers, marquis of Buckingham, 
proposed that the title of the academy should be ``King James, 
his Academe or College of honour.'' A list of the proposed 
original members is still extant, and includes the names of 
George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden, 
Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton.  The constitution is 
of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king.  The 
academy was to consist of three classes,---tutelaries, who 
were to be Knights of the Garter, auxiliaries, all noblemen 
or ministers of state, and the essentials, ``called from out 
of the most famous lay gentlemen of England, and either living 
in the light of things, or without any title of profession 
or art of life for lucre.'' Among other duties to be assigned 
to this academy was the licensing of all books other than 
theological.  The death of King James put an end to the 
undertaking.  In 1635 a second attempt to found an academy 
was made under the patronage of Charles I., with the title of 
``Minerva's Museum,'' for the instruction of young noblemen 
in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was soon 
dropped. (For the ``British Academy'' see III. below.) About 
1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet, some 
in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects 
connected with experimental science.  This was the original of 
the Royal Society (q.v.), which received its charter in 1662. 

A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society 
in London, as early as 1683; but the distracted state of 
the country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of 
philosophy and literature.  The Royal Irish Academy grew 
from a society established in Dublin about 1782 by a number 
of gentlemen, most of whom belonged to the university.  They 
held weekly meetings and read, in turn, essays on various 
subjects.  They professed to unite the advancement of 
science with the history of mankind and polite literature.  
The first volume of transactions appeared in 1788. 

Hungary.--The Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia (Hungarian 
Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen 
Szechenyi for the encouragement of the study of the 
Hungarian Ianguage and the various sciences.  It has about 
300 members and a fine building in Budapest containing a 
picture gallery and housing various national collections. 

Italy.--The Academia Secretorum Natarae was founded 
at Naples in 1560 by Giambattista della Porta.  It arose 
like the French Academy from a little club of friends 
who met at della Porta's house and called themselves 
the Otiosi. The condition of membership was to have 
made some discovery in natural science.  Della Porta was 
suspected of practising the black arts and summoned to 
Rome to justify himself before the papal court.  He was 
acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close his academy. 

The Accademia dei Lincei, to which della Porta was admitted 
when at Rome, and of which he became the chief ornament, 
had been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di 
Monticelli.  Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest 
members. Its device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a 
Cerberus with its claws.  As a monument the Lincei have left 
the magnificent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural 
History of Mexico (Rome, 1651, fol.), printed at the 
expense of the founder and elaborately annotated by the 
members.  This academy was resuscitated in 1870 under the 
title of Reale Accademia dei Lincei, with a literary 
as well as a scientific side, endowed in 1878 by King 
Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recognition from 
the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini palace, 
whose owner made over to it his library and collections. 

The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657 by 
Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II., 
at the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician.  
It was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against 
the deductive science of the quadrivium.  Its founder left 
it when he was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten 
years, but the grand folio published in Italian (afterwards 
translated into Latin) in 1667 is a landmark in the history of 
science.  It contains experiments on the pressure of the 
air (Torricelli and Borelli were among its members), on 
the incompressibility of water and on universal gravity. 

Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia 
delle Scienze (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 
as a private society, and incorporated under its present name 
by royal warrant in 1783.  It consists of 40 full members, 
who must be residents of Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 
foreign members.  It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings 
and awards prizes to learned works.  There are, besides, 
royal academies of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo. 

Portugal.--The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal 
Academy of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779.  It was 
reorganized in 1851 and since then has been chiefly occupied 
in the publication of Portugaliae Monumenta Historica. 

Russia.--The Academie Imperiale des sciences de 
Saint-Petersbourg, Imperatorskaya Akademiya nauk, was projected 
by Peter the Great.  The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was 
sought, and several learned foreigners were invited to become 
members. Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 
10th of February 1724; but his sudden death delayed its 
fulfilment.  On the 21st of December 1725, however, Catherine 
I. established it according to his plan, and on the 27th 
the society met for the first time.  On the 1st of August 
1726, Catherine honoured the meeting with her presence, when 
Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a German scientist, delivered an 
oration upon the determination of magnetic variations and 
longitude.  Shortly afterwards the empress settled a fund 
of L. 4982 per annum for the support of the academy; and 
15 eminent members were admitted and pensioned, under the 
title of professors in the various branches of science and 
literature.  The most distinguished of these were Nicholas and 
Daniel Bernouilli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger, and Wolff. 

During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members 
were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court; 
but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a 
seminary under the superintendence of the professors.  Both 
institutions flourished for some time under the direction 
of Baron Johann Albrecht Korin (1697--1766).  At the 
accession of Elizabeth the original plan was enlarged and 
improved; learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; 
and, what was considered a good omen for the literature of 
Russia, two natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius 
who had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, 
were enrolled among its members.  The annual income was 
increased to L. 10,659, and sundry other advantages were 
conferred upon the institution.  Catherine II. utilized 
the academy for the advancement of national culture.  She 
altered the court of directors greatly to the advantage 
of the whole body, corrected many of its abuses, added to 
its means, and infused a new vigour and spirit into its 
researches.  By her recommendation the most intelligent 
professors visited all the provinces of her vast dominions, 
with most minute and ample instructions to investigate the 
natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report 
on the real state of the empire.  The result was that no 
country at that time could boast, within so few years, such 
a number of excellent official publications on its internal 
state, its natural productions, its topography, geography and 
history, and on the manners, customs and languages of the 
different tribes that inhabited it, as came from the press 
of this academy.  In its researches in Asiatic languages, 
oriental customs and religions, it proved itself the worthy 
rival of the Royal Asiatic Society in England.  The first 
transactions, Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis 
Petropolitanae ad annum 1726, with a dedication to Peter 
II., were published in 1728.  This was continued until 
1747, when the transactions were called Novi Commentarii 
Academiae, &c.; and in 1777, Acta Academiae Scientiarum 
Imperialis Petropolitanae, with some alteration in the 
arrangements and plan of the work.  The papers, hitherto 
in Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or 
in French, and a preface added, Partie Historique, which 
contains an account of the society's meetings.  Of the 
Commentaries, fourteen volumes were published: of the New 
Commentaries (1750--1776) twenty.  Of the Acta Academiae 
two volumes are printed every year.  In 1872 there was 
published at St Petersburg in 2 vols., Tableau general des 
matieres contenues dans les publieations de l'Academie 
Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The academy is 
composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides the 
president and director.  Each of the professors has a house 
and an annual stipend of from L. 200 to L. 600.  Besides the 
professors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present 
at the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first 
vacancies. The buildings and apparatus of this academy are 
on a vast scale. There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and 
manuscripts; and an extensive museum, considerably augmented 
by the collections made by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstadt 
and other professors, during their expeditions through the 
Russian empire.  The motto of the society is Paulatim. 

Spain.---The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid (see 
below) had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum 
(dating from 1657) modelled on that of Naples.  It was 
reconstituted in 1847 after the model of the French academy. 

Sweden.--The Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien owes 
its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, 
among whom was Linnaeus.  They met on the 2nd of June 1739, 
and formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum; 
and at the end of the year their first publication made 
its appeamnce. As the meetings continued and the members 
increased the society attracted the notice of the king; and 
on the 31st of March 1741 it was incorporated as the Royal 
Swedish Academy. Though under royal patronage and largely 
endowed, it is, like the Royal Society in England, entirely 
self-governed.  Each of the members resident at Stockholm 
becomes in turn president, and continues in office for 
three months.  The dissertations read at each meeting 
are published in the Swedish language, quarterly, and 
make an annual volume.  The first forty volumes, octavo, 
completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions. 

United States of America.--The oldest scientific association 
in the United States is the American Philosophical Society 
Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge.  It owed 
its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published ``A 
Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British 
Plantations in America,'' which was so favourably received 
that in the same year the society was organized, with 
Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as 
secretary.  In 1769 it united with another scientific society 
founded by Franklin, called the American Society Held at 
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its 
present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title 
of the American Society, and elected Franklin president, 
an office which he held until his death (1790).  The 
American Philosophical Society is national in scope and is 
exclusively scientific; its Transactions date from 1771, and 
its Proceedings from 1838.  It has a hall in Philadelphia, 
with meeting-rooms and a valuable library and collection 
of interesting portraits and relics. David Rittenhouse was 
its second and Thomas Jefferson was its third president.  
In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London, presented a 
fund, the income of which was to supply a gold medal for 
the author of the most important discovery ``relating to 
navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy (mere natural 
history excepted).'' An annual general meeting is held. 

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the 
second oldest scientific organization in the United States, 
was chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most 
prominent men of that time.  James Bowdoin was its first 
president, John Adams its second.  The Academy published 
Memoirs beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846.  The 
Rumford Premium awarded through it for the most ``important 
discovery or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light'' is 
the income of $5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford. 

The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated 
by Congress with the object that it ``shall, whenever called 
upon by any department of the Government, investigate, 
examine, experiment and report upon any subject of science 
or art.'' Its membership was first limited to 50; after 
the amendment of the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit 
was placed at 100; and in 1907 it was prescribed that the 
resident membership should not exceed 150 in number, that 
not more than 10 members be elected in any one year, and 
that the number of foreign associates be restricted to 50. 
The Academy is divided into six committees: mathematics 
and astronomy; physics and engineering; chemistry; 
geology and palaeontology; biology; and anthropology.  It 
gives several gold medals for meritorious researches and 
discoveries.  It publishes scientific monographs (at the 
expense of the Federal Government).  Its presidents have been 
Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers, Othuiel C. 
Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira Remsen. 

The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was organized in 
1812.  It has a large library, very rich in natural history, 
and its museum, with nearly half a million specimens, is 
particularly strong in conchology and ornithology.  The 
society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings 
since 1841; it also has published the American Journal 
of Conchology. The American Entomological Society (in 
1859-1867 the EntomoIogical Society of Philadelphia, and 
since 1876 part of this academy) has published Proceedings 
since 1861, and the Entomological news (a monthly). 

There are also other scientific organizations like the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874, 
as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists, 
founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association 
of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its proceedings 
annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with 
headquarters in New Ynrk: the National Geographic Society 
(1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological 
Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union 
(1883), the American Society of naturalists (1883), the 
Botanical Society of America (1893), the American Academy of 
Medicine (1876); and local academies of science, or of special 
sciences, in many of the larger cities.  The Smithsonian 
Institution at Washington is treated in a separate article. 

II. ACADEMIES OF BELLES LETTRES Belgium.-- Belgium 
has always been famous for its literary societies.  The 
little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a society 
of poets in 1302, and the Catherinists of Alost date from 
1107.  It is at least certain that numerous Chambers 
of Rhetoric (so academies were then called) existed in 
the first years of the rule of the house of Burgundy. 

France.---The French Academy (l'Academie Francaise) was 
established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in its 
original form existed four or five years earlier.  About the 
year 1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet 
informally each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the 
king's secretary. The conversation turned mostly on literary 
topics; and when one of the number had finished some literary 
work, he read it to the rest, and they gave their opinions upon 
it.  The fame of these meetings, though the members were 
bound to secrecy, reached the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, 
who promised his protection and offered to incorporate the 
society by letters patent.  Nearly all the members would have 
preferred the charms of privacy, but, considering the risk 
they would run in incurring the cardinal's displeasure, and 
that by the letter of the law all meetings of any sort were 
prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high honour 
the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at once 
to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution, 
appoint officers and choose a name.  Letters patent were 
granted by the king on the 29th of January 1635.  The officers 
consisted of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and 
a permanent secretary, chosen by vote.  They elected also a 
publisher, not a member of the body.  The director presided 
at the meetings, being considered as primus inter pares. 
The chancellor kept the seals and sealed all the official 
documents of the academy.  The cardinal was ex officio 
protector.  The meetings were held weekly as before. 

The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth 
in its statutes, was the purification of the French language. 
``The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with 
all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, 
and to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the 
arts and sciences'' (Art. 24). They proposed ``to cleanse 
the language from the impurities it has contracted in the 
mouths of the common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, 
from the misusages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of 
the pulpit'' (Letter of Academy to Cardinal Richelieu) . 

The number of members was fixed at forty.  The original 
members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 
that the full number was completed.  Their first undertaking 
consisted of essays written by the members in rotation.  To 
judge by the titles and specimens which have come down to 
us, these possessed no special originality or merit, but 
resembled the epideixeis of the Greek rhetoricians.  
Next, at the instance of Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a 
criticism of Corneille's Cid, the most popular work of the 
day.  It was a rule of the academy that no work could be 
criticized except at the author's request, and fear of 
incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from Corneille 
an unwilling consent.  The critique of the academy was 
re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's 
approbation.  After six months of elaboration, it was published 
under the title, Sentiments de l'academie francaise sur le 
Cid. This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a saying 
attributed to him on the occasion shows. ``Horatius,'' he 
said, referring to his last play, ``was condemned by the 
Duumviri, but he was absolved by the people.'' But the crowning 
labour of the academy, begun in 1639, was a dictionary of 
the French language. By the twenty-sixth article of their 
statutes, they were pledged to compose a dictionary, a 
grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and one on poetry.  Jean 
Chapelain, one of the original members and leading spirits of 
the academy, pointed out that the dictionary would naturally 
be the first of these works to be undertaken, and drew up 
a plan of the work, which was to a great extent carried 
out.  A catalogue was to be made of all the most approved 
authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed among 
the members, and all approved words and phrases were to be 
marked for incorporation in the dictionary.  For this they 
resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other 
than the regular days.  C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor 
in chief.  To remunerate him for his labours, he received 
from the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs.  The first 
edition of this dictionary appeared in 1694, the sixth and 
last in 1835, since when complements have been added. 

This old Academie francaise perished with the other 
prerevolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little 
but the name in common with the present academy, a 
section of the Institute. That Jean Baptiste Suard, 
the first perpetual secretary of the new, had been a 
member of the old academy, is the one connecting link. 

The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 
have been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le 
premier siecle de l'Institut de France, and from it we 
extract a few leading facts and dates.  Before the Revolution 
there were in existence the following institutions--(1) 
the Academie de poesie et de musique, founded by 
Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of Baif, which 
counted among its members Ronsard and most of the Pleiade; 
(2) the Academie des inscriptions et medailles, founded 
in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions et belles
lettres; (4) the old Academie des sciences; (5) the 
Academie de peinture et de sculpture, a school as 
well as an academy; (6) the Academie d'architecture. 

The object of the Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the 
institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine 
them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble:--``
Il y a pour toute la Republique un Institut national charge 
de recueiller les deconvertes, de perfectionner les arts 
et les sciences.'' As Renan has remarked, the Institute 
embodied two ideas, one disputable, the other of undisputed 
truth--that science and art are a state concern, and that 
there is a solidarity between all branches of knowledge and 
human activities.  The Institute was at first composed of 
184 members resident in Paris and an equal number living 
in other parts of France, with 24 foreign members, divided 
into three classes, (1) physical and mathematical science, 
(2) moral and political science, (3) literature and the fine 
arts.  It held its first sitting on the 4th of April 
1796.  Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, 
as subversive of government, and reconstituted the other 
classes as follows: (1) as before, (2) French language and 
literature, (3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine 
arts.  The class of moral and political science was restored 
on the proposal of M. Guizot in 1832, and the present 
Institute consists of the five classes named above.  Each 
class or academy has its own special jurisdiction and work, 
with special funds; but there is a general fund and a common 
library, which, with other common affairs, are managed by a 
committee of the Institute---two chosen from each academy, 
with the secretaries.  Each member of the Institute receives 
an annual allowance of 1200 francs, and the secretaries 
of the different academies have a salary of 6000 francs. 

The class of the Institute which deals with the language and 
literature takes precedence, and is known as the Academie 
francaise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each 
secretary of sections presiding in turn.  Shortly afterwards 
J. B. Suard was elected to the post, and ever since the history
of the academy has been determined by the reigns of its 
successive perpetual secretaries.  The secretary, to borrow 
an epigram of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs.  
There have been in order: Suard (13 years), Francois Juste 
Raynouard (9 years), Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, 
Arnault, Villemain (34 years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles 
Camille Doucet (19 years), Gaston Boissier.  Under Raynouard 
the academy ran a tilt against the abbe Delille and his 
followers.  Under Auger it did battle with romanticism, ``a 
new literary schism.'' Auger did not live to see the election 
of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed ten more years for Victor 
Hugo after many vain assaults to enter by the breach.  The 
academy is professedly non-political. It accepted and even 
welcomed in succession the empire, the restoration and the 
reign of Louis Phillppe, and it tolerated the republic of 
1848; but to the second empire it offered a passive resistance, 
and no politician of the second empire, whatever his gifts as 
an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair. The one seeming 
exception, Emile Ollivier, confirms the rule. He was elected 
on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his discours de 
reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and never 
delivered.  The Institute appears in the annual budget for a 
grant of about 700,000 fr.  It has also large vested funds in 
property, including the magnificent estate and library of 
Chantilly bequeathed to it by the duc d'Aumale.  It awards 
various prizes, of which the most considerable are the Montyon 
prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who 
has performed the most virtuous action during the year, 
and one for the French author who has published the book 
of most service to morality.  The conditions are liberally 
interpreted; the first prize is divided among a number of 
the deserving poor, and the second has been assigned for 
lexicons to Moliere, Corneille and Madame de Sevigne. 

One alteration in the methods of the French Academy has 
to be chronicled: in 1869 it became the custom to discuss 
the claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of 
the members. In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher 
Caro, supported by A. Dumas fils, and by the aged 
Desire Nisard, it was decided to abandon this method. 

A point of considerable interest is the degree in which, 
since its foundation, the French Academy has or has not 
represented the best literary life of France.  It appears 
from an examination of the lists of members that a surprising 
number of authors of the highest excellence have, from 
one cause or another, escaped the honour of academic 
``immortality.'' When the academy was founded in 1634, the 
moment was not a very brilliant one in French letters.  
Among the forty original members we find only ten who are 
remembered in literary history; of these four may reasonably 
be considered famous still--Balzac, Chapelain, Racan and 
Voiture.  In that generation Scarron was never one of the 
forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or Pascal 
occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic, 
Pascal was best known as a mathematician--(his Lettres 
provinciales was published anonymously)---and when his fame 
was rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the 
life of a recluse.  The duc de la Rochefoucauld declined the 
honour from a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be 
elected.  The one astounding omission of the 17th century, 
however, is the name of Moliere, who was excluded by his 
profession as an actor.1 On the other hand, the French Academy 
was never more thoroughly representative of letters than 
when Boileau, Corneille, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault 
were all members. Of the great theologians of that and the 
subsequent age, the Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, 
Fenelon, and Massillon, but not Bourdaloue.  La Bruyere 
and Fontenelle were among the forty, but not Saint-Simon, 
whose claims as a man of letters were unknown to his 
contemporaries.  Early in the 18th century almost every 
literary personage of eminence found his place naturally in the 
Academy.  The only exceptions of importance were Vauvenargues, 
who died too early for the honour, and two men of genius but 
of dubious social position, Le Sage and the abbe Prevost 
d'Exiles.  The approach of the Revolution affected gravely 
the personnel of the Academy.  Montesquieu and Voltaire 
belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais. Of the 
Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors to 
D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe, but 
not to Diderot, Rollin, Condillac, Helvetius or the Baron 
d'Holbach.  Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay 
did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was 
elected.  In the transitional period, when the social life 
of Paris was distracted and the French Academy provisionally 
closed, neither Andre Chenier nor Benjamin Constant nor 
Joseph de Maistre became a member.  In the early years of the 
19th century considerations of various kinds excluded from 
the ranks of the forty the dissimilar names of Lamennais, 
Prudhon, Comte and Beranger.  Critics of the French 
Academy are fond of pointing out that neither Stendhal, nor 
Balzac, nor Theophile Gautier, nor Flaubert, nor Zola 
penetrated into the Mazarine Palace. It is not so often 
remembered that writers so academic as Thierry and Michelet 
and Quinet suffered the same exclusion.  In later times 
neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither Guy 
de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the forty 
immortals.  The non-election, after a long life of distinction, 
of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account 
for.  Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the 
kind that no academy can ever be expected to recognize. 

Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the 
language and literature, the most opposite opinions have been 
advanced.  On the one hand, it has been asserted that it 
has corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed 
the language of French writers, and that to it we owe the 
most striking characteristics of French literature, its 
purity, delicacy and flexibility.  Thus Matthew Arnold, 
in his Essay on the Literary Influence of Academies, has 
pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French Academy as a 
high court of letters, and a rallying-point for educated 
opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in matters 
of tone and taste.  To it he attributes in a great measure 
that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of 
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; 
and to the want of a similar institution in England he traces 
that eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness 
which, as he thinks, are barely compensated by English 
genius.  Thus, too, Renan, one of its most distinguished 
members, says that it is owing to the academy ``qu'on peut 
tout dire sans appareil scholastique avec la langue des gens 
du monde.'' ``Ah ne dites,'' he exclaims, ``qu'ils n'ont 
rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont la vie se passe 
a instruire le proces des mots, a peser les syllables. 
Ils ont fait un chef-d'oeuvre--la langue francaise.'' On the 
other hand, its inherent defects have been well summed up by 
P. Lanfrey in his Histoire de Napoleon: ``This institution 
had never shown itself the enemy of despotism: Founded by 
the monarchy and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to 
the spirit of intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any 
sustained or combined labour, a stranger to those great 
works.pursued in common which legitimize and glorify the 
existence of scientific bodies, occupied exclusively with 
learned trifles, fatal to emulation, which it pretends to 
stimulate, by the compromises and calculations to which it 
subjects it, directed in everything by petty considerations, 
and wasting all its energy in childish tournaments, in which 
the flatteries that it showers on others are only a foretaste 
of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the 
French Academy seems to have received from its founders the 
special mission to transform genius into bel esprit, and 
it would be hard to introduce a man of talent whom it has 
not demoralized. Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, 
it alternately pursues and avoids them; but it is specially 
attracted by the gossip of politics, and whenever it has 
so far emancipated itself as to go into opposition, it does 
so as the champion of ancient prejudices. If we examine its 
influence on the national genius, we shall see that it has 
given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it never 
possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its 
masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour,
its natural grace.  It has disciplined it, but it has 
emasculated. impoverished and rigidified it.  It sees in 
taste, not a sense of the beautiful, but a certain type 
of correctness, an elegant form of mediocrity.  It has 
substituted pomp for grandeur, school routine for individual 
inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity, fadeur and the 
monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the source and 
spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced under 
its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer, 
never the man.  By all its traditions the academy was made 
to be the natural ornament of a monarchical society.  
Richelieu conceived and created it as a sort of superior 
centralization applied to intellect, as a high literary 
court to maintain intellectual unity and protest against 
innovation.  Bonaparte, aware of all this, had thought of 
re-establishing its ancient privileges; but it had in his eyes 
one fatal defect--esprit. Kings of France could condone a 
witticism even against themselves, a parvenu could not.'' 

On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been 
conservative rather than creative.  It has done much by its 
example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on 
language have, from the nature of the case, failed.  For, 
however perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent 
the existing language of a nation, an original genius is 
certain to arise---a Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset--who 
will set at defiance all dictionaries and academic rules. 

Germany.---Of the German literary academies the most celebrated 
was Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft (the Fruitful Society), 
established at Weimar in 1617.  Five princes were among the 
original members.  The object was to purify the mother tongue. 
The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint 
titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent 
influence on the language or literature of the country. 

Italy.---Italy in the 16th century was remarkable for 
the number of its literary academies.  Tiraboschi, in 
his History of Italian Literature, has given a list of 
171; and Jarkius, in his Specimen Historiae Academiarum 
Conditarum, enumerates nearly 700. Many of these, with a 
sort of Socratic irony, gave themselves ludicrous names, or 
names expressive of ignorance. Such were the Lunatici of 
Naples, the Estravaganti, the Fulminales, the Trapessati, 
the Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious, the Confused, 
the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the 
Ethereal. ``The first academies of Italy chiefly directed 
their attention to classical literature; they compared 
manuscripts; they suggested new readings or new interpretations; 
they deciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment 
on a Latin ode or debated the propriety of a phrase.  Their 
own poetry had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not 
till the writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism 
in the Italian language that they began to study it with the 
same minuteness as modern Latin.'' ``They were encouragers 
of a numismatic and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, 
and throwing for ever little specks of light on the still 
ocean of the past, but not very favourable to comprehensive 
observation, and tending to bestow on an unprofitable pedantry 
the honours of real learning.'' s The Italian nobility, 
excluded as they mostly were from politics, and living in 
cities, found in literature a consolation and a career. 
Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they 
encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish 
originality.  Far the most celebrated was the Accademia 
della Crusca or Furfuratorum; that is, of bran, or of 
the sifted, founded in 1582.  The title was borrowed from a 
previous society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, 
of the well-shaken. Its device was a sieve; its motto, ``Il 
piu bel fior ne coglie'' (it collects the finest flower); its 
principal object the purification of the language.  Its great 
work was the Vocabulario della Crusca, printed at Venice in 
1612.  It was composed avowedly on Tuscan principles, and 
regarded the 14th century as the Augustan period of the 
language.  Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and 
this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent 
editions.  The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated 
with two older societies--the Accademia degli Apatici 
(the Impartials) and the Accademia Florentina. 

Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy we may 
mention the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by Alphonso, 
the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540, to illustrate 
and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the close study of 
Petrarch; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; the Infiammati of 
Padua, 1534; the Rozzi of Siena, suppressed by Cosimo, 1568. 

The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of 
witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman 
gentleman.  It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some 
diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first 
impromptus and afterwards set compositions.  This gave them 
the name, Beni Humori, which, after they resolved to form 
an academy of belles lettres, they changed to Humoristi. 

In 1690 the Accademia degli Arcadi was founded at Rome, for 
the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Crescimbeni, 
the author of a history of Italian poetry.  Among its members 
were princes, cardinals and other ecclesiastics; and, to 
avoid disputes about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings 
masked and dressed like Arcadian shepherds.  Within ten years 
from its establishment the number of academicians was 600. 

The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was made a royal 
academy by Charles Albert in 1848.  Its emblem is a gold orange 
tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto ``Flores fructusque 
oerennes,'' the same as that of the famous Florimentane Academy, 
founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales.  It has published 
valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities of Savoy. 

Spain.--The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid held its 
first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the 
duke d'Fscalona.  It consisted at first of 8 academicians, 
including the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards 
added, the founder being chosen president or director.  
In 1714 the king granted them the royal confirmation and 
protection.  Their device is a crucible in the middle of the 
fire, with this motto, Limpia, fixa, y da esplendor--``It 
purifies, fixes, and gives brightness.'' The number of its 
members was limited to 24; the duke d'Escalona was chosen 
director for life, but his successors were elected yearly, and 
the secretary for life.  Their object, as marked out by the 
royal declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national 
language.  They were to begin with choosing carefully such 
words and phrases as have been used by the best Spanish writers; 
noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones; and composing a 
dictionary wherein these might be distinguished from the former. 

Sweden.--The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for the 
purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language. A medal 
is struck by its direction every year in honour of some illustrious 
Swede.  This academy does not publish its transactions. 

III. ACADEMIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY France.---The old 
Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (or ``Petite 
Academie,'' founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the French 
Academy, which then at least contained the elite of French 
learning.  Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one most 
occupied with his own aggrandisement.  Literature, and even 
science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to his 
own glory.  Nor were literary men inclined to assert their 
independence.  Boileau well represented the spirit of the age 
when, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he 
wrote: ``The least things become important if in any degree 
they can serve the glory and pleasure of the king.'' Thus it 
was that the Academy of Inscriptions arose.  At the suggestion 
of Colbert a company (a committee we should now call it) had 
been appointed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, 
charged with the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices 
and legends for medals.  It consisted of four academicians: 
Chapelain, then considered the poet laureate of France, one 
of the authors of the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable 
de Bourzeis (1606-1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), 
an antiquary of high repute among his contemporaries; and 
the abbe Jacques de Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his 
appointment more to the fulsome flattery of his odes than 
to his really learned translations of Cicero and Sallust.  
This company used to meet in Colbert's library in the winter, 
at his country-house at Sceaux in the summer, generally on 
Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of the minister, who was 
always present.  Their meetings were principally occupied with 
discussing the inscriptions, statues and pictures intended for 
the decoration of Versailles; but Colbert, a really learned 
man and an enthusiastic collector of manuscripts, was often 
pleased to converse with them on matters of art, history and 
antiquities.  Their first published work was a collection of 
engravings, accompanied by descriptions, designed for some 
of the tapestries at Versailles.  Louvois, who succeeded 
Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived the 
company, which had begun to relax its labours.  Felibien, 
the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and 
Boileau, were added to their number.  A series of medals 
was commenced, entitled Medailles de la Grande Histoire, 
or, in other words, the history of the Grand Monarque. 

But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of 
finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its 
institution.  He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques 
Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his 
son, and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul 
Bignou. librarian to the king.  By a new regulation, dated 
the 16th of July 1701, the Academie royale des inscriptions 
et medailles was instituted, being composed of ten honorary 
members, ten pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils.  Its 
constitution was an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of 
Sciences.  Among the regulations we find the following, which 
indicates clearly the transition from a staff of learned 
officials to a learned body: ``The academy shall concern 
itself with all that can contribute to the perfection of 
inscriptions and legends, of designs for such monuments and 
decorations as may be submitted to its judgment; also with 
the description of all artistic works, present and future, 
and the historical explanation of the subject of such works; 
and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities. and 
of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success 
in labours of this class, the academicians shall apply 
themselves . to all that this division of learning includes, 
as one of the most worthy objects of their pursuit.'' 

Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable 
Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders), 
Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan; 
among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient 
History was submitted to the academy for revision.  In 1711 
they completed L'Histoire metallique du roi, of which 
Saint-Simon was asked to write the preface.  In 1716 the regent 
changed its title to that of the Academie des inscriptions et 
belleslettres, a title which better suited its new character. 

In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns 
which divided the learned world in the first half of the 18th 
century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the 
cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of the 
Moderns.  During the earlier years of the French Revolution 
the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and on the 
22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis XVI, 
we find in the Proceedinigs that M. Brequigny read a paper 
on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the 
dukes of Anjou and Alencon.  In the same year were published 
the 45th and 46th vols. of the Memoires de l'academie. 
On the 2nd of August of the same year the last seance of 
the old academy was held.  More fortunate than its sister 
Academy of Sciences, it lost only three of its members by 
the guillotine.  One of these was the astronomer Sylvain 
Bailly.  Three others sat as members of the Convention; 
but for the honour of the academy, it should be added 
that all three were distinguished by their moderation. 

In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795, no 
class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscriptions; 
but most of the members who survived found themselves re-elected 
either in the class of moral and political science, under 
which history and geography were included as sections, or 
more generally under the class of literature and fine arts, 
which embraced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments. 

In 1816 the academy received again its old name.  The Proceedings 
of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very various 
merits.  Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown most 
originality are comparative mythology, the history of science 
among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities of 
France.  The old academy has reckoned among its members De 
Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the 
philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, Guillaume J. 
de C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le 
Beau, who has been named the last of the Romans.  The new 
academy has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, 
A. Remusat, Raynouard, Burnout and Augustin Thierry. 

In consequence of the attention of several literary men in 
Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic 
Academy was established in that city in 1805.  Its objects were, 
first, the elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, 
manners and monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; 
secondly, the etymology of all the European languages, by 
the aid of the Celto-British, Welsh and Erse; and, thirdly, 
researches relating to Druidism.  The attention of the members 
was also particularly called to the history and settlements 
of the Galatae in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of 
French monuments, was appointed president.  The academy still 
exists as La societe nationale des antiquaires de France. 

Great Britain.---The British Academy was the outcome of 
a meeting of the principal European and American academies, 
held at Wiesbaden in October 1899.  A scheme was drawn up 
for an international association of the academies of the 
world under the two sections of natural science and literary 
science, but while the Royal Society adequately represented 
England in science there was then no existing institution 
that could claim to represent England in literature, and at 
the first meeting of the federated academies this chair was 
vacant.  A plan was proposed by Professor H. Sidgwick to add a 
new section to the Royal Society, but after long deliberation 
this was rejected by the president and council. The promoters 
of the plan thereupon determined to form a separate society, 
and invited certain persons to become the first members of a 
new body, to be cailed ``The British Academy for the promotion 
of historical, philosophical and philological studies.'' The 
unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for a charter, 
and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter was granted 
and the by-laws were allowed by order in council. The objects 
of the academy are therein defined--``the promotion of the 
study of the moral and political sciences, including history, 
philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology and 
philology.'' The number of ordinary fellows (so all members 
are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy 
is governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) 
and a council of fifteen elected annually by the fellows. 

Italy.--Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy 
of Herculaneum) properly ranks.  It was established at 
Naples about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of 
the antiquities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other 
places, by the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of 
state.  Its object was to explain the paintings, &c., discovered 
at those places. For this purpose the members met every 
fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were submitted 
to three academicians, who made their report at their next 
sitting.  The first volume of their labours appeared in 1775, 
and they have been continued under the title of Antichita di 
Ercolano. They contain engravings of the principal paintings, 
statues, bronzes, marble figures, medals, utensils, &c., with 
explanations.  In the year 1807 an academy of history and 
antiquities, on a new plan, was established at Naples by Joseph 
Bonaparte.  The number of members was limited to forty, twenty 
of whom were to be appointed by the king; and these twenty 
were to present to him, for his choice, three names for each 
of those needed to complete the full number. Eight thousand 
ducats were to be annually allotted for the current expenses, 
and two thousand for prizes to the authors of four works 
which should be deemed by the academy most deserving of such a 
reward.  A grand meeting was to be held every year, when 
the prizes were to be distributed and analyses of the works 
read.  The first meeting took place on the 25th of April 
1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state 
of Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment 
of this institution.  In the same year an academy was 
established at Florence for the illustration of Tuscan 
antiquities, which published some volumes of memoirs. 

IV. ACADEMIES OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY Austria.---The 
defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted in 
1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction of the 
distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla ( 1728- 
1800) . For many years it did important work, and though closed 
in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph in 
1854.  In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become 
mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools. 

France.---Academie de Medecine. Medicine is a science 
which has always engaged the attention of the kings of 
France. Charlemagne established a school of medicine in the 
Louvre, and various societies have been founded, and privileges 
granted to the faculty by his successors.  The Acadimie de 
medecine succeeded to the old Academie royale de chirurgie 
et societe royale de medecine. It was erected by a royal 
ordinance, dated December 20, 1820. It was divided into three 
sections--medicine, surgery and pharmacy.  In its constitution 
it closely resembled the Academie des sciences. Its 
function was to preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and 
answer inquiries addressed to it by the government on the 
subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health 
generally.  It has maintained an enormous correspondence in 
all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes. 

Germany.--The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards 
called the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in 
1662 by J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published 
a general invitation to medical men to communicate all 
extraordinary cases that occurred in the course of their 
practice.  The works of the Naturae Curiosi were at first 
published separately; but in 1770 a new arrangement was 
planned for publishing a volume of observations annually.  
From some cause, however, the first volume did not make 
its appearance until 1784, when it was published under the 
title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor Leopold took the 
society under his protection, and its name was changed in his 
honour.  This academy has no fixed abode, but follows the 
home of its president.  Its library remains at Dresden. By its 
constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a president, 
two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or 
members.  At their admission the last come under a twofold 
obligation--first, to choose some subject for discussion out 
of the animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously 
treated by any colleague of the academy; and, secondly, to apply 
themselves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides. 

V. ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS France.---The Academie 
royale de peinture et de sculpture at Paris was founded by 
Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of Academie royale des 
beaux arts, to which was afterwards united the Academie 
d'architecture, founded 1671.  It is composed of painters, 
sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers. 
From among the members of the society who are painters, 
is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux 
arts at Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677.  The 
director's province is to superintend the studies of the 
painters, sculptors, &c., who, chosen by competition, are 
sent to Italy at the expense of the government, to complete 
their studies in that country. Most of the celebrated 
French painters have begun their career in this way. 

The Academie nationale de musique is the official and 
administrative name given in France to the grand opera.  In 
1570 the poet Baif established in his house a school of 
music, at which ballets and masquerades were given.  In 1645 
Mazarin brought from Italy a troupe of actors, and established 
them in the rue du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules 
Strozzi's Achille in Sciro, the first opera performed in 
France.  After Moliere's death in 1673, his theatre in the 
Palais Royal was given to Sulu, and there were performed 
all Gluck's great operas; there Vestris danced, and there 
was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's Devin du Village. 

Great Britain.--The Royal Academy of Arts in London, founded in 
1768, is described in a separate article. (See ACADEMY, ROYAL.) 

The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London in 
1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of 
vocal and instrumental harmony.  This institution had a fine 
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the 
gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, 
with the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish 
for many years.  About 1734 the academy became a seminary 
for the instruction of youth in the principias of music 
and the laws of harmony.  The Royal Academy of Music was 
formed for the performance of operas, composed by Handel, 
and conducted by him at the theatre in the Haymarket.  The 
subscription amounted to L. 50,000, and the king, besides 
subscribing L. 1000, allowed the society to assume the title 
Royal.  It consisted of a governor, deputy-governor and twenty 
directors.  A contest between Handel and Senesino, one of 
the performers, in which the directors took the part of the 
latter, occasioned the dissolution of the academy after it 
had existed with honour for more than nine years.  The present 
Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 
1830.  It instructs pupils of both sexes in music. (See 
also the article CONSERVATOIRE for colleges of music. ) 

Italy.--In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was 
established at Turin.  The meetings were held in the palace 
of the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful 
members.  In Milan an academy of architecture was established 
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti.  About the 
middle of the 18th century an academy of the arts was 
established there, after the example of those at Paris and 
Rome.  The pupils were furnished with originals and models, 
and prizes were distributed by competent judges annually.  
The prize for painting was a gold medal.  Before the effects 
of the French Revolution reached Italy this was one of the 
best establishments of the kind in that kingdom.  In the hall 
of the academy were some admirable examples of Correggio, 
as well as several statues of great merit, particularly a 
small bust of Vitellins, and a torso of Agrippina, of most 
exquisite beauty.  The academy of the arts, which had been 
long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was 
restored in the end of the 18th century.  In it there are halls 
for nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor 
and the painter, with models of all the finest statues in 
Italy.  But the treasures of this and the other institutions 
for the fine arts were greatly diminished during the occupancy 
of Italy by the French. The academy of the arts at Modena, 
after being plundered by the French, dwindled into a petty 
school for drawing from living models.  There is also an 
academy of the fine arts in Mantua, and another at Venice. 

Russia.--The academy of St Petersburg was established in 
1757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count 
Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences.  The fund for 
its support was L. 4000 per annum, and the foundation admitted 
forty scholars.  Catherine II. formed it into a separate 
institution, augumented the annual revenue to L. 12,000, and 
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she 
built for it a large circular building, which fronts the 
Neva.  The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and 
continue until they have attained that of eighteen.  They 
are clothed, fed and lodged at the expense of the crown; 
and are instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, French, 
German and drawing.  At the age of fourteen they are at 
liberty to choose any of the following arts; first, painting 
in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, enamelling, 
&c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, sealcutting, 
&c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth, 
watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues
in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in 
paste and other compositions, gilding and varnishing.  Prizes 
are annually distributed, and from those who have obtained 
four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at 
the charge of the crown.  A certain sum is paid to defray 
their travelling expenses; and when they are settled in any 
town, they receive during four years an annual salary of 
L. 60.  The academy has a small gallery of paintings for 
the use of the scholars; and those who have made great 
progress are permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial 
collection.  For the purpose of design, there are 
full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy. 

South America.---There are several small academies in the 
various towns of South America, the only one of note being 
that of Rio de Janeiro, founded by John VI. of Portugal in 
1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes. 

Spain.---In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and 
architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, 
was founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is 
president.  Prizes are distributed every three years.  In Cadiz 
a few students are supplied by government with the means of 
drawing and modelling from figures; and such as are not able 
to purchase the requisite instruments are provided with them. 

Sweden.---An academy of the fine arts was founded at 
Stockholm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin.  In its hall are 
the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to 
Charles XI. The works of the students are publicly exhibited, 
and prizes are distributed annually.  Such of them as display 
distinguished ability obtain pensions from government, to 
enable them to reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes 
of investigation and improvement.  In this academy there are 
nine professors and generally about four hundred students. 

Austria.--In the year 1705 an academy of painting, 
sculpture and architecture was established at Vienna, 
with the view of encouraging and promoting the fine arts. 

United States of America.--In America the institution similar 
to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy 
of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American 
Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the academy. 

The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of 
books in the British Museum, ``Academies,'' 5 parts and 
index, furnishes a complete bibliography. (F. S.) 

1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the 
Salle des seances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription 
``Rienne manque a sa gloire, it manquait a la notre.'' 

2 Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502. 

ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. akademeia or 
ekademia), the name given to the philosophic successors of 
Plato.  The name is derived from a pleasure-garden or 
gymnasium situated in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the 
river Cephissus about a mile to the north-west of Athens 
from the gate called Dipylum. It was said to have belonged 
to the ancient Attic hero Academus, who, when the Dioscuri 
invaded Attica to recover their sister Helen, carried off by 
Theseus, revealed the place where she was hidden.  Out of 
gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced the Dioscuri, 
always spared the Academy during their invasions of the 
country.  It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned 
with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. Cim. 
13), who bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to 
his fellow-citizens. Subsequently the garden became the 
resort of Plato (q.v.), who had a small estate in the 
neighbourhood.  Here he taught for nearly fifty years till 
his death in 348 B.C., and his followers continued to 
make it their headquarters.  It was closed for teaching by 
Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools. 
Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoll, 
where he Composed his dialogue The Academic Questions. 

The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato 
to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is 
traceable a distinct continuity of thought which justifies 
its examination as a real intellectual unit.  On the 
other hand, this continuity of thought is by no means an 
identity.  The Platonic doctrine was so far modified in 
the hands of successive scholarchs that the Academy has 
been divided into either two, three or five main sections 
(Sext.  Empir. Pyrrh.  Hyp. i. 220).  Finally,in the days 
of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism 
of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which 
combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the 
doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism 
which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism 
which afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual 
anarchy. Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later 
Academy and the general attitude of Roman society when he 
says, ``My words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian 
priestess; but I conjecture what is probable, like a plain 
man; and where, I ask, am I to search for anything more than 
verisimilitude?'' And again: ``The characteristic of the 
Academy is never to interpose one's judgment, to approve what 
seems most probable, to compare together different opinions, 
to see what may be advanced on either side and to leave one's 
listeners free to judge without pretending to dogmatize.'' 

The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the 
general view that there were three academies: the first, or 
Old, academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, 
or Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, 
or New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus.  Sextus 
notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo 
of Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus.  
Diogenes Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the 
New Academy (i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero (de Orat. iii. 18, &c.) 
and Varro insist that there were only two academies, the Old 
and the New. Those who maintain that there is no justification 
for the five-fold division hold that the agnosticism of 
Carneades was really latent in Plato, and became prominent 
owing to the necessity of refuting the Stoic criterion. 

The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards 
practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to 
the inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate 
successors. Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the 
Old Academy: ``Their writings and method contain all liberal 
learning, all history, all polite discourse; and besides they 
embrace such a variety of arts, that no one can undertake any 
noble career without their aid. . . . In a word the Academy 
is, as it were, the workshop of every artist.'' It is true 
that these men turned to scientific investigation, but in 
so doing they escaped from the high altitudes in which Plato 
thought, and tended to lay emphasis on the mundane side of 
philosophy.  Of Plato's originality and speculative power, 
of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited nothing, ``nor 
amid all the learning which has been profusely lavished upon 
investigating their tenets is there a single deduction calculated 
to elucidate distinctly the character of their progress or 
regression'' (Archer Butler, Lect. on Anc. Phil. ii. 515). 

The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to 
Cicero may be indicated briefly under four heads. 

(1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by 
Speusirinus and Xenocrates.  They argued that the Good cannot 
be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found 
as an attribute of things.  Therefore, the idea of Good must 
be secondary to some other more fundamental principle of 
existence.  This unit Speusippus attempted to find in 
the Pythagorean number-theory.  From it he deduced three 
principles, one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the 
soul.  The Deity he conceived as that living force which 
rules all and resides everywhere.  Xenocrates, though like 
Speusippus infected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful 
of Plato's successors.  He distinguished three spheres, the 
sensible, the intelligible, and a third compounded of the 
two, to which correspond respectively, sense, intellect and 
opinion (doxa). Cicero notes, however, that both Speusippus 
and Xenocrates abandon the Socratic principle of hesitancy. 

(2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle of 
finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a 
principle of certainty might be found.  Arcesilaus, however, 
broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. 
Socrates had said, ``This alone I know, that I know nothing.'' 
But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of 
even the Socratic minimum of certainty: ``I cannot know even 
whether I know or not.'' Thus from the dogmatism of the master 
the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic criticism. 

(3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moderate 
scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his 
opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic.  To the Stoical theory 
of perception, the fantasia kataleptike, by which they 
expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions 
so strong as to amount to science, he opposed the doctrine 
of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence 
between perceptions and the objects perceived.  He saved 
himself, however, from absolute scepticism by the doctrine 
of probability or verisimilitude, which may serve as a 
practical guide in life.  Thus his criterion of imagination 
(fantasia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable and 
attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be 
wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid.  In ethics 
he was an avowed sceptic.  During his official visit to Rome, 
he gave public lectures, in which he successively proved 
and disproved with equal ease the existence of justice. 

(4) In the last period we find a tendency not only 
to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy 
itself, but also to connect it with parallel growths of 
thought.  Philo of Larissa endeavours to show that Carneades 
was not opposed to Plato, and further that the apparent 
antagonism between Plato and Zeno was due to the fact that 
they were arguing from different points of view.  From this 
syncretism emerged the prudent non-committal eclecticism 
of Cicero, the last product of Academic development. 

For detailed accounts of the Academicians see SPEUSIPPUS, 
XENOCRATES, &c.; also STOICS and NEOPLATONISM. Consult 
histories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. 
Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, ii. 270 (Eng. tr., London, 1905). 

ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, to 
give it the original title in full, was founded in 1768, 
``for the purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of 
painting, sculpture and architecture.'' Many attempts had 
previously been made in England to form a society which 
should have for its object the advancement of the fine 
arts.  Sir Jumes Thornbill, his son-in-law Hogarth, the 
Dilettanti Society, made efforts in this direction, but their 
schemes were wrecked by want of means.  Accident solved the 
problem.  The crowds that attended an exhibition of pictures 
held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital for the benefit 
of charity, suggested a way of making money hitherto 
unsuspected.  Two societies were quickly formed, one 
calling itself the ``Society of Artists'' and the other the 
``Free Society of Artists.'' The latter ceased to exist in 
1774.  The former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal 
charter under the title of the ``Incorporated Society of 
Artists of Great Britain.'' But though prosperous it was not 
united.  A number of the members, including the most eminent 
artists of the day, resigned in 1768, and headed by William 
Chambers the architect, and Benjamin West, presented on 
28th November in that year to George III., who had already 
shown his interest in the fine arts, a memorial soliciting 
his ``gracious assistance, patronage and protection,'' in 
``establishing a society for promoting the arts of design.', 
The memorialists stated that the two principal objects they 
had in view were the establishing of ``a well-regulated 
school or academy of design for the use of students in the 
arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of 
distinguished merit; the profit arising from the last of these 
institutions'' would, they thought, ``fully answer all the 
expenses of the first,'' and, indeed, leave something over 
to be distributed ``in useful charities.'' The king expressed 
his agreement with the proposal, but asked for further 
particulars.  These were furnished to him on the 7th of 
December and approved, and on the 10th of December they 
were submitted in form, and the document embodying them 
received his signature, with the words, ``I approve of this 
plan; let it be put into execution.'' This document, known 
as the ``Instrument,'' defined under twenty-seven heads the 
constitution and government of the Royal Academy, and contained 
the names of the thirty-six original members nominated by the 
king.  Changes and modifications in the laws and regulations 
laid down in it have of course been made, but none of them 
without the sanction of the sovereign, and the ``Instrument'' 
remains to this day in all essential particulars the Magna 
Charta of the society.  Four days after the signing of this 
document--on the 14th of Decemben--twentyeight of the first 
nominated members met and drew up the Form of Obligation 
which is still signed by every academician on receiving his 
diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary, 
council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen 
at a further meeting held on the 17th.  No time was lost in 
establishing the schools, and on the 2nd of January 1769 they 
were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of 
the site now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the 
president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the 
first of his famous ``discourses.'' The opening of the first 
exhibition at the same place followed on the 26th of April. 

The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply out 
of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts 
derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on 
the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve 
years he was called upon to do so, and contributed in all 
something over L. 5000, but in 1781 there was a surplus, and no 
further call has ever been made on the royal purse.  George 
III. also gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own 
palace of Somerset House, and the schools and offices were 
removed there in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held 
in Pall Mall, till the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset 
House.  Then the Academy took possession of the apartments 
in it which the king, on giving up the palace for government 
offices, had expressly stipulated should be provided.  Here 
it remained till 1837, when the government, requiring the use 
of these rooms, offered in exchange a portion of the National 
Gallery, then just erected in Trafalgar Square.  The offer, 
which contained no conditions, was accepted.  But it was 
not long before the necessity for a further removal became 
imminent.  Already in 1850 notice was given by the government 
that the rooms occupied by the Academy would be required for 
the purposes of the National Gallery, and that they proposed 
to give the academy L. 40,000 to provide themselves with a 
building elsewhere.  The matter slumbered, however, till 1858, 
when the question was raised in the house of Commons as to 
whether it would not be justifiable to turn the Academy out 
of the National Gallery without making any provision for it 
elsewhere.  Much discussion followed, and a royal commission 
was appointed in 1863 ``to inquire into the present position 
of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and into 
the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies 
a portion of the National Gallery, &c.'' In their report, 
which contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, 
some of them since carried out, the commissioners stated 
that they had ``come to the clear conclusion that the Royal 
Academy have no legal, but that they have a moral claim to 
apartments at the public expense.'' Negotiations had been 
already going on between the government and the Academy for 
the appropriation to the latter of a portion of the site 
occupied by the recently purchased Burlington House, on which 
the Academy offered to erect suitable buildings at its own 
expense.  The negotiations were renewed in 1866, and in 
March in the following year a lease of old Burlington 
House, and a portion of the garden behind it, was granted 
to the Academy for 999 years at a peppercorn rent, subject 
to the condition that ``the premises shall be at all times 
exclusively devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of 
the fine arts.'' The Academy immediately proceeded to 
erect, on the garden portion of the site thus acquired, 
exhibition galleries and schools, which were opened in 
1869, further additions being made in 1884.  An upper storey 
was also added to old Burlington House, in which to place 
the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of 
art.  Altogether the Academy, out of its accumulated savings, 
has spent on these buildings more than L. 160,000.  They are 
its own property, and are maintained entirely at its expense. 

The government of the Academy was by the ``Instrument'' vested 
in ``a president and eight other persons, who shall form 
a council.'' Four of these were to retire every year, and 
the seats were to go by rotation to every academician.  The 
number was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten 
in 1875. The rules as to retirement and rotation are still in 
force.  Newly elected academicians begin their two years' 
service as soon as they have received their diploma.  The 
council has, to quote the ``Instrument'', ``the entire 
direction and management of the business'' of the Academy 
in all its branches; and also the framing of new laws and 
regulations, but the latter, before coming into force, must 
be sanctioned by the general assembly and approved by the 
sovereign.  The general assembly consists of the whole body of 
academicians, and meets on certain fixed dates and at such 
other times as the business may require; also at the request 
to the president of any five members.  The principal executive 
officers of the Academy are the president, the keeper, the 
treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all now elected 
by the general assembly, subject to the approval of the 
sovereign.  The president is elected annually on the foundation 
day, 10th December, but the appointment is virtually for 
life.  No change has ever been made in the conditions attached 
to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried 
instead of an unsalaried post.  The treasurership and 
librarianship, both offices originally held not by election but 
by direct appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, 
the holders being subject to re-election every five years, 
and the keepership is also held upon the same terms; while 
the secretaryship, which up to 1873 had always been filled 
like the other offices by an academician, has since then 
been held by a layman. Other officers elected by the general 
assembly are the auditors (three academicians, one of whom 
retires every year), the visitors in the schools (academicians 
and associates), and the professors of painting, sculpture 
and architecture---who must be members---and of anatomy and 
chemistry.  There are also a registrar, and curators and 
teachers in the schools, who are appointed by the council. 

The thirty-six original academicians were named by George III. 
Their successors have been elected, up to 1867, by academicians 
only---since that date by academicians and associates together.  
The original number was fixed in the ``Instrument'' at forty, 
and has so remained.  Each academician on his election has to 
present an approved specimen of his work---called his diploma 
work---before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign for 
signature.  On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of 
Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general 
assembly.  The class of associates, out of whom alone the 
academicians can be elected, was founded in 1769---they were 
``to be elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled 
to every advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, 
excepting that of having a voice in the deliberations or any 
share in the government of the Academy.'' Those exhibitors 
who wished to become candidates had to give in their names 
at the close of the exhibition.  This condition no longer 
exists, candidates having since 1867 merely to be proposed and 
seconded by members of the Academy.  On election, they attend 
at a council meeting to sign the Roll of Institution as an 
associate, and receive a diploma signed by the president and 
secretary.  In 1867 also associates were admitted to vote 
at all elections of members; in 1868 they were made eligible 
to serve as visitors in the schools, and in 1886 to become 
candidates for the professorships of painting, sculpture and 
architecture.  At first the number of associates was limited 
to twenty; in 1866 the number was made indefinite with a 
minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the minimum was raised to 
thirty.  Vacancies in the lists of academicians and associates 
caused by death or resignation can be filled up at any time 
within five weeks of the event, except in the months of 
August, September and October, but a vacancy in the associate 
list caused by election only dates from the day on which 
the new academician receives his diploma.  The mode of 
election is the same in both cases, first by marked lists 
and afterwards by ballot.  All who at the first marking have 
four or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest 
then go to the ballot.  Engravers have always constituted 
a separate class, and up to 1855 they were admitted to the 
associateship only, the number, six, being in addition to 
the other associates; now the maximum is four, of whom not 
more than two may be academicians.  A class of honorary 
retired academicians was established in 1862, and of honorary 
retired associates in 1884. The first honorary foreign 
academicians were elected in 1869. The honorary members 
consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a secretary for foreign 
correspondence, and professors of ancient history and ancient 
literature.  These posts, which date from the foundation of 
the Academy, have always been held by distinguished men. 

Academy Schools.--One of the most important functions of the 
Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged 
alone, was the instruction of students in art.  The first 
act, as has been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to 
establish schools ---``an Antique Academy,'' and a ``School 
for the Living Model'' for painters, sculptors and architects.  
In the first year, 1769, no fewer than seventy-seven students 
entered.  A school of painting was added in 1815, and special 
schools of sculpture and architecture in 1871.  It would 
occupy too much space to follow the various changes that 
have been made in the schools since their establishment.  In 
one important respect, however, they remain the same, viz. 
in the instruction being gratuitous--no fees have ever been 
charged.  Up to the removal of the Academy to its present 
quarters the schools could not be kept permanently open, as 
the rooms occupied by them were wanted for the exhibition.  
They are now open all the year round with the exception 
of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months of August and 
September.  They consist of an antique school, upper and 
lower schools of painting, a school of drawing from the life, 
a school of modelling from the life and an architectural 
school. Admission is gained by submitting certain specimens 
of drawing or modelling, and the successful candidates, called 
probationers, have then to undergo a further test in the 
schools, on passing which they are admitted as students 
for three years.  At the end of that time they are again 
examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term of two 
years.  These examinations are held twice a year, in January 
and July.  Female students were first admitted in 1860.  
There are many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be 
gained by the various classes of students during the time of 
studentship, including travelling studentships of the value 
of L. 200 for one year, gold and silver medals, and prizes 
varying from L. 50 to L. 10.  There are permanent curators and 
teachers in all the schools, but the principal teaching is 
done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected 
to serve in each school.  The average cost of maintaining 
these schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, 
prizes, books, maintenance of building, &c., is from L. 5000 to 
L. 6000 a year, apart from certain scholarships and prizes 
derived from moneys given or bequeathed for this purpose, 
such as the Landseer scholarships, the Creswick prize, the 
Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship and gold medal. 

Charities. -- Another of the principal objects to which 
the profits of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been 
the relief of disiressed artists and their families.  From 
the commencement of the institution a fund was set apart for 
this purpose, and subsequently a further sum was allotted 
to provide pensions for necessitous members of the Academy 
and their widows.  Both these funds were afterwards merged 
in the general fund, and various changes have from time to 
time been made in the conditions under which pensions and 
donations have been granted and in their amount.  At the 
present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount 
may be given to academicians and associates, sixty years of 
age, who have retired and whose circumstances show them to 
be in need, provided the sum given does not make their total 
annual income exceed a certain limit, and the same amounts 
can be given to their widows subject to the same conditions.  
No pensions are granted without very strict inquiry into 
the circumstances of the applicant, who is obliged to make 
a yearly declaration as to his or her income.  The average 
annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about 
L. 2000.  Pensions are also given according to the civil 
service scale to certain officers on retirement. lt may be 
stated here that with the exception of these pensions and 
of salaries and fees for official services, no member of the 
Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the funds of the 
institution.  Donations to distressed artists who are or 
have been exhibitors at the Royal Academy, their widows 
and children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice 
a year in February and August.  The maximum amount that 
can be granted to any one applicant in one donation is 
L. 100, and no one can receive a grant more than once a 
year.  The average yearly amount thus expended is from 
L. 1200 to L. 1500.  In addition to these charities from its 
general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of 
artists, not members of the Academy, certain other funds 
which have been bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, 
viz. the Turner fund, the Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, 
the Newton bequest and the Edwards fund (see below). 

Exhibitions. -- The source from which have been derived 
the funds for carrying on the varied work of the Royal 
Academy, its schools, its charities and general cost of 
administration, and which has enabled it to spend large sums 
on building, and provided it with the means of maintaining 
the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions. With the 
exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some 
of which was spent in building the gallery containing the 
statues and bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions 
have provided the sole source of revenue, all other moneys 
that have come to the Academy having been either left in 
trust, or been constituted trusts, for certain specific 
purposes.  The first exhibition in 1769 contained 136 works, 
of which more than one-half were contributed by members, and 
brought in L. 699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the 
receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was 
489, of which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum 
received was L. 3069: 1s. This increase continued gradually 
with fluctuations, and in 1836, the last year at Somerset 
House, the number of works was 1154, and the receipts were 
L. 5179: 19s. No great addition to the number of works exhibited 
took place at Trafalgar Square, but the receipts steadily 
grew, and their careful management enabled the Academy, when 
the time came for moving, to erect its own buildings and 
become no longer dependent on the government for a home.  
The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington 
House rendered it possible to increase the number of works 
exhibited, which of late years has reached a total of over 
2000, while the receipts have also been such as to provide 
the means for further building, and for a largely increased 
expenditure of all kinds.  It may be noted that the number 
of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed the space 
available.  In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the 
number sent was 3011.  This went on increasing, with occasional 
fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it 
reached the number of 13,462.  The annual winter exhibition 
of works by old masters and deceased British artists was 
begun in 1870.  It was never intended to be a source of 
revenue, but appreciation by the public has so far prevented 
it from being a cause of loss.  The summer exhibition 
of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in 
May, and closes on the first Monday in August.  The winter 
exhibition of works by deceased artists opens on the first 
Monday in Januaty. and closes on the second Saturday in 
March.  The galleries containing the diploma works, the 
Gibson statuary and other works of art are open daily, free. 

Presidents of the Royal Academy.--Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
1768-1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt 
(president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820; 
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820--1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830-1850; 
Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850--1865; Sir Francis Grant, 
1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878--1896; 
Sir John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896. 

The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with 
the history, the theory and the practice of the various 
branches of the fine arts, some of them of great 
rarity and value.  It is open daily to the students and 
members, and to other persons on a proper introduction. 

The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are -- 
 

The Turner fund (J. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides 
sixteen annuities of L. 50 each, for artists of repute 
not members of the Academy, also a biennial scholarship 
of L. 50 and a gold medal for a landscape painting. 

The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the 
income of which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, 
is spent on pictures and sculpture. (See CHANTREY.) 

The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides 
an annual prize of L. 30 for a landscape painting in oil. 

The Cooke fund (E.W.  Cooke, R.A.), which provides 
two annuities of L. 35 each for painters not members 
of the Academy, over sixty years of age and in need. 

The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides 
four scholarships of L. 40 each, two in painting and two 
in sculpture, tenable for two years, open to students 
at the end of the first two years of studentship, and 
given for the best work done during the second year. 

The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R.A.), which provides two annual prizes 
of L. 30 and L. 10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture. 

The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R.A.), which provides 
seven annuities of L. 80 each for deserving artists, 
not members of the Academy, in need of assistance. 

The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an 
annual sum of L. 60 for the indigent widow of a painter. 

The Bizo.fund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific 
investigation into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c. 

The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing L.  40 a year 
for the benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers. 

The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received 
from Mrs Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their 
brother, the income from which, about L. 300, is expended 
on the decoration of public places and buildings. 

The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists 
chiefly of pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral 
value.  More serious works are: William Sandby, The History 
of the Royal Academy of Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn 
from circulation on a question of copyright); Report 
from the Select Committee on Arts and their Connexion with 
Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix 
(London, 1836 ); Report of the Royal Commission on the 
Royal Academy, with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix 
(London, 1863); Martin Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A. 
Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860); C. R. Leslie, R.A., and Tom 
Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A. 
(London, 1865); J. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late), and 
Fred.  A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., ``The Royal Academy in the 
Last Century,'' Art Journal, 1889-1901.  But the chief 
sources of information on the subject are the minute-books 
of the council and of the general assembly, and the annual 
reports, which, however, only date from 1859. (F. A. E.) 

ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson 
in 1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and 
slates, with dark grey limestones, which are well developed 
at St John, New Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and 
Braintree in E. Massachusetts.  These rocks are of Middle 
Cambrian age and possess a Paradoxides fauna.  They 
have been correlated with limestone beds in Tennessee, 
Alabama, central Nevada and British Columbia (St Stephen). 

See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull.  
U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W. 
Dawson, Acadian Geology, 1st ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878. 

ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to 
that part of the mainland of North America lying between the 
latitudes 40 deg.  and 46 deg. .  In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) 
the words used in transferring the French possessions to 
Britain were ``Nova Scotia or Acadia.'' See NOVA SCOTIA 
for the limits included at that date under the term. 

ACAMTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, parasitic 
worms, with no near allies in the animal kingdom.  Its 
members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal, 
but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs 
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by 




From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., ``Worms, 
&c.,'' by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 

Fig. 1. A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus, 
Rud., attached to a piece of intestinal wall, X 4. 

B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified. 

means of an oviduct.  The size of the animals varies greatly, 
from forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus 
gigas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms.  The adults live 
in great numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate, 
usually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the 
body cavity of some invertebrate, most often an insect or 
crustacean, more rarely a small fish.  The body is divisible 
into a proboscis and a trunk with sometimes an intervening neck 
region.  The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged 
in horizontal rows, and it is by means of these hooks that the 
animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host.  The hooks 
may be of two or three shapes.  Like the body, the proboscis 
is hollow, and its cavity is separated from the body cavity 
by a septum or proboscis sheath.  Traversing the cavity of 
the proboscis are muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the 
proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other.  Their 
contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its 
cavity (fig. 2). But the whole proboscis apparatus can also 
be, at least partially, withdrawn into the body cavity, and 
this is effected by two retractor muscles which run from the 
posterior aspect of the septum to the body wall (fig. 3). 

The skin is peculiar.  Externally is a thin cuticle; this 
covers the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with 
no cell limits.  The syncytium is traversed by a series 
of branching tubules containing fluid and is controlled 
by a few wandering, amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the 
syncytium is a not very regular layer of circular muscle 
fibres, and within this again some rather scattered 
longitudinal fibres; there is no endothelium.  In their 
minute structure the muscular fibres resemble those of 
Nematodes.  Except for the absence of the longitudinal fibres 
the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but 
the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut off 
from those of the body.  The canals of the proboscis open 
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base. 
From the circular canal two sac-like diverticula called the 

  From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., 
``Worms, &c.,'' by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 

FIG. 2.--A longitudinal section through the 
anterior end of Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from 

 
 a, The proboscis not fully expanded.
 b, Proboscis-sheath.
 c, Retractor muscles of the proboscis.
 d, Cerebral ganglion.
 e, Retinaculum enclosing a nerve
 f, One of the retractors of the sheath.
 g, A lemniscus.
 h, One of the spaces in the sub-cuticular tissue.
 i, Longitudinal muscular layer.
 j, Circular muscular laver.
 k, Line of division between the sub-cuticular tissue of the trunk
              and that of the proboscis with the lemnisci.
 

``lemnisci'' depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each
consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the
proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty
muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the
fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it
is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when
it is wished to expand the proboscis.

There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for
circulation or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from
the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala
live.

J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like
minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into
which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane
pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen
of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion.

The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the
proboscis sheath or septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and
gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2).
Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the
complex retains the old name of ``retinaculum.'' In the male at
least there is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae
may possibly be sense-organs.

The Acanthocephala are dioecious. There is a ``stay'' called
the ``ligament'' which runs from the hinder end of the
proboscis sheath to the posterior end of the body. In this the two testes
lie (fig. 3). Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three
diverticula or vesiculae seminales, and three pairs of cement
glands also are found which pour their secretions through a duct into
the vasa deferentia. The latter unite and end in a penis which opens
posteriorly.



Fig. 3.---An optical section through a male Neorhynchus
clavaeceps, Zed. (from Hamann).

 a, Proboscis.
 b, Proboscis sheath.
 c, Retractor of the proboscis.
 d, Cerebral ganglion.
 f, f, Petractors of the proboscis sheath.
 g, g, Lemnisci, each with two giant nuclei.
 h, Space in sub-cuticular layer of the skin.
 l, Ligament.
 m, m, Testes.
 o, Glands on vas deferens.
 p, Giant nucleus in skin.
 q, Opening of vas deferens.
 

The ovaries arise like the testes as rounded bodies in the 
ligament.  From these masses of ova dehisce into the body 
cavity and float in its fluid. Here the eggs are fertilized 
and here they segment so that the young embryos are formed 
within their mother's body.  The embryos escape into the 
uterus through the ``bell,'' a funnel like opening continuous 
with the uterus.  Just at the junction of the ``bell'' 
and the uterus there is a second small opening situated 
dorsally. The ``bell'' swallows the matured embryos and 
passes them on into the uterus, and thus out of the body via 
the oviduct, which opens at one end into the uterus and at 
the other on to the exterior at the posterior end of the 
body.  But should the ``bell'' swallow any of the ova, or 
even one of the younger embryos, these are passed back 
into the body cavity through the second and dorsal opening. 

The embryo thus passes from the body of the female into 
the alimentary canal of the host and leaves this with the 
faeces.  It is then, if lucky, eaten by some crustacean, or 
insect, more rarely by a fish.  In the stomach it casts 
its membranes and becomes mobile, bores through the stomach 
walls and encysts usually in the cavity of its first and 
invertebrate host. By this time the embryo has all the 
organs of the adult perfected save only the reproductive; 
these develop only when the first host is swallowed 
by the second or final host, in which case the parasite 
attaches itself to the wall of the alimentary canal and 

A curious feature shared by both larva and adult is the large 
size of many of the cells, e.g. the nerve cells and the bell. 

O. Hamann has divided the group into three 
families, to which a fourth must be added. 

(i.) Fam. Echinorhynchidae.This is by far the largest 
family and contains the commonest species; the larva of 
Echinorhynchus proteus lives in Gammarus pulex and in 
small fish, the adult is common in many fresh-water fish: E. 
polymorphus, larval host the crayfish, adult host the duck: 
E. angustotus occurs as a larva in Asellus aquaticus, 
as an adult in the perch, pike and barbel: E. moniliformis 
has for its larval host the larvae of the beetle Blaps 
mucronata, for its final host certain mice, if introduced 
into man it lives well: E. acus is common in whiting: E. 
porrigeus in the fin-whale, and E. strumosus in the seal.  
A species named E. hominis has been described from a boy. 
(ii.) Fam. Gigantorhynchidae. A small family of large forms
with a ringed and flattened body. Gigantorhynchus gigas 
lives normally in the pig, but is not uncommon in man in 
South Russia, its larval host is the grub of Melolontha 
vulgaris, Cetonis auratus, and in America probably of 
Lachnosterna arcuata: G. echinodiscus lives in the 
intestine of ant-eaters: G. spira in that of the 




Fig. 4. 
A, The larva of Echinorhynchus proteus from the body cavity of
   Phoxinus laevis, with the proboscis retracted and the whole still
   enclosed in a capsule.
B, A section through the same; a, the invaginated proboscis;
   b, proboscis sheath; c, beginning of the neck; d,
   lemniscus. Highly
magnified (both from Hamann).
king vulture, Sarcorhampus papa, and G. 
taeniodes in Dicholopus cristatus, a cariama. 

(iii.) Fam. Neorhynchidae. Sexually mature whilst still 
in the larval stage. Neorhynchus clavaeceps in Cyprinus 
carpio has its larval form in the larva of Sialis 
lularia and in the leech Nephelis octcculii: tact 
K. agilis is found in Mugil auratus and M. cephalus. 

(iv.) Apororhynchidae. With no proboscis. This family contains 
the single  species Apororhynchus hemignathi, found near 
the anus of Hemignathiis procerus, a Sandwich Island bird. 

  Fig. 5. -- Fully formed larva of Echinorhynchus 
proteus from the body cavity of Phoxinus laevis 
(from Hamann). Highly magnified. a, Proboscis; 
b, bulla; c, neck; d, trunk; e, e, lemnisci. 

AUTHORITIES. - O. Hamann, O. Jen. Zeitschr. xxv., 1891, 
p. 113; Zool.  Anz. xv., 1892, 195; J. Kaiser, Bibl.  
Zool. ii., 1893: A. E. Shipley, Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  
Sci. Villot, Zool.  Anz. viii., 1885, p. 19. (A. E. S.)  

ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin name for the plant, connected 
with ake, a sharp point), a genus of plants belonging to 
the natural order Acanthaceae.  The species are natives of 
the southern parts of Europe and the warmer parts of Asia and 
Africa.  The best-known is Acanthus mollis (brank-ursine, or 
bears' breech), a common  species throughout the Mediterranean 
region, having large, deeply cut, hairy, shining leaves.  Another 
species, Acanthus spinosus, is so called from its spiny 
heaves.  They are bold, handsome plants, with stately spikes, 
2 to 3 ft. high, of flowers with spiny bracts. A. mollis, A. 
lalifolius and A. longifolius  are broad-leaved species; A. 
spinosus and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed 
leaves.  In decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in 
metal, and subsequently carved in stone by the Greeks.  It was 
afterwards, with various changes, adopted in all succeeding 
styles of architecture as a basis of ornamental decoration.  
There are two types, that found in the Acanthus spinosus, 
which was followed by the Greeks, and that in the Acanthus 
mollis, which seems to have been preferred by the Romans. 

ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on 
the Pacific coast of Mexico, 190 m.  S.S.W. of the city 
of Mexico, Pop. (1900) 4932.  It is located on a deep, 
semicircular bay, almost land-locked, easy of access, and 
with so secure an anchorage that vessels can safely lie 
alongside the rocks that fringe the shore.  It is the best 
harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico, and it is a port 
of Call for steamship lines running between Panama and San 
Francisco.  The town is built on a narrow strip of low 
land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and 
the lofty mountains that encircle the bay.  There is great 
natural beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render 
the town difficult of access from the interior, and give it 
an exceptionally hot and unhealthy climate.  The effort to 
admit the cooling sea breezes by cutting through the mountains 
a passage called the Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial 
effect.  Acapulco was long the most important Mexican port 
on the Pacific, and the only depot for the Spanish fleets 
plying between Mexico and Spain's East Indian colonies from 
1778 until the independence of Mexico, when this trade was 
lost.  The town has been chosen as the terminus for two railway 
lines seeking a Pacific port--the Interoceanic and the Mexican 
Central.  The town suffered considerably from earthquakes in 
July and August 1909.  There are exports of hides, cedar and 
fruit, and the adjacent district of Tabares produces cotton, 
tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian corn, beans and coffee. 

ACARNANIA, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on 
the W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambracian 
Gulf, on the E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Acholous.  
The Echinades islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually 
being joined up to the mainland.  Its most populous region 
was the plain of the Acholous, commanded by the principal 
town Stratus; communication with the coast was impeded by 
mountain ridges and lagoons.  Its people long continued in 
semi-barbarism, having little intercourse with the rest of 
Greece.  In the 5th century B.C. with the aid of Athens 
they subdued the Corinthian factories on their coast.  In 
391 they submitted to the Spartan king Agesilaus; in 371 
they passed under Theban control.  In the Hellenistic age 
the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by their Aetolian 
neighbours.  On the advice of Cassander they made effective 
their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the pattern of 
Aetolla.  In the 3rd century they obtained assistance from 
the Illyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V. of 
Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their new 
federal capital, Lencas, standing a siege in his interest. 
For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were 
deprived of Lencas and required to send hostages to Rome 
(167). The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who 
drafted its inhabitants into Nicopoiis and Patrae.  Acarnania 
took a prominent part in the national uprising of 1821; it 
is now joined with Aetolia as a nome.  The sites of several 
ancient towns in Acarnania are marked by well preserved 
walls, especially those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea. 

AUTHORITIES.-Strabo vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv. 
40; Livy xxxiii. 16-17; Corpus Inscr.  Graecarum, no. 1739; E. 
Oberhummer, Akarnanien im Altertum (Munich, 1887); Heuzey, Mt. 
Olympe et l'Acarnanie (Paris, 1860). (M. O. B. C.; E. GR.) 

ACARUS (from Gr. akari, a mite), a genus of 
Arachnids, represented by the cheese mite and other forms. 

ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pohas, king of Iolcus in 
Thessaly (Ovid, Metam. vili. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224; 
Pindar, Nemea, iv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason, 
and took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonautic 
expedition.  After his father's death he instituted splendid 
funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists 
and poets, such as Stesichorus.  His wife Astydameia (called 
Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with 
Peleus (q.v.), who had taken refuge at Iolcus, but when her 
advances were rejected accused him falsely to her husband.  
Acastus, to avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep 
on Mount Pellon, having first hidden his famous sword.  On 
awaking, Peleus was attacked by the Centaurs, but saved by 
Cheiron.  Having re-covered his sword he returned to Iolcus 
and slew Acastus and Astydameia.  Acastus was represented 
with his famous horses in the painting of the Argonautic 
expedition by Micon in the temple of the Dioscuri at Athens. 

ACATALEPSY (Gr. a-, privative, and katalambanein, to 
seize), a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility. 

ACAULESCENT (Lat. acaulescens, becoming stemless, from a, 
not, and caulis, a stem), a term used of a plant apparently 
stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed. 

ACCA LARENTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the 
wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the 
twins Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the 
Tiber. She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them 
Romulus took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded 
the college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales).  The 
tradition that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has 
been explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called 
lupa (``courtesan'', literally ``she-wolf'') on account 
of her immoral character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 
55). According to another account, Larentia was a beautiful 
girl, whom Hercules won in a game of dice (Macrobius i. 10; 
Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5, Quaest.  Rom. 35; Aulus Genius 
vi. 7). The god advised her to marry the first man she met 
in the street, who proved to be a wealthy Etruscan named 
Tarutius.  She inherited all his property and bequeathed it to 
the Roman people, who out of gratitude instituted in her honour 
a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec. 23). According to 
some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the Lares, and, like 
Ceres, Teilus, Flora and others, symbolized the fertility 
of the earth--in particular the city lands and their crops. 

See Mommsen, ``Die echte und die falsche Larentia,'' in 
Romische Forschungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient 
Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans. 1906) whose views 
on the subject are criticized by W. W. Fowler in W. H. 
D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical Studies (1907); 
C. Pascal, Studii di alntichita e Mitologia (1896). 

ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerare, to hasten, celer, 
quick), hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term 
employed to denote the rate at which the velocity of a 
body, whose motion is not uniform, either increases 
or decreases. (See MECHANICS and HODOGRAPH.) 

ACCENT. The word ``accent'' has its origin in the Lat. 
accentus, which in its turn is a literal translation of 
the Gr. prosodia. The early Greek grammarians used this 
term for the musical accent which characterized their own 
language, but later the term became specialized for quantity 
in metre, whence comes the Eng. prosody. Besides various 
later developments of usage it is important to observe that 
``accent'' is used in two different and often contrasted 
senses in connexion with language.  In all languages 
there are two kinds of accent: (1) musical chromatic or 
pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent.  The former 
indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound 
and another in speech, the latter the difference between 
one syllable and another which is occasioned by emitting 
the breath in the production of one syllable with greater 
energy than is employed for the other syllables of the same 
word.  These two senses, it is to be noticed, are different 
from the common usage of the word in the statement that 
some one talks with a foreign or with a vulgar accent.  In 
these cases, no doubt, both differences of intonation and 
differences of stress may be included in the statement, but 
other elements are frequently no less marked, e.g. the 
pronunciation of t and d as real dentals, whereas the 
English sounds so described are really produced not against 
the teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce 
the interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced 
as in this and its representation by d or z, the 
production of o as a uniform sound instead of one ending as 
in English in a slight u sound, or such dialect changes as 
lydy (laidy) for lady, or toime for time (taime). 

In different languages the relations between pitch and stress 
differ very greatly.  In some the pitch or musical accent 
predominates.  In such languages if signs are employed to 
mark the position of the chief accent in the word it will 
be the pitch and not the stress accent which will be thus 
indicated.  Amongst the languages of ancient times Sanskrit 
and Greek both indicate by signs the position of the chief 
pitch accent in the word, and the same method has been 
employed in modern times for languages in which pitch accent 
is welf marked, as it is, for example in Lithuanian, the 
language still spoken by some two millions of people on the 
frontier between Prussia and Russia in the neighbourhood 
of Konigsberg and Vilna.  Swedish also has a well-marked 
musical accent.  Modern Greek has changed from pitch to 
stress, the stress being generally laid upon the same 
syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek. 

In the majority of European languages, however, stress is 
more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence 
to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin, 
Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are 
descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree. 
To the existence of this accent must be attributed a large 
part of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see 
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES).  In modern languages we can see 
the same principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. 
(Anglo-Saxon) ac-tun (oak-town), and in more recent times 
producing the contrast between New Town and Newton. In 
French, stress is less marked than it is in English, but 
here also there is evidence to show that in the development 
from Latin to French a very strong stress accent must have 
existed.  The natural result of producing one syllable of a 
word with greater energy than the others is that the other 
syllables have a less proportion of breath assigned to 
them and therefore tend to become indistinct or altogether 
inaudible.  Thus the strong stress accent existing in the 
transition period between Latin and French led to the curtailing 
of long Latin words like latrocinium or hospitale into 
the words which we have borrowed from French into English 
as larceny and hotel. It will be observed that the first 
syllable and that which bears the accent are the two which 
best withstand change, though the strong tendency in English 
to stress heavily the first syllable bids fair ultimately 
to oust the e in the pronunciation of larceny. No such 
changes arise when a strong pitch accent is accompanied 
by a weaker stress accent, and hence languages like 
ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where such conditions 
existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister languages 
or than even their own descendants, when stress takes the 
place of pitch as the more important element in accent. 

In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be 
observed.  In pitch, the accent may be uniform, rising or 
falling.  Or there may be combinations of rising and falling 
or of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable.  
In ancient Greek, as is well known, three accents are 
distinguished--(1) the acute ('), a rising accent; (2) the 
grave (`), apparently merely the indication that in particular 
positions in the sentence the acute accent is not used where 
it would occur in the isolated word; and (3) the circumflex, 
which, as its form (^) shows, and as the ancient grammarians 
inform us, is a combination of the rising and the falling 
accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being always 
long.  Different Greek dialects, however, varied the syllables 
of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek, 
for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable 
of a word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented. 

The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was originally 
free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and 
this condition of things is still found in the earliest 
Sanskrit literature. But in Greek before historical times 
the accent had become limited to the last three syllables 
of a word, so that a long word like the Homeric genitive 
feromenoio could in no circumstances be accented on 
either of its first two syllables, while if the final 
syllable was long, as in the accusative plural feromenous, 
the accent could go back only to the second syllable from 
the end. As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a 
frequent interchange between e ( a high vowel) and o 
(a low vowel) occurs in the Indo-European languages, it has 
been suggested that e originally went with the highest 
pitch accent, while o appeared in syllables of a lower 
pitch.  But if there is any foundation for the theory, which 
is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted 
and modified by all manner of analogical processes.  Thus 
poimen with acute accent and daimon with the acute accent 
on the preceding syllable would correspond to the rule, so 
would aletes and epos, but there are many exceptions 
like odos where the acute accent accompanies an o 
vowel.  Somewhat similar distinctions characterize syllables 
which are stressed.  The strength of the expiration may be 
greatest either at the beginning, the end or the middle of 
the syllable, and, according as it is so, the accent is a 
failing, a rising, or a rising and falling one. Syllables in 
which the stress is produced continuously whether increasing 
or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables, those in 
which a variation in the stress occurs without being strong 
enough to break the syllable into two are called double-pointed 
syllables.  These last occur in some English dialects, but 
are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian, which 
have a ``sing-song'' pronunciation.  It is often not easy 
to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether 
what we hear is really two-single-pointed syllables.  There 
is no separate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') 
is used for the increasing, the grave (`) for the decreasing 
stress, and the circumflex (^) for the rising and falling 
(increasing and decreasing) and (@) for the opposite.  A 
separate notation is much to be desired, as the nature of the 
two accents is so different, and could easily be devised by 
using (@) for the falling, (') for the rising stress, and 
(@) for the combination of the two in one syllable.  This 
would be clearer than the upright stroke (|) preceding the 
stressed syllable, which is used in some phonetic works. 

The relation between the two accents in the same language 
at the same time is a subject which requires further 
investigation.  It is generally assumed that the chief stress 
and the chief pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no 
means certain for all cases, though the incidence of the chief 
stress accent in modern Greek upon the same syllable as had 
the chief pitch accent in ancient times suggests that the 
two did frequently fall upon the same syllable.  On the other 
hand, in words like the Sanskrit sapta, the Gr. epta, 
the pitch accent which those languages indicate is upon a 
syllable which certainly, in the earliest times at least, 
did not possess the principal stress.  For forms in other 
languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show 
that the a of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is 
the representative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the 
earliest times, the nasal alone existed (see under N for the 
history of these so-called sonant nasals).  It is possible that 
sporadic changes of accent, as in the Gr. meter compared 
with the Sanskrit mata, is owing to the shifting of the 
pitch accent to the same syllable as the stress occupied. 

There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent 
also may shift its position in the history of a language from 
one syllable to another.  In prehistoric times the stress 
in Latin must have rested upon the first syllable in all 
cases.  Only on this hypothesis can be explained forms like 
peperci (perfect of parco) and collido (a compound 
of laedo). In historical times, when the stress in Latin 
was on the second syllable from the end of the word if that 
syllable was long, or on the third syllable from the end if 
the second from the end was short, we should have expected 
to find *peparci and *collaedo, for throughout the 
historical period the stress rested in these words upon the 
second syllable from the end.  The causes for the change of 
position are not always easy to ascertain.  In words of four 
syllables with a long penult and words of five syllables 
with a short penult there probably developed a secondary 
accent which in course of time replaced the earlier accent 
upon the first syllable.  But the number of such long words 
in Latin is comparatively small.  It is no less possible 
that relations between the stress and pitch accents were 
concerned.  For unless we are to regard the testimony of 
the ancient Latin grammarians as altogether untrustworthy 
there was at least in classical Latin a well-marked pitch 
as well as a stress accent.  This question, which had 
long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes in 
his treatise entitled Recherches sur l'histoire et les 
effets de l'intensite initiale en latin (Paris, 1902). 

In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the 
first syllable, which leads in time to the modification of 
borrowed words. Thus throughout the 18th century there was 
a struggle going on over the word balcony, which earlier 
was pronounced balcony. Swift is the first author quoted 
for the pronunciation balcony. and Cowper's balcony 
in ``John Gilpin'' is among the latest instances of the old 
pronunciation.  Disregarding the Latin quantity of orator 
and senator, English by throwing the stress on the first 
syllable has converted them into orator and senator, 
while Scots lawyers speak also of a curator. How far 
French influence plays a part here is not easy to say. 

Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which 
have been already discussed, there remains the accent of 
the sentence. Here the problem is much more complicated.  
The accent of a word, whether pitch or stress, may be 
considerably modified in the sentence.  From earliest times 
some words have become parasitic or enclitic upon other 
words.  Pronouns more than most words are modified from 
this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. te (``and''), 
the Lat. qiie, have throughout their whole history been 
enclitic upon the preceding word.  A very important word 
may be enclitic, as in English don't, shan't. It is to be 
remembered that the unit of language is rather the sentence 
than the word, and that the form which is given to the word 
in the dictionary is very often not the form which it takes 
in actual speech.  The divisions of words in speech are quite 
different from the divisions on the printed page. Sanskrit 
alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this, and 
preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken. 

Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence 
to express a great variety of meanings.  Thus in English 
a sentence like You rode to Newmarket yesterday, which 
contains five words, may be made to express five different 
statements by putting the stress upon each of the words in 
turn.  By putting the stress on you the person addressed 
is marked out as distinct from certain others, by putting 
it upon rode other means of locomotion to Newmarket are 
excluded, and so on.  With the same order of words five 
interrogative sentences may also be expressed, and a third 
series of exclamatory sentences expressing anger, incredulity, 
&c., may be obtained from the same words.  It is to be noticed 
that for these two series a different intonation, a different 
musical (pitch) accent appears from that which is found in the 
same words when employed to make a matter-of-fact statement. 

In languages like Chinese, which have neither compound words 
nor inflection, accent plays a very important part.  As the 
words are all monosyllabic, stress could obviously not be so 
important as pitch as a help to distinguish different senses 
attached to the same syllable, and in no other language is 
variety of pitch so well developed as in Chinese.  In languages 
which, like English, show comparatively little pitch accent 
it is to be noticed that the sentence tends to develop a more 
musical character under the influence of emotion. The voice 
is raised and at the same time greater stress is generally 
employed when the speaker is carried away by emotion, though the 
connexion is not essential and strong emotion may be expressed 
by a lowering as well as by a raising of the voice.  In either 
case, however, the stress will be greater than the normal. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H.  Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1890, 
now in 3rd edition), sec.  96 ff., History of English Sounds 
(1888), sec.  110 ff., and other works; E. Sievers, Grundzuge 
der Phonetik (1893), sec.  532 ff.; O. Jespersen, Lehrbuch 
der Phonetik (1904), an abbreviated German translation of 
the author's larger work in Danish, sec.  216 ff.  The books 
of Sievers and Jespersen give (especially Sievers) full 
references to the literature of the subject.  For the accent 
system of the Indo-European languages see ``Betonung'' in 
Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der 
indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. i. (1897), or, with considerable 
modifications, his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der 
idg.  Sprachen (1902), sec. sec.  32-65 and 343-350. (P. Gi.) 

ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, 
to receive), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of 
receipt; in law, the act by which a person binds himself 
to comply with the request contained in a bill of exchange 
(q.v.), addressed to him by the drawer.  In all cases it 
is understood to be a promise to pay the bill in money, 
the law not recognizing an acceptance in which the promise 
is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in money and 
partly by another bill.  Acceptance may be either general or 
qualified.  A general acceptance is an engagement to pay 
the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by 
the drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word 
``accepted,'' at the bottom of the bill, or across the face 
of it. Qualified acceptance may be a promise to pay on a 
contingency occurring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods 
consigned by the drawer to the acceptor.  No contingency 
is allowed to be mentioned in the body of the bill, but a 
qualified acceptance is quite legal, and equally binding with 
a general acceptance upon the acceptor when the contingency 
bas occurred.  It is also qualified acceptance where the 
promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned in the 
bill, or to pay at a different time or place from those 
specified.  As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of 
the drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and 
if he chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent 
parties, acting at his own risk if they dissent.  In all 
cases acceptance involves the signature of the acceptor 
either by himself or by some person duly authorized on his 
behalf.  A bill can be accepted in the first instance only 
by the person or persons to whom it is addressed; but if 
he or they fail to do so, it may, after being protested for 
non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else ``supra protest,'' 
for the sake of the honour of one or more of the parties 
concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a claim against 
the drawer and all those to whom he could have resorted. 

ACCEPTILATION (from Lat. acceptilatio), in Roman and Scots 
law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation.  This formal mode 
of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received 
its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a 
receipt, i.e. carrying it to credit.  The words conveying 
the release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the 
expressed obligation.  Figuratively, in theology, the word 
acceptilation means free remission or forgiveness of sins. 

ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of 
approaching.  In law, the word is used in various connexions.  
The presumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be 
proved that a husband has not had access to his wife within 
such a period of time as would admit of his being the father. 
(See LEGITIMACY.) In the law of easements, every person 
who has land adjoining a public road or a public navigable 
river has a right of access to it from his land.  So, also, 
every person has a right of access to air and light from 
an ancient window.  For the right of access of parents to 
children under the guardianship of the court, see INFANT. 

ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach), 
in law, a method of acquiring property adopted from Roman 
law, by which, in things that have a close connexion with 
or dependence on one another, the property of the principal 
draws after it the property of the accessory, according 
to the principle, accessio cedet principali. Accession 
may take place either in a natural way, such as the growth 
of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or in an artificial 
way.  The various methods may be classified as (1) land to 
land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land (see 
FIXTURES); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables added 
to by the art or industry of man; this may be by specification, 
as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion, or 
commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids, 
respectively.  In the case of industrial accession ownership is 
determined according as the natural or manufactured substance 
is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is 
payable to the person who has been dispossessed of his property. 

In a historical or constitutional sense, the term 
``accession'' is applied to the coming to the throne of a 
dynasty or line of sovereigns or of a single sovereign. 

``Accession'' sometimes likewise signifies consent or 
acquiescence.  Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, 
where there is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted 
on the part of each creditor by a ``deed of accession.'' 

ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as 
principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, 
aid or concealment.  In certain crimes, there can be no 
accessories; all concerned being principals, whether present 
or absent at the time of their commission.  These are 
treason, and all offences below the degree of felony, as 
specified in the Offences against the Person Act 1861. 

There are two kinds of accessories -- before the fact, and 
after it.  The first is he who commands or procures another 
to commit felony, and is not present himself; for if he be 
present, he is a principal.  The second is he who receives, 
harbours, assists, or comforts any man that has done murder or 
felony, whereof he has knowledge.  An accessory before the 
fact is liable to the same punishment as the principal; and 
there is now indeed no practical difference between such an 
accessory and a principal in regard either to indictment, 
trial or punishment. Accessories after the fact are in general 
punishable with imprisonment (with or without hard labour) for 
a period not exceeding two years, but in the case of murder 
punishable by penal servitude for life, or not less than three 
years, or by imprisonment (with or without hard labour) to the 
extent of two years. The law of Scotland makes no distinction 
between the accessory to any crime and the principal (see 
ART AND PART). Except in the case of treason, accession 
after the fact is not noticed by the law of Scotland unless 
as an element of evidence to prove previous accession. 

ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was born at 
Florence in 1428.  He was famous for his learning, especially 
in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to his native 
state.  Having previously been entrusted with several 
important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence in 
1473.  He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris 
to ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines 
against Pope Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to 
Florence, and buried in the church of the Carthusians at 
the public expense, and his daughters were portioned by his 
fellow-citizens, the fortune he left being, owing to his 
probity and disinterestedness, very small. He wrote a Latin 
translation of some of Plutarch's Lives (Florence, 1478); 
Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics; and the 
lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne.  In the work on 
Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus. 

ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of ``accidents,'' from the Latin 
neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for 
the grammatical changes to which words are subject in their 
inflections as to gender, number, tense and case.  It is 
also used to denote a book containing the first principles 
of grammar, and so of the rudiments of any subject or art. 

ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely 
variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected; 
a happening out of the ordinary course of things.  In the 
law of tort, it is defined as ``an occurrence which is due 
neither to design nor to negligence''; in equity, as ``such 
an unforeseen event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as 
is not the result of any negligence or misconduct.'' So, in 
criminal law, ``an effect is said to be accidental when the 
act by which it is caused is not done with the intention 
of causing it, and when its occurrence as a conseiguence 
of such act is not so probable that a person of ordinary 
prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take reasonable 
precaution against it'' (Stephen, Digest of Criminal Law, 
art. 210).The word may also have in law the more extended 
meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused by 
any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 
1846, Notice of Accidents Act 1894.  See also CONTRACT, 
CRIMINAL LAW, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, INSURANCE, TORT, &c. 

In logic an ``accident'' is a quality which belongs to a 
subject but not as part of its essence (in Aristotelian 
language kata sumbebekos, the scholastic per accidens). 
Essential attributes are necessarily, or causally, connected 
with the subject, e.g. the sum of the angles of a triangle; 
accidents are not deducible from the nature, or are not part 
of the necessary connotation, of the subject, e.g. the 
area of a triangle.  It follows that increased knowledge, 
e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was thought to 
be an accident is really an essential attribute, or vice 
versa.  It is very generally held that, in reality, there is 
no such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge 
would establish a causal connexion for all attributes.  An 
accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute.  Accidents 
have been classed as (1) ``inseparable,'' i.e. universally 
present, though no causal connexion is established, and (2) 
``separable,'' where the connexion is neither causally explained 
nor universal. Propositions expressing a relation between 
a subject and an accident are classed as ``accidental,'' 
``real'' or ``ampliative,'' as opposed to ``verbal'' or 
``analytical,'' which merely express a known connexion, 
e.g. between a subject and its connotation (q.v.). 

ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (1) in philosophy for any system 
of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that 
events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in 
the mathematical but in the popular sense).  In metaphysics, 
accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs 
or results from a definite cause.  In this connexion it is 
synonymous with Tychism (tuchu, chance), a term used by 
C. S. Peirce for the theories which make chance an objective 
factor in the process of the Universe.  Opponents of this 
accidentalism maintain that what seems to be the result 
of chance is in reality due to a cause or causes which, 
owing to the lack of imagination, knowledge or scientific 
instruments, we are unable to detect. In ethics the term is 
used, like indeterminism, to denote the theory that mental 
change cannot always be ascribed to previously ascertained 
psychological states, and that volition is not causally 
related to the motives involved.  An example of this theory 
is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae 
(``liberty of indifference''), according to which the choice 
of two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither 
by contemporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind 
nor by crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the 
term is used for the effect produced by accidental lights 
(Ruskin, Modern Painters, I. II. 4, iii. sec.  4, 287). 
(3) In medicine, it stands for the hypothesis that disease is 
only an accidental modification of the healthy condition, and 
can, therefore, be avoided by modifying external conditions. 

ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the 16th century, to whom 
is attributed a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of 
which Julius Scaliger speaks with great praise. 

ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman, 
was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of 
his death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great 
age, since Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed 
with him on literary matters.  He was a prolific writer and 
enjoyed a very high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. 1, 
56; Cicero, Pro Plancio, 24). The titles and considerable 
fragments (about 700 lines) of some fifty plays have been 
preserved.  Most of these were free translations from the 
Greek, his favourite subjects being the legends of the 
Trojan war and the house of Pelops.  The national history, 
however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius, 
---the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of 
Publius Decius Mus the younger.  The fragments are written 
in vigorous language and show a lively power of description. 

Accius wrote other works of a literary character: 
Didascalicon and Pragmaticon libri, treatises 
in verse on the history of Greek and Roman poetry, and 
dramatic art in particular; Parerga and Praxidica 
(perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an Annales. He 
also introduced innovations in orthography and grammar. 

See Boissier, Le Poete Accius, 1856; L. Muller, 
De Accii fabulis Disputatio (1890); Ribbeck, 
Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892); editions 
of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others 
by Bahrens (1886); Plessis, Poesue Latine (1909). 

ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in 
deliberative or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of 
approval or praise.  Acclamation is thus the adoption of a 
resolution or the passing of a vote of confidence or choice 
unanimously, in direct distinction from a formal ballot or 
division.  In the Roman senate opinions were expressed and 
votes passed by acclamation in such forms as Omnes, omnes, 
Aequum est, Justum est, &c.; and the praises of the emperor 
were celebrated in certain pre-arranged sentences, which 
seem to have been chanted by the whole body of senators.  In 
ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is very common, 
the question being usually put in the form, placet or non 
placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes by 
acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without 
any previous consultation ``acclaimed'' one of their number as 
pontiff.  A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its 
application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church 
services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation.  
In modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by 
acclamation when, no amendment being proposed, approval 
is expressed by shouting such words as Aye or Agreed. 

ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which animals 
and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving and 
flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats, 
or under meteorological conditions different from those which 
they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them. 

The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, 
and some writers have even denied that it can ever take 
place.  It is often confounded with domestication or 
with naturalization; but these are both very different 
phenomena.  A domesticated animal or a cultivated plant 
need not necessarily be acclimatized; that is, it need not 
be capable of enduring the severity of the seasons without 
protection.  The canary bird is domesticated but not 
acclimatized, and many of our most extensively cultivated 
plants are in the same category.  A naturalized animal or 
plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all 
the vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may 
therefore be thought that if must have become acclimatized.  
But in many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see 
Appendix below) there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation 
to new conditions which were at first injurious, and this is 
essential to the idea of acclimatization. On the contrary, 
many species, in a new country and under somewhat different 
climatic conditions, seem to find a more congenial abode than 
in their native land, and at once flourish and increase in 
it to such an extent as often to exterminate the indigenous 
inhabitants.  Thus L. Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) 
tells us that the roadside weeds of the north-eastern United 
States, to the number of 130 species, are all European, 
the native weeds having disappeared westwards; while in New 
Zealand there are, according to T. Kirk (Transactions of 
the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii. p. 131), no less than 
250 species of naturalized plants, more than 100 of which 
spread widely over the country and often displace the native 
vegetation.  Among animals, the European rat, goat and pig 
are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply to such 
an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many native 
productions.  In none of these cases is there any indication 
that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place. 

On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot 
be naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. 
It has been shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most 
animals and plants in a state of nature, the competition of 
other organisms is a far more efficient agency in limiting 
their distribution than the mere influence of climate.  We 
have a proof of this in the fact that so few, comparatively, 
of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever run wild; and even 
the most persevering attempts to naturalize them usually 
fail.  Alphonse de Candolle (Geographic botanique, p. 
798) informs us that several botanists of Patis, Geneva, 
and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many 
hundreds of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared 
to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly a 
single case has any one of them become naturalized.  Attempts 
have also been made to naturalize continental insects in 
Britain, in places where the proper food-plants abound and 
the conditions seem generally favourable, but in no case 
do they seem to have succeeded.  Even a plant like the 
potato, so largely cultivated and so perfectly hardy, has not 
established itself in a wild state in any part of Europe. 

Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and 
Plants.---Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness 
of their adaptation to meteorological conditions.  Not only 
will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate 
climate, but many species are seriously injured by removal a 
few degrees of latitude beyond their natural limits.  This is 
probably due to the fact, established by the experiments of 
A. C. Becquerel, that plants possess no proper temperature, 
but are wholly dependent on that of the surrounding medium. 

Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive 
to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range 
from north to south of many species.  Thus, the tiger 
ranges from the equator to northern Asia as far as the river 
Amur, and to the isothermal of 32 deg.  Fahr.  The mountain 
sparrow (Fasser montana) is abundant in Java and 
Singapore in a uniform equatorial climate, and also inhabits 
Britain and a considerable portion of northern Europe.  
It is true that most terrestrial animals are restricted to 
countries not possessing a great range of temperature or 
very diversified climates, but there is reason to believe 
that this is due to quite a different set of causes, such 
as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appropriate 
food.  When suppllad with food and partially protected from 
enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring 
climates very different from that in which they originally 
flourished.  Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both 
natives of very warm countries, flourish without special 
protection in almost every inhabited portion of the 
globe.  The parrot tribe form one of the most pre-eminently 
tropical groups of birds, only a few species extending into 
the warmer temperate regions; yet even the most exclusively 
tropical genera are by no means delicate birds as regards 
climate.  In the Annals and Magazine of Natural History 
for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account, by Charles 
Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northrops Hall, 
Norfolk.  A considerable number of African and Amazonian 
parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose 
crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained 
at large for many years.  Several of these birds bred, and 
they almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, 
refusing to take shelter in a house constructed for their 
use.  Even when the thermometer fell 6 deg.  below zero, all 
appeared in good spirits and vigorous health.  Some of these 
birds have lived thus exposed for many years, enduring the 
English cold easterly winds, rain, hail and snow, all through 
the winter--a marvellous contrast to the equable equatorial 
temperature (hardly ever less than 70 deg. ) to which many of 
them had been accustomed for the first year or years of their 
existence.  Similarly the recent experience of zoological 
gardens, particularly in the case of parrots and monkeys, shows 
that, excluding draughts, exposure to changes of temperature 
without artificial heat is markedly beneficial as compared 
with the older method of strict protection from cold. 

Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical 
than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable, 
some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold. 
Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an 
elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively 
among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths. 
In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by W. T. 
Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea.  We may therefore conclude 
that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm latitudes is 
probably determined by other causes than temperature alone. 

Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied 
species inhabiting very extreme climates.  The recently extinct 
Siberian mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to 
species now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively.  Wolves 
and foxes are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts 
of the earth, as are closely allied species of falcons, owls, 
sparrows and numerous genera of waders and aquatic birds. 

A consideration of these and many analogous facts might induce 
us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least, there 
is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in 
their case acclimatization is not required.  But there are 
numerous examples of domestic animals which show that such 
adaptation does exist in other cases.  The yak of Thibet cannot 
long survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills 
below a certain altitude; and that this is due to climate, 
and not to the increased density of the atmosphere, is shown 
by the fact that the same animal appears to thrive well in 
Europe, and even breeds there readily.  The Newfoundland 
dog will not live in India, and the Spanish breed of fowls 
in this country suffer more from frost than most others.  
When we get lower in the scale the adaptation is often more 
marked.  Snakes, which are so abundant in warm countries, 
diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly cease at lat. 
62 deg. .  Most insects are also very susceptible to cold, and 
seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature. 

From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude, 
firstly, that some plants and many animals are not 
constitutionally adapted to the climate of their native country 
only, but are capable of enduring and flourishing under 
a more or less extensive range of temperature and other 
climatic conditions; and, secondly, that most plants and 
some animals are, more or less closely, adapted to climates 
similar to those of their native habitats.  In order to 
domesticate or naturalize the former class in countries not 
extremely differing from that from which the species was 
brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize, in the 
strict sense of the word.  In the case of the latter class, 
however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to 
naturalization, and in many cases to useful domestication, 
and we have therefore to inquire whether it is possible. 

Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation.---It is evident 
that acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two 
ways, either by modifying the constitution of the individual 
submitted to the new conditions, or by the production of 
offspring which may be better adapted to those conditions 
than their parents.  The alteration of the constitution 
of individuals in this direction is not easy to detect, 
and its possibility has been denied by many writers.  C. 
Darwin believed, however, that there were indications that 
it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best 
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are 
propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the 
existence of the same individual almost indefinitely.  He 
adduced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from 
Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those 
taken directly from France.  But in most cases habit, however 
prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of 
the individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion 
that acclimatization is impossible.  There is indeed little 
or no evidence to show that any animal to which a new climate 
is at first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, 
after subjection to it for a few or many seasons, it may 
live as healthily and with as little care as in its native 
country; yet we may, on general principles, believe that under 
proper conditions such an acclimatization would take place. 

Acclimatization by Variation.---A mass of evidence exists 
showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur 
among the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, 
in particular, constitutional variations are by no means 
uncommon.  Among cultivated plants, for example, hardier and 
more tender varieties often arise.  The following cases are 
given by C. Darwin:-Among the numerous fruit-trees raised 
in North America some are well adapted to the climate of the 
northern States and Canada, while others only succeed well 
in the southern States. Adaptation of this kind is sometimes 
very close, so that, for example, few English varieties of 
wheat will thrive in Scotland. Seed-wheat from India produced 
a miserable crop when planted by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley 
on land which would have produced a good crop of English 
wheat.  Conversely, French wheat taken to the West Indies 
produced only barren spikes, while native wheat by its side 
yielded an enormous harvest.  Tobacco in Sweden, raised 
from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month earlier 
than plants grown from foreign seed.  In Italy, as long as 
orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; 
but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe 
frosts of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and 
these were found to be hardier and more productive than the 
former kinds. Where plants are raised from seed in large 
quantities, varieties always occur differing in constitution, 
as well as others differing in form or colour; but the 
former cannot be perceived by us unless marked out by their 
behaviour under exceptional conditions, as in the following 
cases.  After the severe winter of 1860-1861 if was observed 
that in a large bed of araucarias some plants stood quite 
unhurt among numbers killed around them. In C. Darwin's 
garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely killed by 
frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips of 
their leaves browned.  A very excellent example is to be 
found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Huc, who, in his 
L' Empire chinois (tom. ii. p. 359), gives the following 
extract from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang:---``On the 
1st day of the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where 
rice had been sown to be ready for the harvest in the 9th 
moon.  I observed by chance a stalk of rice which was already in 
ear.  It was higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough 
to be gathered. I ordered it to be brought to me.  The grain 
was very fine and well grown, which gave me the idea to 
keep it for a trial, and see if the following year it would 
preserve its precocity.  It did so. All the stalks which came 
from it showed ear before the usual time, and were ripe in 
the 6th moon.  Each year has multiplied the produce of the 
preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice which has 
been served at my table.  The grain is elongate and of a 
reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant 
taste.  It is called Vu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was 
first cultivated in my gardens.  It is the only sort which 
can ripen north of the great wall, where the winter ends 
late and begins very early; but in the southern provinces, 
where the climate is milder and the land more fertile, two 
harvests a year may be easily obtained, and it is for me 
a sweet reflection to have procured this advantage for my 
people.'' Huc adds his testimony that this kind of rice 
flourishes in Manchuria, where no other will grow.  We 
have here, therefore, a perfect example of acclimatization 
by means of a spontaneous constitutional variation. 

That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step to 
more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following 
examples.  Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported 
from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants 
from French seed flower better, but are still sterile; 
but those raised from Darjeeling seed (originally imported 
from England) both flower and seed profusely.  The peach 
is believed to have been tender, and to have ripened its 
fruit with difficulty, when first introduced into Greece; 
so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling northward during 
two thousand years it must have become much hardier.  Sir J. 
Hooker ascertained the average vertical range of flowering 
plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while in some cases 
if extended to 8000 ft.  The same species can thus endure a 
great difference of temperature; but the important fact is, 
that the individuals have become acclimatized to the altitude 
at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the upper 
limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than those 
gathered near the lower limit.  This was proved by Hooker 
to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons, 
raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes. 

Among animals exactly analogous facts occur.  When geese 
were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long 
intervals, and few of the young survived.  By degrees the 
fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal 
to what it is in Europe.  The same author tells us that, 
according to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced 
into Peru they were not fertile, whereas now they are 
as much so as in Europe. C. Darwin adduced the following 
examples.  Merino sheep bred at the Cape of Good Hope have 
been found far better adapted for India than those imported 
from England; and while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus 
silk-moth is quite hardy, the variety found in Bengal will 
only flourish in warm latitudes.  C. Darwin also called 
attention to the circumstance that writers of agricultural 
works generally recommend that animals should be removed 
from one district to another as little as possible.  This 
advice occurs even in classical and Chinese agricultural 
books as well as in those of our own day, and proves 
that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the 
country in which if originated has always been recognized. 

Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External 
Modification.--Although in some cases no perceptible 
alteration of form or structure occurs when constitutional 
adaptation to Climate has taken place, in others it 
is very marked.  C. Darwin collected a large number of 
cases in his Animals and Plants under Domestication. 

In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection 
(p. 167), A. R. Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous 
variation among insects, apparently due to climate or 
other strictly local causes. He found that the butterflies 
of the family Papilionidae, and some others, became 
similarly modified in different islands and groups of 
islands.  Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and 
Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely 
allied species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or 
varieties of the small island of Amboyna are larger than 
the same species or closely allied forms inhabiting the 
surrounding islands; the species found in Celebes possess 
a peculiar form of wing, quite distinct from that of the 
same or closely allied species of adjacent islands; and, 
lastly, numerous species which have tailed wings in India and 
the western islands of the Archipelago, gradually lose the 
tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea and the Pacific. 

Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due 
to other causes than climate only, but they serve to show how 
powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form 
and structure of both plants and animals; and they render it 
probable that changes of constitution are also continually 
produced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no 
means of detecting them.  It is also impossible to determine 
how far the effects described are produced by spontaneous 
favourable variations or by the direct action of local 
conditions; but it is probable that in every case both causes 
are concerned, although in constantly varying proportions. 

Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in 
Naturalization. ---We may now take it as an established 
fact that varieties of animals and plants occur, both in 
domesticity and in a state of nature, which are better or 
worse adapted to special climates. There is no positive 
evidence that the influence of new climatal conditions 
on the parents has any tendency to produce variations in 
the offspring better adapted to such conditions.  Neither 
does it appear that this class of variations are very 
frequent.  It is, however, certain that whenever any animal 
or plant is largely propagated constitutional variations will 
arise, and some of these will be better adapted than others 
to the climatal and other conditions of the locality.  In a 
state of nature, every recurring severe winter or otherwise 
unfavourable season weeds out those individuals of tender 
constitution or imperfect structure which may have got on 
very well during favourable years, and it is thus that the 
adaptation of the species to the climate in which it has to 
exist is kept up.  Under domestication the same thing occurs 
by what C. Darwin has termed ``unconscious selection.'' 
Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited 
to his soil and climate and rejects those which are tender 
or otherwise unsuitable.  The farmer breeds from such of 
his stock as he finds to thrive best with him, and gets 
rid of those which suffer from cold, damp or disease.  A 
more or less close adaptation to local conditions is thus 
brought about, and breeds or races are produced which are 
sometimes liable to deterioration on removal even to a short 
distance in the same country, as in numerous cases quoted 
by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domestication). 

The Method of Acclimatization.--Taking into consideration 
the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered 
as proved---1st, That habit has little (though it appears 
to have some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of 
animals to a new climate; but that it has a decided, though 
still slight, influence in plants when, by the process of 
propagation by buds, shoots or grafts, the individual can be 
kept under its influence for long periods; 2nd, That great 
and sudden changes of climate often check reproduction even 
when the health of the individuals does not appear to suffer.  
In order, therefore, to have the best chance of acclimatizing 
any animal or plant in a climate very dissimilar from that of 
its native country, and in which it has been proved that the 
species in question cannot live and maintain itself without 
acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the following:-- 

1. We must transport as large a number as possible of 
adult healthy individuals to some intermediate station, and 
increase them as much as possible for some years.  Favourable 
variations of constitution will soon show themselves, and 
these should be carefully selected to breed from, the 
tender and unhealthy individuals being rigidly eliminated. 

2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to 
pass through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number 
of the hardiest may be removed to the more remote station, 
and the same process gone through, giving protection if 
necessary while the stock is being increased, but as soon 
as a large number of healthy individuals are produced, 
subjecting them to ail the vicissitudes of the Climate. 
It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would
succeed.  It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at 
one of the early meetings of the Societe Zoologique d' 
Acclimatation, at Paris, Isodore Geoffroy St Hillaire insisted 
that it was the only method by which acclimatization was 
possible.  But in looking through the long series of volumes 
of Reports published by this society, there is no sign that 
any systematic attempt at acclimatization has even once been 
made.  A number of foreign animals have been introduced, and 
more or less domesticated, and some useful exotics have been 
cultivated for the purpose of testing their applicability to 
French agriculture or horticulture; but neither in the case of 
animals nor of plants has there been any systematic effort to 
modify the constitution of the species, by breeding largely 
and selecting the favourable variations that appeared. 

Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example.  
This is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and 
great beauty, which will thrive in the extreme south of 
France.  In the Bulletin of the society a large number 
of attempts to introduce this tree into general cultivation 
in other parts of France are recorded in detail, with the 
failure of almost all of them.  But no precautions such as 
those above indicated appear to have been taken in any of 
these experiments; and we have no intimation that either the 
society or any of its members are making systematic efforts 
to acclimatize the tree.  The first step would be, to obtain 
seed from healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at 
the greatest altitude in its native country, sowing these very 
largely, and in a variety of soils and situations, in a part 
of France where the climate is somewhat but not much more 
extreme.  It is almost a certainty that a number of trees 
would be found to be quite hardy.  As soon as these produced 
seed, it should be sown in the same district and farther north 
in a climate a little more severe. After an exceptionally cold 
season, seed should be collected from the trees that suffered 
least, and should be sown in various districts all over 
France.  By such a process there can be hardly any doubt 
that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any part of 
France, and in many other countries of central Europe; and 
more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of 
this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual 
animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are 
the species that do not require to be acclimatized. 

Acclimatization of Man.---On this subject we have, 
unfortunately, very little direct or accurate information.  
The general laws of heredity and variation have been proved 
to apply to man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous 
facts in the distribution of races show that man must, in 
remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional 
adaptation to climate. If the human race constitutes a single 
species, then the mere fact that man now inhabits every 
region, and is in each case constitutionally adapted to the 
climate, proves that acclimatization has occurred.  But we have 
the same phenomenon in single varieties of man, such as the 
American, which inhabits alike the frozen wastes of Hudson's 
Bay and Tierra del Fuego, and the hottest regions of the 
tropics,---the low equatorial valleys and the lofty plateaux 
of the Andes.  No doubt a sudden transference to an extreme 
climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is to most animals 
and plants; but there is every reason to believe that, if 
the migration occurs step by step, man can be acclimatized to 
almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively few 
generations.  Some eminent writers have denied this.  Sir Ranald 
Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate 
of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there 
is no such thing as acclimatization.  Dr Hunt, in a report 
to the British Association in 1861, argued that ``time is no 
agent,'' and--``if there is no sign of acclimatization in one 
generation, there is no such process.'' But he entirely ignored 
the effect of favourable variations, as well as the direct 
influence of climate acting on the organization from infancy. 

Professor Theodor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology, 
adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitutional 
adaptation of man to new climatic conditions.  Negroes, 
for example,who have been for three or four generations 
acclimatized in North America, on returning to Africa become 
subject to the same local diseases as other unacclimatized 
individuals. He well remarked that the debility and 
sickening of Europeans in many tropical countries are wrongly 
ascribed to the climate, but are rather the consequences of 
indolence, sensual gratification and an irregular mode of 
life.  Thus the English, who cannot give up animal food and 
spirituous liquors, are less able to sustain the heat of 
the tropics than the more sober Spaniards and Portuguese.  
The excessive mortality of European troops in India, and 
the delicacy of the children of European parents, do not 
affect the real question of acclimatization under proper 
conditions.  They only show that acclimatization is in 
most cases necessary, not that it cannot take place.  The 
best examples of partial or complete acclimatization are 
to be found where European races have permanently settled 
in the tropics, and have maintained themselves for several 
generations.  There are, however, two sources of inaccuracy 
to be guarded against, and these are made the most of by 
the writers above referred to, and are supposed altogether 
to invalidate results which are otherwise opposed to their 
views.  In the first place, we have the possibility of a 
mixture of native blood having occurred; in the second, 
there have almost always been a succession of immigrants 
from the parent country, who continually intermingle with 
the families of the early settlers.  It is maintained that 
one or other of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to 
enable Europeans to continue long to flourish in the tropics. 

There are, however, certain cases in which the sources 
of error above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, 
and cannot seriously affect the results; such as those 
of the Jews, the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope and 
in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards in South America. 

The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they 
have been established for many centuries in climates very 
different from that of their native land; they keep themselves 
almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around 
them; and they are often so populous in a country that the 
intermixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot 
seriously affect the local purity of the race.  They have, for 
instance, attained a population of millions in such severe 
climates as Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they 
have succeeded so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst 
of anti-semitism; and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed 
in rearing children and forming permanent communities. 

In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans are 
perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it 
seems to be even improved.  Some very valuable notes on this 
subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known 
botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South 
America, but who was prevented by ill health from publishing 
his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botannist, 
1908). As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, 
both of man and nature, he had few superiors.  He says: 

The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2 deg.  13' S.) are kept 
pure by careful selection.  The slightest tincture of red 
or black blood bars entry into any of the old families who 
are descendants of Spaniards ftom the Provincias Vascongadas 
or those bordering the Bay of Biscay, where the morals are 
perhaps the purest (as regards the intercourse of the sexes) 
of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of the poorest 
class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing 
possible.  The consequence of this careful breeding is, 
that the women of Guavaquil are considered (and justly) 
the finest along the whole Pacific coast.  They are often 
tall, sometimes very handsome, decidedly healthy, although 
pale, and assuredly prolific enough.  Their sons are big, 
stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to 
become fat and sluggish.  Those of them, however, who have 
farms in the savannahs and are accustomed to take long 
rides in all weathers, and those whose trade obliges them 
to take frequent journeys in the mountainous interior, or 
even to Europe and North America, are often as active and as 
little burdened with superfluous flesh as a Scotch farmer. 

The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5 deg.  S.), 
which was founded by Pizarro himself.  The climate is very 
hot, especially in the three or four months following 
the southern solstice.  In March 1843 the temperature 
only once fell as low as 83 deg.  during the whole month, the 
usual lowest night temperature being 85 deg. .  Yet people of 
all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very 
prolific.  I resided in the town itself nine months, and 
in the neighbourhood seven months more.  The population (in 
1863-1864) was about 10,000, of which not only a considerable 
proportion was white, but was mostly descended from the 
first emigrants after the conquest.  Purity of descent was 
not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guayaquil. 
The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or 
even supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed 
race, and fear or favour has often availed to procure them 
an alliance with the oldest and purest-blooded families. 

These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate 
the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest 
parts of South America.  Although we have here nothiog to do 
with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been 
often taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has 
been also sometimes held to prove that neither the European 
nor his half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the 
tropics.  The following observation is therefore of interest:-- 

At Guayaquil for a lady of good family---married or unmarried--to 
be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does happen 
it is felt as a calamity by the whole community.  But here, 
and perhaps in most other towns in South America, a poor girl 
of mixed race-especially if good-looking--rarely thinks of 
marrying one of her own class until she has--as the Brazilians 
say--``approveitada de sua mocidade'' (made the most of 
her youth) in receiving presents from gentlemen. If she 
thus bring a good dowry to her husband, he does not care to 
inquire, or is not sensitive, about the mode in which it was 
acquired.  The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual 
intercourse, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish, 
in some cases to paralyse, the fertility of the female.  And 
as among people of mixed race it is almost universal, the 
population of these must fall off both in numbers and quality. 

The following example of divergent acclimatization of the 
same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and 
will conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes:-- 

One of the most singular cases connected with this subject 
that have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, 
or apparent impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian 
in a certain zone of the Andes.  Any person who has compared 
the physical characters of the native races of South America 
must be convinced that these have all originated in a common 
stirps.  Many local differences exist, but none capable of 
invalidating this conclusion.  The warmth yet shade-loving 
Indian of the Amazon; the Indian of the hot, dry and treeless 
coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head to 
the sun with as much zest as an African negro; the Indian 
of the Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes 
constantly barelegged and often bare-headed, through whose 
rude straw hut the piercing wind of the paramos sweeps 
and chills the white man to the very bones;--all these, 
in the colour and texture cf the skin, the hair and other 
important features, are plainly of one and the same race. 

Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between 
about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best 
flavoured coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant but 
more saccharine than in the plains, and which is therefore 
very desirable to cultivate, but where the red man sickens and 
dies.  Indians taken down from the sierra get ague and 
dysentery.  Those of the plains find the temperature chilly, 
and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the 
limbs.  I have seen the difficulty experienced in getting 
farms cultivated in this zone, on both sides of the 
Cordillera.  The permanent residents are generally limited 
to the major-domo and his family; and in the dry season 
labourers are hired, of any colour that can be obtained--some 
from the low country, others from the highlands--for three, 
four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane, and 
plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of 
resident Indian labourers, such as exists in the farms of the 
sierra, cannot be kept up in the Fungas, as these half-warm 
valleys are called.  White men, who take proper precautions, 
and are not chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the 
climate perfectly, but the creole whites are still too much 
caballeros to devote themselves to agricultural work. 

In what is now the republic of Ecuador, the only peopled 
portions are the central valley, between the two ridges of 
the Andes--height 7000 to 12,000 feet--and the hot plain at 
their western base; nor do the wooded slopes appear to have 
been inhabited, except by scattered savage hordes, even in 
the time of the Incas.  The Indians of the highlands are 
the descendants of others who have inhabited that region 
exclusively for untold ages; and a similar affirmation may 
be made of the Indians of the plain.  Now, there is little 
doubt that the progenitors of both these sections came from 
a temperate region (in North America); so that here we have 
one moiety acclimatized to endure extreme heat, and the 
other extreme cold; and at this day exposure of either to the 
opposite extreme (or even, as we have seen, to the climate 
of an intermediate zone) is always pernicious and often 
fatal.  But if this great difference has been brought about 
in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white 
man? Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt 
that the inherent adaptability is the same in both, or (if 
not) that the white man possesses it in a higher degree. 

The observations of Spruce are of themselves almost conclusive 
as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized in 
the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies 
only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately 
able to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated 
and conclusive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic 
races.  In South Africa the Dutch have been settled and 
nearly isolated for over 200 years, and have kept themselves 
almost or quite free from native intermixture.  They are 
still preponderatingly fair in complexion, while physically 
they are tall and strong. They marry young and have large 
families.  The population, according to a census taken in 1798, 
was under 22,000.  In 1865 it was near 182,000, the majority 
being of ``Dutch, German or French origin, mostly descendants 
of original settlers.'' In more recent times, the conditions 
have been so greatly changed by immigration, that the later 
statistics cease to have a definite meaning with regard to 
acclimatization.  We have here a population which doubled 
itself every twenty-two years; and the greater part of this 
rapid increase must certainly be due to the old European 
immigrants.  In the Moluccas, where the Dutch have had 
settlements for 250 years, some of the inhabitants trace 
their descent to early immigrants; and these, as well as 
most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are quite 
as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health, 
and are very prolific.  But the Dutch accommodate themselves 
admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work 
early in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a 
quiet, temperate and cheerful life.  They also pay great 
attention to drainage and general cleanliness.  In addition 
to these examples, it is obvious that the rapid increase 
of English-speaking populations in the United States and in 
Australia is far greater than can be explained by immigration, 
and shows two conspicuous examples of acclimatization. 

On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under 
favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means 
to the end in view, man may become acclimatized with at 
least as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations 
rather than by years) as any of the lower animals.  The 
greatest difficulty in his way is not temperature, but the 
presence of parasitic diseases to resist which his body has 
not been prepared, and modern knowledge is rapidly defining 
these dangers and the modes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.) 

APPENDIX The task of collecting information as to animals 
which have become permanently naturalized away from their native 
haunts is anything but easy, as few regular records have been 
kept by acclimatizers.  Moreover, recorders of local fauna 
have been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms, 
except when they have had occasion to comment on the effects, 
real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas. 

Mammals.---It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world-wide 
distribution of the two rats Mus rattus and M. decumanus, 
and of the house-mouse M. musculus; their introduction has 
always been involuntary.  Similarly nearly all our domestic 
mammals except the sheep have become feral somewhere or other, 
whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the smaller 
ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and 
cats.  This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New 
Zealand; in America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle 
are also feral.  Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand. 

The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as 
a wild animal in North Australia; it is very liable to 
revert to a wild state, being little altered from its 
still-existing wild ancestor. A more curious case is that 
of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius), a beast 
only known in domestication, and that in arid countties; 
yet a number of these have become feral in the Spanish 
marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal flamingoes. 

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is now widely distributed as 
a wild animal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer 
(C. dama) and the Indian sambar (C. aristotelis or 
unicolor) have been introduced locally.  The sambar, or one 
or other of its subspecies, has also been naturalized in 
Mauritius, and in the Marianne Islands in the open Pacific. 

The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well 
known.  Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it 
is also established in the Falklands and Kerguelen; its presence 
in much of Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it 
seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula. 

The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes. 
Few other rodents have been designedly naturalized, but 
the North American grey squirrel (Sciurus einereus) 
appears to be established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, 
Bedfordshire, England, and may probably spread thence. 

To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and 
polecats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) 
were introduced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the 
last quarter of the 19th century.  They have spread widely, 
and have not confined their depredations to the rabbits, so 
that the indigenous flightless birds have suffered largely. 

Another carnivore of very similar habits, the Indian mongoose 
(Herpestus griseus or H. mungo), has been naturalized 
in Jamaica, whence it has been carried to other West Indian 
Islands, and in the Hawaiian group.  It has also been tried, 
but unsuccessfully, in Australia.  The first introduction 
into Jamaica took place in 1872, and ten years later the 
animal was credited with saving many thousands of pounds 
annually by its destruction of rats. But before an equal 
space of time had further elapsed, it had itself become 
a pest; the most recent information, however, is to the 
effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that 
the disturbed faunal equilibrium is being readjusted. 

The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion, 
are likely animals to have been naturalized.  W. T. Blanford 
(Fauna of British India, ``Mammals'') thinks that the presence 
of the Indian form, Viverricula malaccensis, in Socotra, the 
Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of man. 

The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia, 
where it is destructive to the native fauna and to lambs. 

Among primates, a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pileatus) 
has been naturalized in Mauritius for centuries, 
the circumstances of introduction being unknown. 

The Common Australian ``opossum'' or phalanger (Trichosurus 
vulpecula) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although very 
destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably the 
motive.  It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand specimens 
is superior, as might be expected from the colder climate. 

Birds.---The introduction of mammals has been largely 
influenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was 
not absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case 
of birds it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many 
cases, and hence is looked upon with especial dislike by 
naturalists.  The domestic birds have comparatively seldom 
become feral, doubtless, as C. Darvdn points out, from the 
reduction of their powers of flight in many cases.  The 
guinea-fowl, however, has long been in this condition in Jamaica 
and St Helena, and the fowl in Hawaii and other Polynesian 
islands.  The pheasant has been naturalized in the United 
States, New Zealand, Hawaii and St Helena.  Its naturalization 
in western Europe is very ancient, but the race supposed to 
have been introduced by the Romans (Phasianus colchicus) 
has been much modified within the last century or two by the 
introduction of the ring-necked Chinese form (P. torquatus), 
which produces fertile hybrids with the old breed.  Thus 
those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of mixed blood, 
and further introductions of pure Chinese stock have tended to 
make the latter the dominant form, at any rate in the United 
States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian1) and in New 
Zealand.  In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck appears to 
have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in the former 
the Japanese race (P. versicolor) is also naturalized. 

1 The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongolicus), a very 
different bird, has recently been introduced into England. 

The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pietus) is locally 
established in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants 
of less common species.  The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevesi) 
is at large on some English estates.  Of the partridges, 
the continental red-leg (Caccabis rnfo) is established in 
England, and its ally, the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St 
Helena, as is the Californian quail (Lophortyx californica ) 
in New Zealand and Hawaii. The latter, however, though thriving 
as an aviary bird, has failed at large in England, as did the 
bob-white (Ortyx virginianus) both there and in New Zealand. 

The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led to 
many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these have been 
unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), however, the 
only endemic British bird, is naturalized in some parts of Europe. 

Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Brantd eanadensis) 
is naturalized to a small extent in Britain, and also, 
to a less degree, the Egyptian goose (Chenalopex 
aegyptiacus); the latter bird also occurs wild in New 
Zealand.  The modern presence of the black swan of Australia 
(Chenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be due to 
a natural irruption of the species about half a century 
ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so. 

Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little 
favour that few attempts have been made to naturalize 
them; the continental little owl (Athene noctua), 
however, has for some time been well established in 
England, where it has hardly, if ever, appeared naturally. 

Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has 
become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese 
turtledove (Turtur chinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is 
the small East Indian zebra dove (Geopelia striata) in the 
Seychelles, and the allied Australian (G. tranquilla) in St 
Helena.  There has also been very little naturalization of 
parrots, but the rosella parrakeet of Australia (Platycercus 
eximius) is being propagated by escaped captives in the 
north island of New Zealand, and its ally the mealy rosella 
(P. pallidiceps) is locally wild in Hawaii, the stock in 
this case having descended from a single pair intentionally 
liberated.  Attempts to naturalize that well-known Australian 
grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) in 
England have so far proved abortive, and none of the species 
experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire effected a 
settlement.  The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis cana) 
of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles.  Some of 
the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed, 
especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus), which is 
now an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in 
the Australasian States and in North America.  It is, in fact, 
as notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as 
the rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the 
New Zealand animals (London, 1905) it is not regarded in this 
light, considering that some very common exotic birds were needed 
to keep down the insects, which it certainly did.  Even in the 
United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer of 
weed-seeds.  The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina, 
some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans. 

The allied tree-sparrow (P. montanus) has been 
locally naturalized in the United States; it is a more 
desirable bird, being less prolific and pugnacious, 
but it is expelled from towns by the house-sparrow. 

The so-called Java sparrow (Munia orysivora), although 
a destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed 
by accident or design, and is now found in several East 
Indian islands besides Java, in south China, St Helena, 
India, Zanzibar and the east African coast.  An allied but 
much smaller weaver-finch, a form of the spice-bird (Munia 
nisoria punctata), is introduced and well distributed over 
the Hawaiian islands.  The little rooibek of South Africa 
(Estrilda astrild) has been so long and well established 
in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as the St 
Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Madagascar 
(Fondia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird 
Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands. 

Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete 
with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by 
man is the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), now established 
all over New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United 
States and Jamaica.  It bears a good character, and is one 
of the marked successes of naturalization.  The redpoll 
(Acanthis linaria), chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) 
and greenfinch (Chloris chloris) are established in New 
Zealand, the last named being a pest there, as is also 
the cirl-bunting (Emberiza cirlus)---the yellow-hammer 
(E. citrinella) being perhaps confused with this also. 

Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah, 
Acridotheros tristis, but some other species seem to have been 
confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans, Seychelles, 
Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand. Its alleged 
destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open to doubt. 

The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is naturalized in New 
Zealand, Australia and to some extent in the United States.  
Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the song-thrush 
and blackbird (Turdus musicus and Merula merula) are 
common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuccessfully, 
to establish the latter in the United States.  The so-called 
hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), really a member of 
this group, is one of the successful introductions into New 
Zealand.  The robin (Erithacus rubecula) failed there. 

Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and the Australian ``magpie'' 
or piping crow (Gymnorhina) are to be found in New 
Zealand, but only locally, especially the former. 

Reptiles and Amphibians.---Very little naturalization 
has been effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in 
regard to these groups, but the occurrence of the edible 
frog of the continent of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an 
introduced animal in certain British localities is well 
known.  An Australian tree-frog (Hyla peronii) is 
naturalized in many parts of the north island of New Zealand. 

Fish.--The instances of naturalization in this class are 
few, but important.  The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), 
originally a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized 
in Europe, where indeed it is in places a true domestic 
creature, with definite variations.  It is, however, quite 
feral also, and has been introduced into North America. 

The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in 
New Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic 
form (C. auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely 
distributed as a pet, and is feral in some places. 

The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) of the East Indies has been 
established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable foodfish. 

The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however, 
the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New 
Zealand.  These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo 
fario and S. trutta); they attain a great size.  So far, 
attempts to establish the true salmon in alien localities 
have been unsuccessful, but the American rainbow trout (S. 
irideus) has thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char 
of the same continent (S. fontinalis) inhabits at least 
one stream there to the exclusion of the common trout. 

Invertebrates.---Many insects and other invertebrates, mostly 
noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have 
been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in 
Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported 
into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover. 

The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately 
encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the 
native flesh-fly, a more objectionable pest, disappears. 

The wide distribution of three common cockroaches (Feriplaneta 
americana, Blatta orientalis and Ectobia germanica) 
is well known, but these are chiefly house-insects. 

The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontia or Pieris 
rapae) is now established in North America; and the march of the 
jigger, or foot-infesting flea (Sarcopsylla penetrans) of tropical 
America, across Africa, has taken place in quite recent years. 

The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced the 
edible snail (Helix pomatia) into England, and the common 
garden snail and slugs (Helix aspersa, Limax agrestis and 
Arion hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New 
Zealand.  In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe 
are noticed to replace native forms as the ground is broken. 

General Remarks.--A great deal has been said about the 
upsetting of the balance of nature by naturalization, 
and as to the ill-doing of exotic forms.  But certain 
considerations should be borne in mind in this connexion.  
In the first place, naturalization experiments fail at least 
as often as they succeed, and often quite inexplicably.  
Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed to establish 
themselves in New Zealand.  This may ultimately throw 
some light on the disappearance of native forms; for 
these have at times declined without any assignable cause. 

Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing 
off of the original forest or other vegetation, in which 
case their recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, 
and the fauna which has established itself in the 
presence of cultivation is needed to replace them. 

Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing 
ones may often be due rather to the spread of disease and 
parasites than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native 
birds have been found suffering from a disease which attacks 
poultry.  And the recession of the New Zealand earthworms 
and flies before exotic forms probably falls under this 
category.  As man cannot easily avoid introducing parasites, 
and must keep domestic animals and till the land, a certain 
disturbance in aboriginal faunas is absolutely unavoidable.  
Under certain circumstances, however, the native animals may 
recover, for in some cases they even profit by man's advent, 
and at times themselves become pests, like the Kea parrot 
(Nestor notabilis), which attacks sheep in New Zealand, and 
the bobolink or rice-bird (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) in North 
America.  Finally, it should never be forgotten that the worst 
enemies of declining forms have been collectors who have not 
given these species the chance of recovering themselves. (F. FN.) 

ACCOLADE (from Ital. accolata, derived from Lat. collum, 
the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood; 
but whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use 
of the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on 
the neck or cheek, is not agreed.  Both these customs appear 
to be of great antiquity.  Gregory of Tours writes that the 
early kings of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, 
kissed the knights on the left cheek; and William the 
Conqueror is said to have made use of the blow in conferring 
the honour of knighthood on his son Henry.  At first it was 
given with the naked fist, a veritable box on the ear, but 
for this was substituted a gentle stroke with the flat of 
the sword on the side of the neck, or on either shoulder as 
well.  In Great Britain the sovereign, in conferring 
knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade. 

``Accolade'' is also a technical term in music-printing for 
a sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture 
it denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows. 

ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO (1415-1466), Italian jurist and 
historian, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, of a noble family, 
several members of which were distinguished like himself for 
their attainments in law.  He was for some time professor of 
jurisprudence in the university of Florence, and on the death 
of the celebrated Poggio, in 1459, became chancellor of the 
Florentine republic. He died at Florence.  In conjunction with 
his brother Leonardo, he wrote in Latin a history of the first 
crusade, entitled De Fello a Christianis contra Barbaros 
gesto pro Ghristi Sepulehro et Iudaea recuperandis libri 
tres (Venice, 1432, translated into Italian, 1543, and into 
French, 1620), which, though itself of little interest, is 
said to have furnished Tasso with the historic basis for 
his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's-De 
Praestantia Virorum sui Aevi--was published at Parma in 
1689.  His brother Francesco (1418-1483) was also a distinguished 
jurist, and was the author of Conrilia seu responsa (Pisa, 
1481); Commentaria super lib. ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481); 
Gommentaria (Pavia, 1493); de Balneis Puleolanis (1475). 

ACCOLTI, BERNARDO (1465--1536), Italian poet, born at 
Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti.  Known in his 
own day as l'Unico Aretino, he acquired great fame as a 
reciter of impromptu verse.  He was listened to by large 
crowds, composed of the most learned men and the most 
distinguished prelates of the age.  Among others, Cardinal 
Bombo has left on record a testimony to his extraordinary 
talent.  His high reputation with his contemporaries seems 
scarcely justified by the poems he published, though they 
give evidence of brilliant fancy.  It is probable that he 
succeeded better in his extemporary productions than in 
those which were the fruit of deliberation.  His works, 
under the title Virginia, Comedia, Capitoli e Strambotti 
di Messer Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were published at 
Florence in 1513, and have been several times reprinted. 

ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455--1532), brother of the preceding, 
known as the cardinal of Ancona, was born in Florence on the 
15th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the 12th of December 
1532 (Ciaconi, Vitae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 295).  He was 
made bishop of Ancona, in 1505, and cardinal on the 17th of 
March 1511, by Julius II. He was abbreviator under Leo X., 
and in that capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther 
(L. Cardella, Memorie Storiche de' Cardinali, 1793, iii. 
450).  He held successively the suburban sees of Albano and 
Sabina, also the sees of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, 
and was made archbishop of Ravenna, 1524, by Clement VII. 

F. Cristofori (Storia dei Cardinali, 1888) and others have 
confused him with his nephew BENEDETTO (1497-1549), son 
of Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, 
was made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as 
a writer in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet. 

ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, 
cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting, adapting, 
adjusting or supplying with what is needed (e.g. housing). 

In theology the term ``accommodation'' is used rather loosely 
to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or 
idea, in a context other than that in which it originally 
occurred; the actual wording of the quotation may be modified 
to a greater or lesser extent.  Such accommodation, though 
sometimes purely literary or stylistic, generally has the 
definite purpose of instruction, and is frequently used both 
in the New Testament and in pulpit utterances in all periods 
as a means of producing a reasonably accurate impression 
of a complicated idea in the minds of those who are for 
various reasons unlikely to comprehend it otherwise.  There 
are roughly three main kinds. (1) A later Biblical passage 
quotes from an earlier, partly as a literary device, but 
also with a view to demonstration. Sometimes it is plain 
that the writer deliberately ``accommodates'' a quotation 
(cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New Testament 
quotations of Old Testament predictions are often for us 
accommodations---striking or forced as the case may be --while 
the New Testament writer, ``following the exegetical methods 
current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15, 18, xxvi. 
31, xxvii. 9'' (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century 
Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments.  To 
say that he is merely ``describing a New Testament fact in 
Old Testament phraseology'' may be true of the result rather 
than of his design. (2) Much beeides in the Bible--parable, 
metaphor, &c.--has been called an ``accommodation,'' or 
divine condescension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century 
rationalism (see APOLOGETICS) held that the Biblical writers 
made great use of conscious accommodation--intending moral 
commonplaces when they seemed to be enunciating Christian 
dogmas. Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. 
Semler, is ``economy,'' which also occurs in the kindred 
sense of ``reserve'' (or of Disciplina Arcani--a modern term 
for the supposed early Catholic habit of reserving esoteric 
truths).  Isaac Williams on Reserve in Religious Teaching, 
No. 80 of Tracts for the Times, made a great sensation; see 
R. W. Church's comments in The Oxford Movement. Strictly, 
accommodation (2) or (3) modifies, in form or in substance, 
the content of religious belief; reserve, from prudence or 
cunning, withholds part. ``Economy'' is used in both senses. 

ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its name implies, 
is a bill of exchange accepted and sometimes endorsed without 
any receipt of value in order to afford temporary pecuniary 
aid to the person accommodated. (See BILL OF EXCHANGE.) 

ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which ``accompanies''), a 
musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental 
composition added to support and heighten the principal vocal 
or instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, 
single instruments or the orchestra.  The accompaniment 
may be obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms 
an essential part of the composition or not.  The term 
obbligato or obbligato accompaniment is also used 
for an independent instrumental solo accompanying a vocal 
piece.  Owing to the early custom of only writing the 
accompaniment in outline, by means of a ``figured bass,'' 
to be filled in by the performer, and to the changes in the 
number, quality and types of the instruments of the orchestra, 
``additional'' accompaniments have been written for the 
works of the older masters; such are Mozart's ``additional'' 
accompaniments to Handel's Messiah or those to many of the 
elder Bach's works by Robert Franz.  In common parlance any 
support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument 
is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely 
``vamped'' by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise 
to the dignity of an artistic composition.  In the history 
of song the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is 
important, and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental 
parts practically constitute a duet, in which the instrumental 
part may be at least as important as that of the voice. 

ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex, 
a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the 
ac- is possibly due to confusion with ``accomplish,'' to 
complete, Lat. complere, to fill up), in law, one who is 
associated with another or others in the commission of a 
crime, whether as principal or accessory.  The term is 
chiefly important where one of those charged with a crime 
turns king's evidence in the expectation of obtaining a 
pardon for himself.  Accordingly, as his evidence is tainted 
with self-interest, it is a rule of practice to direct 
a jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice is 
not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the 
circumstances of the offence and the participation of the 
accused in it.  An accomplice who has turned king's evidence 
usually receives a pardon, but has no legal right to 
exemption from punishment till he has actually received it. 

ACCORAMBONI, VITTORIA (1557--1585), an Italian lady famous 
for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her tragic 
history.  She was born in Rome of a family belonging to the 
minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a 
view to bettering their fortunes.  After refusing several 
offers of marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to 
Francesco Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew 
of Cardinal Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become 
pope.  Vittoria was admired and worshipped by all the 
cleverest and most brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious 
and extravagant although poor, she and her husband were soon 
plunged in debt. Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. 
Orsini, duke of Bracciano, one of the most powerful men in 
Rome, and her brother Marcello, wishing to see her the 
duke's wife, had Peretti murdered (1581).  The duke himself 
was suspected of complicity, inasmuch as he was believed 
to have murdered his first wife, Isabella de' Medici.  Now 
that Vittoria was free he made her an offer of marriage, 
which she willingly accepted, and they were married shortly 
after.  But her good fortune aroused much jealousy, and attempts 
were made to annul the marriage; she was even imprisoned, 
and only liberated through the interference of Cardinal Carlo 
Borromeo.  On the death of Gregory XIII., Cardinal Montalto, 
her first husband's uncle, was elected in his place as Sixtus 
V. (1585); he vowed vengeance on the duke of Bracciano and 
Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first to Venice and 
thence to Salo in Venetian territory.  Here the duke died 
in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal property (the 
duchy of Bracciano he left to his son by his first wife) to his 
widow.  Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to live in 
retirement at Padua, where she was followed by Lodovico 
Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of the 
Venetian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the 
property.  But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico 
hired a band of bravos and had Vittoria assassinated (22nd of 
December 1585).  He himself and nearly all his accomplices 
were afterwards put to death by order of the republic. 

About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she 
has been greatly maligned by some biographers.  Her story 
formed the basis of Webster's drama, The Tragedy of Paolo 
Giordano Ursini (1612), and of Ludwig Tieck's novel, 
Vittoria Accoramboni (1840); it is told more accurately in 
D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), 
and an excellent sketch of her life is given in Countess E. 
Martinengo-Cesaresco's Lombard Studies (London, 1902). (L. V.*) 

ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree), in law, an agreement 
between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against the 
other, to give and accept in substitution for such Iight any good 
legal consideration.  Such an agreement when executed discharges 
the cause of action and is called Accord and Satisfaction. 

ACCORDION (Fr. aeeordeoni Ger. Handharmonica, 
Ziehharmonica), a small portable reed wind instrument 
with keyboard, the smallest representative of the 
organ family, invented in 1829 by Damian, in Vienna. 

The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which 
is attached a keyboard with from 5 to 50 keys.  The keys on 
being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open 
valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of narrow 
tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the 
lower board of the bellows, having their free ends bent, some 
inwards, some outwards.  Each key produces two notes, one 
from the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are compressed, 
the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in 
the American organ; see HARMONIUM) when the bellows are 
expanded.  The pitch of the note is determined by the length 
and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending 
to sharpen the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers 
it.  The right hand plays the melody on the keyboard, while 
the left works the bellows and manipulates the two or three 
bass harmony keys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic 
and dominant. The archetype of the accordion is the cheng 
(q.v.), or Chinese organ, between which and the harmonium 
it forms a connecting link structurally, although not invented 
for some thirty years after the harmonium.  The timbre of the 
accordion is coarse and devoid of beauty, but in the hands 
of a skilful performer the best instruments are not entirely 
without artistic merit. Improvements in the construction of 
the accordion produced the concertina (q.v.), melodion and 
melophone. las Accordion in kurzer Zeit richtig spielen zu 
erlernen (Wien, 1834). See also FREE REED VIBRATOR. (K. S.) 

ACCORSO (ACCURSIUS), MARIANOELO (c. 1490-1544), 
Italian critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of 
Naples.  He was a great favourite with Charles V., at whose 
court he resided for thirty-three years, and by whom he was 
employed on various foreign missions.  To a perfect knowledge 
of Greek and Latin he added an intimate acquaintance with 
several modern languages.  In discovering and collating ancient 
manuscripts, for which his travels abroad gave him special 
opportunities, he displayed uncommon diligence.  His work 
entitled Diatribae in Ausonium, Solinum et Ovidium (1524) 
is a monument of erudition and critical skill.  He was the 
first editor of the Letters of Gassiodorus, with his 
Treatise on the Soul (1538); and his edition of Ammianus 
Marcellinus (1533) contains five books more than any former 
one.  The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced by 
some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed 
by him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volscian and a 
Roman are introduced as interlocutors (1531).  Accorso was 
accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge 
which he most solemnly and energetically repudiated. 

ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, 
computare, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially of 
moneys paid and received, hence a statement made as to the 
receipt and payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or 
conduct, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c. 
A further sense-development is that of esteem, consideration. 

As a stock-exchange term ``account'' is used in several 
senses. (1) The periodical settlements occurring, in London, 
monthly for British government and a few other first-class 
securities, and fortnightly for all others.  The settlement 
extends over four days in mining shares and three days in other 
securities.  The first day is the carry-over, ``contango,'' or 
making-up, day, on which speculative commitments are carried 
over, or continued: that is, the bulls, who have bought 
stock for the rise, arrange the rate of interest that they 
have to give on their stock to a moneylender, or bear, who 
will pay for it or take it in for them; and the bears, who 
have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that they receive 
from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold, the 
backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of the 
stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their 
bargains.  On the second day, called ticket-day or name 
day, a ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate 
buyer and the firm which will pay for the stock is passed 
through the various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, 
so that the actual transfer of the stock can be made 
directly.  In the mining market the passing of names takes two 
days.  On the last day, account day, pay day or settling 
day, cheques are paid to meet speculative differences, or 
against the delivering of stock. (2) The period between two 
settlements.  A nineteen-day account is one in which nineteen 
days elapse between one pay-day and another. (3) The volume or 
condition of commitments.  A speculator is said to have a large 
account open when he has dealt heavily either for the rise or 
fall.  A bull account exists in a stock or group of stocks 
when it or they have been bought for the rise by a Iarge 
number of operators; in the contrary case, when there have 
been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, formerly an officer in the English 
Court of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, 
and by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed.  The 
office was abolished by the Chancery Funds Act 1872, and 
the duties transferred to the paymaster-general (q.v.). 

ACCOUNTANTS. The term ``accountant'' is one to which, of 
late years, its original meaning has been more generally 
attributed---that of an expert in the science of book-keeping.  
It is sometimes adopted by book-keepers, but this is an 
erroneous application of the term; it properly describes those 
competent to design and control the systems of accounts required 
for the record of the multifarious and rapid transactions 
of trade and finance.  It assumes the possession of a wide 
knowledge of the principles upon which accountancy is based, 
which may be shortly described as constituting a science by 
means of which all mercantile and financial transactions, 
whether in money or in money's worth, including operations 
completed and engagements undertaken to be fulfilled at once 
or in a future, however remote, may be recorded; and this 
science comprises a knowledge of the methods of preparing 
statistics, whether relating to finance or to any transactions 
or circumstances which can be stated by numeration, and of 
ascertaining or estimating on correct bases the cost of any 
operation whether in money, in commodities, in time, in life 
or in any wasting property. Generally, accountancy may be 
described as being the science by means of which all operations, 
as far as they are capable of being shown in figures, are 
accurately recorded and their results ascertained and stated. 

History. 

The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain 
is difficult to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally 
of very early existence, being mentioned as officers of 
importance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of 
Edward I. The art of accountancy on a scientific principle 
must certainly have been understood in Italy before 1495, 
when Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice his treatise 
on book-keeping; but the first known English book on the 
science was published in London by John Gouge or Gough in 
1543.  It is described as A Profitable Treatyce called 
the Instrument or Boke to learn to knowe the good order 
of the kepyng of the famouse reconynge, called in Latin, 
Dare and Habere, and, in Englyshe, Debitor and Creditor. 
A short book of instruction was also published in 1588 by 
John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, ``I am but the 
renuer and reviver of an auncient old copie printed here 
in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, 
made, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, 
who, as appeareth by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, 
and this booke in Saint Ollaves parish in Marko Lane.'' John 
Melfis refers to the fact that the principle of accounts 
he explains (which is a simple system of double entry) is 
``after the forme of Venice.'' The very interesting and able 
book described as The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for 
the perfect ordering and keeping af his accounts formed by 
way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so termed) Italian 
manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, 
contains many references to early books on the science of 
accountancy.  In a chapter in this book, headed ``Opinion 
of Book-keeping's Antiquity,'' the author states, on the 
authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping 
referred to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred 
years, ``but that the same, or one in many parts very like 
this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long 
before.'' He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in 
use in ancient times, and refers to ``ex Oratione Ciceronis 
pro Roscio Comaedo''; and he adds: ``That the one side of 
their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor, 
is manifest in a certaine place, Naturalis Historiae Plinii, 
lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: 

      Huic Omnia Expensa. 
     Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola
   Utramque Paginam facit.''
An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-entry 
book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, pointing 
to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote times. 

There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book 
printed---the second edition having been published in 
1636, the third in 1656, and another was issued in 
1684.  The book is a very complete treatise on scientific 
accountancy, it was beautifully prepared and contains 
elaborate explanations; the numerous editions tend to 
prove that the science was highly appreciated in the 17th 
century.  From this time there has been a continuous supply 
of literature on the subject, many of the authors styling 
themselves accountants and teachers of the art, and thus 
proving that the professional accountant was then known and 
employed.  Very early in the 18th century the services of an 
accountant practising in the city of London were made use of 
in the course of an investigation into the transactions of 
a director of the South Sea Company, who had been dealing in 
the company's stock.  During this investigation the accountant 
appears to have examined the books of at least two firms of 
merchants.  His report is described Observations made upon 
examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles 
Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London. 

In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, 
Westminster and Southwark was first published, 11 
individuals and firms were therein described as accountants; 
in the same directory, for the period 1809-1811, the 
number had risen to 24; and in that for 1822--1824, 
there were 73 firms of practising accountants recorded. 

Modern development. 

The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping 
were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very 
actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the 
Italian merchants of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries; 
but it was not until the beginning of the 19th century 
that, in consequence of the adoption of improved methods 
of manufacture and transit, resulting from the application 
of water and steam power to manufactures and methods of 
conveyance which largely increased the trade of Great Britain, 
the profession of an accountant became one which men of 
scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for their business 
career.  Corporations and companies were formed to carry 
out large operations previously either left to the state 
or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and 
manufactures which were becoming less profitable when carried 
on by hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, 
the services of public accountants were necessarily required 
to devise systems of accounts and methods of control, and 
to enable the results of the various transactions carried on 
to be ascertained with the least waste of power or chance of 
loss by negligence or fraud. The large number of companies 
formed in 1843 and 1844, when a great amount of capital was 
invested in railways and extensive speculation resulted, 
also added to the demand for the services of professional 
accountants.  The Companies' Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 
made provision for the audit of the accounts of companies 
regulated by act of parliament, and gave some extensive 
powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large extent, 
selected from among professional accountants.  The Companies 
Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business of 
accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies; 
and the acts relating to bankruptcy passed between the years 
1831 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional 
accountants.  The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking 
companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, 
and it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint 
professional accountants to this duty.  The experience 
and professional knowledge of trained accountants have, in 
fact, been utilized by their appointment as auditors in the 
majority of joint-stock companies, whether manufacturing, 
banking, trading or created for any other purpose.  Until 
the Companies Act 1900 was passed there was no general 
obligation upon limited companies to have auditors; this 
act not only requires that auditors shall be appointed 
in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and 
to a limited extent defines their rights and duties.  The 
legislature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at 
all clearly the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable 
to suppose that any general definition will prove an 
impossibility, as the work which auditors undertake must 
vary very widely, and depends largely upon the scope of 
the operations the accounts of which are to be examined. 

Duties. 

The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area: 
they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of 
businesses, the owners of which are in default or their 
affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the courts 
and by appointment of creditors and others; they are largely 
engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differences 
relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare 
the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary 
statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms 
and companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases 
of fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon 
to unravel and properly state the accounts of complicated 
transactions.  Their services are commonly required to certify 
the profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately 
or to companies by means of a published prospectus; and, 
in cases of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway 
companies and public bodies, the statements of the profits 
of the businesses to be acquired are generally made by 
them.  In a very large number of financial operations they 
are called upon to give advice and prepare accounts, and 
in few business matters requiring arithmetical calculations 
or involving the investigation of figures, and particularly 
where a considerable acquaintanceship with the principles 
of law is needed, are their services not utilized. 

Auditors. 

One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants 
is the audit of accounts, and this duty has, of late years, 
been widely extended.  Originally, auditors were appointed 
to examine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; 
but the provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to 
audit, and the requirements of most articles of association 
of limited companies, put much graver responsibilities on 
auditors, who are now generally required to certify to the 
accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts, 
the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge 
of accounts than was once required.  The efficiency, in 
most cases, of audits conducted by skilled accountants has 
led the public to attach exceptional value to their audit 
certificates, and to demand extensive knowledge and ability 
in the conduct of the audit of the accounts of public 
companies.  One other requirement which is generally regarded 
as indispensable, is that the work of audit should be very 
expeditiously performed; for it is easy to understand that, 
were the presentation of the accounts of a company and the 
distribution of dividends materially delayed in consequence 
of the audit, much inconvenience would result, while the value 
of the criticism of the accounts of business operations would 
be much deteriorated if it could not be made very shortly 
after the accounts were closed.  In these circumstances, 
in the cases of large concerns with wide ramifications and 
numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors should 
have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal 
examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large 
extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially 
reduced.  This delegation of duty by auditors is generally 
well understood, and is in accordance with the requirements 
of those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late 
years to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an 
extent which, if persisted in, might render it dangerous 
for men of reputation and means to accept the duties. 

Organization. 

While the number of practising accountants has of late years 
been steadily increasing and their services are correspondingly 
appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exercising 
the profession and for improving its status has  naturally 
become apparent.  The first important steps in this direction 
were taken by the accountants in Scotland--the Society of 
Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated by royal charter 
in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and Aberdeen being also 
incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867. The Institute of 
Accountants was formed in London in 1870, but did not receive 
a royal charter until the 11th May 1880, when all the then 
existing accountants' societies and institutes in England 
were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered Accountants 
in England and Wales, and means were provided by which all 
the then practising accountants in these countries could 
claim membership thereof.  In the year 1885 the Society of 
Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained 
no charter; this body, while numbering among its members a 
considerable number of practising accountants in the United 
Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to cities and 
boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other 
accountants.  A large proportion of its members also consists 
of accountants practising abroad.  In 1888 an Institute of 
Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great 
many institutes and societies have been formed in the British 
colonies and in the United States, some of which have local 
charters. It is curious to note, however, that, outside the 
United Kingdom, it was only in the British colonies that 
associations of practising accountants existed, until, in 
1895, an Institute of Accountants (Nederlands Instituut van 
Accountants) was founded in Utrecht for Dutch accountants; 
when, although the principles of accountancy have been well 
understood and practised in Holland since the 16th century, 
and probably earlier, it was found necessary to borrow the 
words ``accountant'' and ``accountancy'' from the English 
language to convey to the Dutch an idea of the meaning of the 
terms.  Three others have since been formed, the Nederlandsche 
Academie van Accountants (1902); the Nationale Organisatie van 
Accountants (1903); and the Nederlandsche Bond van Accountants 
(1902).  Sweden has a society, Svenska Revisorsamfundet, 
formed in 1899; Belgium, the Chambre Syndicate des Experts 
Comptables, founded in 1903. In South America, accountants 
have acquired a certain status in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. 

In the United States the organization of professional 
accountants is of quite recent growth.  The first society 
formed in America was ``The New York State Society of Certified 
Public Accountants,'' and shortly afterwards (in 1896) the 
New York state legislature passed an act authorizing the 
State university to confer the degree of certified public 
accountant (C.P.A.) on the members of the society, while 
requiring all subsequent entrants to pass an examination.  
This degree, however, can be obtained, like other university 
degrees, without being a member of the society.  Other 
states, notably Pennsylvania, Maryland, California, Illinois, 
Washington and New Jersey, have followed the example of New 
York.  In 1903 the various state societies formed themselves 
into a federation.  There is also an independent society of 
practising accountants, the American Association of Public 
Accountants, with objects similar to those of the federation, 
but steps have been taken to bring about an amalgamation between 
the two in order to form one central society to look after 
their common interests, without, however, interfering with 
the individual organization of the various state societies. 

See R. Brown, History of Accounting and Accountants 
(Edinburgh), 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the 
subject; also G. W. Haskins, Accountancy, its Past and 
Present (U.S.A., 1900); S. S. Dawson, Accountant's 
Compendium; G. Lisle, Accounting in Theory and Practice 
(1899); F. W. Pixley, Auditors and their Liabilities 
(1901).  The professional periodicals, The Accountant (vol. 
i., 1877); Accountant's Journal (vol. i., 1883-1884); 
The Accountants' Magazine (vol. i., 1897); Incorporated 
Accountants' Journal (vol. i., 1889-1890); Accountics 
(U.S.A., vol. i., 1897) may also be consulted, and also the 
Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors, and 
of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. GR.) 

ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from a and 
coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has 
charge of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; 
a term used especially, in the plural, of the military 
equipment of a soldier other than his arms and clothing. 

ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5 deg.  31' N., 0 deg.  
12' W., since 1876 capital of the British Gold Coast 
colony.  Population about 20,000, including some 150 
Europeans.  Accra is about 80 m.  E. of Cape Coast (q.v.), 
the former capital of the colony. The name is derived from 
the Fanti word Nkran (an ant), by which designation the 
tribe inhabiting the surrounding district was formerly 
known.  The town grew up around three forts established in 
close proximity--St James (British), Crevecoeur (Dutch) 
and Christiansborg (Danish).  The last named was ceded to 
Britain in 1850, Crevecoeur not till 1871.  Fort St James 
is now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison. 
Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher 
Town and Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite 
origin.  Ussher Town represents Crevecoeur, the fort being 
renamed after H. T. Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast 
(1867-1872).  The sea frontage extends about three miles; 
there is, however, no harbour, and steamers have to lie 
about a mile out, goods and passengers being landed in surf 
boats.  The streets formerly consisted largely of mud 
hovels, but since a great fire in 1894, which destroyed 
large parts of James Town and Ussher Town, more substantial 
buildings have been erected.  Christiansborg, the finest of 
the three forts, is the official residence of the governor 
of the colony.  Westwards of the landing-place, where is 
the customs house, lies James Town.  Beyond the fort are 
various public buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main 
thoroughfare, which runs two miles in a straight line to 
Christiansborg.  This street contains a fine stone church 
built in 1895 for the use of the Anglican community, a 
branch of the Bank of British West Africa, telegraph offices 
and the establishments of the principal trading firms.  In 
Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are the residences 
of the principal officials, and here a racecourse has been 
laid out. (Accra is almost the only point along the Gold 
Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town is rolling grass 
land, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and 
Akim.  At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m.  N. by E. of 
Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens. 

Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be 
raised (July 1, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, is 
governed by a town council with power to raise and spend 
money.  The council consists in equal proportions of 
nominated and elected members, no racial distinctions being 
made.  Accra is connected by cable with Europe and South 
Africa, and is the sea terminus of a railway serving the 
districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations. 

ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow), 
an addition to that which already exists; increase in any 
substance by the addition of particles from the outside.  In 
law, the term is used for the increase of property caused by 
gradual natural additions, as on a river bank or seashore. 

ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 
208 m.  N.W. by N. from London, and 23 m.  N. by W. from 
Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway.  Pop. 
(1891) 38,603; (1901) 43,122.  It lies in a deep valley on 
the Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder.  Cotton spinning and 
printing works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and 
chemical manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain 
the industrial population.  The church of St James dates 
from 1763, and the other numerous places of worship and 
public buildings are all modern.  The borough is under a 
mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors.  Area 3427 acres. 

Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted by 
Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II.'s reign, but 
came again into the hands of the Lacys, and was given by them 
about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it into a 
grange.  It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1287, 
was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became 
merged in the duchy of Lancaster.  In 1553 the commissioners 
of chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be 
continued as a place of divine service.  In 1836 Old and New 
Accrington were merely straggling villages with about 5000 
inhabitants.  By 1861 the population had grown to 17,688, 
chiefly owing to its position as an important railway 
junction.  A charter of incorporation was granted in 
1878.  The date of the original chapel is unknown, but it 
was probably an oratory which was an offshoot of Kirkstall 
Abbey.  Ecclesiastically the place was dependent on 
Altham till after the middle of the 19th century. 

ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up), strictly 
a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous 
adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the 
benefit of some person or persons in the future.  Previous 
to 1800, this accumulation of property was not forbidden 
by English law, provided the period during which it was to 
accumulate did not exceed that forbidden by the law against 
perpetuities, viz. the period of a life or lives in being, 
and twenty-one years afterwards.  In 1800, however, the law 
was amended in consequence of the eccentric will of Peter 
Thellusson (1737--1797), an English merchant, who directed 
the income of his property, consisting of real estate of the 
annual value of about L. 5000 and personal estate amounting 
to over L. 600,000, to be accumulated during the lives of his 
children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, living at the 
time of his death, and the survivor of them. The property so 
accumulated, which, it is estimated, would have amounted to 
over L. 14,000,000, was to be divided among such descendants 
as might be alive on the death of the survivor of those lives 
during which the accumulation was to continue. The bequest 
was held valid (Thellusson v.  Woodford, 1798, 4 Vesey, 
237).  In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who were 
the actual heirs.  It was decided by the House of Lords (June 
9, 1859) in favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles Sabine Augustus 
Thellusson.  Owing, however, to the heavy expenses, the amount 
inherited was not much larger than that originally bequeathed. 

To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the 
Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the ``Thellusson Act'') 
was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should 
be accumulated for any longer term than either (1) the life 
of the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from 
his death; or (3) during the minority of any person living 
or en ventre sa mere at the time of the death of the 
grantor; or (4) during the minority of any person who, if 
of full age, would be entitled to the income directed to be 
accumulated.  The act, however, did not extend to any provision 
for payment of the debts of the grantor or of any other 
person, nor to any provision for raising portions for the 
children of the settlor, or any person interested under the 
settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce of timber 
or wood upon any lands or tenements.  The act was extended 
to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amendment Act 
1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland. The act 
was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892, which 
forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase of 
land for any longer period than during the minority of any 
person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to 
receive the income. (See also TRUST and PERPETUITY.) 

ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices whose 
function is to store energy in one form or another, as, for 
example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see 
HYDRAULICS, sec.  179).  In the present article the term is 
restricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it 
describes a special type of battery.  The ordinary voltaic 
cell is made by bringing together certain chemicals, whose 
reaction maintains the electric currents taken from the 
cell.  When exhausted, such cells can be restored by replacing 
the spent materials, by a fresh ``charge'' of the original 
substances.  But in some cases it is not necessary to get rid 
of the spent materials, because they can be brought back to 
their original state by forcing a reverse current through the 
cell.  The reverse current reverses the chemical action and 
re-establishes the original conditions, thus enabling the 
cell to repeat its electrical work.  Cells which can thus be 
``re-charged'' by the action of a reverse current are called 
accumulators because they ``accumulate'' the chemical work 
of an electric current.  An accumulator is also known as a 
``reversible battery,'' ``storage battery'' or ``secondary 
battery.'' The last name dates from the early days of 
electrolysis.  When a liquid like sulphuric acid was electrolysed 
for a moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was 
found that the electrodes could themselves produce a current 
when detached from the primary battery.  Such a current was 
attributed to an ``electric polarization'' of the electrodes, 
and was regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication 
being that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage 
of electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes 
stored, not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical 
decomposition.  Hence if the two names, secondary and storage 
cells, are used, they are liable to be misunderstood 
unless the interpretation now put on them be kept in mind. 
``Reversible battery'' is an excellent name for accumulators. 

Sir W. R. Grove first used ``polarization'' effects in his gas 
battery, but R. L. G. Plante (1834-1889) laid the foundation 
of modern methods.  That he was clear as to the function 
of an accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the 
lead-sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long 
time, and had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail chimique 
de la pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be 
excelled. Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization 
in 1859, his object being to investigate the conditions under 
which its maximum effects can be produced.  He found that the 
greatest storage and the most useful electric effects were 
obtained by using lead plates in dilute sulphuric acid.  After 
some ``forming'' operations described below, he obtained a 
cell having a high electromotive force, a low resistance, a 
large capacity and almost perfect freedom from polarization. 

The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid 
cell arises largely from the fact that not only are the 
active materials (lead and lead peroxide, PbO2) insoluble 
in the dilute acid, but that the sulphate of lead formed 
from them in the course of discharge is also insoluble.  
Consequently, it remains fixed in the place where it is 
formed; and on the passage of the charging current, the 
original PbO2 and lead are reproduced in the places they 
originally occupied.  Thus there is no material change in 
the distribution of masses of active material.  Lastly, 
the active materials are in a porous, spongy condition, 
so that the acid is within reach of all parts of them. 

Plante's cell. 

Plante carefully studied the changes which occur in the 
formation, charge and discharge of the cell.  In forming, 
he placed two sheets of lead in sulphuric acid, separating 
them by narrow strips of caoutchouc (fig. 1). When a charging 
current is sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated 
at one plate escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent 
in reducing the surface film of oxide generally found on 
lead.  Some of the oxygen is always fixed on the other 
(positive) plate, forming a surface film of peroxide.  After 
a few minutes the current is reversed so that the first 
plate is peroxidized, and the peroxide previously formed 
on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a spongy 
state.  By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate 
is alternately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead.  
In successive oxidations, the action penetrates farther 
into the plate, furnishing each time a larger quantity 
of spongy PbO2 on one plate and of spongy lead on the 
other.  It follows that the duration of the successive 
charging currents also increases.  At the beginning. a 
few minutes suffice; at the end, many hours are required. 


      Fig. 1
After the first six or eight cycles, Plante allowed a 
period of repose before reversing.  He claimed that the 
PbO2 formed by reversal after repose was more strongly 
adherent, and also more crystalline than if no repose were 
allowed.  The following figures show the relative amounts of 
oxygen absorbed by a given plate in successive charges (between 
one charge and the next the plate stood in repose for the 
time stated, then was reduced, and again charged as anode):- 


 
      Separate periods of             Charge.   Relative amount of
         Repose.                                 Peroxide formed.
          .  .                         First         1.0
        18 hours                       Second        1.57
         2 days                        Third         1.71
         4 days                        Fourth        2.14
         2 days                        Fifth         2.43
 

and so on for many days (Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry 
of Secondary Batteries). Seeing that each plate is in turn 
oxidized and then reduced, it is evident that the spongy 
lead will increase at the same rate on the other plate of the 
cell.  The process of ``forming'' thus briefly described 
was not continued indefinitely, but only till a fair 
proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted 
into the spongy material, PbO2 and Pb respectively.  After 
this, reversal was not permitted, the cell being put into 
use and always charged in a given direction.  If the process 
of forming by reversal be continued, the positive plate is 
ultimately all converted into PbO, and falls to pieces. 

Plante made excellent cells by this method, yet three 
objections were urged against them.  They required too much 
time to ``form''; the spongy masses (PbO2 more especially) 
fell off for want of mechanical supoort, and the separating 
strips of caoutchouc were not likely to have a long life.  
The first advance was made by C. A. Faure (1881), who greatly 
shortened the time required for ``forming'' by giving the 
plates a preliminary coating of red lead, whereby the slow 
precess of biting into the metal was avoided. At the first 
charging, the red lead on the + electrode is changed to 
PbO2, while that on the - etectrode is reduced to spongy 
lead. Thus one continuous operation, lasting perhaps 
sixty hours, takes the place of many reversals, which, 
with periods of repose, last as much as three months. 

 Fig. 2 Tudor positive plate. 

Faure used felt as a separating membrane, but its use 
was soon abolished by methods of construction due to E. 
Volckmar, J. S. Sellon, J. W. Swan and others.  These 
inventors put the paste not on to plates of lead, but into 
the holes of a grid, which, when carefully designed, affords 
good mechanical support to the spongy masses, and does away 
with the necessity for felt, &c. They are more satisfactory, 
however, as supporters or spongy lead than of the peroxide, 
since at the point of contact in the latter case the acid 
gives rise to a local action, which slowly destroys the 
grid.  Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the 
best makers are able to defer the failure for a fairly long 
time. Efforts have been made by A. Tribe, D. G. Fitzgerald 
and others to dispense whin a supporting grid for the positive 
plate, but these attempts have not yet been successful 
enough to enable them to compete with the other forms. 

For many years the battle between the ``Plante'' type and the 
Faure or ``pasted'' type has been one in which the issue was 
doubtful, but the general tendency is towards a mixed type 
at the present time.  There are many good cells, the value of 
all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and 
also in the choice of pure materials.  Increasing emphasis is 
laid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by 
evaporation, distilled water generally being specified.  The 
following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice. 

Chloride cell. 

The ``chloride cell'' has a Plante positive with a pasted 
negative.  For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0.4 
inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about half 
an inch in diameter.  Into each of these holes is thrust a 
roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has been cut to the 
right breadth (equal to the thickness of the plate), then 
ribbed or gimped, and finally coiled into a rosette.  The 
rosettes have sufficient spring to fix themselves in the 
holes of the lead plate, but are keyed in position by a 
hydraulic press.  The plates are then ``formed'' by passing 
a current for a long time.  In a later pattern a kind of 
discontinuous longitudinal rib is put in the ribbon, and 
increases the capacity and life by strengthening the mass 


  Fig. 3.--Tudor negative plate.
without interfering with the diffusion of acid. The 
negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles 
of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction 
it is made by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, 
connected horizontally by small bars of triangular 
section.  The bars on the two faces are ``staggered,'' 
that is, those on one face are not opposite those on the 
other.  The grid is pasted with a lead oxide paste and 
afterwards reduced; this is known as the ``exide'' negative. 

The larger sizes of negative plate are of a ``box'' type, formed 
by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space 


 Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6
with paste.  A feature of the ``chloride'' cells is the use 
of separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared 
wood, These prevent short circuits arising from scales of 
active material or from the formation of ``trees'' of lead 
which sometimes grow across in certain forms of battery. 

Tudor cell. 

The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one 
piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected 
at intervals by horizontal ribs to give the plates strength to 
withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2). The thickness 
of the plates is about 0.4 inch, and the developed surface is 
about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same size.  
A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of peroxide of 
lead is formed on this large surface by an improved Plante 
process.  The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two grids 
riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces are 
smooth sheets pierced with many small holes.  The space between 
them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting). 

E.P.S. cell. 

Many of the E.P.S. ceils, made by the Electrical Power 
Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the 
Plante formation is used for the positives of two kinds of 
cell.  The paste for the positive plates is a mixture of 
red lead with sulphuric acid; for the negative plates, 
litharge is substituted for red lead.  Figs. 4 and 




FIG. 7. 

5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and 
positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting.  Fig. 6 
is the cross section of the casting used for the Plante positive 
of the larger cells for rapid discharge.  Finer indentations on 
the side expose a large surface.  Fig. 7 shows a complete cell. 

Hart cell. 

The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the 
Plante and Faure (pasted) types.  The plates hang by side 
lugs on glass slats, and are separated by three rows of glass 
tubes 3/8 inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved 
teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes. 
The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the 
same material which surrounds and supports the section.  Of 
course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the 
acid. A special non-corrosive terminal is used.  A coned bolt 
draws the lug ends of adjacent cells together, fitting in a 
corresponding tapered hole in the lugs, and thus increasing 
the contact area.  The positive and negative tapers being 
different, a cell cannot be connected up in the wrong way. 

 FIG. 8.--Hart Accumulator. 

Gould cell. 

In America, in addition to some of the cells already 
described, there are types which are not found in England.  
Two may be described.  The Gould cell is of the Plante 
type.  A special effort is made to reduce local and other 
deleterious action by starting with perfectly homogeneous 
plates. They are formed from sheet lead blanks by suitable 
machines, which  gradually raise the surface into a series 
of ribs and grooves.  The sides and middle of the blank 
are left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the 
current over the surface of the plate.  The grooves are 
very fine, and when the active material is formed in them 
by electro-chemical action, they hold it very securely. 

Hatch cell. 

The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope.  
A very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is 
filled with red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead 
is placed on its surface, and over this again is placed a 
second porous tray filled with paste.  The whole then looks 
like a thin earthenware box with the lug of the electrode 
projecting from one end.  The negatives consist of sheet 
lead covered by active material.  On assembling the plates, 
each negative is held between two positive ``boxes,'' the 
outsides of which have protecting vertical ribs.  These press 
against the active material on the negative plates, and help 
to keep it in position.  At the same time, the clearance 
between the ribs allows room for acid to circulate freely 
between the negative plate and the outer face of the positive 
envelope.  Diffusion of the acid through this envelope is 
easy, as it is very porous and not more than 1/32 inch thick. 

Traction Cells.---Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators 
have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed 
for electric broughams and light vehicles for use in 
towns.  There are no large deviations in manufacture except 
those imposed by limited space, weight and vibration.  The 
plates are generally thinner and placed closer together.  
The Plante positive is not used so much as in lighting 
types.  The acid is generally a little stronger in order 
to get a higher electromotive force (E.M.F.). To prevent 
the active material from being shaken out of the grids, 
corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are placed 
between the plates.  The ``chloride'' traction cell uses 
a special variety of wood separator: the ``exide'' type 
of plate is used for both positive and negative.  Cells 
are now made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming 
useless.  The specific output can be made as high as 10 or 
11 watt-hours per pound of cell, but this involves a chance 
of shorter life.  The average working requirement for heavy 
vehicles is about 50 watt-hours per 1000 lb. per mile. 

Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines 
as traction cells, though of smaller capacity.  As a 
rule two cells are put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes 
and joined in series so as to give a 4-volt battery, the 
pressure for which sparking coils are generally designed.  
The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere-hours, and the 
current for a single cylinder engine will average one 
to one and a half amperes during the running intervals. 

General Features.--The tendency in stationary cells is to 
allow plenty of space below the plates, so that any active 
material which falls from the plates may collect there without 
risk of short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between 
the plates, which means that (a) there is more acid within 
reach, and (b) a slight buckling is not so dangerous, and 
indeed is not so likely to occur.  The plates are now generally 
made thicker than formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical 
rigidity.  At the same time, the manufacturers aim at getting 
the active materials in as porous a state as possible. 

The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to 
classify.  It would be most interesting to give the data 
in the form of watt-hours per pound of active material, 
and then to compare them with the theoretical values, 
but such figures are impossible in the nature of the case 
except in very special instances.  For many purposes, long 
life and trustworthiness are more important than specific 
output.  Except in the case of traction cells, therefore, 
the makers have not striven to reduce weight to its lowest 
values.  Table I. shows roughly the weight of given 
types of cells for a given output in ampere hours. 


 
                          TABLE I.
                    Capacity in ampere-hours if
    Type of cell.         discharged in                  Weight of cell.
                    9 hrs.   6 hrs.    3 hrs.   1 hr.
   Ordinary light-
    ing . . . . .    200      182       153      101      100 pounds
       ''     ''     420      380       300      210      200 pounds
       ''     ''    1200     1080       880      600      670 pounds
   Central station
    and High Rate   3500     3100      2500     1700     2000 pounds
       ''     ''    6000     5400      4400     3000     3200 pounds
    Traction . . .   220      185       155      125       40 pounds
       ''    . . .    ..      440       ..       ..        90 pounds
 
 

Influence of Temperature on Capacity.---These figures are 
true only at ordinary temperatures.  In winter the capacity 
is diminished, in summer it is increased.  The differences 
are due partly to change of liquid resistance but more 
especially to the difference in the rate at which acid 
can diffuse into or out of the pores: obviously this is 
greater at higher temperatures.  The increase in capacity 
on warming is appreciable, and may amount to as much as 
3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and Hibbert, Journ.  
Inst.  Elec.  Eng. xxi. 441; Helm, Electrician, NOV. 
1901, i. 55; Liagre, L'Eclairage electrique, 1901,xxix. 
150). Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to 
warm accumulators appreciably.  At higher temperatures, local 
action is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more 
rapid.  It is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures. 

Working of accumulators.--Whatever the type of cell may 
be, it is important to attend to the following working 
requirements--(1) The cells must be fully equal to the maximum 
demand, both in discharge rate and capacity. (2) All the 
cells in one series ought to be equal in discharge rate and 
capacity.  This involves similarity of treatment. (3) The 
cells are erected on strong wooden stands. Where floor space 
is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers; but, if 
possible, this should be avoided.  They ought to lie in rows, 
so arranged that it is easy to get to one side (at least) 
of every cell, for examination and testing, and if need be 
to detach and remove it or its plates.  Where a second tier 
is plaeed over the first, sufficient clearance space must 
be allowed for the plates to be lifted out of the lower 
boxes.  The cells are insulated by supporting them on glass 
or mushroom-shaped oil insulators.  If the containing vessels 
are made of glass, it it desirable to put them in wooden 
trays which distribute the weight between the vessel and 
insulators.  To prevent acid spray from filling the air of 
the room, a glass plate is arranged over each cell.  The 
positive and negative sections are fixed in position with 
insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one 
cell is joined to the negative of the next by burning or 
bolting.  If the latter method is adopted, the surfaces ought 
to be very clean and well pressed home.  The joint ought to 
be covered by vaseline or varnish.  When this has been done, 
examination ought to be made of each cell to see that the 
plates are evenly spaced, that the separators (glass tubes 
or ebonite forks between the plates) are in position and 
vertical, and that there are no scales or other adventitious 
matter connecting the plates.  The floor of the cell ought to 
be quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) 
To mix the solution a gentle stream of sulphuric acid must 
be poured into the water (not the other way, lest too great 
heating cause an accident). It is necessary to stir the whole 
as the mixing proceeds and to arrange that the density is 
about 1190, or according to the recommendation of the maker.  
About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one volume of 
acid.  After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours. The 
strong acid ought to be free from arsenic, copper and other 
similar impurities.  The water ought to be as pure as can 
be obtained, distilled water being best; rain water is also 
good.  If potable water be employed, it will generally be 
improved by boiling, which removes some of the lime held in 
solution.  The impurity in ordinary drinking water is very 
slight; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require 
additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency 
for it to increase.  The acid must not be put into the cells 
till everything is ready for charging. (5) A shunt-wound 
or separately-excited dynamo being ready and running so as 
to give at will 2.6 or 2.7 volts per cell, the acid is run 
into the cells.  As soon as this is done, the dynamo must be 
switched on and charging commenced.  The positive terminal 
of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the 
battery.  If necessary, the + end of the machine must be 
found by a trial cell made of two plain lead sheets in dilute 
acid.  It is important also to maintain this first charging 
operation for a long time without a break.  Twelve hours 
is a minimum time, twenty-four not too much.  The charging 
is not even then complete, though a short interval is not 
so injurious as in the earlier stage.  The full charge 
required varies with the cells, but in all types a full 
and practically continuous first charge is imperatively 
necessary.  During the early part of this charge the density 
of the acid may fall; but after a time ought to increase, and 
finally reach the value desired for permanent working.  Towards 
the end of the ``formation'' vigilant observation must be 
exercised.  It is important to notice whether any cells are 
appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing.  
Such cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged 
and tended till their condition is like that of the others.  
They ought not to go on the discharge circuit till this is 
assured.  The examination of the cells before passing them 
as ready for discharge includes:---(a) Density of acid as 
shown by the hydrometer. (b) Voltage.  This may be taken 
when charging or when idle.  In the first case it ought to 
be from 2.4 to 2.6 volts, according to conditions.  In the 
second ease it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that 
the observation is not taken too soon after switching in the 
charging current.  For about half an hour after that is done, 
the E.M.F. has a transient high value, so that, if it be 
desired to get the proper E.M.F. of the cell, the observation 
must be taken thirty minutes after the charging ceases. 

(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between 
them.  The positive plates ought to show a rich dark brown 
colour, the negatives a dull slate-blue, and the space between 
ought to be quite clear and free from anything like solid 
matter.  All the positives ought to be alike, and similarly 
all the negatives.  If the cells show similarity in these 
respects they will probably be in good working order. 

As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple 
rules, of which these are the chief:--(1) Never discharge below 
a potential difference of 1.85 (or in rapid discharge, 1.8) 
volt. (2) Never leave the cells discharged, if it be avoidable. 
(3) Give the cells a special full charging once a month. (4) 
Make a periodic examination of each cell, determining its 
E.M.F., density of acid, the condition of its plates and 
freedom from growth.  Any incipient growth, however small, must 
be carefully watched. (5) If any cell shows signs of weakness, 
keep it off discharge till it has been brought back to full 
condition. See that it is free from any connexion between 
the plates which would cause short-circuiting; tne frame or 
support which carries the plates sometimes gets covered by 
a conducting layer.  To restore the cell, two methods can be 
adopted.  In private installations it may be disconnected 
and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose; 
or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell 
in good order put in parallel with it.  This acts as a 
``milking'' cell, not only preventing the faulty one from 
discharging, but keeping it supplied mith a charging current 
till its potential difference (P.D.) is normal. Every 
battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and a 
voltmeter.  The former enables him to determine from time 
to time the density of the acid in the cells; instruments 
specially constructed for the purpose are now easily procurable, 
and it is desirable that one be provided for every 20 or 25 
cells.  The voltmeter should read up to about 3 volts and 
be fitted with a suitable connector to enable contacts to 
be made quickly with any desired cell. A portable glow lamp 
should also be available, so that a full light can be thrown 
into any cell; a frosted bulb is rather better than a clear 
one for this purpose.  He must also have some form of wooden 
scraper to remove any growth from the plates.  The scraping 
must be done gently, with as little other disturbance as 
possible.  By the ordinary operations which go on in the 
cell, small portions of the plates become detached.  It is 
important that these should fall below the plates, lest they 
short-circuit the cell, and therefore sufficient space ought to 
be left between the bottom of the plates and the floor of the 
cell for these ``scalings'' to accumulate without touching the 
plates.  It is desirable that they be disturbed as little 
as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the 
free space. It sometimes happens that brass nuts or bolts, 
&c., are dropped into a cell; these should be removed at 
once, as their partial solution would greatly endanger 
the negative plates.  The level of the liquid must be 
kept above the top of the plates.  Experience shows the 
advisability of using distilled water for this purpose.  It 
may sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with 
some dilute acid, but strong acid must never be added. 

The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and 
disintegration.  Buckling of the plates generally follows 
excessive discharge, caused by abnormal load or by accidental 
short-circuiting.  At such times asymmetry in the cell is apt 
to make some part of the plate take much more than its share 
of the current.  That part then expands unduly, as explained 
later, and curvature is produced.  The only remedy is to 
remove the plate, and press it back into shape as gently as 
possible.  Growth arises generally from scales from one part 
falling on some other--say, on the negative.  In the next 
charging the scale is reduced to a projecting bit of lead, 
which grows still further because other particles rest on 
it.  The remedy is, gently to scrape off any incipient 
growth.  Sulphating, the formation of a white hard surface 
on the active material, is due to neglect or excessive 
discharge.  It often yields if a small quantity of sulphate 
of soda be added to the liquid in the cell.  Disintegration 
is due to local action, and there is no ultimate remedy.  
The end can be deferred by care in working, and by avoiding 
strains and excessive discharge as much as possible. 

Accumulators in repose.---Accumulators contain only three 
active substances---spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy 
lead peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric acid between 

                          TABLE 

 
    Substance.         Colour.        Density.     Specific Resistance.
   Lead . . . .       slate blue        11.3         0.0000195 ohm
   Peroxide of lead   dark brown         9.28        5.6 to 6.8 ''
   Sulphuric acid
     after charge     clear liquid       1.210       1.37       ''
   Sulphuric acid
     after discharge    ''    ''         1.170       1.28       ''
   Sulphuric acid                       below
     in pores . . .     ''    ''         1.03        8.0        ''
   Sulphate of lead    white             6.3         non-conductor.
 

them.  Sulphate of lead is formed on both plates during 
discharge and brought back to lead and lead peroxide 
again during charge, and there is a consequent change 
in the strength of acid during every cycle.  The chief 
properties of these substances are shown in Table II. 

The curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (reciprocal 
of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric acid solutions, 
and by its aid and the figures in the preceding table, the 
specific resistance of any given strength can be determined. 


Fig 9
The lead accumulator is subject to three kinds of local 
action.  First and chiefly, local action on the positive 
plate, because of the contact between lead peroxide and 
the lead grid which supports it.  In carelessly made or 
roughly handled cells this may be a very serious matter.  
It would be so, in all circumstances if the lead sulphate 
formed on the exposed lead grid did not act as a covering for 
it.  It explains why Plante found ``repose'' a useful 
help in ``forming,'' and also why positive plates slowly 
disintegrate; the lead support is gradually eaten through.  
Secondly, local action on the negative plate when a more 
electro-negative metal settles on the lead.  This often 
arises when the original paste or acid contains metallic 
impurities.  Similar impurity is also introduced by scraping 
copper wire, &c., near a battery.  Thirdly, local action 
due to the acid varying in strength in different parts of a 
plate.  This may arise on either plate and is set up because 
two specimens of either the same lead or the same peroxide give 
an E.M.F. when placed in acids of different strengths.  J. 
H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found that the E.M.F. depends 
on the difference of strength.  With two head plates, a 
maximum of about quarter volt was obtained, the lead in the 
weaker acid being positive.  With two peroxide plates the 
maximum voltage was about 0.64, the plate in stronger acid 
being positive to that in weaker.  The electromotive force 

 
FIG. 10.
of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the acid, 
as may be seen from fig. 10 taken from Gladstone and 
Hibbert's paper (Journ.  Inst.  Elec.  Eng., 1892).The 
observations with very strong acid were difficult to obtain, 
though even that with 98% acid marked X is believed to be 
trustworthy.  C. Heim (Elek.  Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz 
(Ann. Phys.  Chem. xlvi. p. 449) and F. Dolezalek (Theory 
of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have also given tables. 

It is only necessary to add to these results the facts 
illustrated by the following diffusion curves, in order to get 
a complete clue to the behaviour of an accumulator in active 
work.  Fig. 11 shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked 
in 1.175 acid and then placed in distilled water.  It is 
from a paper by L. Duncan and H. Wiegand (Elec.  World, 
N.Y., 1889), who were the first to show the importance of 
diffusion.  About one half the acid diffused out in 30 
minutes, a good illustration of the slowness of this process.  
The rate of diffusion is much the same for both positive 
and negative plates; but slower for discharged plates than 
for charged ones.  Discharge affects the rate of diffusion 
on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate. This is 
in accordance with the density values given in Table I. For 
while lead sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates, 
the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different; 
100 volumes of lead form 290 volumes of sulphate (a threefold 

 FIG. 11. 

expansion), and 100 volumes of peroxide form 186 volumes of 
sulphate (a twofold expansion).  The influence of diffusion 
on the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A 
cell was prepared with 20% acid.  It also held a porous pot 
containing stronger acid, and into this the positive plate 
was suddenly transferred from the general body of liquid.  
The E.M.F. rose by diffusion of stronger acid into the 
pores.  Curve I. in fig. 12 shows the rate of rise when the 
porous pot contained 34% acid; curve II. was obtained with 
the stronger (58%) acid (Gladstone and Hibbert, Phil.  Mag., 
1890).  Of these two curves the first is more useful, because 
its conditions are nearer those which occur in practice. 

At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates 
to be standing in 25% acid, while inside the pores the acid 
may not exceed 8% or 10%. If the discharge be stopped, we have 
conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the E.M.F. begins to 
rise. In one minute it has gone up by about 0.08 volt, &c. 

 Fig. 12.  

Charge and Discharge.---The most important practical 
questions concerning an accumulator are:--its maximum rate 
of working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its 
efficiency; and its length of life.  Apart from mechanical 
injury all these depend primarily on the way the cell is 
made, and then on the method of charging and discharging. 
For each type and size of cell there is a normal maximum 
discharging current.  Up to this limit any current may 
be taken; beyond it, the cell may suffer if discharge be 
continued for any appreciable time.  The most important 
point to attend to is the voltage at which discharge shall 
cease.  The potential difference at terminals must not fall 
below 1.80 volt during discharge at ordinary rates (10 
hours) or 1.75 to 1.70 volt for 1 or 2 hour rate.  The reason 
underlying the figures is simple.  These voltages indicate 
that the acid in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, 
and that if the discharge continue the chemical action will 
change: sulphate will not be formed in situ for want of 
acid.  Any such change in action is fatal to reversibility and 
therefore to life and constancy in capacity.  To illustrate: 
when at slow discharge rates the voltage is 1.80 volt, the 
acid in the pores has weakened to a mean value of about 
2.5% (see fig. 11), which is quite consistent with some part 
of the interior being practically pure water.  With high 
discharge rates, something like 0.1 volt may be lost in the 
cells, by ordinary ohmic fall, so that a voltage reading of 
1.73 means an E.M.F. of a little over 1.8 volt, and a very 
weak density of the acid inside the pores. Guided by these 
figures, an engineer can determine what ought to be the 
permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working 
conditions.  Messrs W. E. Ayrton, C. G. Lamb, E. W. Smith 
and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the working of a cell 
through varied conditions (Journ.  Inst.  Elec.  Eng., 1890), 
and a brief resume of their results is given below. 

They began by charging and discharging 
between the limits of 2.4 and 1.6 volts. 

Fig. 13 shows a typical discharge curve.  Noteworthy points are:--(1) 
At the beginning and at the end there is a rapid fall in P.D., 
with an intermediate period of fairly uniform value. (2) When the 

 Fig. 13. 

P.D. reaches 1.6 volt the fall is so rapid that there is 
no advantage in continuing the action.  When the P.D. had 
fallen to 1.6 volt the cell was automatically switched into 
a charging circuit, and with a current of 9 amperes yielded 
the curve in fig. 14. Here again there is a rapid variation in 
P.D. (in these cases a rise) at the beginning and end of the 
operation.  The cells were now carried through the same cycle 
several times, giving almost identical values for each cycle. 
After some days, however, they became more and more difficult 
to charge, and the return on discharge was proportionately 
less.  It became impossible to charge up to a P.D. of 2.4 
volts, and finally the capacity fell away to half its first 
value.  Examination showed that the plates were badly scaled, 
and that some of the scales had partially connected the 
plates.  These scales were cleared away and the experiments 
resumed, limiting the fall of P.D. to 1.8 volt.  The 

 Fig. 14. 

difficulties then disappeared, showing that discharge to 1.6 
volt caused injury that did not arise at a limit of 1.8. Before 
describing the new results it will be useful to examine these 
two cases in the light of the theory of E.M.F. already given. 

(a) Fall in E.M.F. at beginning of discharge.--At the 
moment when previous charging ceases the pores of the positive 
plate contain strong acid, brought there by the charging 
current.  There is consequently a high E.M.F. But the strong 
acid begins to diffuse away at once and the E.M.F. falls 
rapidly.  Even if the cell were not discharged this fall would 
occur, and if it were allowed to rest for thirty minutes or 
so the discharge would have begun with the dotted line (fig. 
13). (b) Final rapid fall.---The pores being clogged by 
sulphate the plugs cannot get acid by diffusion, and when 
5% is reached the fall in  E.M.F. is disproportionately 
large (see fig. 10). If discharge be stopped, there is an 
almost instantaneous diffusion inwards and a rapid rise 
in E.M.F. (c) The rise in E.M.F. at beginning and 
end of the charging is due to acid in the pores being 
strengthened, partly by diffusion, partly by formation of 
sulphuric acid from sulphate, and partly by electrolytic 
carrying of strong acid to the positive plate. The injurious 
results at 1.6 volt arise because then the pores contain 
water.  The chemical reaction is altered, oxide or hydrate 
is formed, which will partially dissolve, to be changed 
to sulphate when the sulphuric acid subsequently diffuses 
in.  But formed in this way it will not appear mixed with 
the active masses in the electrolytic paths, but more or 
less alone in the pores.  In this position it will more or 
less block the passage and isolate some of the peroxide. 
Further, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive 
action will tend to force off the outer layers.  It is evident 
that limitation of P.D. to 1.8 volt ought to prevent these 
injuries, because it prevents exhaustion of acid in the plugs. 

Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by study of successive 
periods of rest, the observations being taken between 
the limits of 2.4 and 1.8 volts.  Curves A and B show 
the state and capacity at the beginning. After a 10 
days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles 

 Fig. 15. 

of work brought it back to C and D. A second rest (10 days), 
followed by many cycles, then gave E and F. After a third 
rest (16 days) and many cycles, G and H were obtained.  
After a fourth rest (16 days) the first discharge gave I and 
the first charge J. Repeated cycles brought the cells back 
to K and L. Curves M and N show first cycle after a fifth 
rest (16 days); O and P show the final restoration brought 
about by repeated cycles of work.  The numbers given by the 
integration of some of these curves are stated in Table III. 

TABLE III. 


 
           Capacity and Efficiency under Various
               Conditions of Working.
              Discharge.          Charge.       Efficiency.
  Experiment. Ampere-  Watt     Ampere-  Watt     Quan-    Energy.
               hours. hours.     hours.  hours.    tity.
  --------------------------------------------------------------------
  Normal cycle    102   201.7     104.5   230.7     97.2     87.4
  Restoration
   after 1st rest 100   179       103.8   228.2     96.8     85.8
  Restoration
   after 2nd rest  91   176.7     103.8   228.2     96.8     85.8
  Restoration
   after 3rd rest  82.6 161.3      86.2   190.5     95.8     84.7
  Discharge
   immediately     56.5 110.5      86.2   190.5     65.5     581
   after rest .    56.5 110.5      71.1   158.3     79.6     69.6
  Restoration
   after 8 cycles  80   156.9      83.8   184.6     95.5     85
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------
 

The table shows that the efficiency in a normal cycle may be as 
high as 87.4%; that during a rest of sixteen days the charged 


1 This discharge is here compared with the charge that 
preceded the rest; in the next line the same discharge 
is compared with the charge following the rest. 

accumulator is so affected that about 30% of its charge is 
not available, and in subsequent cycles it shows a diminished 
capacity and efficiency; and that by repeated charges and 
discharges the capacity may be partially restored and the 
efficiency more completely so.  These changes might be 
due to--(a) leakage or short-circuit, (b) some of the 
active material having fallen to the bottom of the cell 
or (c) some change in the active materials. (a) is 
excluded by the fact that the subsequent charge is smaller, 
and (b) by the continued increase of capacity during the 
cycles that follow the rest.  Hence the third hypothesis 
is the one which must be relied upon.  The change in the 
active materials has already been given.  The formation of 

 FIG. 16. 

lead sulphate by local action on the peroxide plate and 
by diract action of acid on spongy metal on the lead 
plate explains the loss of energy shown in curve M, fig. 
15, while the fact that it is probably formed, not in 
the path of the regular currents, but on the wall of the 
grid (remote from the ordinary action), gives a probable 
explanation of the subsequent slow recovery.  The action of 
the acid on the lead during rest must not be overlooked. 

We have seen that capacity diminishes as the discharge rate 
increases; that is, the available output increases as the 
current diminishes.  R. E. B. Crompton's diagram illustrating 
this fact is given in fig. 16. At the higher rates the 
consumption of acid is too rapid, diffusion cannot maintain 
its strength in the pores, and the fall comes so much earlier. 

The resistance varies with the condition of the cell, as 
shown by the curves in fig. 17. It may be unduly increased 
by long or narrow lugs, and especially by dirty joints 
between the lugs.  It is interesting to note that it 
increases at the end of both charge and discharge, and 

 Fig. 17. 

much more for the first than the second.  Now the composition 
of the active materials near the end of charge is almost 
exactly the same as at the beginning of discharge, and at 
first sight there seems nothing to account for the great 
fall in resistance from 0.0115 to 0.004 ohm; that is, to 
about one-third the value.  There is, however, one difference 
between charging and discharging---namely, that due to the 
strong acid near the positive, with a corresponding weaker 
acid near the negative electrode.  The curve of conductivity 
for sulphuric acid shows that both strong and weak acid have 
much higher resistances than the liquid usually employed in 
accumulators, and it is therefore reasonable to suppose that 
local variations in strength of acid cause the changes in 
resistance.  That these are not due to the constitution 
of the plugs is shown by the fact that, while the plugs 
are almost identical at end of discharge and beginning of 
charge, the resistance falls from 0.0055 to 0.0033 ohm. 

While a current flows through a cell, heat is produced at 
the rate of C2RX0.24 calories (water-gram-degree) per 
second.  As a consequence the temperature tends to rise.  
But the change of temperature actually observed is much 
greater during charge, and much less during discharge, than 
the foregoing expression would suggest; and it is evident 
that, besdies the heat produced according to Joule's law, 
there are other actions which warm the cell during charge and 
cool it during discharge.  Duncan and Wiegand loc. cit.), 
who first observed the thermal changes, ascribe the chief 
influence to the electrochemical addition of H2SO4 to the 
liquid during charge and its removal during discharge.  Fig. 
18 gives some results obtained by Ayrton, Lamb, &c. This 
elevation of temperature (due to electrolytic strengthening 
of acid and local action) is a measure of the energy lost 
in a cycle, and ought to be minimized as much as possible. 

  Fig. 18. 

Chemistry.---The chemical theory adopted in the foregoing 
pages is very simple.  It declares that sulphate of 
lead is formed on both plates during discharge, 
the chemical action being reversed in charging.  The 
following equations express the experimental results. 

Condition before 

 
       + plate           Liquid            - plate
    x. PbO2 + y. H2SO4 +  z. Pb
                     n. H2O
 

After

 
       + plate                 Liquid              - plate
    (x-p). PbO2   (y-2p). H2SO4   (z-p). Pb
  {                   }+{                       }+{
       p. PbSO4   (n+2p). H2O        p. PbSO4
 

 During charge, the substances are restored to their 
original condition: the equation is therefore reversed.  
An equation of this general nature was published by 
Gladstone and Tribe in 1882, when Oley first suggested the 
``sulphate', theory, which was based on very numerous 
analyses.  Confirmation was given by E. Frankland in 1883, 
E.  Reynier 1884, A. P. P. Crova and P. Garbe 1885, C. Heim 
and  W. F. Kohlrausch 1889, W. E. Ayrton, &c., with G. H. 
Robertson 1890, C. H. J. B. Liebenow 1897, F. Dolezalek 
1897, and M. Mugdan 1899.  Yet there has been, as Dolezalek 
says, an incomprehensible unwillingness to accept the 
theory, though no suggested alternative could offer good 
verifiable experimental foundation.  Those who seek a full 
discussion will find it in Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead 
Accumulator. We shall take it that the sulphate theory is 
proved, and apply it to the conditions of charge and discharge. 

From the chemical theory it will be obvious that the 
acid in the pores of both plates will be stronger 
during charge than that outside. During discharge 
the reverse will be the case.  Fig. 19 shows a curve 

 Fig. 19. 

of potential difference during charge, with others showing 
the concurrent changes in the percentage of PbO2 and the 
density of acid. These increase almost in proportion to 
the duration of the current, and indicate the decomposition 
of sulphate and liberation of sulphuric acid.  There are 
breaks in the P.D. curve at A, B, C, D where the current 
was stopped to extract samples for analysis, &c. The 
fall in E.M.F. in this short interval is noteworthy; 
it arises from the diffusion of stronger acid out of the 
pores.  The final rise of pressure is due to increase 
in resistance and the effect of stronger acid in the 
pores, this last arising partly from reduced sulphate and 
partly from the electrolytic convection of SO4 (see also 
Dolezalek, Theory, p. 113) . Fig. 20 gives the data for 
discharge.  The percentage of PbO2 and the density here 
fall almost in proportion to the duration of the current.  
The special feature is the rapid fall of voltage at the end. 

Several suggestions have been made about this phenomenon. 
The writer holds that it is due to the exhaustion of the 
acid in the pores.  Plante, and afterwards Gladstone and 
Tribe, found a possible cause in the formation of a film 
of peroxide on the spongy lead. E. J. Wade has suggested 
a sudden readjustment of the spongy mass into a complex 
sulphate.  To rebut these hypotheses it is only necessary 
to say that the fall can be deferred for a long time by 
pressing fresh acid into the pores hydrostatically (see 
Liebenow, Zeits. fur Elektrochem., 1897, iv. 61), 
or by working at a higher temperature. This increases the 
diffusion inwards of strong acid, and like the increase due 
to hydrostatic pressure maintains the E.M.F. The other 
suggested causes of the fall therefore fail.  Fig. 20 also 
shows that when the discharge current was stopped at points 
A, B, C, D to extract samples, the voltage immediately rose, 
owing to inward diffusion of stronger acid.  The inward 
diffusion of fresh acid also accounts for the recuperation 
found after a rest which follows either complete discharge or 
a partial discharge at a very rapid rate.  If the discharge 
be complete the recuperation refers only to the electromotive 
force; the pressure falls at once on closed circuit.  If 
discharge has been rapid, a rest will enable the cell to resume 
work because it brings fresh acid into the active regions. 

 Fig. 20. 

As to the effect of repose on a charged cell, Gladstone and 
Tribe's experiments showed that peroxide of lead lying on 
its lead supoort suffers from a local action, which reduces 
one molecule of PbO2 to sulphate at the same time that an 
atom of the grid below it is also changed to sulphate.  There 
is thus not only a loss of the available peroxide, but a 
corrosion of the grid or plate.  It is through this action 
that the supports gradually give way.  On the negative plate 
an action arises between the finely divided lead and the 
sulphuric acid, with the result that hydrogen is set free-- 
      Pb + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + H2.
This involves a diminution of available spongy lead, or loss 
of capacity, occasionally with serious consequences.  The 
capacity of the lead plate is reduced absolutely, of course, 
but its relative value is more seriously affected.  In the 
discharge it gets sulphated too much, because the better 
positive keeps up the E.M.F. too long.  In the succeeding 
charge, the positive is fully charged before the negative, and 
the differences between them tend to increase in each cycle. 

Kelvin and Helmholtz have shown that the E.M.F. of a voltaic 
cell oan be calculated from the energy developed by the chemical 
action. For a dyad gram equivalent (= 2 grams of hydrogen, 
207 grams of lead, &c.), the equation connecting them is 
       E = H/46000 + T dE/dT,
here E is the E.M.F. in volts, H is the heat developed by a 
dyad equivalent of the reacting substances, T is the absolute 
temperature, and dE/dT is the temperature coefficient of the 
E.M.F. If the E.M.F. does not change with temperature, 
the second term is zero. The thermal values for the various 
substances formed and decomposed are -For PbO2, 62400; for 
PbSO4, 216210; for H2SO4, 192920; and for H2O, 68400 
calories.  Writing the equation in its simplest form for 
strong acid, and ignoring the temperature coefficient term, 

      PbO2 + 2 H2SO4 + Pb = 2PbSO4 + 2 H2O 
     -62440   - 385840               + 432420  + 136720
leaving a balance of 120860 calories.  Dividing by 46000 
gives 2.627 volts.  The experimental value in strong acid, 
according to Gladstone and Hibbert, is 2.607 volts, a very 
close approximation. For other strengths of acid, the energy 
will be less by the quantity of heat evolved by dilution 
of the acid, because the chemical action must take the 
H2SO4 from the diluted liquid.  The dotted curve in fig. 
10 indicates the calculated E.M.F. at various points when 
this is taken into account.  The difference between it and 
the continuous curve must, if the chemical theory be correct, 
depend on the second term in the equation.  The figure shows 
that the observed E.M.F. is above the theoretical for 
all strengths from 100 down to 5%. Below 5 the position is 
reversed.  The question remains, Can the temperature 
coefficient be obtained? This is difficult, because the value 
is so small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of 
observations.  Streintz has given the following values:-- 
     E        1.9223   1.9828  2.0031  2.0084  2.0105  2.078  2.2070
   dE/dT.106 140       228    335     285     255     130    73
Unpublished experiments by the writer give dE/dT. 106 = 
350 for anid of density 1.156.  With stronger acid, a true 
cycle could not be obtained.  Taking Streintz's value, 335 
for 25% acid, the second term of the equation is TdE/dT = 
290 X .000335 = 0.0971 volt.  The first term gives 88800 
calories = 1.9304 volt.  Adding the second term, 1.9304 + 
0.0971 = 2.2075 volts.  The observed value is 2.030 volts 
(see fig. 10), a remarkably good agreement.  This calculation 
and the general relation shown in fig. 10 render it highly 
probable that, if the temperature coefficient were known 
for all strengths of acid, the result would be equally 
good.  It is worth observing that the reversal of relationship 
between the observed and calculated curves, which takes 
place at 5% or 6%, suggests that the chemistry must be on 
the point of altering as the acid gets weak, a conclusion 
which has been already arrived at on purely chemical 
grounds.  The thermodynamical relations are thus seen to 
confirm very strongly the chemical and physical analyses.1 

Accumulators in Central Stations.---As the efficiency of 
accumulators is not generally higher than 75%, and machines 
must be used to charge them, it is not directly economical 
to use cells alone for public supply.  Yet they play an 
important and an increasing part in public work, because they 
help to maintain a constant voltage on the mains, and can be 
used to distribute the load on the running machinery over a 
much greater fraction of the day.  Used in parallel with the 
dynamo, they quickly yield current when the load increases, 
and immediately begin to charge when the load diminishes, thus 
largely reducing the fluctuating stress on dynamo and engine 
for sudden variations in load.  Their use is advantageous if 
they can be charged and discharged at a time when the steam 
plant would otherwise be working at an uneconomical load. 

 Fig. 21. 

Regulation of the potential difference is managed in various 
ways.  More cells may be thrown in as the discharge proceeds, 
and taken out during charge; but this method often leads to 
trouble, as some cells get unduly discharged, and the unity 
of the battery is disturbed. Sometimes the number of cells 
is kept fixed for supply, but the P.D. they put on the mains 
is reduced during charge by employing regulating cells in 
opposition.  Both these plans have proved unsatisfactory, 
and the battery is now preferably joined across the mains 
in parallel with the dynamo.  The cells take the peaks 
of the load and thus relieve the dynamo and engine of 
sudden changes, as shown in fig. 21. Here the line current 
(shown by the erratic curve) varied spasmodically from 0 
to 375 amperes, yet the dynamo current varied from 100 to 
150 amperes only (see line A). At the same time the line 
voltage (535 volts normal) was kept nearly constant.  In 
the late evening the cells became exhausted and the dynamo 
charged them.  Extra voltage was required at the end of a 
``charge,' and was provided by a ``booster.'' Originally a 
booster was an auxiliary dynamo worked in series with the 
chief machine, and driven in any convenient way.  It has 

1 For the discussion of later electrolytic theories as apolied to 
accumulators, see Dolezalek, Theory of the Lead Accumulator. 

developed into a machine with two or more exciting coils, 
and having its armature in series with the cells (see fig. 
22). The exciting coils act in opposition; the one carrying 
the main current sets up an E.M.F. in the same direction 
as that of the cells, and helps the cells to discharge 
as the load rises.  When the load is small, the voltage 
on the mains is highest and the shunt exciting current 
greatest.  The booster E.M.F. now acts with the dynamo 
and against the cells, and causes them to take a full 
charge.  Even this arrangement did not suffice to keep the 
line voltage as constant as seemed desirable in some cases, 
as where lighting and traction work were put on the same 
plant.  Fig. 23 is a diagram of a complex booster which 
gives very good regulation.  The booster B has its armature 
in series with the accumulators A, and is kept running 
in a given direction at a constant speed by means of a 
shunt-wound motor (not shown), so that the E.M.F. induced 
in the armature depends on the excitation.  This is made 


Fig. 22.
to vary in value and in direction by means of four 
independent enciting coils, C1, C2, C3, C4. The last 
is not essential, as it merely compensates for the small 
voltage drop in the armature.  It is obvious that the 
excitation C3 will be proportionate to the difference 
in voltage between the battery and the mains, and it is 
arranged that battery volts and booster volts shall equal 
the volts on the mains.  Under this excitation there is no 
tendency for the battery to charge or discharge.  But any 
additional excitation leads to strong currents one way or the 
other.  Excitation C1 rises with the load on the line, 
and gives an E.M.F. helping the battery to discharge most 
when the load is greatest.  C2 is dependent on the bus-bar 
voltage, and is greatest when the generator load is small: it 
opposes C1 and therefore excites the booster to charge the 
battery.  The exact generator load at which the booster 
shall reverse its E.M.F. from a charging to a discharging 
value is adjusted by the resistance R2 in series with C2.  
A similar resistance R6 allows the excitation of C3 to be 
adjusted.  Very remarkable regulation can be obtained by 
reversible boosters of this type.  In traction and lighting 
stations it is quite possible to keep the variation of bus-bar 
pressure within 2% of the normal value, although the load 
may momentarily vary from a few amperes up to 200 or 300. 

J. B. Entz has introduced an auxiliary device which enables 
him to use a much more simple booster.  The Entz booster 
has no series coil and only one shunt coil, the direction 
and value of excitation due to this being controlled by 
a carbon regulator, it having two arms, the resistance 
 of each of which can be varied  by pressure due to the 
magnet-  izing action of a solenoid.  The main current 
from the generator passes through the solenoid and causes 
one or other of the two carbon arms to have the less 

 FIG. 23. 

resistance.  This change in resistance determines the direction 
of the exciter field current, and therefore the direction of the 
boost.  A photograph of the switchboard at Greenock where this 
booster is in use shows the voltmeter needle as if it had been 
held rigid, although the exposure lasted 90 minutes.  On the 
same photograph the ammeter needle does not appear, its incessant 
and large movements preventing any picture from being formed. 

Alkaline Accumulators.--Owing to the high electro-chemical 
equivalent of lead, a great saving in weight would be secured 
by using almost any other metal.  Unfortunately no other metal 
and its compounds can resist the acid.  Hence inventors have 
been incited to try alkaline liquids as electrolytes.  Many 
attempts have been made to construct accumulators in this way, 
though with only moderate success.  The Lalande-Chaperon, 
Desmazures, Waddell-Ent2 and Edison are the chief cells. T. 
A. Edison's cell has been most developed, and is intended for 
traction work.  He made the plates of very thin sheets of 
nickel-plated steel, in each of which 24 rectangular holes 
were stamped, leaving a mere framework of the metal.  Shallow 
rectangular pockets of perforated nickel-steel were fitted 
in the holes and then burred over the framework by high 
pressures.  The pockets contained the active material.  On the 
positive plate this consisted of nickel peroxide mixed with 
flake graphite, and on the negative plate of finely divided 
iron mixed with graphite.  Both kinds of active material 
were prepared in a special way.  The graphite gives greater 
conductivity.  The liquid was a 20% solution of caustic 
potash.  During discharge the iron was oxidized, and the 
nickel reduced to a lower state of oxidation. This change was 
reversed during charge.  Fig. 24 shows the general features. 

 Fig. 24.--Edison Accumulator. 

The chief results obtained by European experts showed 
that the E.M.F. was 1.33 volt, with a transient higher 
value following charge.  A cell weighing 17.8 lb. had a 
resistance of 0.0013 ohm, and an output at 60 amperes of 210 
watt-hours, or at 120 amperes of 177 watt-hours.  Another 
and improved cell weighiog 12.7 lb.  gave 14.6 watt-hours 
per pound of cell at a 20-ampere rate, and 13.5 watt-hours 
per pound at a 60 ampere rate.  The cell could be charged 
and discharged at almost any rate.  A full charge could be 
given in 1 hour, and it would stand a discharge rate of 200 
amperes (Journ.  Inst. Elec.  Eng., 1904, pp. 1-36). 

Subsequently Edison found some degree of falling-off in 
capacity, due to an enlargement of the positive pockets 
by pressure of gas.  Most of the faults have been overcome 
by altering the form of the pocket and replacing the 
graphite by a metallic conductor in the form of flakes. 

REFERENCES.---G.  Plante, Recherches sur L'electricite 
(Paris, 1879); Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of Secondary 
Batteries (London, 1884); Reynier, L'Accumulateur voltaique 
(Paris, 1888); Heim, Die Akkumulatoren (Berlin, 1889); 
Hoppe, Die Akk. fur Elektricitat (Berlin, 1892); Schoop, 
Handbuch fur Akk. (Stuttgart, 1898): Sir E. Frankland, 
``Chemistry of Storage Batteries,'' Proc.  Roy. Soc., 1883; 
Reynier, Jour.  Soc. Franc. de Phys., 1884; Heim, ``U. 
d. Einfluss der Sauredichte auf die Kapazitat der Akk.,'' 
Elek.  Zeits., 1889; Kohlrausch and Heim, ``Ergebnisse von 
Versuchen an Akk. fur Stationsbetrieb,'' Elek.  Zeits., 
1889; Darrieus, Bull.  Soc. Intern. des Elect., 1892; F. 
Dolezalek, The Theory of the Lead Accumulator (London, 1906); 
Sir D. Salomons, Management of accumulators (London, 1906) 
E. J. Wade, Secondary Batteries (London, 1901); L. Jumau, 
Les Accumulateurs electriques (Paris, 1904). (W. HT.) 

ACCURSIUS Ital. ACCORSO), FRANCISCUS (1182-1260), Italian 
jurist, was born at Florence about 1182.  A pupil of Azo, he 
first practised law in his native city, and was afterwards 
appointed professor at Bologna, where he had great success as a 
teacher.  He undertook the great work of arranging into one 
body the almost innumerable comments and remarks upon the 
Code, the Institutes and Digests, the confused dispersion 
of which among the works of different writers caused much 
obscurity and contradiction.  This compilation, bearing 
the title Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, but usually 
known as the Great Gloss, though written in barbarous Latin, 
has more method than that of any preceding writer on the 
subject.  The best edition of it is that of Denis Godefroi 
(1549-1621), published at Lyons in 1589, in 6 vols. 
folio.  When Accursius was employed in this work, it is 
said that, hearing of a similar one proposed and begun by 
Odoiced, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned indisposition, 
interrupted his public lectures, and shut himself up, 
till with the utmost expedition he had accomplished his 
design.  Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers of 
his own and the immediately succeeding age, and he was even 
called the idol of jurisconsults, but those of later times 
formed a much lower estimate of his merits.  There can be 
no doubt that he disentangled the sense of many laws with 
much skill, but it is equally undeniable that his ignorance 
of history and antiquities often led him into absurdities, 
and was the cause of many defects in his explanations and 
commentaries.  He died at Bologna in 1260. His eldest son 
Franciscus (1225-1293), who also filled the chair of law 
at Bologna, was invited to Oxford by King Edward I., and 
in 1275 or 1276 read lectures on law in the university. 

ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to 
a causa, a suit or trial at law), a legal term signifying 
the charging of another with wrong-doing, criminal or 
otherwise.  An accusation which is made in a court of justice 
during legal proceedings is privileged (see PRIVILEGE), 
though, should the accused have been maliciously prosecuted, 
he will have a right to bring an action for malicious 
prosecution.  An accusation made outside a court of justice 
would, if the accusation were false, render the accuser 
liable to an action for defamation of character, while, if the 
accusation be committed to writing, the writer of it is liable 
to indictment, whether the accusation be made only to the party 
accused or to a third person, A threat or conspiracy to accuse 
another of a crime or of misconduct which does not amount to 
a crime for the purpose of extortion is in itself indictable. 

ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation 
of the Gr. aitiatike ptosis, the case concerned 
with cause and effect, from aiti'a, a cause), in 
grammar, a case of the noun, denoting primarily the 
object of verbal action or the destination of motion. 

ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine 
form of the Gr. eis) the number one at dice, or the 
single point on a die or card; also a point in the score 
of racquets, lawn-tennis, tennis and other court games. 

ACELDAMA (according to Acts i. 19, ``the field of blood''), 
the name given to the field purchased by Judas Iscariot 
with the money he received for the betrayal of Jesus 
Christ.  A different version is given in Matthew xxvii. 
8, where Judas is said to have cast down the money in the 
Temple, and the priests who had paid it to have recovered the 
pieces, with which they bought ``the potter's field, to bury 
strangers in.'' The MS. evidence is greatly in favour of 
a form Aceldamach.  This would seem to mean ``the field of 
thy blood,'' which is unsuitable.  Since, however, we find 
elsewhere one name appearing as both Sirach and Sira (ch 
= aleph), Aceldamach may be another form of an original 
Aceldama (aleph kamatz mem shvah daleth lamedh tzareh 
qoph patach heth), the ``field of blood.'' A. Klostermann, 
however, takes the ch to be part of the Aramaic root 
demach, ``to sleep,'; the word would then mean ``field 
of sleep'' or cemetery (Probleme im Aposteltexte, 1-8, 
1883), an explanation which fits in well with the account 
in Matthew xxvii.  The traditional site (now Hak el-Dum), 
S. of Jerusalem on the N.E. slope of the ``Hill of Evil 
Counsel'' (Jebel Deir Abu Tor), was used as a burial place 
for Christian pilgrims from the 6th century A.D. till as 
late, apparently, as 1697, and especially in the time of the 
Crusades.  Near it there is a very ancient charnelhouse, partly 
rock-cut, partly of masonry, said to be the work of Crusaders. 

ACENAPHTHENE, C12H10, a hydrocarbon isolated from 
the fraction of coal-tar boiling at 260 deg. -270 deg.  by M. P. 
E. Berthelot, who, in conjunction with Bardy, afterwards 
synthesized it from a-ethyl naphthalene (Ann. Chem.  
Phys., 1873, Yol. xxix.).  It forms white needles (from 
alcohol), melts at 95 deg.  and boils at 278 deg. .  Oxidation 
gives naphthalic acid (1.8 naphthalene dicathoxylic acid). 

Acenaphthalene, C12 H8, a hydrocarbon crystallizing 
in yellow tables and obtained by passing the vapour of 
acenaphthene over heated litharge.  Sodium amalgam reduces it 
to acenaphthone; chromic acid oxidizes it to naphthalic acid. 

ACEPHALI (from a'-, privative, and kefale, head), a 
term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; 
and in particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated 
itself, in the end of the 5th century, from the rule of 
the patriarch of Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained 
``without king or bishop'' till they were reconciled by Mark 
I. (799-819).1 The term is also used to denote clerici 
vagrantes, i.e. clergy without title or benefice, picking 
up a living anyhow (cf. Hinschius i. p. 64). Certain persons 
in England during the reign of King Henry I. were called 
Acephali because they had no lands by virtue of which they 
could acknowledge a superior lord.  The name is also given to 
certain legendary races described by ancient naturalists and 
geographers as having no heads, their mouths and eyes being 
in their breasts, generally identified with Pliny's Blemmyae. 

ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically, 
leaderless.  The word is used literally in biology; and 
metaphorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence 
with a beginning wanting.  In zoology, the mollusca are 
divided into cephalous and acephalous (Acephala), according 
as they have or have not an organized part of their anatomy 
as the seat of the brain and special senses.  The Acephala, 
or Lamellibranchiata (q.v.), are commonly known as bivalve 
shell-fish.  In botany the word is used for ovaries not 
terminating in a stigma. Acephalocyst is the name given by R. 
T. H. Laennec to the hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm. 

ACERENZA (anc. Aceruntia), a town of the province of 
Potenza, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 15 1/2 m.  N.E. of the 
station of Pietragalla, which is 9 m.  N.W. of Potenza by rail, 
2730 ft. above sea-level.  Pop. (1901) 4499.  Its situation is 
one of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the 
south.  It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of 
the Republic, and its importance as a fortress was specially 
appreciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th 
centuries.  It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of 
which is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate. 

ACEROSE (from Lat. acus, needle, or acer, sharp), 
needle-shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as 
descriptive of the leaves, e.g., of pines.  From Lat. aeus, 
chaff, comes also the distinct meaning of ``mixed with chaff.'' 

ACERRA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, 
in the province of Caserta, 9 m.  N.E. from Naples by 
rail.  Pop. (1901) 16,443.  The town lies on the right 
bank of the Agno, which divides the province of Naples from 
that of Caserta, 90 ft. above the sea, in a fertile but 
somewhat marshy district, which in the middle ages was very 
malarious.  The ancient name (Acerrae) was also borne 
by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia Transpadana 
(the latter now Pizzighettone on the Adda, 13 m. W.N.W. of 
Cremona).  It became a city with Latin rights in 332 B.C. 
and later a municipium. It was destroyed by Hannibal in 216 
B.C., but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the 
Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully 
held against the insurgents.  It received a colony under 
Augustus, but appears to have suffered much from floods of 
the river Clams. Under the Empire we hear no more of it, 
and no traces of antiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain. 

ACERRA, in Roman antiquity, a small box or pot for holding 
incense, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or 
censer in which incense was burned.  The name was also 
given by the Romans to a little altar placed near the 
dead, on which incense was offered every day till the 
burial.  In ecclesiastical Latin the term acerra is still 
applied to the incense boats used in the Roman ritual. 

ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient 
Roman vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about 
half a gill); it is also a word used technically in 
zoology, by analogy for certain cup-shaped parts, e.g. 
the suckers of a mollusc, the socket of the thigh-bone, 
&c.; and in botany for the receptacle of Fungi. 

ACETIC ACID (acidum aceticum), CH3.CO2H, one of the most 
important organic acids.  It occurs naturally in the juice of 

 1 See Gibbon, ch. xlvii. (vol. v. p. 129 in Pury's ed.). 

 many plants, and as the esters of n-hexyl and n-octyl 
alcohols in the seeds of Heracleum giganteum, and in the 
fruit of Heracleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, 
on the large scale, from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or 
from the destructive distillation of wood.  In the former 
process it is obtained in the form of a dilute aqueous 
solution, in which also the colouring matters of the wine, 
salts, &c., are dissolved; and this impure acetic acid is 
what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic acid (in 
the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who obtained 
it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood-vinegar was 
discovered in the middle ages.  Towards the close of the 
18th century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary 
to the formation of vinegar from alcohol.  In 1830 J. B. 
A. Dumas converted acetic acid into trichloracetic acid, 
and in 1842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative 
into the original acetic acid by reduction with sodium 
amalgam.  The synthesis of trichloracetic acid from its 
elements was accomplished in 1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken 
in conjunction with Melsens's observation provided the first 
synthesis of acetic acid. Anhydrous acetic acid--glacial 
acetic acid--is a leafy crystalline mass melting at 16.7 deg.  
C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent smell.  It boils 
at 118 deg. , giving a vapour of abnormal specific gravity.  
It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first a 
contraction and afterwards an increase in volume.  It is 
detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric acid, 
which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized 
by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide, 
which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide.  It is 
a monobasic acid, forming one normal and two acid potassium 
salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper. 
Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal 
lead acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.); 
basic copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.). 

Pharmacology and Therapeutics.---Glacial acetic acid is 
occasionally used as a caustic for corns.  The dilute acid, 
or vinegar, may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting 
as a pleasant refrigerant.  Acetic acid has no valuable 
properties for internal administration.  Vinegar, however, 
which contains about 5% acetic acid, is frequently taken 
as a cure for obesity, but there is no warrant for this 
application.  Its continued employment may, indeed, so injure 
the mucous membrane of the stomach as to interfere with digestion 
and so cause a morbid and dangerous reduction in weight. 

The acetates constitute a valuable group of medicinal agents, 
the potassium salt being most frequently employed.  After 
absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to 
carbonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are 
administered whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity 
of the blood or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without 
exerting the disturbing influence of alkanes upon the digestive 
tract.  The citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be 
substituted. They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive. 

ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, C6H10O3 or CH3.CO.CH2.COOC2H5, 
a chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who 
showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl 
acetate was a sodium compound of composition C6H9O3Na, 
which on treatment with acids gave a colourless, somewhat 
oily liquid of composition C6H10O3.  E. Frankland and 
B. F. Duppa in 1865 examined the reaction and concluded that 
Geuther's sodium salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester 
of acetone carboxylic acid and possessed the constitution 
CH6CO.CHNa.COOC2H5. This view was not accepted by 
Geuther, who looked upon his compound C6H10O3 as being 
an acid.  J. Wislicenus also investigated the reaction 
very thoroughly and accepted the Frankland-Duppa formula 
(Annalen, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, 190, p. 257). 

The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over 
calcium chloride and treating it with sodium wire, which 
is best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and 
is then heated on a water bath for some hours, until the 
sodium all dissolves.  After the reaction is completed, 
the liquid is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:5) 
and then shaken with salt solution, separated from the salt 
solution, washed, dried and fractionated.  The portion 
boiling betbeen 175 deg.  and 185 deg.  C. is redistilled.  The 
yield amounts to about 30% of that required by theory. 

A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl 
acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce 
aceto-acetic ester.  L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted, 
studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that 
if sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above 
reaction the same result is obtained.  He explains the reactions 

 
                                                       /ONa
     CH3.C==O           + NaOC2H5  =  CH3.C-OC2H5,
              \ OC2H5                            \OC2H5
 

this reaction being followed by 


              /ONa            H\
      CH3.C-OC2H5  +   CH.COOC2H5  =  2 C2 H5OH +
              \OC2H5    H/                 CH3.C(ONa):CH.COOC2H5;
 


and on acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic 
ester. Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at 
181 deg. C.; it is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled 
undergoes some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid 
C8H8O4. It undoubtedly contains a keto-group, for it 
reacts with hydrocyanic acid, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine 
and ammonia; sodium bisulphite also combines with it to 
form a crystalline compound, hence it contains the grouping 
CH 3/0.CO-.  J. Wislicenus found that only one hydrogen atom 
in the--CH2- group is directly replaceable by sodium, and 
that if the sodium be then replaced by an alkyl group, the 
second hydrogen atom in the group can be replaced in the same 
manner.  These alkyl substitution products are important, 
for they lead to the synthesis of many organic compounds, 
on account of the fact that they can be hydrolysed in 
two different ways, barium hydroxide or dilute sodium 
hydroxide solution giving the so-called ketone hydrolysis, 
whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide gives the acid 

 
     Ketone hydrolysis:-
   CH3.CO.C(XY).CO2C2H5 -> CH3.CO.CH(XY) +
                                        C2H5OH + CO2;
     Acid hydrolysis:-
   CH3.CO.C(XY).CO2C2H5 -> CH3.CO2H + C2H5OH +
                                             CH(XY).COOH;
 

(where X and Y = alkyl groups). 

Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Acetoacetic 
ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been 
used in the production of pyridines (q.v.), quinolines 
(q.v.), pyrazolones, furfurane (q.v.), pyrrols (q.v.), 
uric acid (q.v.), and many complex acids and ketones. 

For a discussion as to the composition, and whether 
it is to be regarded as possessing the ``keto', form 
CH3.CO.CH2.COOC2H6 or the ``enol'' form CH3.C(OH): 
CH.COOC2H5, see ISOMERISM, and also papers by J. Wislicenus 
(Ann., 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, 190, p. 257), A. Michael 
(Journ.  Prak.  Chem., 1887, [2] 37, p. 473), L. Knorr 
(Ann., 1886, 238, p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of 
Chem.  Soc., 1892, 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1891, 
266, p. 70; 1892, 270, pp. 289, 333; 1893, 276, p. 212). 

ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE, CH3.CO.CH3, in chemistry, 
the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones.  It 
is present in very small quantity in normal urine, in the 
blood, and in larger quantities in diabetic patients.  
It is found among the products formed in the destructive 
distillation of wood, sugar, cellulose, &c., and for this 
reason it is always present in crude wood spirit, from which 
the greater portion of it may be re-covered by fractional 
distillation.  On the large scale it is prepared by the dry 
distillation of calcium acetate (CH3CO2)2Ca = CaCO3 + 
CH3COCH3.  E. R. Squibb (Journ.  Amer.  Chem.  Soc., 1895, 
17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic 
acid through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture 
of pumice and precipitated barium carbonate, and kept at a 
temperature of from 500 deg.  C. to 600 deg.  C. The mixed vapours 
of acetone, acetic acid and water are then led through a 
condensing apparatus so that the acetic acid and water are 
first condensed, and then the acetone is condensed in a second 
vessel.  The barium carbonate used in the process acts as a 
contact substance, since the temperature at which the operation 
is carried out is always above the decomposition point of 
barium acetate. Crude acetone may be purified by converting 
it into the crystalline sodium bisulphite compound, which 
is separated by filtration and then distilled with sodium 

 
      CH3\ / OH                            CH3\
   2         C           + Na2CO3  =  2        CO + 2 Na2SO3 + 
      CH3/ \ SO3Na                      CH3/         CO2 + H2O
 

It is then dehydrated and redistilled. 

Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite 
(q.v.) For this purpose the crude distillate is 
redistilled over sulphuric acid and then fractionated. 

Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, 
boiling at 56.53 deg. C., and has a specific gravity 0.819 
(0 deg. /4 deg. C.). It is readily soluble in water, alcohol, 
ether, &c.  In addition to its application in the cordite 
industry it is used in the manufacture of chloroform (q.v.) 
and sulphonal, and as a solvent.  It forms a hydrazone 
with phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxylamine.  
Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into isopropyl 
alcohol; oxidation by chromic acid gives carbon dioxide 
and acetic acid.  With ammonia it reacts to form di- and 
triacetoneamines.  It also unites directly with hydrocyanic 
acid to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric acid. 

By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash, 
hydrochloric acid, &c., acetone is converted into condensation 
products, mesityl oxide C6H10O, phorone C9H14O, &c., being 
formed.  On distillation with sulphuric acid, it is converted 
into mesitylene C9H12 (symmetrical trimethyl benzene).  
Acetone has also been used in the artificial production of 
indigo.  In the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives 
iodoform.  Acetone has been employed medicinally in cases of 
dyspnoea.  With potassium iodide, glycerin and water, 
it forms the preparation spirone, which has been used as 
a spray inhalation in paroxysmal sneezing and asthma. 

ACETOPHENONE, or PHENYL-METHYL KETONE, C8H8O or 
C6H5CO.CH3, in chemistry, the simplest representative of 
the class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones.  It can be 
prepared by distilling a mixture of dry calcium benzoate and 
acetate, Ca(O2CC6H5)2 + (CH3CO2)2Ca = 2CaCO3 + 2 
C6H5CO.CH3, or by condensing benzene with acetyl chloride 
in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (C. Friedel 
and J. M. Crafts), C6H6+CH3COCl == HCl + C6H5COCH3. 
It crystallizes in colourless plates melting at 20 deg. C. and 
bolling at 202 deg.  C.; it is insoluble in water, but readily 
dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents. It is reduced by 
nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol C6H5.CH.OH.CH3 
phenyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation forms benzoic 
acid.  On the addition of phenylhydrazine it gives a 
phenylhydrazone, and with hydroxylamine furnishes an 

 
        C6H5\
                   C=N.OH
            CH3/
 

melting at 59 deg. C.  This oxime undergoes a peculiar rearrangement 
when it is dissolved in ether and phosphorus pentachloride is 
added to the ethereal solution, the excess of ether distilled 
off and water added to the residue being converted into the 
isomeric substance acetanilide, C6H5NHCOCH3, a behaviour 
shown by many ketoximes and known as the Beckmann change (see 
Berichte, 1886, 19, p. 988). With sodium ethylate in ethyl 
acetate solution it forms the sodium derivative of benzoyl 
acetone, from which benzoyl acetone, C6H5.CO.CH2.CO.CH3, 
can be obtained by acidification with acetic acid.  When 
heated with the halogens, acetophenone is substituted in 
the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine gives 
phenacyl bromide, C6H6CO.CH2Br.  Numerous derivatives of 
acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most important 
being orthoaminoacetophenone, NH2.C6H4.CO.CH3, which 
is obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic acid with 
water. It is a thick yellowish oil bolling between 242 deg.  
C. and 250 deg.  C. It condenses with acetone in the presence 
of caustic soda to a quinoline. Acetonyl-aeeto phenone, 
C6H5 . CO . CH2 . CH2.  CO . CH3, is produced by 
condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium acetoacetate with 
subsequent elimination of carbon dioxide, and on dehydration 
gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane.  Oxazoles (q.v.) are 
produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with acid-amides (M. 
Lewy, Berichte, 1887, 20, p. 2578).  K. L. Paal has also 
obtained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto- 
acetic-ester with substances of the type NH2R. 

ACETYLENE, klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of 
carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula C2H2. 

Physical properties. 

It is a colourless gas, having a density of 0.92.  When prepared 
by the action of water upon calcium carbide, it has a very strong 
and penetrating odour, but when it is thoroughly purified from 
sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydrogen, which are invariably 
present with it in minute traces, this extremely pungent odour 
disappears, and the pure gas has a not unpleasant ethereal 
smell.  It can be condensed into the liquid state by cold 
or by pressure, and experiments by G. Ansdell show that if 
the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21.53 atmospheres at a 
temperature of 0 deg.  C., it is converted into the liquid state, 
the pressure needed increasing with the rise of temperature, 
and decreasing with the lowering of the temperature, until 
at--82 deg.  C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmospheric 
pressure.  The critical point of the gas is 37 C., at which 
temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for 
liquefaction.  The properties of liquid and solid acetylene 
have been investigated by D. Mcintosh (Jour Chem.  Soc., 
Abs., 1907, i. 458).  A great future was expected from 
its use in the liquid state, since a cylinder fitted with 
the necessary reducing valves would supply the gas to light 
a house for a considerable period, the liquid occupying 
about 1/400 the volume of the gas, but in the United States 
and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied acetylene 
was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents 
occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained 
conditions.  As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot 
and L. J. G. Vieille made a series of valuable researches 
upon the explosion of acetylene under various conditions.  
They found that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be 
heated at one point by a platinum wire raised to a red heat, 
the whole mass decomposes and gives rise to such tremendous 
pressures that no cylinder would be able to withstand them.  
These pressures varied from 71,000 to 100,000 lb. per square 
inch.  They, moreover, tried the effect of shock upon the 
liquid, and found that the repeated dropping of the cylinder 
from a height of nearly 20 feet upon a large steel anvil gave 
no explosion, but that when the cylinder was crushed under 
a heavy blow the impact was followed, after a short interval 
of time, by an explosion which was manifestly due to the 
fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escaping 
gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of the 
metal.  A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking 
in the same way of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high 
pressure.  Continuing these experiments, they found that in 
acetylene gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition 
brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the 
firing in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond 
the point at which the decomposition started, while if the 
acetylene was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 lb. on 
the square inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the 
mass and became in reality detonation.  These results showed 
clearly that liquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for 
general introduction for domestic purposes, since, although 
the occasions would be rare in which the requisite temperature 
to bring about detonation would be reached, still, if this 
point were attained, the results would be of a most disastrous 
character.  The fact that several accidents had already 
happened accentuated the risk, and in Great Britain the 
storage and use of liquefied acetylene are prohibited. 

When liquefied acetylene is allowed to escape from the cylinder 
in which it is contained into ordinary atmospheric pressure, 
some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such 
rapidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature 
of -90 deg.  C., and convert it into a solid snow-like mass. 

Solubility of acetylene. 

Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal 
temperature and pressure takes up a little more than its 
own volume of the gas, and yields a solution giving a 
purple-red precipitate with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and 
a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipitates 
consisting of acetylides of the metals.  The solubility of 
the gas in various liquids, as given by different observers, 

 
     100 Volumes of                     Volumes of Acetylene.
           Brine         absorb                  5
           Water          ''                   110
         Alcohol          ''                   600
        Paraffin          ''                   150
   Carbon disulphide      ''                   100
       Fusel oil          ''                   100
         Benzene          ''                   400
      Chloroform          ''                   400
     Acetic acid          ''                   600
         Acetone          ''                  2500
 

It will be seen from this table that where it is desired 
to collect and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. 
water saturated with salt, is the best for the purpose, but 
in practice it is found that, unless water is agitated with 
acetylene, or the gas bubbled through, the top layer soon gets 
saturated, and the gas then dissolves but slowly.  The great 
solubility of acetylene in acetone was pointed out by G. Claude 
and A. Hess, who showed that acetone will absorb twenty-five 
times its own volume of acetylene at a temperature of 15 deg.  C. 
under atmospheric pressure, and that, providing the temperature 
is kept constant, the liquid acetone will go on absorbing 
acetylene at the rate of twenty-five times its own volume for 
every atmosphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected. 

At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with 
all the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene 
under pressure, but it was soon found that there were 
serious difficulties still to be overcome.  The chief 
trouble was that acetone expands a small percentage of its 
own volume while it is absorbing acetylene; therefore it is 
impossible to fill a cylinder with acetone and then force 
in acetylene, and still more impracticable only partly to 
fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the space 
above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high 
pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder 
containing compressed acetylene only.  This difficulty 
was overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous 
briquettes and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of 
acetone, so that after allowing for the space taken up by 
the bricks the quantity of acetone soaked into the brick 
will absorb ten times the normal volume of the cylinder in 
acetylene for every atmosphere of pressure to which the gas 
is subjected, whilst all danger of explosion is eliminated. 

This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved 
in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and 
consequently upon this exemption a large business has grown up 
in the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting 
motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses, 
buoys, yachts, &c., for which it is particularly adapted. 

Poisonous properties. 

Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous 
gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having 
apoarently shown that it acts upon the blood in the same way 
as carbon monoxide to form a stable compound.  Very extensive 
experiments, however, made by Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. 
Crismer, and others, all conclusively show that acetylene is 
much less toxic than carbon monoxide, and indeed than coal gas. 

Chemical properties. 

When acetylene was first introduced on a Commercial scale 
grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being 
represented that it had the power of combining with certain 
metals, more especially copper and silver, to form acetylides 
of a highly explosive character, and-that even with coal 
gas, which contains less than 1%, such copper compounds had 
been known to be formed in cases where the gas-distributing 
mains were composed of copper, and that accidents had 
happened from this cause.  It was therefore predicted that 
the introduction of acetylene on a large scale would be 
followed by numerous accidents unless copper and its alloys 
were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas. These fears 
have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded, and ordinary 
gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with this gas. 

Acetylene has the property of inflaming spontaneously when 
brought in contact with chlorine.  If a few pieces of carbide 
be dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of 
gas take fire as they reach the surface, and if a jet of 
acetylene be passed up into a bottle of chlorine it takes 
fire and burns with a heavy red flame, depositing its carbon 
in the form of soot.  If chlorine be bubbled up into a 
jar of acetylene standing over water, a violent explosion, 
attended with a flash of intense light and the deposition of 
carbon, at once takes place.  When the gas is kept in a small 
glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the surface of the 
glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has shown that 
when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it undergoes 
certain polymerization changes which lead to the deposition 
of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the 
tube.  It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later 
by P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence 
of water at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed. 

The polymerization of acetylene. 

Acetylene is readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under 
its influence to form an enormous number of organic compounds; 
indeed the gas, which can itself be directly prepared from its 
constituents, carbon and hydrogen, under the influence of the 
electric arc, can be made the starting point for the construction 
of an enormous number of different organic compounds of a complex 
character.  In contact with nascent hydrogen it bunds up 
ethylene; ethylene acted upon by sulphuric acid yields ethyl 
sulphuric acid; this can again be decomposed in the presence 
of water to yield alcohol, and it has also been proposed to 
manufacture sugar from this body. Picric acid can also be 
obtained from it by first treating acetylene with sulphuric 
acid, converting the product into phenol by solution in 
potash and then treating the phenol with fuming nitric acid. 

Endothermic nature of acetylene. 

Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is 
attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this 
reason termed an ``endothermic'' compound, in contradistinction 
to those bodies which evolve heat in their formation, and 
which are called ``exothermic.'' Such endothermic bodies 
are nearly always found to show considerable violence in 
their decomposition, as the heat of formation stored up 
within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it is 
undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its 
easy detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion 
of fulminating mercury when in contact with it under 
pressure.  The observation that acetylene can be resolved 
into its constituents by detonation is due to Berthelot, 
who started an explosive wave in it by firing a charge of 
0.1 gram of mercury fulminate. It has since been shown, 
however, that unless the gas is at a pressure of more than 
two atmospheres this wave soon dies out, and the decomposition 
is only propagated a few inches from the detonator.  Heated 
in contact with air to a temperature of 480 deg.  C., acetylene 
ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance of which 
varies with the way in which it is brought in contact with the 
air.  With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting 
dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out 
in a sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of 
intense brilliancy and ulmost perfect whiteness, by the 
light of which colours can be judged as well as they can by 
daylight.  Having its ignition point below that of ordinary 
gas, it can be ignited by any red-hot carbonaceous matter, 
such as the brightly glowing end of a cigar.  For its 
complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs approximately 
twelve volumes of air, forming as products of combustion 
carbon dioxide and water vapour.  When, however, the air is 
present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incomplete, 
and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and 
water vapour are produced.  This is well shown by taking a 
cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on 
applying a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the 
cylinder and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also 
being thickly coated with it, and often containing a ball of 
carbon.  If now, after a few moments' interval to allow 
some air to diffuse into the cylinder, a taper again be 
applied, an explosion takes place, due to a mixture of 
carbon monoxide and air.  It is probable that when a flame 
is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon monoxide are 
being produced, but when an acetylene flame burns properly 
the products are as harmless as those of coal gas, and, 
light for light, less in amount.  Mixed with air, like 
every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive 
mixture.  F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of 
explosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the 
other combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as 

 
             Acetylene . . . . . . .  3 to 82
             Hydrogen  . . . . . . .  5 to 72
             Carbon monoxide . . . . 13 to 75
             Ethylene  . . . . . . .  4 to 22
             Methane . . . . . . . .  5 to 13
 

Methods of production. 

The methods which can be and have been employed from time to 
time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are 
exceedingly numerous.  Before the commercial production of 
calcium carbide made it one of the most easily obtainable 
gases, the processes which were most largely adopted for its 
preparation in laboratories were:-first, the decomposition 
of ethylene bromide by dropping it slowly into a boiling 
solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying the evolved 
gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it through 
a second flask containing a boiling solution of alcoholic 
potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime; 
and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing 
the products of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, 
the flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal 
solution of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide 
was produced. This on being washed and decomposed with 
hydrochloric acid yielded a stream of acetylene gas.  This 
second method of production has the great drawback that, 
unless proper precautions are taken to purify the gas obtained 
from the copper acetylide, it is always contaminated with 
certain chlorine derivatives of acetylene.  Edmund Davy 
first made acetylene in 1836 from a compound produced during 
the manufacture of potassium from potassium tartrate and 
charcoal, which under certain conditions yielded a black 
compound decomposed by water with considerable violence and 
the evolution of acetylene.  This compound was afterwards fully 
investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed it to be potassium 
carbide.  He also made the corresponding sodium compound 
and showed that it evolved the same gas, whilst in 1862 F. 
Wohler first made calcium carbide, and found that water 
decomposed it into lime and acetylene.  It was not, however, 
until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was made 
by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France that if 
lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of the 
electric furnace, the lime is reduced to calcium, which unites 
with the excess of carbon present to form calcium carbide. 

Manufacture of calcium carbide. 

The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation 
by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of 
commercial importance.  In the manufacture of calcium carbide 
in the electric furnace, lime and anthracite of the highest 
possible degree of purity are employed.  A  good working mixture 
of these materials may be taken  as being 100 parts by weight 
of lime with 68 parts by weight of carbonaceous material.  
About 1.8 lb. of this is used up for each pound of carbide 
produced.  The two principal processes utilized in making 
calcium carbide by electrical power are the ingot process and 
the tapping process.  In the former, the anthracite and lime 
are ground and carefully mixed in the right proportions to 
suit the chemical actions involved.  The arc is struck in a 
crucible into which the mixture is allowed to flow, partially 
filling it.  An ingot gradually builds up from the bottom 
of the crucible, the carbon electrode being raised from time 
to time automatically or by hand to suit the diminution of 
resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the rising 
ingot.  The crucible is of metal and considerably larger 
than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of 
unreduced material which protects the crucible from the intense 
heat.  When the ingot has been made and the crucible is 
full, the latter is withdrawn and another substituted.  The 
process is not continuous, but a change of crucibles only 
takes two or three minutes under the best conditions, and 
only occurs every ten or fifteen hours.  The essence of this 
process is that the coke and lime are only heated to the 
point of combination, and are not ``boiled'' after being 
formed.  It is found that the ingot of calcium carbide formed 
in the furnace, although itself consisting of pure crystalline 
calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded by a crust 
which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly converted 
constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of acetylene 
than the carbide itself.  In breaking up and sending out 
the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums, 
the crust is removed by a sand blast.  A statement of the 
amount made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a 
certain amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this 
process.  For instance, in practical working it has been 
found that a furnace return of 0.504 lb. per kilowatt hour 
is brought down to 0.406 lb. per kilowatt hour when the 
material has been broken up, sorted and packed in air-tight 
drums.  In the tapping process a fixed crucible is used, 
lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly as big as the 
crucible and a much higher current density is used. The 
carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at short 
intervals.  There is no unreduced material, and the process 
is considerably simplified, while less expensive plant is 
required. The run carbide, however, is never so rich as 
the ingot carbide, since an excess of lime is nearly always 
used in the mixture to act as a flux, and this remaining 
in the carbide lowers its gas-yielding power.  Many 
attempts have been made to produce the substance without 
electricity, but have met with no commercial success. 

Properties of calcium carbide. 

Calcium carbide, as formed in the electric furnace, is a 
beautiful crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density 
of 2.22, and showing a fracture which is often shot with 
iridescent colours.  It can be kept unaltered in dry air, 
but the smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads 
to the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and gives 
it a distinctive odour.  It is infusible at temperatures up 
to 2000 deg.  C., but can he fused in the electric arc.  When 
heated to a temperature of 245 deg.  C. in a stream of chlorine 
gas it becomes incandescent, forming calcium chloride and 
liberating carbon, and it can also be made to burn in oxygen 
at a dull red heat, leaving behind a residue of calcium 
carbonate.  Under the same conditions it becomes incandescent 
in the vapour of sulphur, yielding calcium sulphide and 
carbon disulphide; the vapour of phosphorus will also unite 
with it at a red heat.  Acted upon by water it is at once 
decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium hydrate.  Pure 
crystalline calcium carbide yields 5.8 cubic feet of acetylene 
per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide as sold 
commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline material 
with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds the 
ingot, yields at the best 5 cubic feet of gas per pound under 
proper conditions of generation.  The volume of gas obtained; 
however, depends very largely upon the form of apparatus 
used, and while some will give the full volume, other 
apparatus will only yield, with the same carbide, 3 3/4 feet. 

Impurities. 

The purity of the carbide entirely depends on the purity 
of the material used in its manufacture, and before this 
fact had been fully grasped by manufacturers, and only the 
purest material obtainable employed, it contained notable 
quantities of compounds which during its decomposition by 
water yielded a somewhat high portion of impurities in the 
acetylene generated from it.  Although at the present time 
a marvellous improvement has taken place all round in the 
quality of the carbide produced, the acetylene nearly always 
contains minute traces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted 
hydrogen, phosphuretted hydrogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and 
oxygen, and sometimes minute traces of carbon monoxide and 
dioxide.  The formation of hydrogen is caused by small 
traces of metallic calcium occasionally found free in the 
carbide, and cases have been known where this was present in 
such quantities that the evolved gas contained nearly 20% of 
hydrogen.  This takes place when in the manufacture of the 
carbide the material is kept too long in contact with the 
arc, since this overheating causes the dissociation of 
some of the calcium carbide and the solution of metallic 
calcium in the remainder.  The presence of free hydrogen is 
nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride formed by the 
combination of the nascent hydrogen with the silicon in the 
carbide.  The ammonia found in the acetylene is probably partly 
due to the presence of magnesium nitride in the carbide. 

On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action 
of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity 
formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which 
the carbide is decomposed.  The formation of nitrides and 
cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion 
into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen 
of the atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial 
purposes. Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present 
in commercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of 
aluminium sulphide.  A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium 
sulphide, zinc sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only 
sulphur compounds which can resist the heat of the electric 
furnace without decomposition or volatilization, and of 
these aluminium sulphide is the only one which is decomposed 
by water with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.  
In the early samples of carbide this compound used to be 
present in considerable quantity, but now rarely more than 
1/10 % is to be found.  Phosphuretted hydrogen, one of the 
most important impurities, which has been blamed for the 
haze formed by the combustion of acetylene under certain 
conditions, is produced by the action of water upon traces 
of calcium phosphide found in carbide.  Although at first it 
was no uncommon thing to find  1/2% of phosphuretted hydrogen 
present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced 
by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely 
above 0.15%, and it is often not one-fifth of that amount. 

Generation of acetylene from carbide. 

In the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and water, 
all that has to be done is to bring these two compounds into 
contact, when they mutually react upon each other with the 
formation of lime and acetylene, while, if there be sufficient 
water present, the lime combines with it to form calcium hydrate. 


      Calcium carbide.    Water.       Acetylene.     Lime.
           CaC2      + H2O =     C2H2  +   CaO
                 Lime.    Water.       Calcium hydrate.
                  CaO   + H2O =       Ca(HO)2
 


The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought 
about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with 
an excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an 
excess of water, and these two main operations again may 
be varied by innumerable ingenious devices by which the 
rapidity of the contact may be modified or even eventually 
stopped.  The result is that although the forms of apparatus 
utilized for this purpose are all based on the one fundamental 
principle of bringing about the contact of the carbide with 
the water which is to enter into double decomposition with 
it, they have been multiplied in number to a very large 
extent by the methods employed in order to ensure control in 
working, and to get away from the dangers and inconveniences 
which are inseparable from a too rapid generation. 

Generators. 

In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authorities 
have divided them into as many as six different classes, 
but this is hardly necessary, as they may be divided into 
two main classes---first, those in which water is brought in 
contact with the carbide, the carbide being in excess during 
the first portion of the operation; and, second, those in 
which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water 
present being always in excess.  The first class may again 
be subdivided into generators in which the water rises in 
contact with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, 
and in which a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water 
and again with-drawn as generation becomes excessive.  Some 
of these generators are constructed to make the gas only 
as fast as it is consumed at the burner, with the object 
of saving the expense and room which would be involved by a 
storage-holder.  Generators with devices for regulating and 
stopping at will the action going on are generally termed 
``automatic.'' Another set merely aims at developing the gas 
from the carbide and putting it into a storageholder with as 
little loss as possible, and these are termed ``non-automatic.'' 
The points to be attained in a good generator are:-- 

 1. Low temperature of generation. 
 2. Complete decomposition of the carbide.
 3. Maximum evolution of the gas.
 4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus.
 5. Ease in charging and removal of residues.
 6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of the gas.
When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat is 
evolved; indeed, the action develops about one-twentieth of 
the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon.  As, however, 
the temperature developed is a function of the time needed 
to complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies 
with every form of generator, and while the water in one form 
may never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another 
may become red-hot and give a temperature of over 800 deg.  C. 
Heating in a generator is not only a source of danger, but 
also lessens the yield of gas and deteriorates its quality.  
The best forms of generator are either those in which water 
rises slowly in contact with the carbide, or the second main 
division in which the carbide falls into excess of water. 

Purification 

It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large 
scale as a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes 
of purification as will render it harmless and innocuous 
to health and property, and the sooner it is recognized as 
absolutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming it 
the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves. 
The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty 
in removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen.  There are three 
substances which can be relied on more or less to remove 
this compound, and the gas to be purified may be passed 
either through acid copper salts, through bleaching powder 
or through chromic acid.  In experiments with those various 
bodies it is found that they are all of them effective in 
also ridding the acetylene of the ammonia and sulphuretted 
hydrogen, provided only that the surface area presented to 
the gas is sufficiently large.  The method of washing the gas 
with acid solutions of copper has been patented by A. Frank 
of Charlottenburg, who finds that a concentrated solution 
of cuprous chloride in an acid, the liquid being made into 
a paste with kieselguhr, is the most effective. Where the 
production of acetylene is going on on a small scale this 
method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient 
one, as the acid present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper 
salt converts the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen 
into phosphates and sulphides.  The vessel, however, which 
contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain 
or enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the 
gas must be washed after purification to remove traces of 
hydrochloric acid, and care must be taken to prevent the 
complete neutralization of the acid by the ammonia present 
in the gas. The second process is one patented by Fritz 
Ullmann of Geneva, who utilizes chromic acid to oxidize 
the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the 
ammonia, and this method of purification has proved the most 
successful in practice, the chromic acid being absorbed by 
kieselguhr and the material sold under the name of ``Heratol.'' 

The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who 
recommends the use of bleaching powder.  Dr P. Wolff has found 
that when this is used on the large scale there is a risk 
of the ammonia present in the acetylene forming traces of 
chloride of nitrogen in the purifying-boxes, and as this is 
a compound which detonates with considerable local force, 
it occasionally gives rise to explosions in the purifying 
apparatus.  If, however, the gas be first passed through 
a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia this danger is 
avoided.  Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which the gas is 
washed with water containing calcium chloride, and then passed 
through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing material. 

When acetylene is burnt from a 000 union jet burner, at all 
ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the 
pressure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame 
results, free from smoke, and developing an illuminating 
value of 240 candles per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed.  
Slightly higher values have been obtained, but 240 may 
be taken as the average value under these conditions. 

Burners. 

When acetylene was first introduced as a commercial illuminant 
in England, very small union jet nipples were utilized for 
its consumption, but after burning for a short time these 
nipples began to carbonize, the flame being distorted, and 
then smoking occurred with the formation of a heavy deposit of 
soot.  While these troubles were being experienced in England, 
attempts had been made in America to use acetylene diluted 
with a certain proportion of air which permitted it to be 
burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples; but the danger of such 
admixture being recognized, nipples of the same class as 
those used in England were employed, and the same troubles 
ensued.  In France, single jets made of glass were first 
employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot and 
others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming 
from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged 
and splayed each other out into a butterfly flame.  Soon 
afterwards, J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking 
air into the flame at or just below the burner tip, and at 
this juncture the Naphey or Dolan burner was introduced in 
America, the principle employed being to use two small and 
widely separated jets instead of the two openings of the 
union jet burner, and to make each a minute bunsen, the 
acetylene dragging in from the base of the nipple enough air 
to surround and protect it while burning from contact with the 
steatite.  This class of burner forms a basis on which all 
the later constructions of burner have been founded, but had 
the drawback that if the flame was turned low, insufficient 
air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips was drawn 
in, owing to the reduced flow of gas.  This fault has 
now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner 
tip, which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition. 

Oxy-acetylene blowpipe.  When acetylene was first introduced 
on a commercial scale attempts were made to utilize its 
great heat of combustion by using it in conjunction with 
oxygen in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.  It was found, however, 
that when  using acetylene under low pressures, the burner 
tip became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some 
of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by 
the carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the 
use of acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred 
inches of water was prohibited, no advance was made in this 
direction. The introduction of acetylene dissolved under 
pressure in acetone contained in cylinders filled with 
porous material drew attention again to this use of the 
gas, and by using a special construction of blowpipe an 
oxy-acetylene flame is produced, which is far hotter than the 
oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the same time is so reducing in 
its character that it can be used for the direct autogenous 
welding of steel and many minor metallurgical processes. 

REFERENCES.---F.  H. Leeds and W. A. Butterfield, Calcium 
Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, L'Acetylene et 
ses applications (1896); V. B. Lewes, Acetylene (1900); 
F. Liebetanz, Calcium-carbid und Acetylen (1899); G. 
Pelissier, L'Eclairage a l'acetylene (1897); C. de 
Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et l'acetylene (1897). 
For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on 
Acetylene, see A. Ludwig's Fuhrer durch die gesammte 
Calcium carbid-und-Acetylen-Literatur, Berlin. (V. B. L.) 

ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Peloponnese, 
stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and 
Cyllene on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the 
N., bordering the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain 
Panachaicus projects.  Achaea is bounded on the W. by the 
territory of Elis, on the E. by that of Sicyon, which, 
however, was sometimes included in it.  The origin of the 
name has given rise to much speculation; the current theory 
is that the Achaeans (q.v.) were driven back into this 
region by the Dorian invaders of the Peloponnese.  Another 
Achaea, in the south of Thessaly, called sometimes Achaea 
Phthiotis, has been supposed to be the cradle of the 
race.  In Roman times the name of the province of Achaea was 
given to the whole of Greece, except Thessaly, Epirus, and 
Acarnania.  Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve cities Of 
Achaea; three met as a religious confederacy in the temple 
of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history 
see ACHAEAN LEAGUE. During the middle ages, after the 
Latin conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin 
principality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 
1209). It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, 
when the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant 
of it to his son-in-law, Theodorus II., despot of Mistra.  
In 1460 it was conquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the 
Turks.  In modern times the coast of Achaea is mainly given 
up to the currant industry; the currants are shipped from 
Patras, the second town of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza). 

ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of 
Achaea.  Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, 
these towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates 
issuing from the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian 
Gulf.  It was no doubt as a protection against such dangers 
that the earliest league of twelve Achaean cities arose, 
though we are nowhere explicitly informed of its functions 
other than the common worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and 
an occasional arbitration between Greek belligerents.  Its 
importance grew in the 4th century, when we find it fighting 
in the Theban wars (368-362 B.C.), against Philip (338) and 
Antipater (330).  About 288 Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the 
league, which had furnished a useful base for pretenders 
against Cassander's regency; but by 280 four towns combined 
again, and before long the ten surviving cities of Achaea 
had renewed their federation. Antigonus' preoccupation 
during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's prostration after 
the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth amassed by Achaean 
adventurers abroad and the subsidies of Egypt, the standing 
foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's importance.  
Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of Aratus 
(q.v.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 
228 it comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina. 

Aratus probably also organized the new federal constitution, 
the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat 
perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately 
determine.  The league embraced an indefinite number of 
city-states which maintained their internal independence 
practically undiminished, and through their several 
magistrates, assemblies and law-courts exercised all 
traditional powers of self-government.  Only in matters of 
foreign politics and war was their competence restricted. 

The central government, like that of the constituent 
cities, was of a democratic cast.  The chief legislative 
powers resided in a popular assembly in which every member 
of the league over thirty years of age could speak and 
vote.  This body met for three days in spring and autumn at 
Aegium to discuss the league's policy and elect the federal 
magistrates.  Whatever the number of its attendant burgesses, 
each city counted but one on a division.  Extraordinary 
assemblies could be convoked at any time or place on special 
emergencies.  A council of 120 unpaid delegates, selected from 
the local councils, served partly as a committee for preparing 
the assembly's programme, partly as an administrative board 
which received embassies, arbitrated between contending cities 
and exercised penal jurisdiction over offenders against the 
constitution.  But perhaps some of these duties concerned 
the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are nowhere 
described.  The chief magistracy was the strategia (tenable 
every second year), which combined with an unrestricted command 
in the field a large measure of civil authority. Besides 
being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general) had 
practically the sole power of introducing measures before the 
assembly.  The ten elective demiurgi, who presided over this 
body, formed a kind of cabinet, and pethaps acted as departmental 
chiefs.  We also hear of an under-strategus, a secretary, a 
cavalry commander and an admiral.  All these higher officers 
were unpaid.  Philopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of 
assembly from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent 
communities on an equal footing with their former suzerains. 

The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage; it summoned 
contingents, imposed taxes and fined or coerced refractory members. 

The first federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 
266-263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 
243-241 against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 
and 229 with Aetolia against Demetrius.  A greater danger 
arose (227-223) from the attacks of Cleomenes III. (q.v.). 
Owing to Aratus's irresolute generalship, the indolence of 
the rich burghers and the inadequate provision for levying 
troops and paying mercenaries, the league lost several battles 
and much of its territory; but rather than compromise with 
the Spartan Gracchus the assembly negotiated with Antigonus 
Doson, who recovered the lost districts but retained Corinth 
for himself (223-221). Similarly the Achaeans could not 
check the incursions of Aetolian adventurers in 220-218, 
and when Philip V. came to the rescue he made them tributary 
and annexed much of the Peloponnese. Under Philopoemen the 
league with a reorganized army routed the Aetolians (210) 
and Spartans (207, 201).  After their benevolent neutrality 
during the Macedonian war the Roman general, T. Quinctius 
Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and sanctioned 
the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus bringing 
the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control.  The league 
even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (190). 
The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was forbidden by 
Rome.  Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained unwilling 
members.  After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats initiated a 
strongly philo-Roman policy, declared war against King Perseus 
and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia. This agitation 
induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent Achaeans, and, 
failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain them seventeen 
years.  These hostages, when restored in 150, swelled the 
ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders, to 
cover their maladministration at home, precipitated a war 
by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome.  The federal troops 
were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus 
Masedonicus, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus 
(146). The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not 
in name), and took measures to isolate the communities (see 
POLYBIUS). Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising 
the dependent cities of Peloponnese and central Greece; this 
body sat at Argos and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment. 

The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper 
provision for securing efficient armies and regular 
payment of imposts, and for dealing with disaffected 
members.  Moreover, owing to difficulties of travel, the 
assembly and magistracies were practically monopolized 
by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in their own 
interest.  But their rule was mostly judicious, and when at 
last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the 
country.  On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean 
league to have combined city autonomy with an organized 
central administration, and in this way to have postponed 
the entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century. 

CHIEF SOURCES.--Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii., 
xxviii.),who is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., 
xxxviii., &c.); Pausanias vii. 9-24; Strabo viii. 384; F. 
Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893, London), chs. 
v.-ix.; M. Dubois, Les lignes Etolienne et Acheenne 
(Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G. Hertzberg, 
Geschichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig, 
1866); L. Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863); E. 
Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 
169, 187, 198, 201; W.. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionunn 
Graecarum (Leipzig, 1898--1901), 236, 282, 316; H. Francotte 
in Musee Belge (1906), pp. 4-20.  See also art. ROME, 
History, ii. ``The Republic,'' sect.  B(b). (M. O. B. C.) 

ACHAEANS ('Achaioi, Lat. Achivi), one of the four 
chief divisions of the ancient greek peoples, descended, 
according to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of 
Hellen.  This Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely 
with the Ionians, but historically they approach nearer to 
the Aeolians. Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of 
Achaeus.  In the Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans 
are the master race in Greece; they are represented both in 
Homer and in all later traditions as having come into Greece 
about three generations before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.), 
i.e. about 1300 B.C. They found the land occupied by a 
people known by the ancients as Pelasgians, who continued 
down to classical times the main element in the population 
even in the states under Achaean and later under Dorian rule.  
In some cases it formed a serf class, e.g. the Penestae in 
Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and the Gymnesii at Argos, 
whilst it practically composed the whole population of Arcadia 
and Attica, which never came under either Achaean or Dorian 
rule.  This people had dwelt in the Aegean from the Stone 
Age, and, though still in the Bronze Age at the Achaean 
conquest, had made great advances in the useful and ornamental 
arts.  They were of short stature, with dark hair and eyes, 
and generally dolichocephalic.  Their chief centres were 
at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each 
being ruled by ancient lines of kings.  In Argolis Proetus 
built Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the 
lead until the Achaean conquest.  All the ancient dynasties 
traced their descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the 
Achaean conquest was the chief male divinity of Greece and the 
islands.  The Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European 
language adopted by their conquerors with slight modifications. 
(See further PELASGIANS for a discussion of other views.) 

The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and 
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, 
Who with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity. 
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into 
Phthiotis.  The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops, 
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master 
of Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship 
of Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia.  
They brought with them iron, which they used for their long 
swords and for their cutting implements; the costume of both 
sexes was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used 
round shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped 
or rectaogular shields of the latter; they fastened their 
garments with brooches, and burned their dead instead of 
burying them as did the Pelasgians.  They introduced a special 
style of ornament (``geometric'') instead of that of the 
Bronze Age, characterized by spirals and marine animals and 
plants.  The Achaeans, or Hellenes, as they were later 
termed, were on this hypothesis one of the fair-haired tribes 
of upper Europe known to the ancients as Keltoi (Celts), 
who from time to time have pressed down over the Alps into 
the southern lands, successively as Achaeans, Gauls, Goths 
and Franks, and after the conquest of the indigenous small 
dark race in no long time died out under climatic conditions 
fatal to their physique and morale.  The culture of the 
Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent with that 
of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hallstatt) 
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova). 

See W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a 
detailed discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway 
and J. L. Myres in the Classical Review, vol. xvi. 1902, 
pp. 68-93, 135. See also J. B. Bury's History of Greece 
(1902) and art. in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xv., 1895, 
pp. 217 foll.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek Epic 
(1907), chap. ii.; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906); 
G. Busolt, Griech.  Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. 
B. Monro's ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. RI.) 

ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI), the eponymous ancestor of the royal 
house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, ``a clan fretre of the 
Pasargadae'' (Herod. i. 125), the leading Persian tribe. According 
to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod. iii. 75, vii. 
11, he was the father of Teispes, the great-grandfather of 
Cyrus.  Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians 
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name. 
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely 
the mythical ancestor of the family cannot be decided.  
According to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an 
eagle.  We learn from Cyrus's proclamation that Teispes and 
his successors had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of 
Elam (Susiana), Where they ruled as vassals of the Median 
kings, until Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian 
empire.  After the death of Cambyses, the younger line of 
the Achaemenidae came to the throne with Darius, the son 
of Hystaspes, who was, like Cyrus, the great-grandson of 
Teispes.  Cyrus, Darius and all the later kings of Persia 
call themselves Achaemenides (Hakhamanishiya). With 
Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became extinct and 
the Persian empire came to an end (330).  The adjective 
Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent 
of ``Persian'' (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See PERSIA. 

The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother of 
Xerxes.  After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became 
satrap of Egypt (484 B.C.); he commanded the Persian 
fleet at Salamis, and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain 
by Inarus, the leader of the second rebellion of Egypt. 

ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753--1821), Prussian chemist, was born 
at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern, in 
Silesia, on the 20th of April 1821.  He was a pioneer in 
turning to practical account A. S. Marggraf's discovery 
of the presence of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of 
the 18th century he was producing considerable quantities 
of beet-sugar, though by a very imperfect process, at 
Kunern, on an estate which was granted him about 1800 by 
the king of Prussia.  There too he carried on a school of 
instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an international 
reputation.  For a time he was director of the physics 
class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published 
several volumes of chemical and physical researches, 
discovering among other things a method of working platinum. 

ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born On the 
10th of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala University, 
where he was a pupil of Linnaeus.  He graduated M.D. at Lund in 
1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany at Wadstena 
Academy.  He devoted himself to the study of lichens, and all 
his publications were connected with that class of plants, his 
Lichenographia Universalis (Gottingen, 1804) being the most 
important.  He died at Wadstena on the 13th of August 1819. 

ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's 
Aeneid. The expression ``fidus Achates'' has 
become proverbial for a loyal and devoted companion. 

ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, ``white river''), the 
largest river in Greece (130 m.).  It rises in Mt. Pindus, 
and, dividing Aetolla from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian 
Sea. In the lower part of its course the river winds through 
fertile, marshy plains. Its water is charged with fine 
mud, which is deposited along its banks and at its mouth, 
where a number of small islands (Echinades) have been 
formed.  It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuosity; 
and its upper portion was called by some Inachus, the 
name Acholous being restricted to the shorter eastern 
branch.  Acholous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (Il. xxi. 
193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several 
other rivers in Greece.  The Dame appears in cult and in 
mythology as that of the typical river-god; a familiar 
legend is that of his contest with Heracles for Deianira. 

ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815-- ), German landscape painter, 
was born at Cassel in 1815.  He began his art education in 
1827 in Dusseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy. In 
his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German 
romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the 
strooger influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new 
channels, and he became the founder of the German realistic 
school.  Although his landscapes evince too much of his aim at 
picture-making and lack personal temperament, he is a master 
of technique, and is historically important as a reformer.  A 
number of his finest works are to be found at the Berlin National 
Gallery, the New Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at 
Dresden, Darmstadt, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg. 

His brother, OSWALD ACHENBACH (1827--1905), was born 
at Dusseldorf and received his art education from 
Andreas.  His landscapes generally dwell on the rich and 
glowing effects of colour which drew him to the Bay of 
Naples and the neighbourhood of Rome.  He is represented 
at most of the important German galleries of modern art. 

ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1719-1772), German statisticiao, 
was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719.  He 
studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at 
the last-named university.  He removed to Marburg in 1746, 
where for two years he read lectures on history and on 
the law of nature and of nations.  Here, too, he commenced 
those inquiries in statistics by which his name became 
known.  In 1748 he was given a professorship at Gottingen, 
where he resided till his death in 1772.  His chief works 
were connected with statistics. The Staatsverfassung der 
heutigen vornehmsten europaischen Reiche appeared first in 
1749, and revised editions were published in 1762 and 1768. 

ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter. As a 
punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their contest 
with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over which 
departed souls were ferried by Charon.  The name (meaning the 
river of ``woe'') was eventually used to designate the whole 
of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. i. 41, sec. sec.  50, 54). 

ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i. 
21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the 
court of Esarhaddon at Nineveh.  There are references in 
Rumanian, Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic and Syriac literature 
to a legend, of which the hero is Ahikar (for Armenian, 
Arabic and Syriac, see The Story of Ahikar, F. C. 
Conybeare, Rondel Harris and Agnes Lewis, Camb. 1898), and 
it was pointed out by George Hoffmann in 1880 that this 
Ahikar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are identical.  It 
has been contended that there are traces of the legend even 
in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity 
between it and the Life of Aesop by Maximus Planudes (ch. 
xxiii.-xxxii.).  An eastern sage Achaicarus is mentioned by 
Strabo.  It would seem, therefore, that the legend was 
undoubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship 
of the various versions can scarcely be recovered. 

See the Jewish Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia Biblica; 
also M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. 2, 1898, p. 163 f. 

ACHILL (``Eagle''), the largest island off Ireland, separated 
from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow 
Achill Sound.  Pop. (1901) 4929.  It is included in the county 
Mayo, in the western parliamentary division.  Its shape is 
triangular, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and 12 from 
N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m.  The island is mountainous, 
the highest points being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the 
west, and Shevemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme 
western point is the bold and rugged promontory of Achill 
Head, and the northwestern and south-western coasts consist 
of ranges of magnificent cliffs, reaching a height of 800 
ft. in the cliffs of Minaun, near the village of Keel on the 
south.  The seaward slope of Croaghaun is abrupt and in 
parts precipitous, and its jagged flanks, together with 
the serrated ridge of the Head and the view over the broken 
coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and Galway, 
attract many visitors to the island during summer. Desolate 
bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the mountains; 
and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by fishing and 
tillage, or by seeking employment in England and Scotland 
during the harvesting.  The Congested Districts Board, 
however, have made efforts to improve the Condition of the 
people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway 
to Achill Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the 
sound, improved communications and make for prosperity.  
Dugort, the principal village, contains several hotels.  
Here is a Protestant colony. known as ``the Settlement'' and 
founded in 1834. There are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, 
stone circles and the like) at Slievemore and elsewhere. 

ACHILLES (Gr. 'Achilleus), one of the most famous of the 
hegendary heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure 
of Homer's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of 
Peleus, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, by 
Thetis, one of the Nereids.  His grandfather Aeacus was, 
according to the legend, the son of Zeus himself.  The story 
of the childhood of Achilles in Homer differs from that given 
by later writers. According to Homer, he was brought up by 
his mother at Phthia with his cousin and intimate friend 
Patroclus, and learned the arts of war and eloquence from 
Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron taught him music and 
medicine.  When summoned to the war against Troy, he 
set sail at once with his Myrmidones in fifty ships. 

Post-Homeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque 
details which bear all the evidence of their primitive 
origin, and which in some cases belong to the common stock 
of Indo-Germanic myths.  According to one of these stories 
Thetis used to lay the infant Achilles every night under 
live coals, anointing him by day with ambrosia, in order 
to make him immortal. Peleus, having surprised her in the 
act, in alarm snatched the boy from the flames; whereupon 
Thetis fled back to the sea in anger (Apollodorus iii. 13; 
Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869). According to another story Thetis 
dipped the child in the waters of the river Styx, by which 
his whole body became invulnerable, except that part of his 
heel by which she held him; whence the proverbial ``heel 
of Achilles'' (Statius, Achilleis, i. 269).  With this 
may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero 
Sigurd.  The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron, 
who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him 
with the entrails of lions and the marrow of bears and wild 
boars.  To prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis 
disguised him in female apparel, and hid him among the maidens 
at the court of King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, 
coming to the island in the disguise of a pedlar, spread 
his wares, including a spear and shield, before the king's 
daughters, among whom was Achilles.  Then he caused an alarm 
to be sounded; whereupon the girls fled, but Achilles seized 
the arms, and so revealed himself, and was easily persuaded 
to follow the Greeks (Hyginus, Fab. 96; Statius, Ach. 
i.; Apollodorus, l.c.). This story may be compared with 
the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur or Perceval. 

During the first nine years of the war as described in the 
Iliad, Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took 
twelve cities. In the tenth year occurred the quarrel with 
Agamemnon.  In order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had 
visited the camp with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored 
Chryseis, his prize of war, to her father, a priest of the 
god, but as a compensation deprived Achilles, who had 
openly demanded this restoration, of his favourite slave 
Briseis.  Achilles withdrew in wrath to his tent, where 
he consoled himself with music and singing, and refused 
to take any further part in the war.  During his absence 
the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed 
his anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate 
him, lending him his chariot and armour.  The slaying of 
Patroclus by the Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his 
indifference; eager to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied 
forth, equipped with new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, 
slew Hector, and, after dragging his body round the walls 
of Troy, restored it to the aged King Priam at his earnest 
entreaty.  The Iliad concludes with the funeral rites of 
Hector.  It makes no mention of the death of Achilles, but 
hints at its taking place ``before the Scaean gates.'' In 
the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have been 
buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus, at 
a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his 
memory; his soul dwells in the lower world, where it is seen by 
Odysseus.  The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms 
is also mentioned.  The Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus 
took up the story of the Iliad. It told how Achilles, 
having slain the Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the 
Aethiopians, who had come to the assistance of the Trojans, 
was himself slain by Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was 
guided by Apollo to his vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vi. 
57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600). Again, it is said that Achilles, 
enamoured of Polyxena, the daughter of Priam, offered to 
join the Trojans on condition that he received her hand in 
marriage.  This was agreed to; Achilles went unarmed to the 
temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was slain by Paris (Dietys 
iv. 11). According to some, he was slain by Apollo himself 
(Quint.  Smyrn. iii. 61; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3). 
Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris. 

Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the 
pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth 
of the Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his 
wife; or that he was carried to the Elysian fields, where 
his wife was Medea or Helen.  He was worshipped in many 
places: at Leuke, where he was honoured with offerings 
and games; in Sparta, Elis, and especially Sigeum on 
the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus was erected. 

Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated 
for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and 
grief, at the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, 
full of affection for his mother and respect for the gods.  
In works of art he is represented, like Ares, as a young man 
of splendid physical proportions, with bristling hair like a 
horse's mane and a slender neck.  Although the figure of the 
hero frequently occurs in groups---such as the work of Scopas 
showing his removal to the island of Leuke by Poseidon and 
Thetis, escorted by Neroids and Tritons, and the combat 
over his dead body in the Aeginetan sculptures--no isolated 
statue or bust can with certainty be identified with him; 
the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa Borghese), which 
was thought to have the best claim, is generally taken for 
Ares or possibly Alexander.  There are many vase and wall 
paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his 
life. Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: 
``without a lip'' (a', cheilos), Achilles being regarded 
as a river-god, a stream which overflows its banks, or, 
referring to the story that, when Thetis laid him in the 
fire, one of his lips, which he had licked, was consumed 
(Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); ``restrainer of the people,' 
(eche-laos); ``healer of sorrow'' (ache-loios); ``the 
obscure'' (connected with achlus, ``mist''); ``snakeborn'' 
(echis), the snake being one of the chief forms taken by 
Thetis.  The most generally received view makes him a 
god of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning. 

See E. H. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen, ii., Achilleis, 
1887; F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus, 1865--1882; 
articles in Pauly-Wissowa, Rcal-Encyclopadie der classischen 
Altertumswissenschait, Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire 
des Antiquites and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; 
see also T. W. Allen in Classical Review, May 1906; A. E. 
Crawley, J. G. Frazer, A. Lang, Ibid., June, July 1893, 
on Achilles in Scyros.  In the article GREEK ART, fig. 12 
represents the conflict over the dead body of Achilles. 

ACHILLES TATIUS, of Alexandria, Greek rhetorician, author 
of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and 
Cleitophon, flourished about A.D. 450, perhaps later.  
Suidas, who alone calls him Statius, says that he became a 
Christian and eventually a bishop--like Hellodorus, whom he 
imitated--but there is no evidence of this.  Photius, while 
severely criticizing his lapses into indecency, highly praises 
the conciseness and clearness of his style, which, however, 
is artificial and laboured.  Many of the incidents of the 
romance are highly improbable, and the characters, except the 
heroine, fail to enlist sympathy.  The descriptive passages 
and digressions, although tedious and introduced without 
adequate reasons, are the best part of the work.  The large 
number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Editio 
princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by (Jacobs, 
1821; litter editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858.  There 
are translations in many languages; in English by Anthony 
Hodges], 1638, and R. Smith, 1855.  See also ROMANCE.) 

Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a 
Miscellaneous History af Famous Men, and a treatise On 
the Sphere. Part of the last is extant under the title 
of An Introduction to the Phaenomena of Aratus. But 
if the writer is the prudentissimus Achilles referred 
to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his Matheseos 
libri, iv. 10, 17 (ed. Krolf), he must have lived long 
before the author of Leucippe. The fragment was first 
published in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petavius, 
with a Latin translation, 1630.  Nothing definite is known 
as to the authorship of the other works, which are lost. 

ACHILLINI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1512), Italian philosopher, born 
on the 29th of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as a 
lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and 
Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle.  His philosophical 
works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, 
and reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551 
and 1568. He was also distinguished as an anatomist (see 
ANATOMY), among his writhigs being Corporis humani Anatomia 
(Venice, 1516-1524), and Anatomicae Annotationes (Bologna, 
1520).  He died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512. 

His brother, GIOVANNI FILOTEO ACHILLINI (1466--1533), 
was the author of Il Viridario and other writings, verse 
and prose, and his grand-nephew, CLAUDIO ACHILLINI 
(1574--1640), was a lawyer who achieved some notoriety 
as a versifier of the school of the Secentisti. 

ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. achaimienis, an Indian 
plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order 
Gesneraceae (to which belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), 
natives of tropical America, and well known in cultivation 
as stove or warm greenhouse plants.  They are herbaceous 
perennials, generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome 
flowers. The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and 
varies widely in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, 
scarlet, blue or purple.  A large number of hybrids exist in 
cultivation.  The plants are grown in the stove till the 
flowering period, when they may be removed to the greenhouse.  
They are propagated by cuttings, or from the leaves, which are 
cut off and pricked in well-drained pots of sandy soil, or by 
the scales from the underground tubes, which are rubbed off 
and sown like seeds, or by the seeds, which are very small. 

ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a Dutch government forming the 
northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an 
estimated area of 20,544 sq. m.  The government is divided 
into three assistant-residencien--the east coast, the west 
coast and Great Achin.  The physical geography (see SUMATRA) 
is imperfectly understood.  Ranges of mountains, roughly 
parallel to the long axis of the island, and characteristic 
of the whole of it, appear to occupy the interior, and reach 
an extreme height of about 12,000 ft. in the south-west 
of the government.  The coasts are low and the rivers 
insignificant, rising in the coast ranges and flowing through 
the coast states (the chief of which are Pedir, Gighen and 
Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak and Langsar on the E.; 
Kluwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W.). The chief ports are 
Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin (formerly Kraton, 
now the seat of the Dutch government), Segli on the N., Edi 
on the E., and Analabu or Melabuh on the W. Kotaraja lies 
near the northern extremity of the island, and consists 
of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered ill 
enclosed groups called kampongs, and buried in a forest of 
fruit-trees.  It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in 
the valley of the Achin 1iver, which in its upper part, near 
Sehmun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. 
and a depth of 1 1/2 ft.; but in its lower course, north of 
its junction with the Krung Darn, the valley broadens to 12 1/2 
m.  The marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on 
higher ground by kampongs full of trees.  The river at 
its mouth is 327 ft. broad and 20-33 ft. deep, but before 
it lies a sandbank covered at low water by a depth of only 4 
ft.  The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja occupies the old Achinese 
citadel.  The town is connected by rail with Olehleh, and 
the line also extends up the valley.  The construction 
of another railway has been undertaken along the east 
coast.  The following industries are of some importance 
--gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of 
pottery, fishing and coasting trade.  The annual value of the 
exports (chiefly pepper) is about L. 58,000; of the imports, 
from L. 165,000 to L. 250,000.  The population of Achin in 
1898 was estimated at 535,432, of whom 328 were Europeans, 
3933 Chinese, 30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics. 

The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, 
somewhat taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true 
Malays, regard themselves as distinct from the other 
Sumatrans.  Their nobles claim Arab descent.  They were at 
one time Hinduized, as is evident from their traditions, 
the many Sanskrit words in their language, and their 
general appearance, which suggests Hindu as well as Arab 
blood.  They are Mahommedans, and although Arab influence has 
declined, their nobles still wear the Moslem flowing robe and 
turban (though the women go unveiled), and they use Arabic 
script.  The chief characteristic is their love of fighting; 
every man is a soldier and every village has its army.  They 
are industrious and skilful agriculturists, metal-workers and 
weavers.  They build excellent ships.  Their chief amusements 
are gambling and opium-smoking.  Their social organization is 
communal.  They live in kampongs, which combine to form 
mukims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest English 
term), which again combine to form sagis, of which there are 
three.  Achin literature, unlike the language, is entirely 
Malay; it includes poetry, a good deal of theology and several 
chronicles.  Northern Sumatra was visited by several European 
travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo, Friar 
Odorico and Nicolo Conti.  Some of these as well as Asiatic 
writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly 
occupied the position of Achin.  But the first voyager to visit 
Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan 
d'Acunha's fleet, in 1506.  It was then a mere dependency of 
the adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, 
formed the only states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the 
title of sultan. Yet before twenty years had passed Achin 
had not only gained independence, but had swallowed up all 
other states of northern Sumatra.  It attained its climax of 
power in the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607--1636), under 
whom the subject coast extended from Aru opposite Malacca 
round by the north to Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board 
of not less than 1100 miles; and besides this, the king's 
supremacy was owned by the large island of Nias, and by the 
continental Malay states of Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak. 

The chief attraction of Achin to traders in the 17th century 
must have been gold.  No place in the East, unless Japan, 
was so abundantly supplied with gold.  The great repute 
of Achin as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to 
this port the first Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) 
commercial ventures to the Indies were directed.  Sir James 
Lancaster, the English commodore, carried letters from Queen 
Elizabeth to the king of Achin, and was well received by the 
prince then reigning, Alauddin Shah.  Another exchange of 
letters took place between King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 
1613.  But native caprice and jealousy of the growing force 
of the European nations in these seas, and the rivalries 
between those nations themselves, were destructive of sound 
trade; and the English factory, though several times set up, 
was never long maintained.  The French made one great effort 
(1621) to establish relations with Achin, but nothing came of 
it.  Still the foreign trade of Achin, though subject to 
interruptions, was important.  William Dampier (c. 1688) 
and others speak of the number of foreign merchants settled 
there--English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, Chinese, &c. Dampier 
says the anchorage was rarely without ten or fifteen sail of 
different nations, bringing vast quantities of rice, as well 
as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium.  Besides the Chinese 
merchants settled at Achin, others used to come annually with 
the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived in June.  
A regular fair was then established, which lasted two months, 
and was known as the China camp, a great resort of foreigners. 

Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of 
the first independent king of Achin; and they had little 
remission till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of 
Malacca (1641). Not less than ten times before that event 
were armaments despatched from Achin to reduce Malacca, and 
more than once its garrison was hard pressed.  One of these 
armadas, equipped by Iskandar Muda in 1615, gives an idea of 
the king's resources. It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 
were galleys, and among these a hundred were greater than 
any then used in Europe. Sixty thousand men were embarked. 

On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow 
was placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured 
the oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three 
more queens were allowed to reign successively.  In 
1699 the Arab or fanatical party suppressed female 
government, and put a chief of Arab blood on the throne.  
The remaining history of Achin was one of rapid decay. 

After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816, a 
good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring British 
colonies to the maintenance of influence in Achin; and in 
1819 a treaty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta 
government which excluded other European nationalities from 
fixed residence in Achin.  When the British government, in 
1824, made a treaty with the Netherlands, surrendering the 
remaining British settlements in Sumatra in exchange for 
certain possessions on the continent of Asia, no reference 
was made in the articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an 
understanding was exchanged that it should be modified, while no 
proceedings hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch. 

This reservation was formally abandoned by the British government 
in a convention signed at the Hague on the 2nd of November 1871; 
and in March 1873 the government of Batavia declared war upon 
Achin.  Doubtless there was provocation, for the sultan 
of Achin had not kept to the understanding that he was to 
guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign traders; but the 
necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in Holland.  A 
Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, and attacked the 
palace.  It was defeated with considerable loss, including 
that of the general (Kohler).The approach of the south-west 
monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the attempt; but 
hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January 1874.  
The natives, however, maintained themselves in the interior, 
inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a guerilla 
warfare.  General van der Hoyden appeared to have subdued 
them in 1878-81, but they broke out again in 1896 under 
the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with the 
Dutch.  He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was not 
ended.  General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign in 
1898 seq., but in 1901, the principal Achinese chiefs on the 
north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to 
the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people.  Several expeditions 
involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4, 
and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender 
escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued. 

See P. J. Vein, Atchini en zijne betrekkingen tot Nederland 
(Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjeh en de Atjehers (Leyden, 
1877); Kielstra, Beschrijving van dcn Atjeh-oorlog (The 
Hague, 1883); Van Langen, Atjeh's Wesskust, Tijdschrift 
Aardrjjko, Genotktsch. (Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; 
Renaud, Jaarboek van het Mynwezen (1882); J. Jacobs, 
Het famille-en Kampongleven op Groot Atjeh (Leyden, 
1894); C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia, 1894). 

ACHOLI, a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on 
the east bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, about a hundred miles north 
of Albert Nyanza.  They are akin to the Shilluks of the White 
Nile.  They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with 
wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some 
pierce the ears.  Their dwelling-places are circular huts 
with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, 
jars of grain and a sunk fireplace.  The interior walls are 
daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional 
designs in red, white or grey.  The Acholi are good hunters, 
using nets and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle.  In 
war they use spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox 
hide.  Their dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, 
Lango and ja-Luo tribes, all four being practically pure 
Nilotic.  Their religion is a vague fetishism.  By early 
explorers the Acholi were called Shuli, a name now obsolete. 

ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, chroma, colour), 
in optics, the property of transmitting white light, 
without decomposing it into the colours of the spectrum; 
``achromatic lenses'' are lenses which possess this 
property. (See LENS, ABERRATION and PHOTOGRAPHY.) 

ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be 
sour), the name loosely applied to any sour substance; 
in chemistry it has a more precise meaning, denoting a 
substance containing hydrogen which may be replaced by 
metals with the formation of salts. An acid may therefore be 
regarded as a salt of hydrogen.  Of the general characters 
of acids we may here notice that they dissolve alkaline 
substances, certain metals, &c., neutralize alkalies and 
redden many blue and violet vegetable colouring matters. 

The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of 
acids.  Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced 
when wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the 
Greeks and Romans, who considered it to be typical of acid 
substances; this is philologically illustrated by the words 
oxus, acidus, sour, and oxos, acetus, vinegar.  
Other acids became known during the alchemistic period; 
and the first attempt at a generalized conception of these 
substances was made by Paracelsus, who supposed them to contain 
a principle which conferred the properties of sourness and 
solubility.  Somewhat similar views were promoted by Becher, 
who named the principle acidum primogenium, and held 
that it was composed of the Paracelsian elements ``earth'' 
and ``water.'' At about the same time Boyle investigated 
several acids; he established their general reddening of 
litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic substances, 
and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with alkalies.  
Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who held that 
acids were the fundamentals of all salts, and the erroneous 
idea that sulphuric acid was the principle of all acids. 

The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and 
combustion necessitated the view that many acids, such as 
those produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, 
carbonic, &c., should be regarded as elementary substances.  
This principle more or less prevailed until it was overthrown 
by Lavoisier's doctrine that oxygen was the acid-producing 
element; Lavoisier being led to this conclusion by the almost 
general observation that acids were produced when non-metallic 
elements were burnt.  The existence of acids not containing 
oxygen was, in itself, sufficient to overthrow this idea, 
but, although Berthollet had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted 
hydrogen (or hydrosulphuric acid) contained no oxygen, 
Lavoisier's theory held its own until the researches of Davy, 
Gay-Lussac and Thenard on hydrochloric acid and chlorine, 
and of Gay-Lussac on hydrocyanic acid, established beyond all 
cavil that oxygen was not essential to acidic properties. 

In the Lavoisierian nomenclature acids were regarded as 
binary oxygenated compounds, the associated water being 
relegated to the position of a mere solvent.  Somewhat 
similar views were held by Berzelius, when developing his 
dualistic conception of the composition of substances.  In 
later years Berzelius renounced the ``oxygen acid'' theory, 
but not before Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had 
submitted that hydrogen and not oxygen was the acidifying 
principle. Opposition to the ``hydrogen-acid'' theory centred 
mainly about the hypothetical radicals which it postulated; 
moreover, the electrochemical theory of Berzelius exerted 
a stultifying influence on the correct views of Davy and 
Dulong.  In Berzelius' system potassium sulphate is to be 
regarded as K2O+.SO3-; electrolysis should simply effect 
the disruption of the positive and negative components, potash 
passing with the current, and sulphuric acid against the 
current.  Experiment showed, however, that instead of only 
potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is also 
liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but 
readily explained by the ``hydrogen-acid'' theory.  By this 
theory potassium is liberated at the negative electrode and 
combines immediately with water to form potash and hydrogen. 

Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig promoted 
his doctrine of polybasic acids.  Dalton's idea that elements 
preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions had as an 
immediate inference that metallic oxides contained one atom 
of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple expansion 
of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined with 
one atom of acid to form one atom of a neutral salt.  This 
view, which was specially supported by Gay-Lussac and Leopold 
Gmelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all 
acids were monobasic.  The untenability of this theory was 
proved by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric 
acids; for he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- 
and metaphosphoric acids contained respectively 3, 2 and 
1 molecules of ``basic water'' (which were replaceable by 
metallic oxides) and one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P2 
O5.  Graham's work was developed by Liebig, who called into 
service many organic acids---citric, tartaric, cyanuric, 
comenic and meconic---and showed that these resembled 
phosphoric acid; and he established as the criterion of 
polybasicity the existence of compound salts with different 
metallic oxides.  In formulating these facts Liebig at 
first retained the dualistic conception of the structure of 
acids; but he shortly afterwards perceived that this view 
lacked generality since the halogen acids, which contained 
no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in properties 
to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded. This 
and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic 
hypothesis and the adoption, on the ground of probability, 
and much more from convenience, of the tenet that ``acids 
are particular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter 
can be replaced by metals''; while, on the constitution of 
salts, he held that ``neutral salts are those compounds 
of the same class in which the hydrogen is replaced by its 
equivalent in metal.  The substances which we at present 
term anhydrous acids (acid oxides) only become, for the 
most part, capable of forming salts with metallic oxides 
after the addition of water, or they are compounds which 
decompose these oxides at somewhat high temperatures.'' 

The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasicity as 
enunciated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of 
the modern theory.  A polybasic acid contains more than one 
atom of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in 
such an acid the replacement may be entire with the formation 
of normal salts, partial with the formation of acid salts, 
or by two or more different metals with the formation of 
compound salts (see SALTS). These facts may be illustrated 
with the aid of orthophosphoric acid, which is tribasic:-- 
         Acid.             Normal salt.            Acid salts.
     H3PO4           Ag3PO4        Na2HPO4; NaH2PO4
     Phosphoric           Silver phosphate.            Acid sodium
       acid.                                           phosphates.
                       Compound salts.
          Mg(NH4)PO4;        Na(NH4)HPO4.
          Magnesium ammonium          Microcosmic
              phosphate;                 salt.
Reference should be made to the articles CHEMICAL 
ACTION, THERMOCHEMISTRY and SOLUTIONS, for 
the theory of the strength or avidity of acids. 

Organic Acids.---Organic acids are characterized by the 
presence of the monovalent group--CO.OH, termed the carboxyl 
group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals 
with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the 
formation of esters.  The basicity of an organic acid, as 
above defined, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups 
present. Oxy-acids are carboxyllc acids which also contain 
a hydroxyl group; similarly we may have aldehyde-acids, 
ketone-acids, &c. Since the more important acids are treated 
under their own headings, or under substances closely allied to 
them, we shall here confine ourselves to general relations. 

Classification.--It is convenient to distinguish between 
aliphatic and aromatic acids; the first named being derived from 
open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon 
nuclei.  Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided 
according to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon.  Methane 
and its homologues give origin to the ``paraffin'' or ``fatty 
series'' of the general formula Cn H2n+1COOH, ethylene 
gives origin to the acrylic acid series, CnH2n-1COOH, and 
soon.  Dibasic acids of the paraffin series of hydrocarbons 
have the general formula CnH2(COOH)2n; malonic and succinic 
acids are important members.  The isomerism which occurs as 
soon as the molecule contains a few carbon atoms renders any 
classification based on empirical molecular formulae somewhat 
ineffective; on the other hand, a scheme based on molecular 
structure would involve more detail than it is here possible to 
give.  For further information, the reader is referred to 
any standard work on organic chemistry.  A list of the acids 
present in fats and oils is given in the article OILS. 

Syntheses of Organic Acids.---The simplest syntheses are 
undoubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained 
directly from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon 
monoxide. The simplest of all include: (1) the synthesis 
of sodium oxalate by passing carbon dioxide over metallic 
sodium heated to 350 deg. -360 deg. ; (2) the synthesis of potassium 
formate from moist carbon dioxide and potassium, potassium 
carbonate being obtained simultaneously; (3) the synthesis 
of potassium acetate and propionate from carbon dioxide 
and sodium methide and sodium ethide; (4) the synthesis of 
aromatic acids by the interaction of carbon dioxide, sodium 
and a bromine substitution derivative; and (5) the synthesis 
of aromatic oxy-acids by the interaction of carbon dioxide 
and sodium phenolates (see SALICYLIC ACID). (Carbon monoxide 
takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate from sodium 
hydrate, or soda lime (at 200 deg. -220 deg. ), and of sodium acetate 
and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium ethylate at 
160 deg. --200 deg. .  Other reactions which introduce carboxyl groups 
into aromatic groups ave: the action of carbonyl chloride on 
aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride, 
acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decomposed 
by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride 
Cl.CO.NH2, cyanuric acid (CONH)3, nascent cyanic acid, 
or carbanile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium 
chloride, acid-amides being obtained which are readily 
decomposed to give the acid.  An important nucleus-synthetic 
reaction is the saponification of nitriles, which may 
be obtained by the interaction of potassium cyanide with 
a halogen substitution derivative or a sulphonic acid. 

Acids frequently result as oxidation products, being almost 
invariably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation.  There 
are certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be 
successfully applied to the synthesis of acids.  Thus primary 
alcohols and aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic 
series, readily yield on oxidation acids containing the same 
number of carbon atoms.  These reactions may be shown thus:- 
          R.CH2OH -> R.CHO -> R.CO.OH.
In the case of aromatic aldehydes, acids are also obtained 
by means of ``Cannizzaro's reaction'' (see BENZALDEHYDE). 
An important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is 
from hydrocarbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, 
or methylbenzene, yields benzoic acid, the xylenes, or 
dimethyl-benzene, yield methyl-benzoic acids and phthalic 
acids.  Ketones, secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols 
yield a mixture of acids on oxidation.  We may also notice 
the disruption of unsaturated acids at the double linkage 
into a mixture of two acids, when fused with potash. 

In the preceding instances the carboxyl group has been 
synthesized or introduced into a molecule; we have now to 
consider syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl 
groups.  Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the 
malonic acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are 
discussed under their own headings.  The electrosyntheses 
call for mention here.  It is apparent that metallic salts 
of organic acids would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, 
the positive ion being the metal, and the negative ion the 
acid residue.  Esters, however, are not ionized.  It is 
therefore apparent that a mixed salt and ester, for example 
KO2C.CH2.CH2.CO2C2H5, would give only two ions, viz. 
potassium and the rest of the molecule.  If a solution of 
potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane, 
carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner, 
normal potassium succinate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide, 
potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented:- 
 CH3.CO2 K       CH3 CO2 K*     CH2.CO K     CH2 CO2 K.
              |  -> |     +      +          |        | ->||    +      +
 CH3.CO2 K       CH3 CO2 K*     CH2.CO K     CH2 CO2 K.
By electrolysing a solution of potassium ethyl succinate, 
KO2C.(CH2)2CO2C2H5, the KO2C. groups are split 
off and the two residues .(CH2)2CO2C2H5 combine to 
form the ester (CH2)4(CO2C2H5)2.  In the same way, 
by electrolysing a mixture of a metallic salt and an ester, 
other nuclei may be condensed; thus potassium acetate and 
potassium ethyl succinate yield CH3.CH2.CH2.CO2C2H5. 

Reactions.--Organic acids yield metallic salts with bases, 
and ethereal salts or esters (q.v.), R.CO.OR', with alcohols. 
Phosphorus chlorides give acid chlorides, R.CO.Cl, the hydroxyl 
group being replaced by chlorine, and acid anhydrides, (R.CO)2O, 
a molecule of water being split off between two carboxyl 
groups.  The ammonium salts when heated lose one mobecule 
of water and are converted into acid-amides, R.CO.NH2, 
which by further dehydration yield nitriles, R.CN.  The 
calcium salts distilled with calcium formate yield aldehydes 
(q.v.); distilled with soda-lime, ketones (q.v.) result. 

ACIDALIUS, VALENS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic, 
was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg.  After studying at 
Rostock, Grelfswald and Helmstedt, and residing about 
three years in Italy, he settled at Breslau, where he is 
said to have embraced the Roman Catholic religion.  Early 
in 1595 he accepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty 
miles from Breslau, where he died of brain fever on the 
25th of May, at the age of twenty-eight.  His excessive 
application to study, and the attacks made upon him in 
connexion with a pamphlet of which he was reputed the 
author, doubtless hastened his premature end. Acidalius wrote 
notes on Velleius Paterculus (1590), Curtius (1594), the 
panegyrists, Tacitus and Plautus, published after his death. 

See Leuschner, Commeutatio de A. V. Vita, Moribus, 
et Scriptis (1757); F. Adam, ``Der Neisser Rektor,'' 
in Bericht der Philomathic in Neisse (1872). 

ACID-AMIDES, chemical compounds which may be considered 
as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with 
acidyl residues, the substances produced being known as 
primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the 
number of hydrogen atoms replaced.  Of these compounds, 
the primary amides of the type R.CO.NH2 are the most 
important.  They may be prepared by the dry distillation of 
the ammonium salts of the acids (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1882, 
15, p. 977), by the partial hydrolysis of the nitriles, by 
the action of ammonia or ammonium carbonate on acid chlorides 
or anhydrides, or by heating the esters (q.v.) with 
ammonia.  They are solid crystalline compounds (formamide 
excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the solubility, 
however, decreasing as the carbon content of the molecule 
increases.  They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up into 
their components when boiled with acids or alkanes.  They 
form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is 
passed into their ethereal solution; these compounds, 
however, are very unstable, being readily decomposed by 
water.  On the other hand, they show faintly acid properties 
since the hydrogen of the amide group can be replaced 
by metals to give such compounds as mercury acetamide 
(CH3CONH)2Hg.  Nitrous acid decomposes them, with elimination 
of nitrogen and the formation of the corresponding acid, 
     RCO.NH2 + ONOH = R.COOH + N2 + H2O.
When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yield 
nitriles. By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on 
the amides, they are converted into amines containing one 
carbon atom less than the original amide, a reaction which 
possesses great theoretical importance (A. W. Hofmann), 
  R.CONH2 -> R.CONHBr -> R.NH2 + K2CO3 + KBr + H2O.
Formamide, H.CONH2, is a liquid readily soluble in water, 
boillng at about 195 deg.  C. with partial decomposition.  
Acetamide, CH3.CONH2, is a white deliquescent crystalline 
solid, which melts at 82-83 deg.  C. and boils at 222 deg.  C. It 
is usually prepared by distilling ammonium acetate.  It 
is readily soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in 
ether.  Benzamide, C6H5.CONH2, crystallizes in leaflets 
which melt at 130 deg.  C. It is prepared by the action of 
ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride.  It yields a silver 
salt which with ethyl iodide forms benzimidoethyl ether, 
C6H5C: (NH).OC2H5, a behaviour which points to the 
silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imidobenzoic 
acid, C6H5C: (NH).OH (J. Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 
104). On the preparation of the substituted amides from 
the corresponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley (Journ.  
Chem.  Soc., 1901, 59, p. 391).  The secondary and tertiary 
amides of the types (RCO)2NH and (RCO)3N may be prepared 
by heating the primary amides or the nitriles with acids or 
acid anhydrides to 200 deg.  C. Thiamides of the type R.CSNH2 
are known, and result by the addition of sulphuretted 
hydrogen to the nitriles, or by the action of phosphorus 
pentasulphide on the acid-amides. They readily decompose on 
heating, and are easily hydrolysed by alkanes; they possess 
a somewhat more acid character than the acid-amides. 

ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short 
and straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on 
the right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown 
in the bas-reliefs found at Persepolis.  Among the Persian 
nobility it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a 
badge of distinction.  The acinaces was an object of religious 
worship with the Scythians and others (Herod. iv. 62). 

ACINETA (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial 
Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and 
cup-shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous budding. 
O. Butschli has separated off the genus Metacineta (for 
A. mystacina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission. 

ACINUS (Lat. for a berry), a term in botany applied to such 
fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small 
seedlike berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to 
grapestones.  By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy 
to similar granules or glands, or lobules of a gland. 

ACIREALE, a town and episcopal see of the province of 
Catania, Sicily; from the town of the same name it is distant 9 
m.  N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418.  It has some importance as 
a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans. 
It takes its name from the river Acis, into which, according 
to the legend, Acis, the lover of Galatea, was changed after 
he had been slain by Polyphemus.  The rocks which Polyphemus 
hurled at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de' 
Ciclopi, or Faraglioni, a little to the south of Acireale. 

ACIS, in Greek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the 
nymph Syntaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, was the lover 
of the Nereid Galatea.  His rival the Cyclops Polyphemus 
surprised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock. 
His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by 
Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jaci), 
which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, 
Met. xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punica, xiv. 221). 

ACKERMAN, FRANCIS (c. 1335--1387), Flemish soldier and 
diplomatist, was born at Ghent, and about 1380 became prominent 
during the struggle between the burghers of that town and 
Louis II. (de Male), count of Flanders.  He was partly 
responsible for inducing Philip van Artevelde to become first 
captain of the city of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of 
some troops scoured the surrounding country for provisions 
and thus saved Ghent from being starved into submission.  
By his diplomatic abilities he secured the assistance of 
the citizens of Brussels, Louvain and Liege, and, having 
been made admiral of the Flemish fleet, visited England 
and obtained a promise of help from King Richard II. After 
Artevelde's death in November 1382, he acted as leader of the 
Flemings, gained several victories and increased his fame by 
skilfully conducting a retreat from Damme to Ghent in August 
1385.  He took part in the conclusion of the treaty of peace 
between Ghent and Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, the 
successor of Count Louis, in December 1385.  Trusting in 
Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his friends, Ackerman 
remained in Flanders, and was murdered at Ghent on the 22nd 
of July 1387, leaving a memory of chivalry and generosity. 

See Jean Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. Luce 
and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, 
Chronodromon, edited hy K. de Lettenhove in the 
Chroniques rotatives a L'histoire de La Belgique sous 
la domination des ducs de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870). 

ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801), German 
physician, was born at Zeillenroda, in Upper Saxony, on the 
17th of February 1756, and died at Altdorf on the 9th of March 
1801.  At the age of fifteen he became a student of medicine 
at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom he followed to Gottingen 
in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle. 
A few years' practice at Stendal (1778-1799), where there 
were numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable 
original observations to his translation (1780-1783) of 
Bernardino Ramazzini's (1633-1714) treatise on diseases of 
artificers.  In 1786 he became professor of medicine at 
the university of Altdorf, in Franconia, occupying first 
the chair of chemistry, and then, from 1794 till his death 
in 1801, that of pathology and therapeutics. He wrote 
Institutiones Historiae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792) and 
Institutiones Therapiae Generalls (Nuremberg and Altdorf, 
1784-1795), besides various handbooks and translations. 

ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINE CHOQUET (1813-1890), French poet, 
was born in Paris on the 30th of November 1813. Educated by 
her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists, Victorine 
Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and there 
married in 1843 Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist. After 
little more than two years of happy married life her husband 
died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice with a favourite 
sister.  In 1855 she published Contes en vers, and in 1862 
Contes et poesies. Very different from these simple and 
charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's 
real reputation rests.  She published in 1874 Poesies, 
premieres poesies, poesies philosophiques, a volume of 
sombre and powerful verse, expressing her revolt against human 
suffering.  The volume was enthusiastically reviewed in the 
Revue des deux mondes for May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though 
he deprecated the impiete desesperee of the verses, 
did full justice to their vigour and the excellence of their 
form.  Soon after the publication of this volume Madame Ackermann 
removed to Paris,where she gathered round her a circle of 
friends, but published nothing further except a prose volume, the 
Pensees d'un solitaire (1883), to which she prefixed a short 
autobiography.  She died at Nice on the 2nd of August 1890. 

See also Anatole France, La vie litteraire, 4th series (1892); 
the comte d'Haussonville, Mme. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoleux, 
La poesie philosophique au XIXe. siecle (vol. i., Mme. 
Ackermann d'apres de nombreux documents inedits, Paris, 1906). 

ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German inventor and 
publisher, was born on the 20th of April 1764 at Schneeberg, in 
Saxony.  He had been a saddler and coachbuilder in different 
German cities, Paris and London for ten years before, in 
1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school in the 
Strand.  Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and applied 
it in 1817 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts, 
Literature, Fashions,; &c. (monthly until 1828 when forty 
volumes had appeared).  Rowlandson and other distinguished 
artists were regular contributors.  He also introduced the 
fashion of the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 
1825 with Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated 
volumes of topography and travel, The Microcosm of London 
(3 vols., 1808-1811), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), 
Pine Rhine (1820), The World in Miniature (43 vols., 
1821--1826), &c. Ackermann was an enterprising man; he 
patented (1801) a method for rendering paper and cloth 
waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the purpose 
and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises with 
gas.  Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed much to 
him.  After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected nearly 
a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers. 
He died at Finchley, near London, on the 30th of March 1834. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- 
and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the 
forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on 
analogy of ``knowledge''), an admission that something has been 
given or done, a term used in law in various connexions. The 
acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor 
or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of 
Limitations.  The signature to a will by a testator, if not 
made in the presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards 
acknowledged in their presence.  The acknowledgment by a 
woman married before 1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real 
property not her separate property, requires to be made by 
her before a judge of the High Court or of a county court or 
before a perpetual or special commissioner.  Before such an 
acknowledgment can be received, the judge or commissioner is 
required to examine her apart from her husband, touching her 
knowledge of the deed, and to ascertain whether she freely and 
voluntarily consents to it.  An acknowledgment to the right 
of the production of deeds of conveyance is an obligation 
on the vendor, when he retains any portion of the property 
to which the deeds relate, and is entitled to retain the 
deeds, to produce them from time to time at the request of 
the person to whom the acknowledgment is given, to allow 
copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe custody 
(Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9). The term ``acknowledgment'' 
is, in the United States, applied to the certificate of a 
public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before 
him to be the deed or act of the person who executed it. . 

``Acknowledgment money'' is the sum paid in some parts of England 
by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the manor. 

ACLAND, CHRISTIAN HENRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815), usually 
called Lady Harriet Acland, was born on the 3rd of January 
1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester.  In 1770 
she married John Dyke Acland, who as a member of parliament 
became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy towards 
the American colonies, and, entering the British army in 
1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the 20th 
regiment of foot.  Lady Hurriet accompanied her husband, 
and, when he was wounded at Ticonderoga, nursed him in 
his tent at the front.  In the second battle of Saratoga 
Major Acland was again badly wounded and subsequently taken 
prisoner.  Lady Harriet was determined to be with him, and 
underwent great hardship to accomplish her object, proving 
herself a courageous and devoted wife.  A story has been 
told that being provided with a letter from General Burgoyne 
to the American general Gates, she went up the Hudson river 
in an open boat to the enemy's lines, arriving late in the 
evening.  The American outposts threatened to fire into the 
boat if its occupants stirred, and Lady Hnrriet had to wait 
eight ``dark and cold hours,'' until the sun rose, when she 
at last received permission to join her husband.  Major Acland 
died in 1778, and Lady Harriet on the 21st of July 1815. 

ACLAND, SIR HENRY WENTWORTH, BART. (1815-1900), English 
physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on the 
23rd of August 1815, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas 
Dyke Acland (1787-1871).  Educated at Harrow and at Christ 
Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and 
then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh.  Returning to 
Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ 
Church in 1845, and in 1851 Radcliffe librarian and physician 
to the Radcliffe infirmary.  Seven years later he became 
regius professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 
1894.  He was also a curator of the university galleries 
and of the Bodleian Library, and from 1858 to 1887 he 
represented his university on the General Medical Council, 
of which he served as president from 1874 to 1887.  Hn 
was created a baronet in 1890, and ten years later, on the 
16th of October 1900, he died at his house in Broad Street, 
Oxford.  Acland took a leading part in the revival of the 
Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of natural 
science into the university.  As Lee's reader he began to 
form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations 
on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the 
Oxford University museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for 
the encouragement of the study of science, especially in 
relation to medicine, was largely due to his efforts. ``To 
Henry Acland,'' said his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, 
``physiology was an entrusted gospel of which he was the 
solitary preacher to the heathen,'' but on the other hand his 
thorough classical training preserved science at Oxford from 
too abrupt a severance from the humanities.  In conjunction 
with Dean Liddell, he revolutionized the study of art and 
archaeology, so that the cultivation of these subjects, for 
which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford cared before that 
time, began to flourish in the university. Acland was also 
interested in questions of public health.  He served on the 
royal commission on sanitary laws in England and Wales in 
1869, and published a study of the outbreak of cholera at 
Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on sanitary 
matters.  His memoir on the topography of the Troad, with 
panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise which 
he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health. 

ACME (Gr. akme, point), the highest point 
attainable; first used as an English word by Ben Jonson. 

ACMITE, or AEGIRITE, a mineral of the pyroxene (q.v.) 
group, which may be described as a soda-pyroxene, being 
essentially a sodium and ferric metasilicate, NAFe(SiO3)2.  
In its crystallographic characters it is close to ordinary 
pyroxene (augite and diopside), being monoclinic and having 
nearly the same angle between the prismatic cleavages.  There 
are, however, important differences in the optical characters: 
the birefringence of acmite is negative, the pleochroism is 
strong and the extinction angle on the plane of symmetry measured 
to the vertical axis is small (3 deg. -5 deg. ). (The hardness is 
6-6 1/2, and the specific gravity 3.55. Crystals are elongated 
in the direction of the vertical axis, and are blackish 
green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour. Being 
isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in composition 
between augite or diopside and aegirite are not uncommon, 
and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine-diopside. 

Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks 
rich in soda, such as nepheline-syenites, phonolites, &c. 
It was first discovered as slender crystals, sometimes 
a foot in length, in the pegmatite veins of the granite 
of Rundemyr, near Kongsbeig in Rorway, and was named by 
F. Stromeyer in 1821 from the Gr. akme, a point, in 
allusion to the pointed terminations of the crystals.  
Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian sea-god) was 
described in 1835 from the elaeolite-syenite of southern 
Norway.  Although exhibiting certain varietal differences, 
the essential identity of acmite and aegirite has long been 
established, but the latter and more recent name is pethaps 
in more general use, especially among petrologists. 

ACNE, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the sebaceous 
glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the disease 
being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous follicles 
by a ``comedo,'' familiarly known as ``blackhead.'' It is 
now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is 
the organism known as bacillus acnes.  It shows itself in the 
form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and 
be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the 
skin.  This affection is likewise most common in early adult 
life, and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the 
face, where it may, when of much extent, produce considerable 
disfigurement. It is apt to persist for months or even years, 
but usually in time disappears entirely, although slight 
traces may remain in the form of scars or stains upon the 
skin.  Eruptions of this kind are sometimes produced by the 
continued internal use of certain drugs, such as the iodide 
or bromide of potassium.  In treating this condition the 
face should first of all be held over steaming water for 
several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed.  The blackheads 
should next be removed, not with the finger-nail, but with 
an inexpensive little instrument known as the ``comedo 
expressor.'' When the more noticeable of the blackheads 
have been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for 
three or four minutes with a lather made from a special 
soap composed of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru.  Any 
lather remaining on the face at the end of this time should 
be wiped off with a soft handkerchief.  As this treatment 
might give rise to some irritation of the skin, it should be 
replaced every fourth night by a simple application of cold 
cream.  Of drugs used internally sulphate of calcium, in pill, 
1/6 grain three times a day, is a very useful adjunct to the 
preceding.  The patient should take plenty of exercise in 
the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet, and, if 
present, constipation and anaemia must be suitably treated. 

Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more 
severe and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with 
no relation to the foregoing, and in most cases secondary 
to seborrhea of the scalp.  It is characterized by great 
redness of the nose and cheeks, accompanied by pustular 
enlargements on the surface of the skin, which produce marked 
disfigurement.  Although often seen in persons who live too 
freely, it is by no means confined to such, but may arise in 
connexion with disturbances of the general health, especially 
of the function of digestion, and in females with menstrual 
disorders.  It is apt to be exceedingly intractable to treatment, 
which is here too, as in the preceding form, partly local 
and partly constitutional.  Of internal remedies preparations 
of iodine and of arsenic are sometimes found of service. 

ACOEMETI (Gr. akoimetos, sleepless), an order of Eastern 
monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission 
day or night.  This was done by dividing the communities into 
choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church.  
Their first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in 
the beginning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one 
was founded in Constantinople.  Here also, c. 460, was 
founded by the consular Studius the famous monastery of the 
Studium, which was put in the hands of the Acoemeti and 
became their chief house, so that they were sometimes called 
Studites.  At Agaunum (St Maurice in the Valais) a monastery 
was founded by the Burgundian king Sigismund, in 515, in 
which the perpetual office was kept up; but it is doubtful 
whether this had any connexion with the Eastern Acoemeti. 

The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part 
in the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th 
centuries, at first strenuously opposing Acacius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, in his attempted compromise with the 
monophysites; but afterwards, in Justinian's reign, falling 
under ecclesiastical censure for Nestorian tendencies. 

See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetzer und 
Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.); and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie 
(3rd ed.); also the general histories of the time. (E. C. B.) 

ACOLYTE (Gr.akolouthos, follower), the last of the four 
minor orders in the Roman Church.  As an office it appears 
to be of local origin, and is entirely unknown in the Eastern 
Church, with the exception of the Armenians who borrowed 
it from the West. Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was 
only to be found at Rome and Carthage.  When in 251 Pope 
Cornelius, in a letter to Fabius of Antioch, mentions among 
the Roman clergy forty-two acolytes, placing them after 
the subdeacons and before the other minor officials (see 
Eusebius, Hist.  Ecc. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives no 
hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as 
holding an already established position.  Their institution 
has therefore to be sought for at an earlier date than his 
pontificate.  It is possible that the Liber Pontificalis 
refers to the office under the Latin synonym, when it says 
of Pope Victor (186--197) that he made sequentes cleros, 
a term---sequens---which Pope Gaius (283--293) uses in the 
sense of acolyte.  While the office was well known in Rome, 
there is nothing to prove that it was also an order through 
which, as to-day, every candidate to the priesthood must 
pass.  The contrary is a fact proved by many monumental 
inscriptions and authentic statements.  Though the office 
is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (200?-258) makes many 
references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters, 
this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were 
known. Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, 
says nothing about acolytes; neither does St Augustine.  The 
Irish Church did not know them; and in Spain the council of 
Toledo (400) makes no mention either of the office or of the 
order.  The Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua (falsely called the 
Canons of the Fourth Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican 
collection, originating in the province of Arles at the 
beginning of the 6th century, mentions the acolyte, but does 
not give, as in the case of the other orders, any form for 
the ordination.  The Roman books are silent, and there is 
no mention of it in the collection known as the Leonine 
Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Massbook, 
which as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to 
St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in 
one MS. of the 10th century given by Muratori we find a form 
for the ordination of an acolyte.  While there is frequent 
mention of the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it 
is only in the Ordo VIII. (which is not earlier than the 
7th century) that we find the very simple form for admitting 
an acolyte to his office.  At the end of the mass the 
cleric, clad in chasuble and stole and bearing a linen bag 
on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and receives a 
blessing.  There is no collation of power or order but a 
simple admission to an office.  The evidence available, 
therefore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a 
local office and was not a necessary step or order for every 
candidate. In England, though the ecclesiastical organization 
came from Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace 
of such an office or order until the time of Ecgbert of York 
(767), the friand of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican 
influence.  The Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it 
was then in use both as an office and as an order, and Aelfric 
(1006) in both his pastoral epistle and canons mentions the 
acolyte.  The conclusion, then, which seems warranted by 
the evidence, is that the acolyte was an office only at 
Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican Church, 
found its way as such into the Roman books at some period 
before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne. 

The duties of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical, 
are identical with those mentioned in the Statuta Ecclesiae 
Antiqua of Arles: ``It is the duty of acolytes to carry 
the candlesticks, to light the lamps of the church, to 
administer wine and water for the Eucharist.'' It might 
seem, from the number forty-two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, 
that at Rome the acolytes were divided among the seven 
ecclesiastical regions of the city; but we have no proof 
that, at that date, there were six acolytes attached to each 
region.  From the ancient division of the Roman acolytes 
into Dalatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the 
Lateran palace, Stationarii, or those who served at the 
churches where there was a ``station,'' and Regionarii, 
or those attached directly to the regiona, it would seem 
that the number forty-two was only the actual number then 
existing and not an official number.  We get a glimpse of 
their duties from the Ordines Romani. When the pope 
rode in procession to the station an acolyte, on foot, 
preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and at the church 
seven regionary acolytes with candles went before him in the 
procession to the altar, while two others, bearing the vessel 
that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his 
adoration.  During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible 
(Ordo VI.) and three assisted at the washing of the 
hands.  At the moment of communion the acolytes received in 
linen bags the consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting 
priests.  This office of bearing the sacrament is an ancient 
one, and is mentioned in the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman 
acolyte, who was martyred on the Appian Way while carrying the 
Hosts from the catacombs.  The official dress of the acolyte, 
according to Ordo V., was a close-fitting linen garment 
(camisia) girt about him, a napkin hanging from the left side, 
a white tunic, a stole (orarium) and a chasuble (planeta) 
which he took off when he sang on the steps of the ambone. 

At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council 
of Trent (Sess. xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while 
remaining an order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical 
office, since the duties are now performed, almost everywhere, by 
laymen.  The office has been revived, though unofficially, in 
the Church of England, as a result of the Tractarian movement. 

See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecclesiae ordinationibus 
(Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 152; Martene, De Antiquis 
Ecclesiae ritibus (Antwerp, 1739), ii. pp. 47 and 86; Mabillon, 
Musaeum Italicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, 
Liturgia Romana Vetus; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie 
chretisnne et de liturgie, vol. i. col. 348-536.-. (E. TN.) 

ACOMINATUS (AKOMINATOS), MICHAEL (c. 1140-1220), 
Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was born at Chonae 
(the ancient Colossae).  At an early age he studied at 
Constantinople, and about 1175 was appointed archbishop of 
Athens.  After the capture of Constantinople by the Franks 
and the establishment of the Latin empire (1204), he retired 
to the island of Coos, where he died.  He was a versatile 
writer, and composed homilies, speeches and poems, which, 
with his correspondence, throw considerable light upon the 
miserable condition of Attica and Athens at the time.  His 
memorial to Alexis III. Angelus on the abuses of Byzantine 
administration, the poetical lament over the degeneracy of 
Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas and Eustathius, 
archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special mention. 

Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1879--1880); Migne, Patrologia 
Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellissen, Michael Akominatos 
(1886), containing several pieces with German translation; F. 
Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, i. 
(1889); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877). 

His younger brother NICETAS (Niketas), sometimes called 
CHONIATES, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up 
politics as a career.  He held several appointments 
under the Angelus emperors (amongst them that of ``great 
logothete'' or chancellor) and was governor of the ``theme'' 
of Philippopolis at a critical period.  After the fall of 
Constantinople he fled to Nicaea, where he settled at the 
court of the emperor Theodorus Lascaris, and devoted himself to 
literature.  He died between 1210 and 1220.  His chief work 
is his History, in 21 books, of the period from 1180 to 
1206.  In spite of its florid and bombastic style, it is of 
considerable value as a record (on the whole impartial) of 
events of which he was either an eye-witness or had heard at 
first hand.  Its most interesting portion is the description 
of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read 
with Villehardouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same 
subject.  The little treatise On the Statues destroyed by thc 
Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is 
of special interest to the archaeologist.  His dogmatic work( 
Thesauros 'Orthodoxias, Thesaurus Orthodoxae Fidei), 
although it is extant in a complete form in MS., has only 
been published in part.  It is one of the chief authorities 
for the heresies and heretical writers of the 12th century. 

Editions: History, editio princeps, H. Wolf (1557); and in 
the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist.  Byz., 1st ed.,Bekker (1835); 
Rhetorical Pieces in C. Sathas, Mesaionike Bibliotheke, i. 
(1872); Thesaurus in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxix., cxl.; 
see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, ``Geoffroy de Villehardouin'' in 
Causeries du Lundi, ix.; S. Reinach, ``La fin de l'empire grec'' 
in Esquisses Archeologiques (1888); C. Neumann, Griechische 
Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); Gibbon, Decline 
and Fall, ch. lx.; and (for both Michael and Nicetas) C. 
Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

ACONCAGUA, a small northern province of central Chile, 
bounded N. by Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and 
Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific.  Its area is officially 
computed at 5487 sq. m.  Pop. (1895) 113,165; (1902, official 
estimate based on civil registry returns) 131,255.  The province 
is very mountainous, and is traversed from east to west by 
the broad valley of the Aconcagua river.  The climate is hot 
and dry, the rainfall being too small to influence climatic 
conditions.  The valleys are highly fertile, and where irrigation 
is employed large crops are easily raised.  Beyond the limits 
of irrigation the country is semi-barren.  Alfalfa and grapes 
are the principal products, and considerable attention is given 
to the cultivation of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and 
melons.  The ``Vale of Quillota,'' through which the railway 
passes between Valparaiso and Santiago, is celebrated for its 
gardens.  The Aconcagua river rises on the southern slope of 
the volcano Aconcagua, flows eastward through a broad valley, 
or bay in the mountains, and enters the Pacific 12 m. north of 
Valparaiso.  The river has a course of about 200 m., and 
its waters irrigate the best and most populous part of the 
province.  Two other rivers--the Ligua and Choapa--traverse 
the province, the latter forming the northern boundary 
line.  The capital is San Felipe, on the Aconcagua river; 
it had a population of 11,313 in 1895, and an estimated 
population of 11,660 in 1902.  The other chief town is 
Santa Rosa de los Andes (est. pop. 6854), which is a 
principal station on the Transandine branch of the state 
railway.  The only port in the province is Los Vilos, in 
lat. 32 deg.  S., from which a railway 40 m. long runs north-east 
to the valley of the Choapa.  Another short line connects 
Cabildo, in the valley of the Ligua, with the state railway. 

ACONCIO, GIACOMO (1492-1566?), pioneer of religious toleration, 
was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September 1492.  
He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernardino 
Ochino who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found 
refuge in England.  Like them, his revolt against Romanism 
took an extremer form than Lutheranism, and after a temporary 
residence in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in 
England soon after Elizabeth's accession.  He had studied 
law and theology, but his profession was that of an engineer, 
and in this capacity he found employment with the English 
government.  He was granted an annuity of L. 60 on the 27th of 
February 1560, and letters of naturalization on the 8th of October 
1561 (Cal. State Papers, Dom. Ser., Addenda, 1547--1566, p. 
495), and was for some time occupied with draining Plumstead 
marshes, for which object various acts of parliament were 
passed at this time (Lords' Journals, vol. i., and Commons' 
Journals, vol. i., passim). In 1564 he was sent to report 
on the fortifications of Berwick (Cal. St. Pap. For Ser. 
1564-1565, passim; Acts P.C., 1558-1570, p. 146); his report 
is now in thc Record Office (C.S.P. For., 1564-1565, No. 512). 

But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the 
history of religious toleration.  Before reaching England he 
had published a treatise on the methods of investigation, De 
Methodo, hoc est, de recte investigandarum tradendarumque 
Scientiarum ratione (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical 
spirit placed him outside all the recognized religious societies 
of his time.  On his arrival in London he had joined the Dutch 
Reformed Church in Austin Friars, but he was ``infected with 
Anabaptistical and Arian opinions'' and was excluded from the 
sacrament by Grindal, bishop of London.  The real nature of his 
heterodoxy is revealed in his Stratagemata Satanae, published 
in 1565 and translated into various languages.  The ``stratagems 
of Satan'' are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian 
church.  Aconcio sought to find the common denominator of 
the various creeds; this was essential doctrine, the rest was 
immaterial.  To arrive at this common basis, he had to 
reduce dogma to a low level, and his result was generally 
repudiated.  Even Selden applied to Aconcio the remark ubi bene, 
nil melius; ubi male, nemo pejus. The dedication of such a 
work to Queen Elizabeth illustrates the tolerance or religious 
laxity during the early years of her reign.  Aconcio found 
another patron in the earl of Leicester, and died about 1566. 

AUTHORITIES.--Gough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; 
Strype's Grindal, pp. 62, 66; Bayle's Dictionnaire; G. 
Tiraboschi, Storia della lett. italiana (Florence, 
1805--1813); Osterreichisches Biogr. Lexikon; 
Nouvelle biogr. generale; Dict.  Nat. Biogr. (A. F. P.) 

ACONITE (Aconitum), a genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly 
known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embracing 
about 60 species, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts 
of the northern hemisphere.  They are distinguished by 
having one of the five blue or yellow coloured sepals (the 
posterior one) in the form of a helmet; hence the English name 
monkshood.  Two of the petals placed under the hood of 
the calyx are supported on long stalks, and have a hollow 
spur at their apex, containing honey.  They are handsome 
plants, the tall stem being crowned by racemes of showy 
flowers. Aconitum Napellus, common monkshood, is a doubtful 
native of Britain, and is of therapeutic and toxicological 
importance.  Its roots have occasionally been mistaken for 
horse-radish.  The aconite has a short underground stem, from 
which dark-coloured tapering roots descend.  The crown or upper 
portion of the root gives rise to new plants.  When put to 
the lip, the juice of the aconite root produces a feeling of 
numbness and tingling.  The horse-radish root, which belongs 
to the natural order Cruciferae, is much longer than that of 
the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour is yellowish, 
and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves on it. 

Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some 
having blue and others yellow flowers. Aconitum lycoctonum, 
wolfsbane, is a yellow-flowered species common on the Alps of 
Switzerland.  The roots of Aconitum ferox supply the famous 
Indian (Nepal) poison called bikh, bish or nabee.  It contains 
considerable quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which 
is the most deadly poison known. Aconitum palmatum yields 
another of the celebrated bikh poisons.  The root of Aconitum 
luridum, of the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that 
of A. ferox or A. Napellus. As garden plants the aconites 
are very ornamental, hardy perennials.  They thrive well in 
any ordinary garden soil, and will grow beneath the shade of 
trees.  They are easily propagated by divisions of the root 
or by seeds; great care should be taken not to leave pieces 
of the root about owing to its very poisonous character. 

Chemistry.---The active principle of Aconitum Napellus 
is the alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Geiger and 
Hesse (Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267), Alder Wright and A. B, Luff 
obtained apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic acid by hydrolysis; 
while, in 1802, C. Ehrenberg and A. Purfurst (Journ.  
Prat.  Chem., 1892, 45, p. 604) observed acetic acid as a 
hydrolytic product.  This, and allied alkaloids, have formed 
the subject of many investigations by Wyndham Dunstan and 
his pupils in England, and by Martin Freund and Paul Beck in 
Berlin.  But their constitution is not yet solved, there 
even being some divergence of opinion as to their empirical 
formulae, Aconitine (C33H45NO13, according to Dunstan; 
C34H47NO11, according to Freund) is a crystalline base, 
soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alcoholic 
solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory.  
When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine.  Hydrolysis 
gives acetic acid and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the 
alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives 
aconine.  Pseudaconitine, obtained from Aconitum ferox, 
gives on hydrolysis acetic acid and veratrylpseudaconine, the 
latter of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric acid and 
pseudaconine.  Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese 
aconites, known locally as ``kuza-uzu,'' hydrolyses to 
japbenzaconine, which further breaks down to benzoic acid and 
japaconine.  Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and 
myoctonine which occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. 
The usual test for solutions of aconitine consists in slight 
acidulation with acetic acid and addition of potassium 
permanganate, which causes the formation of a red crystalline 
precipitate.  In 1905, Dunstan and his collaborators discovered 
two new aconite alkaloids, indaconitine in ``mohri'' (Aconitum 
chasmanthum, Stapf), and bikhaconitine in ``bikh'' (Aconitum 
spicatum); he also proposes to classify these alkaloids 
according to whether they yield benzoic or veratric acid on 
hydrolysis (Jour.  Chem.  Soc., 1905, 87, pp. 1620, 1650). 

From the root of Aconitum Napellus are prepared a liniment 
and a tincture.  The dose of the latter (Brit.  Pharmacop.) 
is of importance as being exceptionally small, for it is 
not advisable to give more than at most five drops at a 
time.  The official preparation is an ointment which contains 
one part of the alkaloid in fifty.  It must be used with 
extreme care, and in small quantities, and it must not be 
used at all where cuts or cracks are present in the skin. 

Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine.---Aconite first 
stimulates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and 
temperature, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or 
to a mucous membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives 
place to a long-continued anaesthetic action.  Taken internally 
aconite acts very notably on the circulation, the respiration 
and the nervous system.  The pulse is slowed, the number of 
beats per minute being actually reduced, under considerable 
doses, to forty, or even thirty, per minute.  The blood-pressure 
synchronously falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole.  
Immediately before arrest the heart may beat much faster than 
normally, though with extreme irregularity, and in the lower 
animals the auricles may be observed occasionally to miss 
a beat, as in poisoning by veratrine and colchicum.  The 
action of aconitine on the circulation is due to an initial 
stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory centre in the medulla 
oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves), and later to a 
directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and muscular 
fibres of the heart itself.  The fall in blood-pressure is not 
due to any direct influence on the vessels.  The respiration 
becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory 
centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this 
action, the respiration being arrested before the action 
of the heart.  Aconite further depresses the activity of 
all nerve-terminals, the sensory being affected before the 
motor.  In small doses it therefore tends to relieve pain, if 
this be present.  The activity of the spinal cord is similarly 
depressed.  The pupil is at first contracted, and afterwards 
dilated.  The cerebrum is totally unaffected by aconite, 
consciousness and the intelligence remaining normal to the 
last.  The antipyretic action which considerable doses of aconite 
display is not specific, but is the result of its influence on the 
circulation and respiration and of its slight diaphoretic action. 

Therapeutics.---The indications for its employment are 
limited, but definite.  It is of undoubted value as a local 
anodyne in sciatica and neuralgia, especially in ordinary 
facial or trigeminal neuralgia.  The best method of application 
is by rubbing in a small quantity of the aconitine ointment 
until numbness is felt, but the costliness of this preparation 
causes the use of the aconite liniment to be commonly resorted 
to.  This should be painted on the affected part with a 
camel's hair brush dipped in chloroform, which facilitates the 
absorption of the alkaloid.  Aconite is indicated for internal 
administration whenever it is desirable to depress the action 
of the heart in the course of a fever.  Formerly used in every 
fever, and even in the septic states that constantly followed 
surgical operations in the pre-Listerian epoch, aconite is 
now employed only in the earliest stage of the less serious 
fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and, notably, 
laryngitis.  The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the 
vocal cords---with threatened obstruction to the respiration 
that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved 
by the sedative action of this drug upon the circulation.  
In order to reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these 
cases, without at the same time lessening the power of the 
heart, the drug must be given in doses of about two minims 
of the tincture every half-hour and then every hour until the 
pulse falls to the normal rate.  Thereafter the drug must be 
discontinued.  It is probably never right to give aconite in 
doses much larger than that named.  There is one condition 
of the heart itself in which aconite is sometimes useful.  
Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all cases of valvular 
disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hypertrophy with 
over-action.  But the practitioner must be assured that neither 
valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium is present. 

Toxicology.---In a few minutes after the introduction of 
a poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene.  The 
initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary 
canal.  There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness 
in the mouth, and of burning in the abdomen.  Death usually 
supervenes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be 
observed.  After about an hour there is severe vomiting.  Much 
motor weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above 
described soon follow.  The pulse and respiration steadily 
fail, death occurring from asphyxia.  As in strychnine 
poisoning, the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the 
last.  The only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia.  The 
treatment is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant 
emetic.  The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or 
strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in maximal 
doses.  Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also be employed. 

ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful 
youth of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told 
by Callimachus in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of 
two of Ovid's Heroides (xx., xxi.).  During the festival of 
Artemis at Deles, Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian 
maiden of whom he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the 
goddess.  He wrote on an apple the words, ``I swear by the sacred 
shrine of the goddess that I will marry you,'' and threw it at 
her feet.  She picked it up, and mechanically read the words 
aloud, which amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them 
out.  Unaware of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; 
but, although she was betrothed more than once, she always fell 
ill before the wedding took place.  The Delphic oracle at last 
declared the cause of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended 
goddess; whereupon her father consented to her marriage with 
Acontius (Aristaenetus, Epistolae, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, 
Metamorphoses, i., tells the story with different names). 

ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by 
analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of 
wood keeping the vane on the mast-head.  The etymology of the 
word (earlier akerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the 
New English Dictionary. It is derived from a word (Goth. 
akran) which meant ``fruit,'' originally ``of the unenclosed 
land,'' and so of the most important forest produce, thc 
oak.  Chaucer speaks of ``achornes of okes.'' By degrees, 
popular etymology connected the word both with ``corn'' 
and ``oak-horn,'' and the spelling changed accordingly. 

ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the 
natural order Araceae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint 
(Arum) the representation in Britain of that order of 
Monocotyledons.  The name is derived from acorus, Gr. 
akoros, the classical name for the plant.  It was the 
Calamus aromaticus of the medieval druggists and perhaps of 
the ancients, though the latter has been referred by some to 
the Citron grass, Andropogon Nardus. The spice ``Calamus'' 
or ``Sweet-cane'' of the Scriptures, one of the ingredients 
of the holy anointing oil of the Jews, was perhaps one of the 
fragrant species of Andropogon. The plant is a herbaceous 
perennial with a long, branched root-stock creeping through 
the mud, about  3/4 inch thick, with short joints and large 
brownish leaf-scars.  At the ends of the branches are tufts 
of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long 
and about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in 
the true Flag (Iris); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), 
which very much resemble the leaves, bear an apparently 
lateral, blunt, tapering spike of densely packed, very small 
flowers.  A long leaf (spathe) borne immediately below the 
spike forms an apparent continuation of the scape, though 
really a lateral outgrowth from it, the spike of flowers being 
terminal.  The plant has a wide distribution, growing in wet 
situations in the Himalayas, North America, Siberia and various 
parts of Europe, including England, and has been naturalized 
in Scotland and Ireland.  Though regarded as a native in most 
counties of England at the present day, where it is now found 
thoroughly wild on sides of ditches, ponds and rivers, and very 
abundantly in some districts, it is probably not indigenous.  
It seems to have been spread in western and central Europe 
from about the end of the 16th century by means of botanic 
gardens.  The botanist Clusius (Charles de l'Escluse or 
Lecluse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna from a 
root received from Asia Minor in 1574, and distributed it 
to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was 
probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist 
Gerard.  It is very readily propagated by means of its branching 
root-stock.  It has an agreeable odour, and has been used 
medicinally.  The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is 
associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder.  
Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions 
it as a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague.  In India it 
is used as an insectifuge, and is administered in infantile 
diarrhoea.  It is an ingredient in pot-pourri, is employed 
for flavouring beer and is chewed to clear the voice; and its 
volatile oil is employed by makers of snuff and aromatic vinegar.  
The rhizome of Acorus Calamus is sometimes adulterated with 
that of Iris Pseudacorus, which, however, is distinguishable 
by its lack of odour, a stringent taste and dark colour. 

ACOSTA, JOSE DE (1539?--1600), Spanish author, was born at 
Medina del Campo about the year 1539.  He joined the Jesuits 
in 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he 
acted as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was 
appointed theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, 
and in 1583 published a catechism in Quichua and Aymara--the 
first book printed in Peru.  Returning to Spain in 1587, and 
placing himself at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, 
Acosta was imprisoned in 1592--1593; on his submission in 
1594 he became superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and 
in 1598 rector of the Jesuit college at Salamanca, where 
he died on the 15th of February 1600.  His treatise De 
natura novi orbis libri duo (Salamanca, 1588-1589) may be 
regarded as the preliminary draft of his celebrated Historia 
natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, 1590) which was 
speedily translated into Italian (1596), French (1597), Dutch 
(1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English (1604) The 
Historia is in three sections: books I. and II. deal with 
generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography 
and natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and 
VII. with the religious and political institutions of the 
aborigines.  Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish 
colonial policy, Acosta deserves high praise as an acute and 
diligent observer whose numerous new and valuable data are 
set forth in a vivid style.  Among his other publications 
are De procuranda salute Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 
1588), De Christo revelato libri novem (Rome, 1590), De 
temporibus novissimis libri quatuor (Rome, 1590), and three 
volumes of sermons issued respectively in 1596, 1597 and 1599. 

AUTHORITIES.---Jose R. Carricido, El P. Jose de Acosta 
y su importancia en La literatura cientifica espanola 
(Madrid, 1899); C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de La Compagnie 
de Jesus, Premiere Partie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), 
vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward Grimston's translation of 
the Historia reprinted (1880) for the Hakluyt Society with 
introduction and notes by Sir Clements R. Markham. (J. F.-K.) 

ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), a Portuguese Jew of noble family, 
was born at Oporto towards the close of the 16th century.  His 
father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up 
in the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites 
of the church till the course of his inquiries led him, after 
much painful doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for 
Judaism.  Passing over to Amsterdam, he was received into the 
synagogue, having his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel.  
His wayward disposition found, however, no satisfaction in 
the Jewish fold.  He came into conflict with the authorities 
of the synagogue and was excommunicated.  Unlike Spinoza (who 
was about fifteen at the time of Acosta's death), Acosta was 
not strong enough to stand alone.  Wearied by his melancholy 
isolation, he was driven to seek a return to the Jewish 
communion.  Having recanted his heresies, he was readmitted 
after an excommunication of fifteen years, but was soon 
excommunicated a second time.  After seven years of exclusion, 
he once more sought admission, and, on passing through a 
humiliating penance, was again received.  His vacillating 
autobiography, Exemplar Humanae Vitae, was published 
with a ``refutation'' by Limborch in 1687, and republished in 
1847.  In this brief work Acosta declares his opposition both 
to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks with the more 
bitterness of the latter religion.  The only authority which 
he admits is the lex naturae. Acosta was not an original 
thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational 
Deists.  His history forms the subject of a tale and of 
a tragedy by Gutzkow.  Acosta committed suicide in 1647.  
The significance of his career has been much exaggerated. 

ACOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu 
in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of Botany, 
embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods, 
horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and 
fungi.  The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or 
cotyledon.  Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, 
with usually one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while 
in flowerless plants there is no seed and therefore no true 
cotyledon.  The term is synonymous with Cryptogams, by 
which it was replaced in later systems of classification. 

ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. akouein to hear), a title 
frequently given to the science of sound, that is, to the 
description and theory of the phenomena which give rise to 
the sensation of sound (q.v.).  The term ``acoustics'' 
might, however, with advantage be reserved for the aspect of 
the subject more immediately connected with hearing.  Thus we 
may speak appropriately of the acoustic quality of a room or 
hall, describing it as good or bad acoustically, according 
as speaking is heard in it easily or with difficulty.  When 
a room has bad acoustic quality we can almost always assign 
the fault to large smooth surfaces on the walls, floor or 
ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of the speaker so that 
the direct waves sent out by him at any instant are received 
by a hearer with the waves sent out previously and reflected 
at these smooth surfaces.  The syllables overlap, and the 
hearing is confused.  The acoustic quality of a room may be 
improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces by curtains or 
by arrangement of furniture.  The echo is then broken up into 
small waves, none of which may be sufficiently distinct to 
interfere with the direct voice.  Sometimes a sounding-board 
over the head of a speaker improves the hearing probably by 
preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him.  A large bare 
floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when a room is 
filled by an audience the hearing is much improved Wires are 
frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably with 
the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the 
roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to 
suppose that they are efficient.  The only cure appears to 
consist in breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the 
reflexion shall be much less regular and distinct.  Probably 
drapery assists by absorbing the sound to some extent, and 
thus it lessens the echo besides breaking it up. (J. H. P.) 

ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the 
province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is 21 
m.  S.S.W. by rail.  Pop. (1901) 13,786.  Its warm sulphur 
springs are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae 
Statiellae they were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus 
and Liutprand speak of the ancient bath establishment.  In 
the neighbourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct 
which supplied it.  The place was connected by road with Alba 
Pompeia and Augusta Taurinorum.  The tribe of the Statielli, to 
whom the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early 
period, but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the 
north of the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral. 

ACRE, or AQUIRY, a river of Brazil and principal tributary 
of the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing 
easterly and northerly to a junction with the Purus at 8 deg.  
45' S. lat.  The name is also applied to a district situated 
on the same river and on the former (1867) boundary line 
between Bolivia and Brazil.  The region, which abounds in 
valuable rubber forests, was settled by Bolivians between 
1870 and 1878, but was invaded by Brazilian rubber collectors 
during the next decade and became tributary to the rubber 
markets of Manaos and Para.  In 1899 the Bolivian government 
established a custom-house at Puerto Alonso, on the Acre 
river, for the collection of export duties on rubber, which 
precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian settlers and finally 
brought about a boundary dispute between the two republics.  
In July 1899 the Acreanos declared their independence and 
set up a republic of their own, but in the following March 
they were reduced to submission by Brazil.  Various disorders 
followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto Alonso with a 
military force.  The boundary dispute was finally settled at 
Petropolis on the 17th of November 1903 through the purchase 
by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to about 
the 11th parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq. m. 

ACRE, Akka, or ST JEAN D'ACRE, the chief town of a 
governmental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, 
Nazareth and Tiberias.  It stands on a low promontory at the 
northern extremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m.  N. N.W. from 
Jerusalem, and 25 m.  S. of Tyre.  The population is about 
11,000; 8000 being Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, 
&c. It was long regarded as the ``Key of Palestine,'' on 
account of its commanding position on the shore of the broad 
plain that joins the inland plain of Esdraelon, and so affords 
the easiest entrance to the interior of the country.  But 
trade is now passing over to Haifa, at the south side of the 
bay, as its harbour offers a safer roadstead, and is a regular 
calling.place for steamers.  Business, rapidly declining, is 
still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame, &c., in the town 
market.  There are few buildings of interest, owing to the 
frequent destructions the town has undergone.  The wall, 
which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from the 
crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804) 
from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is 
within.  Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion. 

History.--Few towns have had a more chequered or calamitous 
history.  Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified 
with the Aak of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) 
III (c. 1500 B.C.), and it is certainly the Akka 
of the Tell el-Amarna correspondence.  To the Hebrews it 
was known as Acco (Revised Version spelling), but it is 
mentioned only once in the Old Testament, namely Judges i. 
31, as one of the places from which the Israelites did not 
drive out the Canaanite inhabitants.  Theoretically it was 
in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and Josephus assigns 
it by name to the district of one of Solomon's provincial 
governors.  Throughout the period of Hebrew domination, however, 
its political connexions were always with Syria rather than 
with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined Sidon 
and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a stormy 
experience during the three centuries preceding the Christian 
era.  The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus calls 
it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais, 
probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom of 
Alexander.  Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for 
the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt.  About 165 
B.C. Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles 
in Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais.  About 153 B.C. 
Alexander Balas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the 
Syrian crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its 
gates to him.  Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees 
to obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the 
revenues of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in 
vain.  Jonathan threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 
150 B.C. he was received by him with great honour in 
Ptolemais.  Some years later, however, Tryphon, an officer 
of the Syrians, who had grown suspicious of the Maccabees, 
enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais and there treacherously took him 
prisoner.  The city was also assaulted and captured by Alexander 
Jannaeus, by Cleopatra and by Tigranes.  Here Herod built a 
gymnasium, and here the Jews met Petronius, sent to set up 
statues of the emperor in the Temple, and persuaded him to turn 
back.  St Paul spent a day in Ptolemais.  The Arabs captured 
the city in A.D. 638, and lost it to the crusaders in 
1110.  The latter made the town their chief port in 
Palestine.  It was re-taken by Saladin in 1187, besieged 
by Guy de Lusignan in 1189 (see below), and again captured 
by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191.  In 1229 it was placed 
under the control of the knights of St John (whence one of 
its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in 
1291.  The Turks under Sultan Selim I. captured the city 
in 1517, after which it fell into almost total decay.  
Maundrell in 1697 found it a complete ruin, save for a khan 
occupied by some French merchants, a mosque and a few poor 
cottages.  Towards the end of the 18th century it seems to 
have revived under the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar 
el-Amir, the local sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, 
governor of Damascus, improved and fortified it, but by heavy 
imposts secured for himself all the benefits derived from his 
improvements.  About 1780 Jezzar peremptorily banished the 
French trading colony, in spite of protests from the French 
government, and refused to receive a consul.  In 1799 Napoleon, 
in pursuance of his scheme for raising a Syrian rebellion 
against Turkish domination, appeared before Acre, but after 
a siege of two months (March--May) was repulsed by the 
Turks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a force of British 
sailors.  Jezzar was succeeded on his death by his son Suleiman, 
under whose milder rule the town advanced in prosperity till 
1831, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced the town and 
destroyed its buildings.  On the 4th of November 1840 it 
was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French 
squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule. 

Battle of Acre.---The battle of 1189, fought on the ground 
to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the 
Crusades.  The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king 
of Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 
4th of October 1189 to the relieving army which Saladin had 
collected.  The Christian army consisted of the feudatories 
of the kingdom of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of 
European crusaders and the military orders, and contingents 
from Egypt, Turkestan, Syria and Mesopotamia fought under 
Saladin.  The Saracens lay in a semicircle east of the town 
facing inwards towards Acre.  The Christians opposed them 
with crossbowmen in first line and the heavy cavalry in 
second.  At Arsuf the Christians fought coherently; here 
the battle began with a disjointed combat between the 
Templars and Saladin's right wing.  The crusaders were so far 
successful that the enemy had to send up reinforcements from 
other parts of the field.  Thus the steady advance of the 
Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the 
crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms, 
met with no great resistance.  But the victors scattered to 
plunder.  Sajadin rallied his men, and, when the Christians 
began to retire with their booty, let loose his light horse 
upon them.  No connected resistance was offered, and the 
Turks slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh 
troops of the Christian right wing.  Into this fight Guy's 
reserve, charged with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was 
also drawn, and, thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the 
town to the northward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, 
they fell upon the Templars, who suffered severely in their 
retreat.  In the end the crusaders repulsed the relieving 
army, but only at the cost of 7000 men. (R. A. S. M.) 

ACRE, a land measure used by English-speaking races.  Derived 
from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat. ager, Gr. 
agros, Sans. ajras, it has retained its original meaning 
``open country,'' in such phrases as ``God's acre,'' or a 
churchyard, ``broad acres,'' &c. As a measure of land, it was 
first defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a 
day; statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward 
I., Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights 
and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq. 
yds.  In addition to this ``statute'' or ``imperial acre,'' 
other ``acres'' are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, 
Ireland, Wales and certain English counties.  The Scottish 
acre contains 6150.4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in 
Wales, the land measures erw (4320 sq. yds.), stang (3240 
sq. yds.) and paladr are called ``acres''; the Leicestershire 
acre (2308 3/4 sq. yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and 
Cheshire acre (10,240 sq. yds) are examples of local values. 

ACRIDINE, C13H9N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring 
compound found in crude coal-tar anthracene.  It may be 
separated by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and 
then precipitating the sulphuric acid solution with potassium 
bichromate, the resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed 
by ammonia.  It was first isolated in 1890 by C. Graebe 
and H. Caro (Ann., 1871, 158, p. 265).  Many synthetic 
processes are known for the production of acridine and its 
derivatives.  A. Bernthsen (Ann., 1884, 224, p. 1) condensed 
diphenylamine with fatty acids, in the presence of zinc 
chloride.  Formic acid yields acridine, and the higher homologues 
give derivatives substituted at the meso carbon atom, 


FIG.

Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of 
phenylortho-toluidine through a red-hot tube (C. Graebe, Ber., 
1884, 17, p. 1370); by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, 
in presence of aluminium chloride (O. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 
17, p. 102); by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane 
over heated litharge (O. Fischer); by heating salicylic 
aldehyde with aniline and zinc chloride to 260 deg.  C. (R. 
Mohlau, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2452); and by distilling acridone 
over zinc dust (C. Graebe, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1735). 

Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of feebly 
basic character.  They combine readily with the alkyl iodides 
to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily transformed 
by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to N-alkyl 
acridones.  Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at 
110 deg.  C. It is characterized by its irritating action on 
the skin, and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions 
of its salts.  On oxidation with potassium permanganate it 
yields acridinic acid (quinoline -a-b-dicarboxylic acid) 
C9H5N(COOH)2.  Numerous derivatives of acridine are known 
and may be prepared by methods analogous to those used for 
the formation of the parent base.  For the preparation of 
the naphthacridines, see F.Ullmann, German patents 117472, 
118439, 127586, 128754, and also Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 316, 
2670.  Phenyl-acridine is the parent base of chrysaniline, 
which is the chief constituent of the dyestuff phosphine (a 
bye-product in the manufacture of rosaniline).  Chrysaniline 
(diamino-phenylacridine) forms red-coloured salts, which dye 
silk and wool a fine yellow; and the solutions of the salts 
are characterized by their fine yellowish-green fluorescence.  
It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner (Ber., 
1884, 17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with 
aniline, the resulting ortho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane 
being reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which 
on oxidation yields chrysaniline.  Benzoflavin, an isomer of 
chrysaniline, is also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by 
K. Oehler (English Patent9614) from meta-phenylenediamine 
and benzaldehyde.  These substances condense to form 
tetra-aminotriphenylmethane, which, on heating with acids, loses 
ammonia and yields diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which 
benzoflavin is obtained by oxidation.  It is a yellow powder, 
soluble in hot water.  The formulae of these substances are:-- 

FIG.


ACRO (or ACRON), HELENIUS, Roman grammarian and 
commentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd century 
A.D. He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius.  
A collection of scholia on Horace, originally anonymous in 
the earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was 
wrongly attributed to him at a much later date, probably 
during the 15th century.  It has been published by Pauly (1861) 
and Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia. 

See Pseudoacronis Scholia in Horatium 
Vetustiora, ed.  O. Keller (1902-1904). 

ACROBAT (Gr. akrobatein, to walk on tiptoe), originally a 
rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover professional 
performers on the trapeze, &c., contortionists, balancers and 
tumblers.  Evidence exists that there were very skilful 
performers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient 
Romans.  Modern rope-walkers (e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers 
generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such 
assistance in balancing, and by shifting this are enabled 
to maintain, or readily to recover, their equilibrium. 

ACROGENAE (``growing at the apex''), an obsolete botanical 
term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and 
ferns), which were erroneously distinguished from the lower 
(Algae and Fungi) by apical growth of the stem.  The lower 
Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae (``growing all 
over''), a misnomer, as apical growth is common among them. 

ACROLITHS (Gr. akrolithoi, i.e. ending in stone), statues 
of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which 
the trunk of the figure was of wood, and the head, hands and 
feet of marble.  The wood was concealed either by gilding 
or, more commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were 
exposed.  Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the 
best known specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans. 

ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized by 
a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and 
soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of 
the face and extremities (Gr. akron, point, and megas, 
large).  It is more frequent in the female sex, between the 
ages of 25 and 40. Its causation is generally associated 
with disturbances in the pituitary gland, and an extract 
of this body has been tried in the treatment, as one of 
the recent developments in organotherapeutics; thyroid 
extract has also been used, but without marked success, 
On the apparent analogy of acromegaly with myxoedema. 

ACRON, a Greek physician, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, was 
contemporary with Empedocles, and must therefore have lived 
in the 5th century before Christ.  The successful measure of 
lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, 
to put a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said 
to have originated with him; but this has been questioned 
on chronological grounds.  Suidas gives the titles of 
several medical works written by him in the Doric dialect. 

ACROPOLIS (Gr. akros, top, polis, city), literally 
the upper part of a town.  For purposes of defence early 
settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill 
with precipitous sides, and these early citadels became in many 
parts of the world the nuclei of large cities which grew up 
on the surrounding lower ground.  The word Acropolis, though 
Greek in origin and associated primarily with Greek towns 
(Athens, Argos, Thebes, Corinth), may be applied generically 
to all such citadels (Rome, Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, 
or even Castle Hill at Edinburgh).  The most famous is that 
of Athens, which, by reason of its historical associations 
and the famous buildings erected upon it, is generally known 
without qualification as the Acropolis (see ATHENS). 

ACROPOLITA (AKROPOLITES), GEORGE (1217-1282), 
Byzantine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople.  
At an early age he was sent by his father to the court of 
John Ducas Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom 
and by his successors (Theodorus II. Lascaris and Michael 
VIII.  Palaeologus) he was entrusted with important state 
missions.  The office of ``great logothete'' or chancellor 
was bestowed upon him in 1244.  As commander in the field 
in 1257 against Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed 
little military capacity.  He was captured and kept for 
two years in prison, from which he was released by Michael 
Palaeologus.  Acropolita's most important political task 
was that of effecting a reconciliation between the Greek and 
Latin Churches, to which he had been formerly opposed.  In 
1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X., and in the following 
year, at the council of Lyons, in the emperor's name he 
recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome.  In 1282 he was 
sent on an embassy to John II, emperor of Trebizond, and 
died in the same year soon after his return.  His historical 
work (Xronike Supsgrafe, Annales) embraces the period 
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to 
its recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a 
continuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus.  It is valuable 
as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great 
logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador 
afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of 
events.  Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as 
far as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to 
understand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the 
construction of his sentences.  He was also the author of 
several shorter works, amongst them being a funeral oration on 
John Batatzes, an epitaph on his wife Eirene and a panegyric 
of Theodorus II. Lascaris of Nicaea.  While a prisoner 
at Epirus he wrote two treatises on the procession of the 
Holy Ghost ('Ekporeusis, Processio Spiritus Sancti). 

Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), with the editor's 
famous teatise De Georgiis eorumque Scriptis; editions in 
the Bonn Corpus Scriptoruin Hist.  Byz., by I. Bekker 
(1836), and Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxl.; in the 
Teubner series by A. Heisenberg (1903), the second volume of 
which contains a full life, with bibliography; see also C. 
Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

ACROSTIC (Gr. akros, at the end, and stichos, line 
or verse), a short verse composition, so constructed that 
the initial letters of the lines, taken consecutively, form 
words.  The fancy for writing acrostics is of great antiquity, 
having been common among the Greeks of the Alexandrine 
period, as well as with the Latin writers since Ennius and 
Plautus, many of the arguments of whose plays were written 
with acrostics on their respective titles.  One of the most 
remarkable acrostics was contained in the verses cited by 
Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, and attributed to 
the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of which form the 
words 'Insous Arist.os Theou uios sozer: ``Jesus Christ, 
the Son of God, the Saviour.'' The initials of the shorter 
form of this again make up the word ichthbs (fish), to which 
a mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, De Civitale 
Dei, 18, 23), thus constituting another kind of acrostic. 

The monks of the middle ages, who wrote in Latin, were fond 
of acrostics, as well as the poets of the Middle High German 
period, notably Gottfried of Strassburg and Rudolph of 
Ems. The great poets of the Italian renaissance, among them 
Boccaccio, indulged in them, as did also the early Slavic 
writers.  Sir John Davies (1569-1626) wrote twenty-six 
elegant Hymns to Astraea, each an acrostic on ``Elisabetha 
Regina''; and Mistress Mary Fage, in Fame's Roule, 
1637, commemorated 420 celebrities of her time in acrostic 
verses.  The same trick of composition is often to be met 
with in the writings of more recent versifiers.  Sometimes 
the lines are so combined that the final letters as well as 
the initials are significant.  Edgar Allan Poe worked two 
names---one of them that of Frances Sargent Osgood--into 
verses in such a way that the letters of the names corresponded 
to the first letter of the first line, the second letter 
of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on. 

Acrostic verse has always been held in slight estimation 
from a literary standpoint.  Dr Samuel Butler says, in his 
``Character of a Small Poet,'' ``He uses to lay the outsides 
of his verses even, like a bricklayer, by a line of rhyme 
and acrostic, and fill the middle with rubbish.'' Addison 
(Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible to decide whether 
the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic were the greater 
blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says, ``I have seen 
some of them where the verses have not only been edged by a 
name at each extremity, but have had the same name running 
down like a seam through the middle of the poem.'' And Dryden, 
in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully assigned Shadwell the rule 

 
              Some peaceful province in acrostic land.
 

The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or ``abecedarian'' 
verses.  Of these we have instances in the Hebrew psalms 
(e.g. Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), where successive verses begin 
with the letters of the alphabet in their order.  The structure 
of Ps. cxix. is still more elaborate, each of the verses of 
each of the twenty-two parts commencing with the letter which 
stands at the head of the part in our English translation. 

At one period much religious verse was written in a form 
imitative of this alphabetical method, possibly as an aid to the 
memory.  The term acrostic is also applied to the formation 
of words from the initial letters of other words. 'Ichthbs, 
referred to above, is an illustration of this.  So also is 
the word ``Cabal,'' which, though it was in use before, with 
a similar meaning, has, from the time of Charles II., been 
associated with a particular ministry, from the accident of its 
being composed of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and 
Lauderdale.  Akin to this are the names by which the Jews 
designated their Rabbis; thus Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better 
known as Maimonides) was styled ``Rambam,'' from the initials 
R.M.B.M.; Rabbi David Kimchi (R.D.K.), ``Radak,'' &c. 

Double acrostics are such as are so constructed, that not 
only initial letters of the lines, but also the middle or last 
letters, form words.  For example:---1.  By Apollo was my 
first made. 2. A shoemaker's tool. 3. An Italian patriot. 4. A 
tropical fruit.  The initials and finals, read downwards, give 
the name of a writer and his nom de plume. Answer: Lamb, 


 1. L   yr  E
 2. A   w   L
 3. M azzin I
 4. B anan  A
 

ACROTERIUM (Gr. akroterion the summit or vertex), in 
architecture, a statue or ornament of any kind placed on 
the apex of a pediment.  The term is often restricted to the 
plinth, which forms the podium merely for the acroterium. 

ACT (Lat. actus, actum), something done, primarily a voluntary 
deed or performance, though any accomplished fact is often 
included.  The signification of the word varies according to 
the sense in which it is employed.  It is often synonymous with 
``statute'' (see ACT OF PARLIAMENT). It may also refer to the 
result of the vote or deliberation of any legislature, the decision 
of a court of justice or magistrate, in which sense records, 
decrees, sentences, reports, certificates, &c., are called acts. 

In law it means any instrument in writing, for declaring or 
justifying the truth of a bargain or transaction, as: ``I 
deliver this as my act and deed.'' The origin of the legal use 
of the word ``act'' is in the acta of the Roman magistrates 
or people, of their courts of law, or of the senate, meaning 
(1) what was done before the magistrates, the people or 
the senate; (2) the records of such public proceedings. 

In connexion with other words ``act'' is employed in many 
phrases, e.g. act of God, any event, such as the sudden, 
violent or overwhelming occurrence of natural forces, which 
cannot be foreseen or provided against.  This is a good 
defence to a suit for non-performance of a contract. Act of 
honour denotes the acceptance by a third party of a protested 
bill of exchange for the honour of any party thereto. Act 
of grace denotes the granting of some special privilege. 

In universities, the presenting and publicly maintaining a 
thesis by a candidate for a degree, to show his proficiency, 
is an act. ``The Act'' at Oxford, up to 1856 when it was 
abolished, was the ceremony held early in July for this purpose, 
and the expressions ``Act Sunday,'' ``Act Term'' still survive. 

In dramatic literature, act signifies one of those parts 
into which a play is divided to mark the change of time 
or place, and to give a respite to the actors and to the 
audience.  In Greek plays there are no separate acts, the 
unities being strictly observed, and the action being continuous 
from beginning to end.  If the principal actors left the 
stage the chorus took up the argument, and contributed an 
integral part of the play, though chiefly in the form of 
comment upon the action.  When necessary, another droma, 
which is etymologically the same as an act, carried on the 
history to a later time or in a different place, and thus we 
have the Greek trilogies or groups of three dramas, in which 
the same characters reappear.  The Roman poets first adopted 
the division into acts, and suspended the stage business in 
the intervals between them.  Their number was usually five, 
and the rule was at last laid down by Horace in the Ars 


     Neve minor, neu sit quinto productior actu
     Fabula, quae posci vult, et spectata reponi.
     ``If you would have your play deserve success,
     Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less.'' (Francis.)
 

On the revival of letters this rule was almost universally 
observed by dramatists, and that there is an inherent convenience 
and fitness in the number five is evident from the fact that 
Shakespeare, who refused to be trammelled by merely arbitrary 
rules, adopts it in all his plays.  Some critics have laid down 
rules as to the part each act should sustain in the development 
of the plot, but these are not essential, and are by no means 
universally recognized.  In comedy the rule as to the number 
of acts has not been so strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a 
division into two acts or three acts being quite usual since 
the time of Moliere, who first introduced it.  It may be well 
to mention here Milton's Samson Agonistes as a specimen in 
English literature of a dramatic work founded on a purely Greek 
model, in which, consequently, there is no division into acts. 

For ``acting,'' as the art and theory of dramatic representation (or 
histrionics, from Lat. histrio, an actor), see the article DRAMA. 

ACTA DIURNA (Lat. acta, public acts or records; diurnius, 
daily, from dies), called also Acta Fopuli, Acta Publica 
and simply Acta or Diurna, in ancient Rome a sort of 
daily gazette, containing an officially authorized narrative 
of noteworthy eventsat Rome.  Its contents were partly 
official (court news, decrees of the emperor, senate and 
magistrates), partly private (notices of births, marriages and 
deaths).  Thus to some extent it filled the place of the 
modern newspaper (q.v.).  The origin of the Acta is 
attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered the keeping 
and publishing of the acts of the people by public officers 
(59 B.C.; Suetonius, Caesar, 20). The Acta were drawn up 
from day to day, and exposed in a public place on a whitened 
board (see ALBUM).  After remaining there for a reasonable 
time they were taken down and preserved with other public 
documents, so that they might be available for purposes of 
research.  The Acta differed from the Annals (which were 
discontinued in 133 B.C.) in that only the greater and 
more important matters were given in the latter, while in the 
former things of less note were recorded.  Their publication 
continued till the transference of the seat of the empire to 
Constantinople.  There are no genuine fragments extant. 

Leclerc, Des Journaux chez les Romains (1838); Renssen, De 
Diurnis aliisque Romanorum Actis (1857); Hubner, De Senatus 
Populique Romani Actis (1860); Gaston Boissier, Tacitus and other 
Roman Studies (Eng. trans., W. G. Hutchison, 1906), pp. 197-229. 

ACTAEON, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a famous Theban hero 
and hunter, trained by the centaur Cheiron.  According to the 
story told by Ovid (Metam. iii. 131; see also Apollod iii. 
4), having accidentally seen Artemis (Diana) on Mount Cithaeron 
while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and 
pursued and killed by his fifty hounds.  His statue was often 
set up on rocks and mountains as a protection against excessive 
heat.  The myth itself probably represents the destruction 
of vegetation during the fifty dog-days.  Aeschylus and other 
tragic poets made use of the story, which was a favourite 
subject in ancient works of art.  There is a well-known small 
marble group in the British Museum illustrative of the story. 

ACTA SENATUS, or COMMENTARII SENATUS, minutes of the 
discussions and decisions of the Roman senate.  Before the 
first consulship of Julius Caesar (59 B.C.), minutes of 
the proceedings of the senate were written and occasionally 
published, but unofficially; Caesar, desiring to tear away the 
veil of mystery which gave an unreal importance to the senate's 
deliberations, first ordered them to be recorded and issued 
authoritatively.  The keeping of them was continued by 
Augustus, but their publication was forbidden (Suetonius, 
Augustus, 36). A young senator (ab actis senatus) was 
chosen to draw up these Acta, which were kept in the imperial 
archives and public libraries (Tacitus, Ann. v. 4). 
Special permission from the city praefect was necessary in 
order to examine them.  For authorities see ACTA DIURNA. 

ACTINOMETER (Gr. aktis, ray, metron, measure), an 
instrument for measuring the heating and chemical effects of 
light.  The name was first given by Sir John Herschel to an 
apparatus for measuring the heating effect of solar rays (Edin.  
Journ. Science, 1825); Herschel's instrument has since been 
discarded in favour of the pyrheliometer (Gr. tur, fire, 
elios, sun). (See RADIATION.) The word actinometer is now 
usually applied to instruments for measuring the actinic or 
chemical effect of luminous rays; their action generally depends 
upon photochemical changes (see PHOTO-CHEMISTRY).  Certain 
practical forms are described in the article PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS (STREPTOTRICHOSIS), a chronic infective 
disease occurring in both cattle and man.  In both these groups 
it presents the same clinical course, being characterized 
by chronic inflammation with the formation of granulomatous 
tumours, which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis or 
calcification.  It used to be believed that this disease was 
caused by a single vegetable parasite, the Ray-Fungus, but 
there is now an overwhelming mass of observations to show that 
the clinical features may be produced by a number of different 
species of parasites, for which the generic name Streptothrix 
has been generally adopted.  In 1899 the committee of the 
Pathological Society of London recommended that the term 
Streptotrichosis should be used as the appropriate clinical 
epithet of the large class of Streptothrix infections.  
And since that year the name Actinomycosis has been falling 
into disuse, and in any case is only used synonymously with 
Streitotrichosis.  For a further account of these parasites 
see the articles on BACTERIOLOGY and on PARASITIC DISEASES. 

Pathological Anatomy.---The naked-eye appearance of the 
different organs affected by Streptothrix infection varies 
according to the duration and acuteness of the disease.  In 
some tissues the appearance is that of simple inflammation, 
whereas in others it may be characteristic.  The liver when 
affected shows scattered foci of suppuration, which may become 
aggregated into spheroidal masses, surrounded by a zone of 
inflammation.  In the lungs the changes may be any that are 
produced by the following conditions. (1) An acute bronchitis. 
(2) A phthisical lung, grey nodules being scattered here and 
there almost exactly simulating tuberculous nodules. (3) An acute 
broncho-pneumonia with some interstitial fibrosis and a tendency 
to abscess formation.  The most characteristic lesions are in the 
skin.  These appear as nodules, sarcomatous-looking, soft and 
pulpy.  Their colour is mottled, yellow and purplish red.  The 
skin over them is thinned out, and broken down in places to 
form one or two crateriform ulcers from which a clear sticky 
fluid exudes.  The size varies from that of a pea to a small 
orange.  The pus is characteristic, varying in consistency 
though usually viscid, and containing numerous minute specks. 

The disease is more common in males than in females, aod 
more prevalent in Germany and Russia than in England.  The 
infection is probably spread by grain (corn or barley), on 
which the fungus may often be found.  In a great number of 
recorded cases the patient has been following agricultural 
pursuits.  The disease can only be transmitted from one 
individual to another with considerable difficulty, and no case 
of direct transmission from animal to man has yet been noted. 

Clinical History.---The course of actinomycosis is usually a 
chronic one, but occasionally the fungus gets into the blood, 
when the course is that of an acute infective disease or even 
pyaemia.  The symptoms are entirely dependent on the organ 
attacked, and are in no way specially characteristic.  During 
life a diagnosis of phthisis is continually made, and only a 
microscopic examination after death renders the true nature 
of the disease apparent.  The nature of the skin lesion is 
the most evident, and here the parasite can be detected early 
in the illness.  The only drug which appears to have any 
beneficial influence on the course of the disease is potassium 
iodide, and this has occasionally been used with great 
benefit.  Surgical interference is usually needed, either 
excision of the part affected, or, where possible, a thorough 
scraping of the lesion and free application of antiseptics. 

ACTINOZOA, a term in systematic zoology, first used by 
H. M. D. de Blainville about 1834, to designate animals the 
organs of which were disposed radially about a centre.  De 
Blainville included in his group many unicellular forms such as 
Noctiluca (see PROTOZOA), sea-anemones, corals, jelly-fish 
and hydroid polyps, echinoderms, polyzoa and rotifera.  T. 
H. Huxley afterwards restricted the term.  He showed that in 
de Blainville's group there were associated with a number of 
heterogeneous forms a group of animals characterized by being 
composed of two layers of cells comparable with the first two 
layers in the development of vertebrate animals.  Such forms 
he distinguished as Coelentera, and showed that they had no 
special affinity with echinoderms, polyzoa, &c. He divided 
the Coelentera into a group Hydrozoa, in which the sexually 
produced embryos were usually set free from the surface of the 
body, and a group Actinozoa, in which the embryos are detached 
from the interior of the body and escape generally by the oral 
aperture.  Huxley's Actinozoa comprised the sea-anemones, 
corals and sea-pens, on the one hand, and the Ctenophora on the 
other.  Later investigations, whilst confirming the general 
validity of Huxley's conclusions, have slightly altered 
the limits and definitions of his groups. (See ANTHOZOA, 
COELENTERA, CTENOPHORA and HYDROZOA.) (P. C. M.) 

ACTION, in law, a term used by jurists in three different 
senses: (1) a right to institute proceedings in a court of 
justice to obtain redress for a wrong (actio nihil aliud 
est quam jus prosequendi in judieio quod alicui debetur, 
Bracton, de Legibus Angliae, bk. iii. ch. i., f. 98 b); 
(2) the proceeding itself (actionn n'est auter chose que 
loyall demande de son droit, Co. Litt. 285 (a)); (3) the 
particular form of the proceeding.  The term is derived from 
the Roman law (actio), in which it is used in all three 
senses.  In the history of Roman law, actions passed through three 
stages.  The first period (terminated about 170 B.C. by the 
Lex Aebutia) is known as the system of legis actiones, and 
was based on the precepts of the XII. tables and used before 
the praetor urbanus. These actiones were five in number 
--sacramenti, per judicis postulationem, per condictionem, 
per manus injectionem, per pignoris captionem. The first 
was the primitive and characteristic action of the Roman 
law, and the others were little more than modes of applying 
it to cases not contemplated in the original form, or of 
carrying the result of it into execution when the action had 
been decided.  The legis actiones were superseded by the 
formulae, originated by the praetor peregrinus for the 
determination of controversies between foreigners, but found 
more flexible than the earlier system and made available for 
citizens by the Lex Aebutia. Under both these systems 
the praetor referred the matter in dispute to an arbiter 
(judex), but in the later he settled the formula (i.e. 
the issues to be referred and the appropriate form of relief) 
before making the order of reference.  In the third stage, 
the formulary stage fell into disuse, and after A.D. 342 the 
magistrate himself or his deputy decided the controversy after 
the defending party had been duly summoned by a libellus. 

The classifications of actiones in Roman law were very 
numerous.  The division which is still most universally 
recognized is that of actions in rem and actions in 
personam (Sohm, Roman Law, tr. by Ledlie, 2nd ed. 
277).  An action in rem asserts a right to a particular 
thing against all the world.  An action in personam asserts 
a right only against a particular person.  Perhaps the best 
modern example of the distinction is that made in maritime 
cases between an action against a ship after a collision 
at sea, and an action against the owners of the ship. 

In English law the term ``action'' at a very early date 
became associated with civil proceedings in the Court of 
Common Pleas, which were distinguished from pleas of the 
crown, such as indictments or informations and for suits in 
the Court of Chancery or in the Admiralty or ecclesiastical 
courts.  The English action was a proceeding commenced by writ 
original at the common law.  The remedy was of right and not of 
grace.  The history of actions is the history of civil procedure 
in the courts of common law.  As a result of the reform of 
civil procedure by the Judicature Acts the term ``action'' in 
English law now means at the High Court of Justice ``a civil 
proceeding commenced by writ of summons or in such other manner 
as may be prescribed by rules of court'' (e.g. by originating 
summons).  The proceeding thus commenced ends by judgment and 
execution.  This definition includes proceedings under the 
Chancery, Admiralty and Probate jurisdiction of the High 
Court, but excludes proceedings commenced by petition, such 
as divorce suits and bankruptcy and winding-up matters, as 
well as criminal proceedings in the High Court or applications 
for the issue of the writs of mandamus, prohibition, 
habeas corpus or certiorari. The Judicature Acts and 
Rules have had the effect of abolishing all the forms of 
``action'' used at the common law and of creating one common 
form of legal proceeding for all ordinary controversies 
between subjects in whatever division of the High Court.  
The stages in an English action are the writ, by which the 
persons against whom relief is claimed are summoned before 
the court; the pleadings and interlocutory steps, by which 
the issues between the parties are adjusted; the trial, at 
which the issues of fact and law involved are brought before 
the tribunal; the judgment, by which the relief sought 
is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law 
gives to the successful party the fruits of the judgment. 

The procedure varies according as the action is in the High 
Court, a county court or one of the other local courts of record 
which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in 
the incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these 
courts.  The initial difference between actions in the High 
Court and the county court is that the latter are commenced 
by plaint lodged in the court, on which a summons is prepared 
by the court and served by its bailiff, whereas in the High 
Court the party prepares the writ and lodges it in court for 
sealing, and when it is sealed, himself effects the service. 

An action is said to ``lie'' when the law provides a remedy for 
some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes 
the legal rights of another subject.  An act of such a 
character is said to give a ``cause of action.'' In the action 
the person who alleges himself aggrieved claims a judgment 
of the court in his favour giving an adequate and appropriate 
remedy for the injury or damage which he has sustained by 
the infraction of his rights.  As to the time within which an 
action must be brought, see LIMITATION, STATUTES OF. When 
the rights of a subject are infringed by the illegal action 
of the state, an action lies in England against the officers 
who have done the wrong, unless the claim be one arising out 
of breach of a contract with the state, or out of an ``Act 
of State.'' For a breach by the state of a contract made 
between the state and a subject the remedy of the subject 
is, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of 
the state who acted for the state with reference to the making 
or breach of the contract, but against the Crown itself by 
the proceeding called Petition of Right (see PETITION). 

While as a generic term ``action'' in its proper legal sense 
includes suits by the Crown and ``criminal actions'' (see Co. 
Litt. 284b; Bracton, de Legibus Angliae, bk. iii. ch. v. 
f. 1046; Bradlaugh v. Clarke, 1883, 8 App. Cas. 354, 361, 
374), in popular language it is taken to mean a proceeding 
by a subject and is now rarely applied in England even by 
lawyers to criminal proceedings.  What are now known as ``penal 
actions,'' i.e. proceedings in which an individual who has 
not suffered personally by a breach of the law sues as a common 
informer for the statutory penalty either on his own benefit 
or on behalf also of the Crown (qui tam pro rege quam pro se 
ipso), bear some analogy to the actio popularis of Roman 
law, from which they are derived (see the statute 4 Hen. 
VII. 1488); but they are now treated for most purposes as 
civil and not as criminal proceedings.  The law of Scotland 
follows the lines of the civil law, and the expression 
``criminal action'' is in use to distinguish proceedings 
to punish offences against the public as distinguished 
from civil action, brought to enforce a private right. 

In the United States, and the British colonies in which English 
law runs by settlement, charter, proclamation or statute, 
the nature of an action is substantially the same as in 
England.  The differences between one state of the Union and 
another, and one colony and another, depend mainly on the 
extent to which the old procedure of the common law has been 
abolished, simplified or reformed by local legislation. 

AUTHORITIES.--Roman Law: Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law, 
W. G. Ledlie (2nd ed., 1901).  English Law: Pollock and 
Maitland, English Law; Holmes, The Common Law; Bullen 
and Leake, Prec.  Pleadings (3rd ed.: 6th ed. 1905). 

ACTIUM (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a promontory 
in the north of Acarnania (Greece) at the mouth of the 
Sinus Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite Nicopolis, built 
by Augustus on the north side of the strait.  On the 
promontory was an ancient temple of Apollo Actius, which 
was enlarged by Augustus, who also, in memory of the battle, 
instituted or renewed the quinquennial games called Actia 
or Ludi Actiaci. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time 
from the battle of Actium.  There was on the promontory 
a small town, or rather village, also called Actium. 

History.-Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian 
colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of 
Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century it 
fell to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods 
there.  Actium is chiefly famous as the site of Octavian's 
decisive victory over Mark Antony (2nd of September 31 B.C.).  
This battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations.  
The final conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have 
been persuaded by Cleopatra to retire to Egypt and give battle 
to mask his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing 
demoralization of his army would sufficiently account for his 
decision.  The fleets met outside the gulf, each over 200 
strong (the totals given by ancient authorities are very 
conflicting).  Antony's heavy battleships endeavoured to 
close and crush the enemy with their artillery; Octavian's 
light and mobile craft made skilful use of skirmishing 
tactics.  During the engagement Cleopatra suddenly withdrew 
her squadron and Antony slipped away behind her.  His 
flight escaped notice, and the conflict remained undecided, 
until Antony's fleet was set on fire and thus annihilated. 

AUTHORITIES-- Dio Cassi us, 50.12-51.3; Plutarch, Antonius, 
62-68; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 84-85.  C. Merivale, History 
of the Romans under the Empire, iii. pp. 313-325 (London, 
1851); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit, i. pp. 
369-386, ii. pp. 189-201 (Leipzig, 1891 ): G. Ferrero 
in the Revue de Paris, Mar. 15, 1906, pp. 225-243; b.  
Kromayer, in Hermes, xxxiv. (1899), pp. 1-54. (M. O. B. C.) 

ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An act of parliament may be regarded 
as a declaration of the legislature, enforcing certain 
rules of conduct, or defining rights and conferring them 
upon or withholding them from certain persons or classes of 
persons.  The collective body of such declarations constitutes 
the statutes of the realm or written law of the British 
nation, in the widest sense, from Anglo-Saxon times to the 
present day.  It is not, however, till the earlier half 
of the 13th century that, in a more limited constitutional 
sense, the statute-book is generally held to open, and the 
parliamentary records only begin to assume distinct outlines 
late in the reign of Edward I. It gradually became a fixed 
constitutional principle that an act of parliament, to be 
valid, must express concurrently the will of the entire 
legislature.  It was not, however, till the reign of Henry 
VI. that it became customary, as now, to introduce bills into 
parliament in the form of finished acts; and the enacting 
clause, regarded by constitutionalists as the first perfect 
assertion, in words, of popular right, came into general 
use as late as the reign of Charles II. It is thus expressed 
in the case of all acts other than those granting money to 
the crown:---``Be it enacted by the King's most excellent 
Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords 
Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present Parliament 
assembled, and by the authority of the same.'' Where the 
act is a money grant the enacting clause is prefaced by the 
words, ``Most gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's most 
dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled, towards 
making good the supply1 which we have cheerfully granted 
to Your Majesty in this session of Parliament, have resolved 
to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter mentioned; 
and do therefore most humbly beseech Your Majesty that it 
may be enacted, &c.'' The use of the preamble with which 
acts are usually prefaced is thus quaintly set forth by Lord 
Coke: ``The rehearsal or preamble of the statute is a good 
meane to find out the meaning of the statute, and, as it 
were, a key to open the understanding thereof'' (Co. Litt. 
79a).  Originally the collective acts of each session formed 
but one statute, to which a general title was attached, 
and for this reason an act of parliament was up to 1892 
generally cited as the chapter of a particular statute, e.g. 
24 and 25 Vict. c. 101. Titles were, however, prefixed to 
individual acts as early as 1488.  Now, by the Short Titles 
Act 1892, it is optional to cite most important acts up 
to that date by their short titles, either individually or 
collectively.  Most modern acts have borne short titles 
independently of the act of 1892. (See PARLIAMENT; STATUTE.) 

1 Where the grant is not of supply, the preamble varies a 
little, e.g. in the Prince of Wales's Children Act 1889. 

ACTON (JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG ACTON), IST BARON 
(1834-1902), English historian, only son of Sir Richard Acton, 
7th baronet, and grandson of the Neapolitan admiral, Sir J. 
F. E. Acton, 6th baronet (q.v.), was born at Naples on the 
10th of January 1834.  His grandfather, who had succeeded 
in 1791 to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire, 
previously held by the English branch of the Acton family, 
represented a younger branch which had transferred itself 
first to France and then to Italy, but by the extinction of the 
elder branch the admiral became head of the family; his eldest 
son, Richard, had married Marie Louise Pelline, the daughter 
and heiress of Emerich Joseph, duc de Dalberg (q.v.), a 
naturalized French noble of ancient German lineage who had 
entered thc French service under Napoleon and represented 
Louis XVIII. at the congress of Vienna in 1814, and after 
Sir Richard Acton's death in 1837 she became (1840) the 
wife of the 2nd Earl Granville.  Coming of a Roman Catholic 
family, young Acton was educated at Oscott till 1848 under 
Dr (afterwards Cardinal) Wiseman, and then at Edinburgh, 
and at Munich under Dollinger, whose lifelong friend he 
became.  He had wished to go to Cambridge, but for a Roman 
Catholic this was then impossible.  By Dollinger he was 
inspired with a deep love of historical research and a profound 
conception of its functions as a critical instrument.  He was 
a master of the chief foreign languages, and began at an early 
age to collect a magnificent historical library, with the 
object, never in fact realized, of writing a great History of 
Liberty.  In politics he was always an ardent Liberal.  Without 
being a notable traveller, he spent much time in the chief 
intellectual centres of Europe, and in the United States, 
and numbered among his friends such men as Montalembert, De 
Tocqueville.  Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel and 
Ranke.  He was attached to Lord Granville's mission to Moscow, 
as British representative at the coronation of Alexander II. in 
1856.  In 1859 Sir John Acton settled in England, at his country 
house, Aldenham, in Shropshire.  He was returned to the House 
of Commons in that year for the Irish borough of Carlow, and 
became a devoted admirer and adherent of Mr Gladstone; but he 
was practically a silent member, and his parliamentary career 
came to an end after the general election of 1865, when, 
having headed the poll for Bridgnorth, he was unseated on a 
scrutiny; he contested Bridgnorth again in 1868, but without 
success.  Meanwhile he had become editor of the Roman Catholic 
monthly paper, the Rambler, in 1859, on J. H. Newman's 
retirement from the editorship; and in 1862 he merged this 
periodical in the Home and Foreign Review. His contributions 
at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of historical 
knowledge.  But though a sincere Roman Catholic, his whole 
spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane pretensions, 
and his independence of thought and liberalism of view 
speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic 
hierarchy.  As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman publicly 
censured the Review; and when in 1864, after Dollinger's 
appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude 
towards historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration 
that the opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the 
authority of the Roman congregations, Acton felt that there 
was only one way of reconciling his literary conscience with 
his ecclesiastical loyalty, and he stopped the publication of 
his monthly periodical.  He continued, however, to contribute 
articles to the North British Review, which, previously 
a Scottish Free Church organ, had been acquired by friends 
in sympathy with him, and which for some years (until 1872, 
when it ceased to appear) actively promoted the interests of 
a high-class Liberalism in both temporal and ecclesiastical 
matters; he also did a good deal of lecturing on historical 
subjects.  In 1865 he married the Countess Marie, daughter 
of the Bavarian Count Arco-Valley, by whom he had one son 
and three daughters.  In 1869 he was raised to the peerage 
by Gladstone as Baron Acton; he was an intimate friend and 
constant correspondent of the Liberal leader, and the two 
men had the very highest regard for one another.  Matthew 
Arnold used to say that ``Gladstone influences all round 
him but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone.'' 

In 1870 came the great crisis in the Roman Catholic world 
over the promulgation by Pius IX. of the dogma of papal 
infallibility.  Lord Acton, who was in complete sympathy on 
this subject with Dollinger (q.v.), went to Rome in order 
to throw all his influence against it, but the step he so much 
dreaded was not to be averted.  The Old Catholic separation 
followed, but Acton did not personally join the seceders, 
and the authorities prudently refrained from forcing the 
hands of so competent and influential an English layman.  In 
1874, when Gladstone published his pamphlet on The Vatican 
Decrees, Lord Acton wrote during November and December a 
series of remarkable letters to The Times, illustrating 
Gladstone's main theme by numerous historical examples of papal 
inconsistency, in a way which must have been bitter enough 
to the ultramontane party, but demurring nevertheless to 
Gladstone's conclusion and insisting that the Church itself 
was better than its premisses implied.  Acton's letters led 
to another storm in the English Roman Catholic world, but once 
more it was considered prudent by the Vatican to leave him 
alone.  In spite of his reservations, he regarded ``communion 
with Rome as dearer than life.'' Thenceforth he steered clear 
of theological polemics.  He devoted himself to persistent 
reading and study, combined with congenial society.  With 
all his capacity for study he was a man of the world, and a 
man of affairs, not a bookworm.  Little indeed came from his 
pen, his only notable publications being a masterly essay 
in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on ``Democracy in 
Europe''; two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in 1877 on ``The 
History of Freedom in Antiquity'' and ``The History of Freedom 
in Christianity''--these last the only tangible portions put 
together by him of his long-projected ``History of Liberty''; 
and an essay on modern German historians in the first number 
of the English Historical Review, which he helped to found 
(1886).  After 1879 he divided his time between London, Cannes 
and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating the 
society of his friends.  In 1872 he had been given the honorary 
degree of doctor of philosophy by Munich University; in 1888 
Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of LL.D., and in 1889 
Oxford the D.C.L.; and in 1890 he was made a fellow of All 
Souls.  His reputation for learning had gradually been 
spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence.  The 
latter found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, 
when the Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a 
lord-in-waiting.  Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John 
Seeley, Lord Rosebery appointed him to the Regius Professorship 
of Modern History at Cambridge.  The choice was an excellent 
one.  His inaugural lecture on ``The Study of History,'' 
afterwards published with notes displaying a vast erudition, 
made a great impression in the university, and the new 
professor's influence on historical study was felt in many 
important directions.  He delivered two valuable courses of 
lectures, on the French Revolution and on Modern History, 
but it was in private that the effects of his teaching 
were most marked.  The great Cambridge Modern History, 
though he did not live to see it, was planned under his 
editorship, and all who came in contact with him testified 
to his stimulating powers and his extraordinary range of 
knowledge.  He was taken ill, however, in 1901, and died on 
the 19th of June 1902, being succeeded in the title by his 
son.  Richard Maximllian Dalberg Acton, 2nd Baron Acton 
(b.1870).  Lord Acton has left too little completed original 
work to rank among the great historians; his very learning 
seems to have stood in his way; he knew too much and his 
literary conscience was too acute for him to write easily, 
and his copiousness of information overloads his literary 
style.  But he was one of the most deeply learned men of his 
time, and he will certainly be remembered for his influence on 
others.  His extensive library, formed for use and not for 
display, and composed largely of books full of his own 
annotations, was bought immediately after his death by Mr 
Andrew Carnegie, and presented to Mr John Morley, by whom 
it was forthwith given to the university of Cambridge. 

See Mr Herbert Paul's excellent Introductory Memoir to the 
interesting volume of Lord Acton's Letters to Mrs Drew 
(1904), and the authorities cited there; also Dom Gasquet's 
Lord Acton and his Circle (1906).  A Bibliography of 
the works of Lord Acton, by W. A. Shaw, was published by 
the Royal Historical Society in 1903.  The Edinburgh Review 
of April 1903 contains a luminous essay; and Mr Bryce has a 
chapter on Acton in his Studies of Contemporary Biography 
(1903).  Lord Acton's Lectures on Modern History, edited 
by J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence, appeared in 1906; and 
his History of Freedom and other Essays and Historical 
Essay's and Studies (by the same editors) in 1907. (H. CH.) 

ACTON, SIR JOHN FRANCIS EDWARD, BART. (1736--1811). prime 
minister of Naples under Ferdinand IV., was the son of Edward 
Acton, a physician at Besancon, and was born there in 1736, 
succeeding to the title and estates in 1791, on the death of 
his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard Acton of Aldenham 
Hall, Shropshire.  He served in the navy of Tuscany, and in 
1775 commanded a frigate in the joint expedition of Spain and 
Tuscany against Algiers, in which he displayed such courage and 
resource that he was promoted to high command.  In 1779 Queen 
Maria Carolina of Naples persuaded her brother the Grand-Duke 
Leopold of Tuscany to allow Acton, who had been recommended 
to her by Prince Caramenico, to undertake the reorganization 
of the Neapolitan navy.  The ability displayed by him in this 
led to his rapid advancement.  He became commander-in-chief 
of both services, minister of finance, and finally prime 
minister.  His policy was devised in concert with the English 
ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and aimed at substituting the 
influence of Austria and Great Britain for that or Spain, at 
Naples, and consequently involved open opposition to France and 
the French party in Italy.  The financial and administrative 
measures which were the outcome of a policy which necessitated 
a great increase of armament made him intensely unpopular, 
and in December 1798 he shared the flight of the king and 
queen.  For the reign of terror which followed the downfall 
of the Parthenopean Republic, five months later, Acton has 
been held responsible.  In 1804 he was for a short time 
deprived of the reins of government at the demand of France; 
but he was speedily restored to his former position, which 
he held till, in February 1806, on the entry of the French 
into Naples, he had to flee with the royal family into 
Sicily.  He died at Palermo on the 12th of August 1811. 

He had married, by papal dispensation, the eldest daughter 
of his brother, General Joseph Edward Acton (b. 1737), who 
was in the Neapolitan service, and left three children, the 
elder son, Sir Richard, being the father of the first Lord 
Acton.  The second son, Charles Januarius Edward (1803-1847), 
after being educated in England and taking his degree at 
Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1823, entered the Academia 
Ecclesiastica at Rome.  He left this with the rank of prolate, 
in 1828 was secretary to the nuncio at Paris and was made 
vice-legate of Bologna shortly afterwards.  He became secretary 
of the congregation of the Disciplina Regolare, and auditor 
of the Apostolic Chamber under Gregory XVI., by whom he was 
made a cardinal in 1842.  Cardinal Acton was protector of the 
English College at Rome, and had been mainly instrumental in 
the increase, in 1840, of the English vicariates-general to 
eight, which paved the way for the restoration of the hierarchy 
by Pius IX. in 1850.  He died on the 23rd of June 1847. 

ACTON, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary 
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m.  W. 
of St. Paul's Cathedral.  Pop. (1861) 3151; (1901) 37,744.  
Its appearance is now wholly that of a modern residential 
suburb.  The derivation offered for its name is from Oak-town, 
in reference to the extensive forest which formerly covered the 
locality.  The land belonged from early times to the see of 
London, a grant being recorded in 1220.  Henry III. had a 
residence here.  At the time of the Commonwealth Acton was 
a centre of Puritanism.  Philip Nye (d. 1672) was rector; 
Richard Baxter, Sir Matthew Hale (Lord Chief-Justice), Henry 
Fielding the novelist and John Lindley the botanist (d. 1865) 
are famous names among residents here.  Acton Wells, of saline 
waters, had considerable reputation in the 18th century. 

ACT ON PETITION, the term for a part of the procedure in the 
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, now of infrequent 
occurrence.  It was more freely used in the old Admiralty and 
Divorce courts before the Judicature Acts. (See PLEADING.) 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book of the Bible, which now 
stands fifth in the New Testament, was read at first as the 
companion and sequel of the Gospel of Luke.  Its separation 
was due to growing consciousness of the Gospels as a unit 
of sacred records, to which Acts stood as a sort of 
appendix.  Historically it is of unique interest and 
value: it has no fellow within the New Testament or without 
it.  The so-called Apocryphal Acts of certain apostles, while 
witnessing to the impression produced by our Acts as a type 
of edifying literature, only emphasize this fact.  It is the 
one really primitive Church history, primitive in spirit as in 
substance; apart from it a connected picture of the Apostolic 
Age would be impossible.  With it, the Pauline Epistles are 
of priceless historical value; without it, they would remain 
bafflingly fragmentary and incomplete, often even misleading. 

1. Plan and Aim.---All agree that the Acts of the Apostles 
is the work of an author of no mean skill, and that he has 
exercised careful selection in the use of his materials, in 
keeping with a definite purpose and plan.  It is of moment, 
then, to discover from his emphasis, whether by iteration 
or by fulness of scale, what objects he had in mind in 
writing.  Here it is not needful to go farther back than F. 
C. Baur and the Tubingen school, with its theory of sharp 
antitheses between Judaic and Gentile Christianity, of which 
they took the original apostles and Paul respectively as 
typical.  Gradually their statement of this position underwent 
serious modifications, as it became realized that neither 
Jewish nor Gentile Christianity was a uniform genus, but 
included several species, and that the apostolic leaders from 
the first stood for mutual understanding and unity.  Hence 
the Tubingen school did its chief work in putting the needful 
question, not in returning the correct answer.  Their answer 
could not be correct, because, as Ritschl showed (in his 
Altkath. Kirche, 2nd ed., 1857 ), their premisses were 
inadequate.  Still the attitude created by the Tubingen 
theory largely persists as a biassing element in much that 
is written about Acts. On the whole, however, there is a 
disposition to look at the book more objectively and to follow 
up the hints as to its aim given by the author in his opening 
verses.  Thus (1) his second narrative is the natural sequel 
to his first.  As the earlier one set forth in orderly sequence 
(kathexes) the providential stages by which Jesus was led, 
``in the power of the Spirit,'' to begin the establishment 
of the consummated Kingdom of God, so the later work aims at 
setting forth on similar principles its extension by means 
of His chosen representatives or apostles.  This involves 
emphasis on the identity of the power, Divine and not merely 
human, expressed in the great series of facts from first to 
last.  Thus (2) the Holy Spirit appears as directing and 
energizing throughout the whole struggle with the powers 
of evil to be overcome in either ministry, of Master or 
disciples.  But (3) the continuity is more than similarity of 
activity resting on the same Divine energy.  The working of 
the energy in the disciples is conditioned by the continued 
life and volition of their Master at His Father's right 
hand in heaven.  The Holy Spirit, ``the Spirit of Jesus,'' 
is the living link between Master and disciples.  Hence 
the pains taken to exhibit (i. 2, 4 f. 8, ii. I ff., 
cf.  Luke xxiv. 49) the fact of such spiritual solidarity, 
whereby their activity means His continued action in the 
world.  And (4) the scope of this action is nothing less than 
humanity (ii. 5 ff.), especially within the Roman empire.  
It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses should be borne 
by Divine power through all obstacles and to ever-widening 
circles, until they reached and occupied Rome itself for the God 
of Israel--now manifest (as foretold by Israel's own prophets) 
as the one God of the one race of mankind. (5) Finally, as 
we gather from the parallel account in Luke xxiv.46-48, the 
divinely appointed method of victory is through suffering 
(Acts xiv. 22). This explains the large space devoted to the 
tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy amid them, 
after the type of their Lord Himself.  It forms one side of the 
virtual apologia for the absence of that earthly prosperity 
in which the pagan mind was apt to see the token of Divine 
approval.  Another side is the recurring exhibition of the 
fact that these witnesses were persecuted only by those whose 
action should create no bias against the persecuted.  Their 
foes were chiefly Jews, whose opposition was due partly to 
a stiff-necked disinclination to bow to the wider reading 
of their own religion --to which the Holy Spirit had from of 
old been pointing (cf. the prominence given to this idea in 
Stephen's long speech)--and partly to jealousy of those who, 
by preaching the wider Messianic Evangel, were winning over the 
Gentiles, and particularly proselytes, in such great numbers. 

Such, then, seem to be the author's main motifs. They make 
up an account fairly adequate to the manifoldness of the 
book; yet they may be summed up in three ideas, together 
constituting the moral which this history of the expansion 
of Christianity aims at bringing home to its readers.  These 
are the universality of the Gospel, the jealousy of 
national Judaism, and the Divine initiative manifest 
in the gradual stages by which men of Jewish birth were 
led to recognize the Divine will in the setting aside of 
national restrictions, alien to the universal destiny of the 
Church.  The practical moral is the Divine character of the 
Christian religion, as evinced by the manner of its extension 
in the empire, no less than by its original embodiment 
in the Founder's life and death.  Thus both parts of the 
author's work alike tend to produce assured conviction of 
Christianity as of Divine origin (Luke i. 1, 4; Acts i. 1 f.). 

This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious 
aim--a sine qua non to any theory of an early Christian 
writing. though meant for men of pagan birth in the first 
instance, it is to them as inquirers or even converts, such 
as ``Theophilus,'' that the argument is addressed.  In spite 
of all difficulties, this religion is worthy of personal 
belief, even though it mean opposition and suffering.  Among 
the features of the occasion which suggested the need of such 
an appeal was doubtless the existence of persecution by the 
Roman authorites, perhaps largely at the instigation of local 
Judaism.  To meet this special perplexity, the author holds 
up the picture of early days, when the great protagonist of 
the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the hands of Roman 
justice.  It is implied that the present distress is but a 
passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding; meantime, 
the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong 
reassurance.  The Acts of the Apostles is in fact an Apology 
for the Church as distinct from Judaism, the breach with 
which is accordingly traced with great fulness and care. 

From this standpoint Acts no longer seems to end 
abruptly.  Whether as exhibiting the Divine leading and 
aid, or as recording the impartial and even kindly attitude 
of the Roman State towards the Christians, the writer has 
reached a climax. ``He wished,'' as Harnack well remarks, 
``to point out the might of the Holy Spirit in the apostles, 
Christ's witnesses; and to show how this might carried the 
Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and gained for it entrance 
into the pagan world, whilst the Jews in growing degree 
incurred rejection.  In keeping with this, verses 26-28 
of chapter xxviii. are the solemn closing verses of the 
work.  But verses 30, 31 are an appended observation.'' 

Yet the writer is, in fact, ending up most fitly on one 
of his keynotes, in that he leaves Paul preaching in Rome 
itself, ``unmolested.'' ``Paulus Romae, apex Evangelii.'' 

The full force of this is missed by those who, while rejecting 
the idea that the author had in reserve enough Pauline history 
to furnish another work, yet hold that Paul was freed from the 
imprisonment amid which Acts leaves him (see PAUL).  But for 
those, on the other hand, who see in the writer's own words in 
xx. 38, uncontradicted by anything in the sequel, a broad hint 
that Paul never saw his Ephesian friends again, the natural 
view is open that the sequel to the two years' preaching was 
too well known to call for explicit record.  Nor would such 
silence touching Paul's speedy martyrdom be disingenuous, any 
more than on the theory that martyrdom overtook him several years 
later.  The writer views Paul's death (like the horrors of 
Nero's Vatican Gardens in 64) as a mere exception to the rule 
of Roman policy heretofore illustrated.  Not even by the Roman 
authorities were some of Nero's acts regarded as precedents. 

2. Authorship.--External evidence, which is relatively 
early and widespread (e.g. Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus, 
Tertullian,Clement and Origen), all points to Luke, the 
companion and fellow-worker of Paul (Philem. 24), who probably 
accompanied him as physician also (Col. iv. 14). It must be 
noted too that evidence for his authorship of the third Gospel 
counts also for Acts. This carries us back at least to the 
second quarter of the 2nd century (Justin, Dial. 103, and 
most probably Marcion), when Loukan no doubt stood at the 
head of the Gospel, especially where it was used side by side 
with the others.  We have every reason to trust the Church's 
tradition at this time, particularly as Luke was not prominent 
enough as an associate of Paul to suggest the theory as a 
guess.  Nor does Eusebius, who knew the ante-Nicene literature 
intimately, seem to know of any other view ever having been 
held.  If, then, the traditional Lucan authorship is to be 
doubted, it must be on internal evidence only.  The form of 
the book, however, in all respects favours Luke, who was of 
non-Jewish birth (see Col. iv. 12-14 compared with 10 f.), and 
as a physician presumably a man of culture.  The medical cast 
of much of its language, which is often of a highly technical 
nature, points strongly the same way;1 while the early tradition 
that Luke was born in the Syrian Antioch admirably suits the 
fulness with which the origin of the Antiochene Church and 
its place in the further extension of the Gospel are described 
(see LUKE).  Again, the attitude of Acts towards the Roman 
Empire is just what would be expected from a close comrade of 
Paul (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman 
Citizen, 1895), but was hardly likely to be shared by one of 
the next generation, reared in an atmosphere of resentment, 
first at Nero's conduct and then at the persecuting policy 
of the Flavian Caesars (see REVELATION).  Finally, the 
book itself seems to claim to be written by a companion of 
Paul.  In chap. xvi. 10 the writer, without any previous 
warning, passes from the third person to the first.  Paul 
had reached Troas.  There he saw a vision inviting him to 
go to Macedonia. ``But when he saw the vision, straightway 
we sought to go forth into Macedonia.'' Thenceforth ``we'' 
re-emerges at certain points in the narrative until Rome is 
reached.  Irenaeus (iii. 14. 1) quotes these passages as proof 
that Luke, the author, was a companion of the apostle.  The 
minute character of the narrative, the accurate description 
of the various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the 
details, especially some of the incidents of the shipwreck, 
are strong reasons for believing that the narrative is that 
of an eyewitness.  If so, we can scarcely help coming to the 
conclusion that this eye-witness was the author of the work; 
for the style of this eye-witness is exactly the style of the 
writer who composed the previous portions (see Harnack, op. 
cit., reinforcing the argument as already worked out by B. 
Weiss, 1893, and especially by Sir J. C. Hawkins in Horae 
Synopticae, 1899, pp. 143-147).  Most scholars admit that 
the ``we'' narrative is that of a personal companion of 
Paul, who was probably none other than Luke, in view of his 
traditional authorship of Acts. But many suppose that the 
tradition arose from confused remembrance of the use by a 
later author of Luke's ``we'' document or travel-diary.  This 
supposition would compel us to believe either that the skilful 
writer of Acts was so careless as to incorporate a document 
without altering its form, or that ``we'' is introduced 
intentionally.  In the latter case we must suppose either that 
the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to be thought an 
eye-witness.  E. Zeller, a follower of Baur, adopted this latter 
alternative, and P. W. Schmiedel adheres to it.  Indeed it 
is hard to see how it can be avoided on the theory that the 
author of Acts used a travel-document by another hand (see 
below, Sources). On the whole, then, the most tenable theory 
is that the writer of the ``we'' sections was also the author 
of Acts; and that he was Luke, Paul's companion during most 
of his later ministry, and also his ``counterpart,'' ``as a 
Hellene, who yet had personal sympathy with Jewish primitive 
Christianity'' (Harnack, op. cit. p. 103; see also LUKE). 

3. Sources.--So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts 
being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its 
composition, one may say that it points the way thereto, while 
it keeps the literary analysis within scientific limits.  
The more one realizes the standpoint of the mind pervading 
the book as a whole, the more one feels that the speeches in 
the first part of Acts (e.g. that of Stephen)---and indeed 
elsewhere, too--are not ``free compositions'' of our author, 
the mere outcome of dramatic idealization such as ancient 
historians like Thucydides or Polybius allowed themselves.  
The Christology, for instance of the early Petrine speeches 
is such as a Gentile Christian writing c. 80 A.D. simply 
could not have imagined.  Thus we are forced to assume the 
use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian material, 
akin to that implied also in the special parts of the Third 
Gospel.  Paul Feine (Eine vorkanonische Ueberlieferung des 
Lukas, 1891) suggested that a single document explains this 
material in both works, as far as Acts xii.  Others maintain 
that at any rate two sources underlie Acts i.-xii., or even 
i.-xv. (see A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte, p. 131 
ff.).  In particular we can recognize a source embodying the 
traditions of the largely Hellenistic Church of Antioch, a 
secondary gloss from which may survive in the Bezan addition 
to xi. 27, ``when we were assembled.'' Further, if our 
author was a careful inquirer (Luke i. 3), especially if 
he was in the habit of taking down in writing what he heard 
from different witnesses, this may explain some of the 
phenomena.  Such a man as Luke would have rare faculties 
for collecting Palestinian materials, varying no doubt in 
accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or 
in Caesarea, where he probably resided for some two years in 
contact with men like Philip the Evangelist (xxi. 8). There 
and elsewhere he might also learn a good deal from John Mark, 
Peter's friend (1 Pet. v. 13; Acts xii. 12). In any case the 
study of sources (Quellenkritik) is a comparatively new 
one, and the resources of analysis, linguistic in particular, 
are by no means exhausted.  One important analogy exists 
for the way in which our author would handle any written 
sources he may have had by him, namely, the manner in 
which he uses Mark's Gospel narrative in compiling his own 
Gospel.  Guided by this objective criterion, and safeguarded 
by growing insight into the author's plastic aim, we need 
not despair of reaching large agreement as to the nature 
of the sources lying behind the first half of Acts. 

In the second or strictly Pauline half we are confronted by 
the so-called ``we'' passages.  Of these two main theories 
are possible: (1) that which sees in them traces of an 
earlier document--whether entries in a travel-diary, or a 
more or less consecutive narrative written later; and (2) 
that which would regard the ``we'' as due to the author's 
breaking instinctively into the first person plural at certain 
points where he felt himself specially identified with the 
history.  On the former hypothesis, it is still in debate 
whether the ``we'' document does or does not lie behind more 
of the narrative than is definitely indicated by the formula 
in question (e.g. cc. xiii.-xv., xxi. 19-xxvi.).  On the 
latter, it may well be questioned whether the presence or 
absence of ``we'' be not due to psychological causes, rather 
than to the writer's mere presence or absence.2 That is, 
he may be writing sometimes as a member of Paul's mission at 
the critical stages of onward advance, sometimes rather as 
a witness absorbed in his hero's words and deeds (so ``we'' 
ceases between xx. 15 and xxi. 1). Naturally he would fall 
into the former attitude mostly when recording the definitive 
transition of Paul and his party from one sphere of work 
to another (xvi. 10 ff., xx. 5 ff., xxvii. 1 ff.).  At such 
times the whole ``mission'' was as one man in its movements. 

4. Historical Value.---The question of authorship is 
largely bound up with that as to the quality of the contents 
as history. Acts is divided into two distinct parts.  The 
first (i.-xii.) deals with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, 
and with Peter as central figure---at any rate in cc. i.-v. 
``Yet in cc. vi.-xii.,'' as Harnack3 observes, ``the author 
pursues several lines at once. (1) He has still in view the 
history of the Jerusalem community and the original apostles 
(especially of Peter and his missionary labours); (2) he 
inserts in vi. 1 ff. a history of the Hellenistic Christians 
in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the first tends 
towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the Antiochene 
community; (3) he pursues the activity of Philip in Samaria 
and on the coast . . .; (4) lastly, he relates the history of 
Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young Antiochene 
church.  In the small space of seven chapters he pursues all 
these lines and tries also to connect them together, at the 
same time preparing and sketching the great transition of 
the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world.  As historian, 
he has here set himself the greatest task.'' No doubt gaps 
abound in these seven chapters. ``But the inquiry as to 
whether what is narrated does not even in these parts still 
contain the main facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, 
is not yet concluded.'' The difficulty is that we have but 
few external means of testing this portion of the narrative 
(see below, Date).  Some of it may well have suffered 
partial transformation in oral tradition belore reaching 
our author; e.g. the nature of the Tongues at Pentecost 
does not accord with what we know of the gift of ``tongues'' 
generally.  The second part pursues the history of the 
apostle Paul; and here we can compare the statements made 
in the Acts with the Epistles.  The result is a general 
harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and 
there are many minute coincidences.  But attention has been 
drawn to two remarkable exceptions.  These are, the account 
given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as 
compared with Acts; and the character and mission of the 
apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts. 

In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's 
movements until he returns to his native province of 
Syria-Cilicia (see PAUL) do not really amount to more than can 
be explained by the different interests of Paul and our author 
respectively.  But it is otherwise as regards the visits of 
Gal. ii. 1-10 and Acts xv.  If they are meant to refer to 
the same occasion, as is usually assumed,4 it is hard to 
see why Paul should omit reference to the public occasion 
of the visit, as also to the public vindication of his 
policy.  But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given 
in Gal. ii. 9 f. and Acts xv. 20 f., are not at all the 
same.5 Nay more, if Gal. ii. 1-10=Acts xv., the historicity 
of the ``Relief visit'' of Acts xi. 30, xii. 25, seems 
definitely excluded by Paul's narrative of events before the 
visit of Gal. ii. 1 ff.  Accordingly, Sir W. M. Ramsay and 
others argue that the latter visit itself coincided with the 
Relief visit, and even see in Gal. ii. 10 witness thereto. 

But why, then, does not Paul refer to the public charitable 
object of his visit? It seems easier therefore to admit that 
the visit of Gal. ii. 1 ff. is one altogether unrecorded 
in Acts, owing to its private nature as preparing the 
way for public developments---with which Acts is mainly 
concerned.  In that case it would fall shortly before the Relief 
visit, to which there may be tacit explanatory allusion, in 
Gal. ii. 10 (see further PAUL); and it will be shown below 
that such a conference of leaders in Gal. ii. 1 ff. leads up 
excellently both to the First Mission Journey and to Acts xv. 

We pass next to the Paul of Acts. Paul insists that he 
was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to 
the Circumcision; and that circumcision and the observance 
of the Jewish law were of no importance to the Christian as 
such.  His words on these points in all his letters are 
strong and decided.  But in Acts it is Peter who first 
opens up the way for the Gentiles.  It is Peter who uses 
the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden 
of the Law as a means of salvation(xv. 10 f., cf. 1). Not a 
word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and 
Paul at Antioch (Gal. ii. 11 ff.).  The brethren in Antioch 
send Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask the opinion 
of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and carry 
back the decision to Antioch.  Throughout the whole of Acts 
Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the 
Gentiles.  He seems continually anxious to reconcile the 
Jewish Christians to himself by personally observing the law of 
Moses.  He circumcises the semi-Jew, Timothy; and he performs 
his vows in the temple.  He is particularly careful in his 
speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of 
Moses.  In all this the letters of Paul are very different 
from Acts. In Galatians he claims perfect freedom in 
principle, for himself as for the Gentiles, from the 
obligatory observance of the law; and neither in it nor in 
Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to which 
the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem.  The 
narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than 
what it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so 
much, if he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law? 

There is, nevertheless, no essential contradiction here, only 
such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the standpoints 
and aims of the two writers amid their respective historical 
conditions.  Peter's function in relation to the Gentiles belongs 
to the early Palestinian conditions, before Paul's distinctive 
mission had taken shape.  Once Paul's apostolate---a personal 
one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of ``the 
Twelve''--has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, 
Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of 
the two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two 
shall not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible 
usages (Acts xv.).  Paul, on his side, clearly implies that 
Peter felt with him that the Law could not justify (Gal. ii. 
15 ff.), and argues that it could not now be made obligatory 
in principle (cf. ``a yoke,'' Acts xv. 10); yet for Jews 
it might continue for the time (pending the Parousia) to be 
seemly and expedient, especially for the sake of non-believing 
Judaism.  To this he conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so 
far as his Gentile apostolate was not involved (1 Cor. ix. 19 
ff.).  There is no reason to doubt that Peter largely agreed 
with him, since he acted in this spirit in Gal. ii. 11 f., until 
coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to draw back for expediency's 
sake.  This incident it simply did not fall within the scope of 
Acts (see below) to narrate, since it had no abiding effect 
on the Church's extension.  As to Paul's submission of the 
issue in Acts xv. to the Jerusalem conference, Acts does not 
imply that Paul would have accepted a decision in favour of the 
Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a decision for 
his own policy in the quarter to which they were most likely to 
defer.  If the view that he already had an understanding with 
the ``Pillar'' Apostles, as recorded in Gal. ii. 1-10 (see 
further PAUL), be correct, it gives the best of reasons 
why he was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts 
xv.  Paul's own ``free'' attitude to the Law, when on Gentile 
soil, is just what is implied by the hostile rumours as to his 
conduct in Acts xxi. 21, which he would be glad to disprove 
as at least exaggerated (ib. 24 and 26). What is clear is 
that such lack of formal accord as here exists between Acts 
and the Epistles, tells against its author's dependence on the 
latter, and so favours his having been a comrade of Paul himself. 

Speeches. 

The speeches in Acts deserve special notice.  Did its author 
follow the plan adopted by all historians of his age, or 
is he an exception? Ancient historians (like many of modern 
times) used the liberty of working up in their own language 
the speeches recorded by them.  They did not dream of verbal 
fidelity; even when they had more exact reports before them, they 
preferred to mould a speaker's thoughts to their own methods of 
presentation.  Besides this, some did not hesitate to give 
to the characters of their history speeches which were never 
uttered.  The method of direct speech, so useful in producing 
a vivid idea of what is supposed to have passed through the 
mind of the speaker, was used to give force to the narrative.  
Now how far has the author of Acts followed the practice 
of his contemporaries? Some of his speeches are evidently 
but summaries of thoughts which occurred to individuals or 
multitudes.  Others claim to be reports of speeches really 
delivered.  But all these speeches have to a large extent the 
same style, the style also of the narrative.  They have been 
passed though one editorial mind, and some mutual assimilation 
in phraseology and idea may well have resulted.  They are, 
moreover, all of them, the merest abstracts.  The speech of 
Paul at Athens, as given by Luke, would not occupy more than 
a minute or two in delivery.  But these circumstances, while 
inconsistent with verbal accuracy, do not destroy authenticity; 
and in most of the speeches (e.g. xiv. 15-17 ) there is a 
varied appropriateness as well as an allusiveness, pointing to 
good information (see under Sources). There is no evidence 
that any speech in Acts is the free composition of its author, 
without either written or oral basis; and in general he seems 
more conscientious than most ancient historians touching the 
essentials of historical accuracy, even as now understood. 

Miracles. Objections to the trustworthiness of Acts on the 
ground of its miracles require to be stated more discriminately 
than has sometimes been the case.  Particularly is this so 
as regards the question of authorship.  As Harnack observes 
(Lukas der Arzt, p. 24), the ``miraculous'' or supernormal 
element is hardly, if at all, less marked in the ``we'' 
sections, which are substantially the witness of a companion 
of Paul (and where efforts to dissect out the miracles are 
fruitless), than in the rest of the work.  The scientific 
method, then, is to consider each ``miracle'' on its own merits, 
according as we find reason to suppose that it has reached our 
author more or less directly.  But the record of miracle as 
such cannot prejudice the question of authorship.  Even the 
form in which the gift of Tongues at Pentecost is conceived 
does not tell against a companion of Paul, since it may have 
stood in his source, and the first outpouring of the Messianic 
Spirit may soon have come to be thought of as unique in some 
respects, parallel in fact to the Rabbinic tradition as to 
the inauguration of the Old Covenant at Sinai (cf. Philo, De 
decem oraculis, 9, 11, and the Midrash on Ps. lxviii. 11). 

Finally as to such historical difficulties in Acts as still 
perplex the student of the Apostolic age, one must remember 
the possibilities of mistake intervening between the facts 
and the accounts reaching its author, at second or even third 
hand.  Yet it must be strongly emphasized, that recent historical 
research at the hands of experts in classical antiquity has 
tended steadily to verify such parts of the narrative as it can 
test, especially those connected with Paul's missions in the Roman 
Empire.  That is no new result; but it has come to light in 
greater degree of recent years, notably through Sir W. M. Ramsay's 
researches.  The proofs of trustworthiness extend also to the 
theological sphere.  What was said above of the Christology 
of the Petrine speeches applies to the whole conception of 
Messianic salvation, the eschatology, the idea of Jesus as 
equipped by the Holy Spirit for His Messianic work, found in 
these speeches, as also to titles like ``Jesus the Nazarene'' 
and ``the Righteous One'' both in and beyond the Petrine 
speeches.  These and other cases in which we are led to 
discern very primitive witness behind Acts, do not indeed 
give to such witness the value of shorthand notes or even of 
abstracts based thereon.  But they do support the theory that 
our author meant to give an unvarnished account of such words 
and deeds as had come to his knowledge.  The perspective of 
the whole is no doubt his own; and as his witnesses probably 
furnished but few hints for a continuous narrative, this 
perspective, especially in things chronological, may sometimes be 
faulty.  Yet when one remembers that by 70-80 A.D. it must 
have been a matter of small interest by what tentative stages 
the Messianic salvation first extended to the Gentiles, it 
is surely surprising that Acts enters into such detail 
on the subject, and is not content with a summary account 
of the matter such as the mere logic of the subject would 
naturally suggest.  In any case, the very difference of the 
perspective of Acts and of Galatians, in recording the 
same epochs in Paul's history, argues such an independence 
in the former as is compatible only with an early date. 

Quellenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent 
research upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way 
of treating it as an honest narrative by a companion of 
Paul.  In addition, we may also count among recent gains 
a juster method of judging such a book.  For among the 
results of the Tubingen criticism was what Dr W. Sanday 
calls ``an unreal and artificial standard, the standard of 
the 19th century rather than the 1st, of Germany rather than 
Palestine, of the lamp and the study rather than of active 
life.'' This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences 
between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. 
In the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to 
men like Mommsen, Ramsay, Blass and Harnack, trained amid 
other methods and traditions than those which had brought 
the constructive study of Acts almost to a deadlock. 

5. Date.--External evidence now points to the existence 
of Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd 
century.  As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally 
for Acts, its existence in Marcion's day (120-140) is now 
assured.  Further, the traces of it in Polycarp 6 and Ignatius 
7 when taken together, are highly probable; and it is even 
widely admitted that the resemblance of Acts xiii. 22, and 1 
Cicm. xviii. 1, in features not found in the Psalm (lxxxix. 
20) quoted by each, can hardly be accidental.  That is, Acts 
was probably current in Antioch and Smyrna not later than c. 
A.D. 115, and perhaps in Rome as early as c. A.D. 96. 

With this view internal evidence agrees.  In spite of some 
advocacy of a date prior to A.D. 70, the bulk of critical 
opinion is decidedly against it.  The prologue to Luke's Gospel 
itself implies the dying out of the generation of eye-witnesses 
as a class.  A strong consensus of opinion supports a date 
about A.D. 80; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 
70 and 75 seems no less possible.  Of the reasons for a 
date in one of the earlier decades of the 2nd century, as 
argued by the Tubingen school and its heirs, several are now 
untenable.  Among these are the supposed traces of 2nd-century 
Gnosticism and ``hierarchical'' ideas of organization; but 
especially the argument from the relation of the Roman state 
to the Christians, which Ramsay has reversed and turned 
into proof of an origin prior to Pliny's correspondence with 
Trajan on the subject.  Another fact, now generally admitted, 
renders a 2nd-century date yet more incredible; and that 
is the failure of a writer devoted to Paul's memory to make 
palpable use of his Epistles.  Instead of this he writes in 
a fashion that seems to traverse certain things recorded in 
them.  If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the 
later works of Josephus, we should have to place the book 
about A.D. 100. But this is far from being the case. 

Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. 
(1) The circumstances attending the death of Herod Agrippa 
I. in A.D. 44. Here Acts xii. 21-23 is largely parallel to 
Jos. Antt. xix. 8. 2; but the latter adds an omen of coming 
doom, while Acts alone gives a circumstantial account of the 
occasion of Herod's public appearance.  Hence the parallel, 
when analysed, tells against dependence on Josephus.  So 
also with (2) the cause of the Egyptian pseudo-prophet in 
Acts xxi. 37, f., Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13. 5, Antt. xx. 
8. 6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree with 
either of Josephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts 
alone calls them Sicarii. With these instances in mind, it 
is natural to regard (3) the curious resemblance as to the 
(non-historical) order in which Theudas and Judas of Galilee 
are referred to in both as accidental, the more so that again 
there is difference as to numbers.  Further, to make out 
a case for dependence at all, one must assume the mistaken 
order (as it may be) in Gamaliel's speech as due to gross 
carelessness in the author of Acts--an hypothesis unlikely in 
itself.  Such a mistake was far more likely to arise in oral 
transmission of the speech, before it reached Luke at all. 

6 Place.---The place of composition is still an open 
question.  For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favour; 
and Blass combined both views in his theory of two editions 
(see below, Text). But internal evidence points strongly to 
the Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighbourhood of 
Ephesus.  Note the confident local allusion in xix. 9 to ``the 
school of Tyrannus''---not ``a certain Tyrannus,'' as in the 
inferior text--and in xix. 33 to ``Alexander''; also the very 
minute topography in xx. 13-15.  At any rate affairs in that 
region, including the future of the church of Ephesus (xx. 
28-30), are treated as though they would specially interest 
``Theophilus'' and his circle; also an early tradition makes 
Luke die in the adjacent Bithynia.  Finally it was in this 
region that there arose certain early glosses e.g. on 
xix. 9, xx. 15), probably the earliest of those referred to 
below.  How fully in correspondeoce with such an environment 
the work would be, as apologia for the Church against 
the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman policy to its 
harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength of 
Judaism in ``Asia'' (cf. Rev. ii. 9, iii. 9, and see Sir W. 
M. Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, ch. xii.). 

7. Text.---The apparatus criticus of Acts has grown 
considerably of recent years; yet mainly in one direction, 
that of the so-called ``Western text.'' This term, which our 
growing knowledge, especially of the Syriac and other Eastern 
versions, is rendering more and more unsatisfactory, stands 
for a text which used to be connected almost exclusively with 
the ``eccentric'' Codex Bezae, and is comparable to a 
Targum on an Old Testament book.  But it is now recognized 
to have been very widespread, in both east and west, for 
some 200 years or more from as early as the middle of the 2nd 
century.  The process, however, of sitting out the readings of 
all our present witnesses--(Aleph MSS.), versions, Fathers 
--has not yet gone far enough to yield any sure or final result 
as to the history of this text, so as to show what in its extant 
forms is primary, secondary, and so on.  Beginnings have been 
made towards grouping our authorities; but the work must go 
on much further before a solid basis for the reconstruction 
of its primitive form can be said to exist.  The attempts 
made at such a reconstruction, as by Blass (1895, 1897) and 
Hilgenfeld (1899), are quite arbitrary.  The like must be said 
even of the contribution to the problem made by August Pott,8 
though he has helped to define one condition of success---the 
classification of the strata in ``Western'' texts---and has 
taken some steps in the right direction, in connexion with 
the complex phenomena of one witness, the Harklean Syriac. 

Assuming, however, that the original form of the ``Western'' 
text had been reached, the question of its historical value, 
i.e. its relation to the original text of Acts, would yet 
remain.  On this point the highest claims have been made by 
Blass.  Ever since 1894 he held that both the ``Western'' 
text of Acts (which he styles the b text) and its rival, 
the text of the great uncials (which he styles the a text), 
are due to the author's own hand.  Further, that the former 
(Roman) is the more original of the two, being related to the 
latter (Antiochene) as fuller first draft to severely pruned 
copy.  But even in its later form, that ``b stands nearer 
the Grundschrift than a, but yet is, like a, a copy 
from it,'' the theory is really untenable.  In sober contrast 
of Blass's sweeping theory stand the views of Sir W. M. 
Ramsay.  Already in The Church in the Roman Empire ( 1893 
) he held that the Codex Bezae rested on a recension made 
in Asia Minor (somewhere between Ephesus and S. Galatia), 
not later than about the middle of the 2nd century.  Though 
``some at least of the alterations in Codex Bezae arose 
through a gradual process, and not through the action of 
an individual reviser,'' the revision in question was the 
work of a single reviser, who in his changes and additions 
expressed the local interpretation put upon Acts in his own 
time.  His aim, in suiting the text to the views of his day, 
was partly to make it more intelligible to the public, and 
partly to make it more complete.  To this end he ``added some 
touches where surviving tradition seemed to contain trustworthy 
additional particulars,'' such as the statement that Paul 
taught in the lecture-room of Tyrannus ``from the fifth to 
the tenth hour.'' In his later work, on St Paul the Traveller 
and the Roman Citizen (1895), Ramsay's views gain both in 
precision and in breadth.  The gain lies chiefly in seeing 
beyond the Bezan text to the ``Western'' text as a whole. 

Generally speaking, then, the text of Acts as printed 
by Westcott and Hort, on the basis of the earliest MSS. 
(alephB), seems as near the autograph as that of any 
other part of the New Testament; whereas the ``Western'' 
text, even in its earliest traceable forms, is secondary.  
This does not mean that it has no historical value of its 
own.  It may well contain some true supplements to the original 
text, derived from local tradition or happy inference---a 
few perhaps from a written source used by Luke.  Certain of 
these may even date from the end of the 1st century, and the 
larger part of them are probably not later than the middle 
of the 2nd. But its value lies mainly in the light cast on 
ecclesiastical thought in certain quarters during the epoch in 
question.  The nature of the readings themselves, and the 
distribution of the witness for them, alike point to a process 
involving several stages and several originating centres of 
diffusion.  The classification of groups of ``Western'' 
witnesses has already begun.  When completed, it will cast 
light, not only on the origin and growth of this type of text, 
but also on the exact value of the remaining witnesses to the 
original text of Acts---and further on the early handling of 
New Testament writings generally. Acts, from its very scope, 
was least likely to be viewed as sacrosanct as regards its 
text.  Indeed there are signs that its undogmatic nature 
caused it to be comparatively neglected at certain times 
and places, as, e.g., Chrysostom explicitly witnesses. 

LITERATURE.--An account of the extensive and varied literature 
that has gathered round Acts may be found in two representative 
commentaries, viz., H. H. Wendt's edition of Meyer (1899), and 
that by R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Greek Testament, 
vol. ii. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony of St Paul 
to Christ (1905).  See also J. Moffatt, The Historical 
New Testament (1901). 412 ff., 655 ff.: C. Clemen, Die 
Apostelgesch. im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (Giessen, 
1905); and A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte (1908). (J. V. B.) 


1 This argument, first worked out by Dr W. K. Hobart, 
The Medical Language of St Luke (Dublin, 1882), but 
hitherto neglected by many Continental scholars, has been 
urged afresh by Harnack, Lukas der Arzt (Leipzig, 1906; 
Eng. trans., London, 1907), to which reference may be made 
for all matters connected with Lucan authorship; comp. 
also R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Greek Testament. 

2 This view has received Harnack's support, op. cit. 89 f. 

3 Apostelgeschichte (1908), p46.  Harnack finds that our sense 
of the trustworthiness of the book ``is enhanced by a thorough 
study of the chronological procedure of its author, both where 
he speaks and where he keeps silence.'' In this aspect the 
book ``as a whole is according to the aims of the author and 
in reality a historical work'' (p. 41; cf. pp. 1-20, 222 ff.). 

4 Though this view had the support of J. B. Lightfoot, it should 
be remembered that this was before the ``South Galatian'' theory 
as to the date of Paul's work among the Galatians came to prevail. 

5 Harnack, indeed, argues (op. cit. pp. 188 ff.) that the 
Abstinences defined for Gentiles were in the original text 
of Acts xv. 20 purely moral, and had no reference to Jewish 
scruples as to eating blood.  He regards ``what is strangled'' 
(pnikton) as originally a mistaken gloss, which crept into the 
text.  External evidence is against this, nor does it seem 
demanded by the context; in fact xv. 21 rather goes against it. 

6 Polyc. ad Philipp. i. 2, Acts ii. 24; ii. 1, 
Acts x. 42; ii. 3, Acts xx. 35; vi. 3, Acts vii. 52. 

7 Ign. ad Magn. v. 1, Acts i 25; ad Smyrn. iii. 3, Acts x. 41. 

8 Der abendlandische Text der Apostelgeschichte 
u. die Wir-quelle (Leipzig, 1900).  See a review 
in the Journal of Theol.  Studies, ii. 439 ff. 

ACTUARY. The name of actuarius, sc. scriba, in ancient 
Rome, was given to the clerks who recorded the Acta Publica 
of the senate, and also to the officers who kept the military 
accounts and enforced the due fulfilment of contracts for military 
supplies.  In its English form the word has undergone a gradual 
limitation of meaning.  At first it seems to have denoted 
any clerk or registrar; then more particularly the secretary 
and adviser of any joint-stock company, but especially of 
an insurance company; and it is now applied specifically to 
one who makes those calculations as to the probabilities of 
human life, on which the practice of life assurance and the 
valuation of reversionary interests, deferred annuities, &c., 
are based.  The first mention of the word in law is in the 
Friendly Societies Act of 1819, where it is used in the vague 
sense, ``actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation,'' but 
it has received still further recognition in the Friendly 
Societies Act of 1875 and the Life Assurance Companies Act of 
1870.  The word has been used with precision since the 
establishment of the ``Institute of Actuaries of Great 
Britain and Ireland'' in 1848.  The Quarterly Journal, 
Charter of Incorporation, and by-laws of this society may 
be usefully consulted for particulars as to the requirements 
for membership (see also ANNUITY). The registrar in the 
Lower House of Convocation is also called the actuary. 

ACUMINATE (from Lat. acumen, point), sharpened or pointed, 
a word used principally in botany and ornithology, to denote the 
narrowing or lance-shaping of a leaf or of a bird's feather into 
a point, generally at the tip, though sometimes (with regard to 
a leaf) at the base.  The poet William Cowper used the word to 
denote sharp and keen despair, but other authors, Sir T. Browne, 
Bacon, Bulwer, &c., use it to explain a material pointed shape. 

ACUNA, CHRISTOVAL DE (1597--c.1676), Spanish missionary 
and explorer, was born at Burgos in 1597.  He was admitted 
a Jesuit in 1612, and afterwards sent on mission work to 
Chile and Peru, where he became rector of the college of 
Cuenca.  In 1639 he accompanied Pedro Texiera in his second 
exploration of the Amazon, in order to take scientific 
observations, and dtaw up a report for the Spanish government.  
The journey lasted ten months; and on the explorer's arrival in 
Peru, Acuna prepared his narrative, while awaiting a ship for 
Europe.  The king of Spain, Philip IV., received the author 
coldly, and it is said even tried to suppress his book, 
fearing that the Portuguese, who had just revolted from Spain 
(1640), would profit by its information.  After occupying 
the positions of procurator of the Jesuits at Rome and censor 
(calificador) of the Inquisition at Madrid, Acuna returned 
to South America, where he died, probably soon after 1675.  
His Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran Rio de las Amazonas was 
published at Madrid in 1641; French and English translations 
(the latter from the French, appeared in 1682 and 1698. 

ACUPRESSURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and premere, to 
press), the name given to a method of restraining haemorrhage, 
introduced by Sir J. Y. Simpson, the direct pressure of 
a metallic needle, either alone or assisted by a loop of 
wire, being used to close the vessel near the bleeding point. 

ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, 
to prick), a form of surgical operation, performed 
by pricking the part affected with a needle.  It has 
long been used by the Chinese in cases of headaches, 
lethargies, convulsions, colics, &c. (See SURGERY.) 

ADABAZAR, an important commercial town in the Khoja Ili 
sanjak of Asia Minor, situated on the old military road from 
Constantinople to the east and connected by a branch line 
with the Anatolian railway.  Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; 
Christians, 8000).  It was founded in 1540 and enlarged in 
1608 by the settlement in it of an Armenian colony.  There 
are silk and linen industries, and an export of tobacco, 
walnut-wood, cocoons and vegetables for the Constantinople 
market.  Imports are valued at L. 80,000 and exports at 

See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890--1900). 

ADAD, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian 
pantheon, who is also known as Ramman (``the thunderer'').  The 
problem involved in this double name has not yet been definitely 
solved.  Evidence seems to favour the view that Ramman was 
the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was more common in 
Assyria.  To judge from analogous instances of a double 
nomenclature, the two names revert to two different centres 
for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed 
that up to the present it has been impossible to determine 
where these centres were.  A god Hadad who was a prominent 
deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view 
of this it is plausible to assume---for which there is also 
other evidence --that the name Adad represents an importation 
into Assyria from Aramaic districts.  Whether the same is 
the case with Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us 
from the Old Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is 
not certain though probable.  On the other hand the cult 
of a specific storm-god in ancient Babylonia is vouched 
for by the occurrence of the sign Im--the ``Sumerian'' or 
ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman --as an element in proper 
names of the old Babylonian period.  However this name may 
have originally been pronounced, so much is certain,---that 
through Aramaic influences in Babylonia and Assyria he was 
identified with the storm-god of the western Semites, and 
a trace of this influence is to be seen in the designation 
Amurru, also given to this god in the religious literature of 
Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine and Syria 
describes the god as belonging to the Amorite district. 

The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns, 
incantations and votive inscriptions.  On the one hand he 
is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season, 
causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the 
storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction.  He is 
pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning 
and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of 
the god on the whole predominate.  His association with the 
sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two 
deities who alternate in the control of nature, leads to 
imbuing him with some of the traits belonging to a solar 
deity.  In Syria Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from 
a solar deity.  The process of assimilation did not proceed 
so far in Babylonia and Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became 
in combination the gods of oracles and of divination in 
general.  Whether the will of the gods is determined through 
the inspection of the liver of the sacrificial animal, through 
observing the action of oil bubbles in a basin of water or 
through the observation of the movements of the heavenly 
bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual connected 
with divination, are invariably invoked.  Similarly in the 
annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when oracles are 
referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the gods 
addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances 
is bele biri, ``lords of divination.'' The consort of 
Adad-Ramman is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called 
Aschratum. (See BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.) (M. JA.) 

ADAGIO (Ital. ad agio, at ease), a term in music to indicate 
slow time; also a slow movement in a symphony, sonata, &c., or an 
independent piece, such as Mozart's pianoforte ``Adagio in B minor.'' 

ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722), Scottish surveyor and map-maker 
of the 17th century.  Nothing is known of his parentage, 
birthplace or early life.  His name first came before the 
public in 1683, when a prospectus was published in Edinburgh 
entitled An Account of the Scottish Atlas, stating 
that ``the Privy Council of Scotland has appointed John 
Adair, mathematician and skilfull mechanick, to survey the 
shires.'' In 1686 an act of tonnage was passed in Adair's 
favour.  He was then employed on a survey of the Scottish 
coast and two years later was made a fellow of the Royal 
Society.  Two other acts of tonnage were passed for Adair, 
one in 1695 and the other in 1705.  In 1703 he published the 
first part of his Description of the Sea Coasts and Islands 
of Scotland, for the use of seamen.  The second part never 
appeared.  He is thought to have died in London about the end of 
1722.  He must have lost a considerable amount of money in 
the execution of his work, and in 1723 some remuneration 
was made to his widow by the government.  Some of his 
work is preserved in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh 
and in the King's Library of the British Museum, London. 

ADALBERON, or ASCELIN (d. 1030 or 1031), French bishop and 
poet, studied at Reims and became bishop of Laon in 977. When 
Laon was taken by Charles, duke of Lorraine, in 988, he was 
put into prison, whence he escaped and sought the protection 
of Hugh Capet, king of France.  Winning the confidence of 
Charles of Lorraine and of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims, he 
was restored to his see; but he soon took the opportunity 
to betray Laon, together with Charles and Arnulf, into the 
hands of Hugh Capet.  Subsequently he took an active part in 
ecclesiastical affairs, and died on the 19th of July 1030 or 
1031.  Adalberon wrote a satirical poem in the form of a 
dialogue dedicated to Robert, king of France, in which he 
showed his dislike of Odilo, abbot of Cluny, and his followers, 
and his objection to persons of humble birth being made 
bishops.  The poem was first published by H. Valois in the 
Carmen panegyricum in laudem Berengarii (Paris, 1663), and 
in modern times by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Latina, tome 
cxli. (Paris, 1844).  Adalberon must not be confounded with 
his namesake, Adalberon, archbishop of Reims (d. 988 or 989). 

See Richer, Historiarum Libri III. et IV., which appears in 
the Monumenta Germaniae historica.  Scriptores. Band iii. 
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826--1892); A. Olleris, OEuvres de Gerbert 
pape sous le nom de Sylvestre II. (Paris, 1867); Histoire 
litteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869). 

ADALBERT, or ADELBERT (c. 1000-1072), German archbishop, 
the most famous ecclesiastic of the 11th century, was the 
son of Frederick, count of Goseck, a member of a noble Saxon 
family.  He was educated for the church, and began his clerical 
career at Halberstadt, where he attained to the dignity of 
provost.  Having attracted the notice of the German king, Henry 
III., Adalbert probably served as chancellor of the kingdom of 
Italy, and in 1045 was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, 
his province including the Scandinavian countries, as well as a 
larger part of North Germany.  In 1046 he accompanied Henry to 
Rome, where he is said to have refused the papal chair; and in 
1052 he was made legate by Pope Leo IX., and given the right 
to nominate bishops in his province.  He sought to increase the 
influence of his archbishopric, sent missionaries to Finland, 
Greenland and the Orkney Islands, and aimed at making Bremen 
a patriarchal see for northern Europe, with twelve suffragan 
bishoprics.  He consolidated and increased the estates of the 
church, exercised the powers of a count, denounced simony and 
initiated financial reforms.  The presence of this powerful 
and active personality, who was moreover a close friend 
of the emperor, was greatly resented by the Saxon duke, 
Bernard II., who regarded him as a spy sent by Henry into 
Saxony.  Adalbert, who wished to free his lands entirely 
from the authority of the duke, aroused further hostility 
by an attack on the privileges of the great abbeys, and 
after the emperor's death in 1056 his lands were ravaged by 
Bernard.  He took a leading part in the government of 
Germany during the minority of King Henry IV., and was styled 
patronus of the young king, over whom he appears to have 
exercised considerable influence.  Having accompanied Henry 
on a campaign into Hungary in 1063, he received large gifts 
of crown estates, and obtained the office of count palatine in 
Saxony.  His power aroused so much opposition that in 1066 the 
king was compelled to assent to his removal from court.  In 
1069 he was recalled by Henry, when he made a further attempt 
to establish a northern patriarchate, which failed owing to 
the hostility of the papacy and the condition of affairs in 
the Scandinavian kingdoms.  He died at Goslar on the 16th 
or 17th of March 1072, and was buried in the cathedral which 
he had built at Bremen.  Adalbert was a man of proud and 
haughty bearing, with large ideas and a strong, energetic 
character.  He made Bremen a city of importance, and it was 
called by his biographer, Adam of Bremen, the New Rome. 

See Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, 
edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germaniae 
historica. Scriptores. Band vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 
1826-1892); C. Grunhagen, Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg 
und die Idee eines Nordischen Patriarchats (Leipzig, 1854). 

ADALBERT (originally VOYTECH), (c. 950-997), known as 
the apostle of the Prussians, the son of a Bohemian prince, 
was born at Libice (Lobnik, Lubik), the ancestral seat near 
the junction of the Cidlina and the Elbe.  He was educated at 
the monastery of Magdeburg; and in 983 was chosen bishop of 
Prague.  The extreme severity of his rule repelled the 
Bohemians, whom he vainly strove to wean from their national 
customs and pagan rites.  Discouraged by the ill-success of his 
ministry, he withdrew to Rome until 993, when, in obedience 
to the command 0f the pope, he returned to his own people.  
Finding little amendment, however, in their course of living, 
he soon afterwards went again to Rome, and obtained permission 
from the pope to devote himself to missionary labours, which he 
carried on chiefly in North Germany and Poland.  While preaching 
in Pomerania (997) he was assassinated by a heathen priest. 

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen 
age, Bio.-Bibl. (1905); Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, April 23; H. G. 
Voigt, Adalbert von Prag (1898), a thoroughly exhaustive monograph. 

ADALIA (med. Antaliyah; the crusaders' Satalia), the 
ancient Attalia (q.v.), the largest seaport on the south 
coast of Asia Minor, though in point of trade it is now 
second to Mersina.  The unsuitability of the harbour for 
modern steamers, the bad anchorage outside and the extension 
of railways from Smyrna have greatly lessened its former 
importance as an emporium for west central Anatolia.  It is 
not connected by a chaussee with any point outside its 
immediate province, but it has considerable importance as the 
administrative capital of a rich and isolated sanjak. Adalia 
played a considerable part in the medieval history of the 
Levant.  Kilij Arslan had a palace there.  The army of Louis 
VII. sailed thence for Syria in 1148, and the fleet of Richard 
of England rallied there before the conquest of Cyprus.  
Conquered by the Seljuks of Konia, and made the capital of the 
province of Tekke, it passed after their fall through many 
hands, including those of the Venetians and Genoese, before 
its final occupation by the Ottoman Turks under Murad II. 
(1432).  In the 18th century, in common with most of Anatolia, 
its actual lord was a Dere Bey. The family of Tekke Oglu, 
domiciled near Perga, though reduced to submission in 1812 
by Mahmud II., continued to be a rival power to the Ottoman 
governor till within the present generation, surviving by 
many years the fall of the other great Beys of Anatolia.  The 
records of the Levant (Turkey) Company, which maintained an 
important agency here till 1825, contain curious information 
as to the local Dere Beys.  The present population of Adalia, 
which includes many Christians and Jews, still living, as in 
the middle ages, in separate quarters, the former round the 
walled mina or port, is about 25,000.  The port is served 
by coasting steamers of the local companies only.  Adalia 
is an extremely picturesque, but ill-built and backward 
place.  The chief thing to see is the city wall, outside which 
runs a good and clean promenade.  The government offices and 
the houses of the better class are all outside the walls. 

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie 
et de La Pisidie, i. (1890). (D.G.H.) 

ADAM, the conventional name of the first created man according to the Bible. 

1. The Name.---The use of ``Adam'' (mem kamatz daleth kamatz 
aleph) as a proper name is an early error.  Properly the 
word adam designated man as a species; with the article 
prefixed (Gen. ii. 7, 8, 16, iv. 1; and doubtless il. 20, iii. 
17) it means the first man.  Only in Gen. iv. 25 and v. 3-5 
is adam a quasi-proper name, though LXX. and Vulgate use 
``Adam'' (Adam) in this way freely.  Gen. ii. 7 suggests 
a popular Hebrew derivation from adamah, ``the ground.'' 
Into the question whether the original story did not give 
a proper name which was afterwards modified into ``Adam'' 
---important as this question is---we cannot here enter. 

2. Creation of Adam.--For convenience, we shall take 
``Adam'' as a symbol for ``the first man,'' and inquire 
first, what does tradition say of his creation? In Gen. ii. 
4b-8 we read thus: -``At the time when Yahweh-Elohim1 
made earth and heaven,--earth was as yet without bushes, no 
herbage was as yet sprouting, because Yahweh-Elohim had not 
caused it to rain upon the earth, and no men were there to 
till the ground, but a stream2 used to go up from the earth, 
and water all the face of the ground,---then Yahweh-Elohim 
formed the man of dust of the ground,3 and blew into his 
nostrils breath of life,4 and the man became a living 
being.  And Yahweh-Elohim planted a garden5 in Eden, eastward; 
and there he put the man whom he had formed.'' (See Eve.) 

How greatly this simple and fragmentary tale of Creation differs 
from that in Gen. i. 1-ii. 4a (see COSMOGONY) need hardly be 
mentioned.  Certainly the priestly writer who produced the 
latter could not have said that God modelled the first man out 
of moistened clay, or have adopted the singular account of the 
formation of Eve in ii. 21-23.  The latter story in particular 
(see Eve) shows us how childlike was the mind of the early 
men, whose God is not ``wonderful in counsel'' (Isa. xxviii. 
29), and fails in his first attempt to relieve the loneliness 
of his favourite.  For no beast however mighty, no bird however 
graceful, was a fit companion for God's masterpiece, and, apart 
from the serpent, the animals had no faculty of speech.  All 
therefore that Adam could do, as they passed before him, was 
to name them, as a lord names his vassals.  But here arises a 
difficulty.  How came Adam by the requisite insight and power 
of observation? For as yet he had not snatched the perilous 
boon of wisdom.  Clearly the Paradise story is not homogeneous. 

3. How the Animals were named.---Some moderns, e.g. von 
Bohlen, Ewald, Driver (in Genesis, p. 55, but cp. p. 42), 
have found in ii. 19, 20 an early explanation of the origin of 
language.  This is hardly right.  The narrator assumes that 
Adam and Eve had an innate faculty of speech.6 They spoke just 
as the birds sing, and their language was that of the race or 
people which descended from them.  Most probably the object of 
the story is, not to answer any curious question (such as, how 
did human speech arise, or how came the animals by their names?), 
but to dehort its readers or hearers from the abominable vice 
referred to in Lev. xviii. 23.7 There may have been stories 
in circulation like that of Ea-bani (sec.  8), and even such as 
those of the Skidi Pawnee, in which ``people'' marry animals, 
or become animals.  Against these it is said (ver. 20b) 
that ``for Adam he found no helper (qualified) to match him.'' 

4. Three Riddles.---Manifold are the problems suggested 
by the Eden-story (see EDEN; PARADISE). For instance, did 
the original story mention two trees, or only one, of which 
the fruit was taboo? bn iii. 3(cp. vv. 6, 11) only ``the 
tree in the midst of the garden'' is spoken of, but in ii. 
9 and iii. 22 two trees are referred to, the fruit of both 
of which would appear to be taboo.  To this we must add that 
in ii. 17 ``the tree of the knowledge of good and evil'' 
appears to have the qualities of a ``tree of life,'' except 
indeed to Adam.  This passage seems to give us the key to the 
mystery.  There was only one tree whose fruit was forbidden; 
it might be called either ``the tree of life'' or ``the tree 
of knowledge,'' but certainly not ``the tree of knowledge 
of good and evil.'' 8 The words ``life'' and ``knowledge'' 
(= ``wisdom'') are practically equivalent; perfect knowledge 
(so primitive man believed) would enable any being to 
escape death (an idea spiritualized in Prov. iii. 18). 

Next, which of the trees is the ``tree of life''? Various sacred 
trees were known to the Semitic peoples, such as the fig-tree 
(cp. iii. 7), which sometimes appears, conventionalized, as 
a sacred tree.9 But clearly the tree referred to was more 
than a ``sacred tree''; it was a tree from whose fruit or 
juice, as culture advanced, some intoxicating drink was 
produced.  The Gaokerena of the Iranians 10 is exactly 
parallel.  At the resurrection, those who drink of the life-giving 
juice of this plant will obtain ``perfect welfare,'' including 
deathlessness.  It is not, however, either from Iran or 
from India that the Hebrew tree of life is derived, but from 
Arabia and Babylonia, where date-wine (cp. Enoch xxiv. 4) 
is the earliest intoxicant.  Of this drink it may well have 
been said in primitive times (cp. Rig Veda, ix. 90. 5, of 
Soma) that it ``cheers the heart of gods'' (in the speech 
of the vine, Judg. ix. 13). Later writers spoke of a ``tree 
of mercy,'' distilling the ``oil of life,'' 11 i.e. the 
oil that heals, but 4 Esdr. ii. 12 (cp. viii. 53) speaks 
of the ``tree of life,'' and Rev. xxii. 2 (virtually) of 
``trees of life,'' whose leaves have a healing virtue (cp. 
Ezek. xlvii. 12). The oil-tree should doubtless be grouped 
with the river of oil in later writings (see PARADISE).  
Originally it was enough that there should be one tree 
of life, i.e. that heightened and preserved vitality. 

A third enigma---why no ``fountain of life''? The references 
to such a fountain in Proverbs (xiii. 14, &c.) prove that the 
idea was familiar,12 and in Rev. xxii. 1 we are told that 
the river of Paradise was a ``river of water of life'' (see 
PARADISE).  The serpent, too, in mythology is a regular symbol of 
water.  Possibly the narrator, or redactor, desired to tone 
down the traces of mythology.  Just as the Gathas (the ancient 
Zoroastrian hymns) omit Gaokerena, and the Hebrew prophets 
on the whole avoid mythological phrases, so this old Hebrew 
thinker prunes the primitive exuberance of the traditional myth. 

5. The Serpent.---The keen-witted, fluently speaking serpent 
gives rise to fresh riddles.  How comes it that Adam's ruin 
is effected by one of those very ``beasts of the field'' 
which he had but lately named (ii. 19), that in speech he is 
Adam's equal and in wisdom his superior? Is he a pale form 
of the Babylonian chaos-dragon, or of the serpent of Iranian 
mythology who sprang from heaven to earth to blight the ``good 
creation''? It is true that the serpent of Eden has mythological 
affinities.  In iii. 14, 15, indeed, he is degraded into a 
mere typical snake, but iii. 1-5 shows that he was not so 
originally.  He is perhaps best regarded, in the light of 
Arabian folk-lore, as the manifestation of a demon residing in 
the tree with the magic fruit.13 He may have been a prince 
among the demons, as the magic tree was a prince among the 
plants.  Hence perhaps his strange boldness.  For some unknown 
reason he was ill disposed towards Yahweh Elohim (See iii. 
3b), which has suggested to some that he may be akin to the 
great enemy of Creation.  To Adam and Eve, however, he is not 
unkind.  He bids them raise themselves in the scale of being 
by eating the forbidden fruit, which he declares to be not 
fatal to life but an opener of the eyes, and capable of 
equalizing men with gods (iii. 4, 5). To the phrase ``ye shall 
be as gods'' a later writer may have added ``knowing good 
and evil,'' but ``to be as gods'' originally meant ``to live 
the life of gods--wise, powerful, happy.'' The serpent was 
in the main right, but there is one point which he did not 
mention, viz. that for any being to retain this intensified 
vitality the eating of the fruit would have to be constantly 
renewed.  Only thus could even the gods escape death.14 

6. The Divine Command broken.---The serpent has gone the 
right way to work; he comprehends woman's nature better than 
Adam comprehends that of the serpent.  By her curiosity Eve is 
undone.  She looks at the fruit; then she takes and eats; 
her husband does the same (iii. 6). The consequence (ver. 7) 
may seem to us rather slight: ``they knew (became sensible) 
that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together, and 
made themselves girdles (aprons).'' But the real meaning is 
not slight; the sexual distinction has been discovered, and 
a new sense of shame sends the human pair into the thickest 
shades, when Yahweh-Elohim walks abroad.  The God of these 
primitive men is surprised: ``Where art thou?'' By degrees, 
he obtains a full confession---not from the serpent, whose 
speech might not have been edifying, but from Adam and Eve. 
The sentences which he passes are decisive, not only for 
the human pair and the serpent, but for their respective 
races.  Painful toil shall be the lot of man; subjection 
and pangs that of woman.15 The serpent too (whose unique 
form preoccupied the early men) shall be humiliated, as a 
perpetual warning to man--who is henceforth his enemy---of 
the danger of reasoning on and disobeying the will of God. 

7. Versions of the Adam-story.--Theologians in all ages have 
allegorized this strange narrative.16 The serpent becomes the 
inner voice of temptation, and the saying in iii. 15 becomes 
an anticipation of the final victory of good over evil--a view 
which probably arose in Jewish circles directly or indirectly 
affected by the Zoroastrian eschatology.  But allegory was 
far from the thoughts of the original narrators.  Another 
version of the Adam-story is given by Ezekiel (xxviii. 11-19), 
for underneath the king of Tyre (or perhaps Missor)17 
we can trace the majestic figure of the first man. This 
Adam, indeed, is not like the first man of Gen. ii.-iii., but 
more iike the ``bright angel'' who is the first man in the 
Christian Book of Adam (i. 10; Malan, p. 12). He dwells on 
a glorious forest-mountain (cp. Ezekiel xxxi. 8, 18), and is 
led away by pride to equalize himself with Elohim (cp. xxviii. 
2, 2 Thess. ii. 4), and punished.  And with this passage let 
us group Job xv. 7, 8, where Job is ironically described as 
vying with the first man, who was ``brought forth before the 
hills'' (cp. Prov. viii. 25) and ``drew wisdom to himself'' 
by ``hearkening in the council of Elohim.'' No reference is 
made in Job to this hero's fall.  The omission, however, is 
repaired, not only in Ezek. xxviii. 16, but also in Isa. xiv. 
12-15, where the king, whose name is given in the English 
Bible as ``Lucifer'' (or margin, ``day-star''), ``son of 
the morning,'' and who, like the other king in Ezekiel, 
is threatened with death, is a copy of the mythical Adam. 

The two conceptions Of the first man are widely different.  
The passages last referred to harmonize with the account 
given in Gen. i. 26, for ``in our image'' certainly suggests 
a being equal in brightness and in capacities to the 
angels---a view which, as we know, became the favourite one 
in apocryphal and Haggadic descriptions of the Adam before the 
Fall.  And though the priestly writer, to whom the first 
Creation-story in its present form is due, says nothing about 
a sacred mountain as the dwelling-place of the first-created 
man, yet this mountain belongs to the type of tradition 
which the passage, Gen. i. 26-28, imperfectly but truly 
represents.  The glorious first man of Ezekiel, and the 
god-like first men of the cosmogony (cp. Ps. viii. 5) who held 
the regency of the earth,18 require a dwelling-place as far 
above the common level of the earth as they are themselves 
above the childlike Adam of the second creation-narrative 
(Gen. ii.).  On this sacred mountain, see COSMOGONY. 

8. Origin of the Adam-story---That the Hebrew story of the 
first man in both its forms is no mere recast of a Babylonian 
myth, is generally admitted.  The holy mountain is no doubt 
Babylonian, and the plantations of sacred trees, one of 
which at least has magic virtue, can be paralleled from the 
monuments (see EDEN).  But there is no complete parallel 
to the description of Paradise in Gen. ii., or to the story 
of the rib, or to that of the serpent.  The first part of 
the latter has definite Arabian affinities; the second is 
as definitely Hebrew.  We may now add that the insertion 
of iii. 7 (from ``were opened'') to 19---a passage which 
has probably supplanted a more archaic and definitely 
mythological passage---may well have been the consequence 
of the change in the conception of the first man referred to 
above.  Still there are four Babylonian stories which may 
serve as partial illustrations of the Hebrew Adam-story. 

The first is contained in a fragment of a cosmogony in 
Berossus, now confirmed in the main by the sixth tablet of the 
Creation-epic.  It represents the creation of man as due 
to one of the inferior gods who (at Bel's command) mingled 
with clay the blood which flowed from the severed head of 
Bel (see COSMOGONY). The three others are the myths of 
Adapa,19 Ea-bani and Etana.  As to Adapa, it may be mentioned 
here that Fossey has shown reason for holding that the true 
reading of the name is Adamu.  It thus becomes plausible to 
hold that ``Adam'' in Gen. ii.-iii. was originally a proper 
name, and that it was derived from Babylonia.  More probably, 
however, this is but an accidental coincidence; both adam 
and adamu may come from the same Semitic root meaning ``to 
make.'' Certainly Adamu (if it is not more convenient to 
write ``Adapa'') was not regarded as the progenitor of the 
human race, like the Hebrew Adam.  He was, however, certainly 
a man--one of those men who were not, of course, rival 
first-men, but were specially created and endowed.  Adamu or 
Adapa, we are told, received from his divine father the gift 
of wisdom,20 but not that of everlasting life.  He had a 
chance, however, of obtaining the gift, or at least of eating 
the food and drinking the water which makes the gods ageless and 
immortal.  But through a deceit practised upon him by his divine 
father Ea, he supposed the food and drink offered to him on a 
certain occasion by the gods to be ``food of death,'' ``water 
of death,'' just as Adam and Eve at first believed that the 
fruit of the magic tree would produce death (Gen. iii. 4, 5). 

The second story is that of Ea-bani,21 who was formed by the 
goddess Arusu (=the mother-goddess Ishtar) of a lump of clay (cp. 
Gen. ii. 7). This human creature, long-haired and sensual, was 
drawn away from a savage mode of life by a harlot, and Jastrow, 
followed by G. A. Barton, Worcester and Tennant, considers this 
to be parallel to the story which may underlie the account of 
the failure of the beasts, and the success of the woman Eve, 
as a ``help-meet'' for Adam.  This, however, is most uncertain. 

The third is that of Etana.22 Here the main points are 
that Etana is induced by an eagle to mount up to heaven, 
that he may win a boon from the kindly goddess Ishtar.  
Borne by the eagle, he soared high up into the ether, but 
became afraid.  Downward the eagle and his burden fell, 
and in the epic of Gilgamesh we find Etana in the nether 
world.  According to Jastrow, this attempted ascension was an 
offence against the gods, and his fall was his punishment.  
We are not told, however, that Etana had the impious desire 
of Ezekiel's first man, and if he fell, it was through his 
own timidity (contrast Ezek. xxviii. 16). But certainly the 
myth does help us to imagine a story in which, for some sin 
against the gods, some favoured hero was hurled down from the 
divine abode, and such a story may some day be discovered. 

To these illustrations it is unsafe to add the scene on a 
cylinder preserved in the British Museum, representing two 
figures, a man (with horns) and perhaps a woman, both clothed, 
on either side of a fruit-tree, towards which they stretch 
out their hands.23 For the meaning of this is extremely 
problematical.  Some better monumental illustration may some day be 
found, for it is clear that the Babylonian sacred literature had 
much to tell of offences against the gods in the primeval age. 

The student may naturally ask, Whence did the Israelites (a 
comparatively young people) obtain the original myth? It is most 
probable that they obtained it through the mediation either of 
the Canaanites or of the North Arabians.  Babylonian influence, 
as is now well known, was strongly felt for many centuries 
in Canaan, and even the cuneiform script was in common use 
among the high officials of the country.  When the Israelites 
entered Canaan, they would learn myths partly of Babylonian 
origin.  North Arabian influence must also have been strong 
among the Israelites, at least while they sojourned in North 
Arabia.  From the Kenites, at any rate, they may have received, 
not only a strong religious impulse, but a store of tales of 
the primitive age, and these stoties too may have been partly 
influenced by Babylonian traditions.  We must allow for stages 
of development both among the Israelites and among their tutors. 

9. Biblical References to the Adam-story.---It is remarkable 
how little influence the Adam-story has had on the earlier 
parts of the Old Testament.  The garden of Eden is referred 
to in Isa. li. 3, Ezek. xxxvi, 35. Joel ii. 5; cp.  Ezek. 
xxviii. 13, xxxi. 8, 9, 16, 18, all of which are later.  And 
it is mostly in the ``humanistic'' book of Proverbs that we 
find allusions to the ``tree of life'' (Prov. iii. 18, xi. 
30, xiii. 12, xv. 4), and to the ``fountain of life''--perhaps 
(see sec.  4) an omitted portion of the old Paradise story 
(Prov. x. 11, xiii. 14, xiv. 27, xvi. 22),--the only other 
Biblical reference (apart from Rev. xxi. 6) being in that 
exquisite passage, Ps. xxxvi. 9. One can hardly be surprised at 
this.  The Adam-story is plainly of foreign origin, and 
could not please the greater pre-exilic prophets.  In late 
post-exilic times, however, foreign tales, even if of mythical 
origin, naturally came into favour, especially as religious 
symbols.  If even now philosophers and theologians cannot 
resist the temptation to allegorize, how inevitable was it 
that this course should be pursued by early Jewish theologians! 

10. Incipient Reflexion on the Story.--Let us give some 
instances of this.  In Enoch lxix. 6 we find the story of 
Eve's temptation read in the light of that of the fallen angels 
(Gen. vi. 1, 2, 4) who conveyed an evil knowledge to men, 
and so subjected mankind to mortality.  Evidently the writer 
fears culture.  Elsewhere eating the fruit of the ``tree of 
wisdom'' is given as the cause of the expulsion of the human 
pair.  In the Wisdom of Solomon (x. 1, 2) we find another 
view.  Here, as in Ezekiel, the first man is pre-eminently wise 
and strong; though he transgressed, wisdom rescued him, i.e. 
taught him repentance (cp. Life of Adam and Eve, sec. sec.  1-8).  
Elsewhere (ii. 24; cp.  Jos. Ant. i. 1, 4) death is traced 
to the envy of the devil, still implying an exalted view of 
Adam.  It is held that, but for his sin, Adam would have been 
immortal.  Clearly the Jewish mind is exposed to some fresh 
foreign influences.  As in the Talmud and the Jerusalem 
Targum, the serpent has even become the devil, i.e. 
Satan.  The period of syncretism has fully come, and 
Zoroastrianism in particular, more indirectly than directly, 
is exercising an attractive power upon the Jews.  For all 
that, the theological thinking is characteristically Jewish, 
and such guidance as Jewish thinkers required was mainly given 
by Greek culture.  On this subject see further EVE, sec.  5. 

11. Growth of a Theology.---Let us now turn to the Apocalypses 
of Baruch and of Ezra (both about 70 A.D.). Different views 
are here expressed.  According to one (xvii. 3, xix. 8, xxiii. 
4) the sin of Adam was the cause of physical death; according 
to another (liv. 15, lvi. 6), only of premature physical 
death, while according to a third (xlviii. 42, 43) it is 
spiritual death which is to be laid to his account.  Of these 
three views, it is only the second which harmonizes with Gen. 
ii.-iii.  In one of the two passages which express it we are 
also told that each member of thc human race is ``the Adam 
of his own soul.'' Adam, like Satan in Ecclus. xxi; 27, has 
become a psychological symbol.  Truly, a worthy development 
of the seed-thoughts of the original narrator, and (must we 
not add?) entirely opposed to any doctrine of Original Sin. 

In 4 Ezra, too, we find no real endorsement of such a 
doctrine.  It is true, not only physical death (iii. 7), but 
spiritual, is traced to the act of Adam (iii. 21, 22, iv. 
30, 31, vii. 118-121).  But two modifying facts should be 
noticed.  One is that Adam is said to have had from the first 
a wicked heart, owing to which he fell, and his posterity 
likewise, into sin and guilt.  All men have the same seed of 
evil in them that Adam had; they sin and die, like him.  The 
other is that, according to iii. 7-12, there are at least two 
ages of the world.  The first ended with the Flood, so that any 
consequences of Adam's sin were, strictly speaking, of limited 
duration.  The second began with righteous Noah and his 
household, ``of whom came all righteous men.'' It was the 
descendants of these who ``began again to do ungodliness 
more than the former ones.'' Doubtless the problem of evil 
is most imperfectly treated, even from the writer's point of 
view.  But it would be cruel to pick holes in a writer whose 
thinking, like that of St Paul, is coloured by emotion. 

At this point we might well make more than a passing reference to 
St Paul (Rom. v. 14; 1 Cor. xv. 22, 45, 47), whose doctrine of sin 
is evidently of mixed origin.  But we cannot find space for this 
here.  In compensation let it be mentioned that in Rev. xii. 
9 (cp. xx. 2) the ``great dragon,'' who persecuted the woman 
``clothed with the sun,'' is identified with ``the old serpent, 
that is called the Devil and Satan.'' The identification is 
incorrect.  But it may be noticed here that the phrase ``the 
old serpent'' sheds some light on the Pauline phrases ``the 
first man Adam'' and ``the last Adam'' (1 Cor. xv. 45, 47). 
The underlying idea is that the new age (that of the new 
heaven and earth) will be opened by events parallel to those 
which opened the first age.  As the old serpent deceived 
man of old, so shall it be again.  And as at the head of the 
first age stands the first Adam, whose doings affected all 
his descendants to their harm, so at the head of the second 
shall stand the second Adam, whose actions shall be potent for 
good.  There is reason to suspect that the expression ``the 
second Adam'' is the coinage either of St Paul or of some one 
closely connected with him (as Prof.  G. F. Moore has shown), 
for there is no proof that such terms as ``the last,'' or 
``the second Adam,'' were generally current among the Jews. 

12. Jewish Legends.---The parallelism between the first and 
second Adam in 1 Cor. xv. 45 is a parallelism of contrast.  
Jewish legends, however, suggest another sort of parallelism.  
The Haggadah gives the most extravagant descriptions of the 
glory of Adam before his fall.  The most prominent idea is that 
being in the image of God--the God whose essence is light--he 
must have had a luminous body (like the angels). ``I made 
thee of the light,'' says God in the Book of Adam and Eve 
(Malan, p. 16), ``and I willed to bring children of light from 
thee.'' Similarly in Baba batra, 58a, we read, ``he was of 
extraordinary beauty and sun-like brightness.'' So glorious 
was he that even the angels were commanded through Michael 
to pay homage to Adam.  Satan, disobeying, was cast out of 
heaven; hence his ill-will towards Adam (Life of Adam and 
Eve, sec. sec.  13-17; cp. Koran, xvii. 63, xx. 115, xxxviii. 74). 

It only remains to give due honour to one of the most 
beautiful of legends, that of the deliverance of Adam's 
spirit from the nether world by the Christ, the earliest 
form of which is a Christian interpolation in Apoc.  
Moses, sec.  42 (cp. Malan, Adam and Eve, iv. 15, 
end).  We may compare a partly parallel passage in sec.  37, 
where the agent is Michael, and notice that such legendary 
developments were equally popular among Jews and Christians. 

AUTHORITIES-- On the apocryphal Books of Adam, see Hort, 
Dict. of Chr. Biography, i. 37 ff.  In English we have Malan's 
translation of the Ethiopic Book of Adam (1882), and Issaverden's 
translation of another Book of Adam from the Armenian (Venice, 
1901).  In German, see Fuchs's translations in Kautzsch's Die 
Apokryphen, ii. 506 ff.  For full bibliography see Schurer, 
Gesch. des jud. Folkes, ed. 3, iii. 288 f.  On Jewish 
and Mahommedan legends, see Jewish Cyclopaedia, ``Adam.'' 
On the belief in the Fall, see Tennant, The Sources of the 
Doctrine of the Fall and Original Sin (1903). (T. K. C.) 

1 The English Bible gives ``the LORD GOD.'' This, 
however, does not adequately represent the Hebrew. 

2 See commentaries of Gunkel and Cheyne.  As in 
v.10, the oceanstream is meant. (See EDEN.) 

3 A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. COSMOGONY.) 

4 See an illustration from Naville's Book of the 
Dead (Egyptian) in Jewish Cyclopaedia, i. 174a. 

5 Or park. (See PARADISE.) 

6 The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall 
the animals could speak, and that they had all one language 
(Jubilees, iii. 28; Jos. Antiquities, i. I, 4). 

7 Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to 
Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, pp. 280 ff. 

8 ``Good and evil'' may be a late marginal gloss.  See 
further Ency.  Bib. col. 3578, and the commentaries 
(Driver leaves the phrase); also Jastrow, Relig. of.  
Bab. and Ass. p. 553; Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 242. 

9 See illustration in Toy's Ezekiel (Sacred 
Books of the Old Testament), p. 182. 

10 Gaokerena is the mythic white haoma plant (Zendavesta, 
Vendidad, xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization 
of the yellow haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices 
(Yasna, x. 6-10).  It corresponds to the soma plant Asclepias 
acida of the ancient Aryans of India.  On the illustrative value 
of Gaokerena see Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 400-439. 

11 See Life of Adam and Eve (apocryphal), sec. sec.  36, 
40; Apocal.  Mos. sec. 9; Secrets of Enoch, viii. 
7, xxii. 8, 9. ``Oil of life,'' in a Bab. hymn, Die 
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526. 

12 Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar. 

13 W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, pp. 
133, 442; Ency.  Bib., ``Serpent,'' 

14 Note the food and drink of the gods 
in the Babylonian Adapa (or Adamu?) myth. 

15 The mortality of man forms no part of 
the curse (cp. iii. 19, ``dust thou art''). 

16 See H. Schultz, Alttest.  Theologie, ed. 
4, pp. 679 ff., 720; Driver, Genesis, p. a4. 

17 See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus. 

18 The ``fair shepherd'' Yima of the Avesta (Vend. 
ii.), the first man and the founder of civilization 
to the Iranians,though not like the Yama of the Vedas. 

19 See Jastrow, Rel. of Bab. and Ass. pp. 548-554; R. J. Harper, in 
Academy, May 30, 1891; Jensen, Keilinschr.  Bibliothek, vi. 93 ff. 

20 The wisdom was probably to qualify him as a 
ruler.  It is too much to say with Hommel that 
``Adapa is the archetype of the Johannine Logos.'' 

21 Jastrow, op. cit. p. 474 ff.; Jensen, Keil.  Bibl. vi. 120 ff. 

22 Jastrow, p. 522 f.; Jensen, vi. 112 ff. 

23 See Smith and Sayce, Chaldaean Genesis, p. 88; 
Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? p. 90; Babel and Bible, 
Eng. trans., p. 56, with note on pp. 114-118; Zimmern, 
Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3, p. 529; Jeremias, 
Das Alte Test. im Lichte d.  Alten Orient. pp. 104-106. 

ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably born 
in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition) before 
1045.  He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely on 
the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year 
of the latter's episcopate (1043?-1072); in 1069 he appears 
as a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral 
school.  Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, 
Sweyn Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 
1072, he began the Historia Hammaburgenisis Ecclesiae, which 
he finished about 1075.  He died on the 12th of October of a 
year unknown, perhaps 1076.  Adam's Historia---known also 
as Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium 
praesulum Historia, and Historia ecclesiastica--is 
a primary authority, not only for the great diocese of 
Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North German and Baltic lands 
(down to 1072), and for the Scandinavian colonies as far as 
America.  Here occurs the earliest mention of Vinland, and here 
are also references of great interest to Russia and Kiev, to 
the heathen Prussians, the Wends and other Slav races of the 
South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule or Iceland, Greenland 
and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada and the nobles of 
Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's own day (before 
1066).  Adam's account of North European trade at this time, 
and especially of the great markets of Jumne at the mouth of 
the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard (Old Novgorod?) 
in Russia, is also of much value.  His work, which places 
him among the first and best of German annalists, consists 
of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from written 
records and partly from oral information, the latter mainly 
gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and Sweyn 
Estrithson.  Of his minor informants he names several, such as 
Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman, ``bishop 
of Zealand,'' formerly chancellor of Canute the Great, and 
an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson.  The fourth (perhaps the 
most important) book of Adam's History, Variously entitled 
Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam 
sunt regionum, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has 
often been considered, but wrongly, as a separate work. 

Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, 
Royal Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of 12th to 
13th cents.; No. 718, of 15th cent.; (3) Leyden University, 
Voss.  Lat. 123, of 11th cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library, 
2010; (5) Vienna, Hofu.  Staatsbibliothek, 413, of 13th cent.; 
(6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Library, Gud. 83, of 15th cent. 

There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the 
first published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus 
or Descriptio Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615), 
the best at Hanover, 1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum 
Germanicarum; reissued by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris, 
1884 (in Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi.).  There are 
also three German versions, and one Danish; the best is by J. 
C. M. Laurent (and W. Wattenbach) in Geschichtsschreiber d. 
deutsch.  Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888) . See also J. 
Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg in 
Pertz, Archiv, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris, 
1895); Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901). 

ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French 
trouvere, was born at Arras.  His patronymic is generally 
modernized to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his 
contemporaries as Adam d'Arras or Adam le Bossu, sometimes 
simply as Le Bossu d'Arras.  His father, Henri de le Hale, 
was a well-known Citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, 
theology and music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near 
Cambrai.  Father and son had their share in the civil 
discords in Arras, and for a short time took refuge in 
Douai.  Adam had been destined for the church, but renounced 
this intention, and married a certain Marie, who figures 
in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and jeux-partis. 
Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II., count of 
Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, brother 
of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, Syria, 
Palestine and Italy.  At the court of Charles, after he 
became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin et Marion, 
the most famous of his works.  He died between 1285 and 
1288.  Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which 
a transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is 
given in Coussemaker's edition.  His Jeu de Robin et Marion 
is cited as the earliest French play with music on a secular 
subject.  The pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the 
knight, and remained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based 
on an old chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists 
of dialogue varied by refrains already current in popular 
song.  The melodies to which these are set have the character 
of folk-music, and are more spontaneous and melodious than 
the more elaborate music of his songs and motets.  A modern 
adaptation, by Julien Tiersot, was played at Arras by a 
company from the Paris Opera Comique on the occasion of a 
festival in 1896 in honour of Adam de le Hale.  His other 
play, Le jeu Adan or Le jeu de la Feuillee (c. 1262), 
is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself, his father 
and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities.  His works 
include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of Arras, 
and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles 
of Anjou, Le roi de Sicile, begun in 1282; another short 
piece, Le jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him. 

The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is 
the La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque 
Nationale, Paris, dating from the latter half of the 13th 
century.  Many of his pieces are also contained in Douce MS. 
308, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.  His OEuvres completes 
(1872) were edited by E. de Coussemaker.  See also an article 
by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire de La France 
(vol. xx. pp. 638-675); G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets 
francais des XIIe et XIIIe siecles (1882); Canchons 
et Partures des . . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900), 
a critical edition by Rudolf Berger; an edition of Adam's 
two jeux in Monmerque and Michel's Theatre francais 
au moyen age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin et 
Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A. 
Guesnon, La Satire a Arras au XIIIe, siecle (1900); and 
a full bibliography of works on the subject in No. 6 of the 
Bibliotheque de bibliographies critiques, by Henri Guy. 

ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman 
antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, in 
Morayshire.  From his earliest years he showed uncommon diligence 
and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding many 
difficulties and privations.  In 1757 he went to Edinburgh, 
where he studied at the university.  His reputation as a 
classical scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's 
Hospital and the headmastership in 1761.  In 1764 he became 
private tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of 
Edinburgh, by whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the 
rectorship of the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, 
whose substitute he had been for some time before.  From this 
period he devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office 
and to the preparation of his numerous works on classical 
literature.  His popularity and success as a teacher are 
strikingly illustrated by the great increase in the number 
of his pupils, many of whom subsequently became distinguished 
men, among them being Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and 
Jeffrey.  He succeeded in introducing the study of Greek into 
the curriculum of the school, notwithstanding the opposition 
of the university headed by Principal Robertson.  In 1780 the 
university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree 
of Doctor of Laws.  He died on the 18th of December 1809, 
after an illness of five days, during which he occasionally 
imagined himself still at work, his last words being, ``It 
grows dark, boys, you may go.'' Dr Adam's first publication 
was his Principles of Latin and English Grammar (1772), 
which, being written in English instead of Latin, brought down 
a storm of abuse upon him.  This was followed by his Roman 
Antiquities (1791), A Summary of Geography and History 
(1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of the Latin Tongue 
(1805).  The MS. of a projected larger Latin dictionary, 
which he did not live to complete, lies in the library of 
the High School.  His best work was his Roman Antiquities, 
which has passed through a large number of editions and 
received the unusual compliment of a German translation. 

See An Account of the Life and Character of A. A., by A. Henderson (1810). 

ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781--1853), British general, was the 
son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair-Adam, lord-lieutenant of 
Kinross-shire.  He was gazetted an ensign at the age of 
fourteen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich.  He became 
captain in 1799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in Egypt 
(1801).  In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of 
promotion, he obtained command of the 21st Foot, with which 
regiment he served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 1813, taking 
part in the battle of Maida in 1806.  In 1813 he accompanied 
the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he commanded a 
brigade.  He fought a gallant action at Biar (April 12, 
1813), and on the following day won further distinction at 
Castalla.  In the action of Ordal, on the 12th of September, 
Adam received two severe wounds.  He returned to England 
to recover, and was made a major-general in 1814.  At 
Waterloo, Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne 
(see SEATON, LORD) formed part, shared with the Guards 
the honour of repulsing the Old Guard.  For his services he 
was made a K.C.B., and received also Austrian and Russian 
orders.  During the long peace which followed, Sir Frederick 
Adam was successively employed at Malta, in the Ionian 
Islands as lord high commissioner (1824-1831) and from 1832 
to 1837 as governor of Madras.  He became K.C.M.G. in 1820, 
G.C.M.G. four years later, lieutenant-general in 1830, a 
privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in 1840, and full general 
in 1846.  He died suddenly on the 17th of August 1853. 

ADAM, JULIETTE (1836-- ), Freneh writer, known also by her 
maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie (Oise) 
on the 4th of October 1836.  She has given an account of 
her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her 
parents, in Le roman de mon enfance et de ma jeunesse (Eng. 
trans., London and New York, 1902).  In 1852 she married a 
doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her Idees 
antiproudhoniennes sur l'amour, la femme et le mariage, 
in defence of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George 
Sand.  On her husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine 
Edmond Adam (1816--1877), prefect of police in 1870, and 
subsequently life-senator; and she established a salon which 
was frequented by Gambetta and the other republican leaders 
against the conservative reaction of the 'seventies.  In the 
same interest she founded in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, which 
she edited for the first eight years, and in the administration 
of which she retained a preponderating influence until 
1899.  She wrote the notes on foreign politics, and was 
unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in her advocacy 
of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also generally 
credited with the authorship of papers on various European 
capitals signed ``Paul Vasili,'' which were in reality the 
work of various writers.  The most famous of her numerous 
novels is Paienne (1883).  Her reminiscences, Mes 
premieres armes litteraires et politiques (1904) and Mes 
sentiments et nos idees avant 1870 (1905), contain much 
interesting gossip about her distinguished contemporaries. 

ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759), French sculptor, known 
as Adam l'aine, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert 
Adam, a sculptor of little repute.  Adam was thirty-seven 
when, on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon 
the model of the group of ``Neptune and Amphitrite'' for the 
centre of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found 
much employment in the decoration of the royal residences.  
Among his more important works are ``Nymphs and Tritons,'' 
``The Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves,'' ``Hunter with 
Lion in his Net,'' a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, 
``The Seine and the Marne'' in stone for St Cloud, ``Hunting'' 
and ``Fishing,'' marble groups for Berlin, ``Mars embraced 
by Love'' and ``The enthusiasm of Poetry.'' Adam restored 
with much ability the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the 
so-called Villa of Marius at Rome, and was elected a member 
of the Academy of St Luke.  Several of his most important 
works were executed for Frederick the Great in Prussia. 

His brother, also a sculptor, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN ADAM 
(1705-1778), known as Adam le jeune, born in Nancy, worked 
under equal encouragement.  His first work of importance was 
his ``Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture,', executed in 
plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his ``reception 
piece'' when he was elected into the Academy.  He produced 
the reliefs of the ``Birth'' and ``Agony of Christ'' for the 
Oratory in Paris, but his chief works are the ``Mausoleum of 
Cardinal de Fleury'' and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine 
Opalinska, queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy. 

A third brother, FRANCOIS GASPARD BALTHASAR ADAM (1710-1761), 
born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the Great 
and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that monarch, 
and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin.  His chief 
works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and Potsdam. 

The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win 
the approval of the school that immediately followed them, 
and found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle. 

See Dussieux, Artistes francais a l'etranger (Paris, 1855, 
8vo); Archives de l'art francais, documents, vol. i. pp. 
117-180, chiefly for; works executed for the king of Prussia; 
Mariette, Abecedario; Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, 
Dictionnaire general des artistes de l'ecole francaise 
(Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed; Lady Dilke, French 
Architects and Sculptors of the 18th century (London, 4to, 1900). 

ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer, was 
born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the 
college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant.  In 1598 he went 
to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments.  
He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of 
the 16th century, mostly theologians, which were published in 
Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 1615--1620).  He dealt with 
only twenty divines of other countries.  All his divines are 
Protestants.  His industry as a biographer is commended by P. 
Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours; and 
his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful. 

ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris on 
the 7th of December 1862.  He was prosecuted for his first 
novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted.  He collaborated 
with Jean Moreas in Le the chez Miranda (1886), and with 
Moreas and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symboliste, coming 
forward as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism.  Among 
his numerous novels should be noted Le mystere des foules 
(2 vols., 1895), a study in Boulangism, Lettres de Malaisie 
(1897), a fantastic romance of imaginary future politics.  
In 1899 he began a novel-sequence, giving the history of the 
Napoleonic campaigns, the restoration and the government of Louis 
Philippe, comprising La force (1899), L'enfant d'Austerlitz 
(1901), La ruse (1902), and Au soleil de Juillet (1903).  
In 1900 he wrote a Byzantine romance, Basile et Sophia. 

ADAM, ROBERT (1728--1792), British architect, the second 
son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most 
celebrated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William 
Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1728.  For few famous men 
have we so little biographical material, and contemporary 
references to him are sparse.  He certainly studied at the 
university of Edinburgh, and probably received his first 
instruction in architecture from his father, who gave proofs of 
his own skill and taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now 
demolished).  His mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, 
the first English historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we 
find Robert Adam living with her in Edinburgh, and making one 
of the brilliant literary coterie which adorned it at that 
period.  Somewhere between 1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, 
where he spent three years studying the remains of Roman 
architecture.  There he was struck with the circumstance 
that practically nothing bad survived of the Greek and Roman 
masterpieces except public buildings, and; that the private 
palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so highly, had 
practically vanished.  One example of such work. however, 
was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalato in 
Dalmatia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him 
the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clerisseau, 
and two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, 
after being arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to 
accumulate a sufficient number of measurements and careful 
plans and surveys to produce a restoration of the entire 
building in a fine work which he published in 1764, The 
Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, &c. Considering the 
shortness of the time occupied and the obstacles placed in 
his way by the Venetian governor and the population of the 
place, the result was amazing.  The influence of these studies 
was apparent directly and indirectly in much of his subsequent 
work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded upon them. 

After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly to 
the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the 
king and the Board of Works.  Six years later he resigned this 
office, in which he was succeeded by his brother James,---who 
however, held the office jointly with another,---and entered 
parliament as member for the county of Kinross.  In 1768 he 
and his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames, 
upon which the Adelphi now stands, for L. 1200 on a ninety-nine 
years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of 
Lord Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the 
teeth of public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of 
buildings which is imperishably associated with their name, 
indicating its joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the 
Greek adelfoi, the Brothers.  The site presented attractive 
possibilities.  A steep hill led down Buckingham Street to 
the river-side, and the plan was to raise against it, upon 
a terrace formed of massive arches and vaults and facing 
the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets and stately 
buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins.  In spite of many 
difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking was 
completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was raised 
and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi terrace stood 
complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought after by 
artists and men of letters.  Splendid, however, as the terrace 
and its houses are, both in conception and execution, the 
underground work which upholds them is perhaps more remarkable 
still.  The vast series of arched vaults has been described 
by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the years 
that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading to 
the river and its wharves.  In many places the arches stand 
in double tiers.  In time these ``streets'' obtained a bad 
name as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have 
long been enclosed and let as cellars.  Between 1773 and 1778 
the brothers issued a fine series of folio engravings and 
descriptions of the designs for many of their most important 
works, which included several great public buildings and 
numberless large private houses; a fine volume was published in 
1822.  For the remaining years of Robert's life the practice 
of the firm was the most extensive in the country; his position 
was unquestioned, and when he died in 1792 he was laid to 
rest in Westminster Abbey almost as a matter of course. 

The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and 
prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of 
it.  As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian 
influences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than 
native.  But this does not detract from their merit, nor 
need it diminish our estimate of his genius.  It was, 
indeed, the most signal triumph of that genius that he was 
able so to mould and adapt classical models as to create 
a new manner of the highest charm and distinction.  Out of 
simple curvilinear forms, of which he principally preferred 
the oval, he evolved combinations of extraordinary grace 
and variety, and these entered into every detail of his 
work.  In his view the architect was intimately concerned 
with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well 
as with its form and construction, and this view he carried 
rigorously into practice, and with astonishing success.  
Nothing was too small and unimportant for him--summer-houses 
and dog-kennels came as readily to him as the vast facades 
of a terrace in town or a great country house.  But he never 
permitted minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble 
design.  Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing 
curves of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in 
its place; it contributed its share and no more to the total 
effect.  He made a distinct step forward in giving shape to 
the idea of imparting the unity of a single imposing structure 
to a number of private houses grouped in a block which is 
so characteristic a feature of modern town building, and 
though at times he failed in the breadth of grasp needful 
to carry out such an idea on a large scale, he has left 
us some fine examples of what can be accomplished in this 
direction.  A delightful but theoretically undesirable 
characteristic of his work is the use of stucco.  Upon it he 
moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions.  
His ``compo'' was used so successfully that the patent was 
infringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant 
use.  That most difficult feature, the column, he handled 
with enthusiasm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of 
it with minute pains, while his practice showed his graslp of 
the subject by all avoidance of bare imitation of the classic 
masters who first brought it to perfection.  His work might 
be classic in form, but it was independently developed by 
himself.  It would be impossible here to give a list of the 
innumerable works which he executed.  In London, of course, 
the Adelphi stands pre-eminent; the screen and gate of the 
Admiralty and part of Fitzroy Square are by him, Portland 
Place, and much of the older portion of Finsbury Circus, 
besides whole streets of houses in the west end.  There are the 
famous country houses of Lord Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate 
and Luton Hoo, and decorations and additions to many more. 

Robert Adam--with, there is reason to suspect, some help 
from his brother James--has left as deep and enduring a mark 
upon English furniture as upon English architecture.  Down 
to his time carving was the dominant characteristic of the 
mobiliary art, but thenceforward the wood-worker declined in 
importance.  French influence disposed Robert Adam to the 
development of painted furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic 
woods, and many of his designs, especially for sideboards, 
are extremely attractive, mainly by reason of their austere 
simplicity.  Robert Adam was no doubt at first led to turn 
his thoughts towards furniture by his desire to see his 
light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense 
of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled 
with plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme.  
His own taste developed as he went on, but he was usually 
extremely successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing 
his most effective designs.  In his furniture he made lavish 
use of his favourite decorative motives---wreaths and paterae, 
the honeysuckle, and that fan ornament which he used so 
constantly.  Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English 
art.  From facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the 
carpets, everything originated in the same order of ideas, 
and to this day an Adam drawing-room is to English what 
a Louis Seize room is to French art.  In nothing were the 
Adams more successful than in mantelpieces and doors.  The 
former, by reason of their simplicity and the readiness with 
which the ``compo'' ornaments can be applied and painted, 
are still made in cheap forms in great number.  The latter 
were most commonly executed in a rich mahogany and are now 
greatly sought after.  The extent to which the brothers 
worked together is by no means clear--indeed, there is an 
astonishing dearth of information regarding this remarkable 
family, and it is a reproach to English art literature that 
no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published.  John 
Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in 
Edinburgh.  James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually 
was closely associated with Robert; William is variously 
said to have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.) 

ADAM, WILLIAM (1751--1839), British lawyer and politician, 
eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and 
nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd 
of August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh 
and Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773.  Soon 
afterwards he removed to England, where he entered parliament 
in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar.  He 
withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806 
as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and 
Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till 
1811.  He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox. At 
the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice.  He 
was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince 
of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren 
Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord 
Melville when impeached.  During his party's brief tenure of 
office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, 
and was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of 
Kinrossshire.  In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer 
in Scotland, and was chief commissioner of the newly 
established jury-court for the trial of civil causes, from 
1815 to 1830, when it was merged in the permanent supreme 
tribunal.  He died at Edinburgh on the 17th of February 1839. 

ADAMANT (from Gr. adamas, untameable), the modern diamond 
(q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance.  The 
Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and by Hesiod 
for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus applies it 
to the hardest crystal.  By an etymological confusion with the 
Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came to be 
associated with the loadstone; but since the term was displaced 
by ``diamond'' it has had only a figurative and poetical use. 

ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly 
between 6 deg.  and 11 deg.  N., and 11 deg.  and 15 deg.  E., about midway 
between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad.  It is now divided 
between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes 
the chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of 
Cameroon.  This region is watered by the Benue, the chief 
affluent of the Niger, and its tributary the Faro.  Another 
stream, the Yedseram, flows north-east to Lake Chad.  The 
most fertile parts of the country are the plains near the 
Benue, about 800 ft. above the sea.  South and east of the 
river the land rises to an elevation of 1600 ft., and is 
diversified by numerous hills and groups of mountains.  
These ranges contain remarkable rock formations, towers, 
battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills.  Chief of these 
formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft. 
thick at the base.  It stands on the summit of a high conical 
hill.  Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of 
Yola, rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to 
the height of 6000 ft.  The country, which is very fertile 
and is covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages 
and a considerable population.  Durra, ground-nuts, yams and 
cotton are the principal products, and the palm and banana 
abound.  Elephants are numerous and ivory is exported.  In 
the eastern part of the country the rhinoceros is met with, 
and the rivers swarm with crocodiles and with a curious 
mammal called the ayu, bearing some resemblance to the seal. 

Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early 
years of the 19th century conquered the country.  To the 
Hausa and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or 
South-land).  The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such 
as the Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, 
and all fetish-worshippers.  They are often of a very low 
type, and some of the tribes are cannibals.  Slave-trading 
was still active among them in the early years of the 20th 
century.  The Fula (q.v.), who first came into the country 
about the 15th century as nomad herdsmen, are found chiefly 
in the valleys, the pagan tribes holding the mountainous 
districts.  There are also in the country numbers of Hausa, 
who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and Kanuri from 
Bornu.  The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lordship, claimed 
rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa, but the country, 
since the subjection of the Fula (e. 1900), has consisted of 
a number of small states under the control of the British and 
Germans.  Garua on the upper Benne, 65 m. east of Yola, is 
the headquarters of the German administration for the region 
and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa.  Yoko is 
one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in 
the centre is the important town of Ngaundere.  After Heinrich 
Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller 
to penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882).  It 
has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of 
Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893--1894). 

An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is 
given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central 
Africa (new edition, London, 1890), and later information is 
contained in S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also 
CAMEROON and NIGERIA, and the bibliographies there given.) 

ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished 
in North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.  Basing itself 
probably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, 
this sect pretended that its members were re-established 
in Adam's state of original innocency.  They accordingly 
rejected the form of marriage, which, they said, would never 
have existed but for sin, and lived in absolute lawlessness, 
holding that, whatever they did, their actions could be neither 
good nor bad.  During the middle ages the doctrines of this 
obscure sect, which did not itself exist long, were revived 
in Europe by the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit. 

ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704), Irish saint and 
historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the 
year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or Iona, being 
ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba.  While on 
a mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 
686, he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the 
time for celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return 
to Iona he tried without success to enforce the change upon the 
monks.  He died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote 
a Life of St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous 
matter, is of great interest and value.  The best editions 
are those published by W. Reeves (1857, new edit.  Edinburgh, 
1874) and by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894).  Adamnan's other 
well-known work, De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, 
Itinera Hierosolymitana saeculi, iii.-viii., &c., 1898; 
vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script.  Ecc. Latin) was based, 
according to Bede, on information received from Arculf, a French 
bishop, who, on his return from the Holy Land, was wrecked on 
the west coast of Britain, and was entertained for a time at 
Iona.  This was first published at Ingolstadt in 1619 by J. 
Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance of Arculf's 
narrative against Casaubon.  An English translation by G. 
J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land. 
was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889). 

For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Repert 
de sources Historiques (1903), p. 40. 

ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist and 
palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Banchory, 
Aberdeen, was born on the 21st of March 1827, and was educated 
to the medical profession.  As surgeon in the Army Medical 
Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his opportunities 
for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in 
Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada.  His observations on the 
fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually 
to give special study to fossil elephants, on which he became 
an acknowledged authority.  In 1872 he was elected F.R.S.  In 
1873 he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of 
Science, Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in 
Queen's College, Cork, a post which he held until the close 
of his life.  He died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882. 

PUBLICATIONS.--Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta 
(London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British 
Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc.), (London, 1877-1881). 

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplomatist, 
son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John Adams, was 
born in Boston on the 18th of August 1807.  His father, having 
been appointed minister to Russia, took him in 1809 to St 
Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity with 
French, learning it as his native tongue.  After eight years 
spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin 
School for four years, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard.  He 
lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during 
his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in 
a society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph.  
Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and 
study, and wrote for the North American Review. He also 
undertook the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, 
and actively supported him in his contest in the House of 
Representatives for the right of petition and the anti-slavery 
cause.  In 1835 he wrote an effective and widely read political 
pamphlet, entitled, after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An 
Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of 
the Massachusetts general court from 1840 to 1845, sitting for 
three years in the House of Representatives and for two years 
in the Senate; and in 1846-1848 he edited a party Journal, 
the Boston Whig. In 1848 he was prominent in politics as 
a ``Conscience Whig,'' presiding over the Buffalo Convention 
which formed the Free Soil party and nominated Martin van 
Buren for president and himself for vice-president.  He was a 
Republican member of the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled 
on the 5th of December 1859, and during the second session, 
from the 3rd of December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861, he 
represented Massachusetts in the Congressional Committee of 
Thirty-three at the time of the secession of seven of the Southern 
states.  His selection by the chairman of this committee, Thomas 
Corwin, to present to the full committee certain propositions 
agreed upon by two-thirds of the Republican members, and 
his calm and able speech of the 31st of January 1861 in the 
House, served to make him conspicuous before congress and the 
country.  Together with William H. Seward, he stood for the 
Republican policy of concession; and, while he was criticized 
severely and charged with inconsistency in view of his record 
as a ``Conscience Whig,'' he was of the same mind as President 
Lincoln, willing to concede non-essentials, but holding rigidly 
to the principle, properly understood, that there must be no 
extension of slavery.  He believed that as the Republicans 
were the victors they ought to show a spirit of conciliation, 
and that the policy of righteousness was likewise one of 
expediency, since it would have for its result the holding of 
the border slave states with the North until the 4th of March, 
when the Republicans could take possession of the government at 
Washington.  With the incoming of the new administration Secretary 
Seward secured for Adams the appointment of minister to Great 
Britain.  So much sympathy was shown in England for the South 
that his path was beset with difficulties; but his mission 
was to prevent the interference of Great Britain in the 
struggle; and while the work of Lincoln, Seward and Sumner, 
and the cause of emancipation, tended to this end, the American 
minister was insistent and unyielding, and knew how to present 
his case forcibly and with dignity.  He laboured with energy 
and discretion to prevent the sailing of the ``Alabama''; 
and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently urged upon 
the British government its responsibility for the destruction 
of American merchant vessels by the privateer.  In his own 
diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior were serious 
trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain which 
he underwent during the Civil War made itself felt in later 
years.  Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell to 
stop the ``Alexandra,'' and it was his industry and pertinacity 
in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order 
the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams 
intended for the Confederate States.  Adams remained in England 
until May 1868.  His last important work was as a member, in 
1871--1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which 
disposed of the ``Alabama'' claims.  His knowledge of the 
subject and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his 
country and the cause of international arbitration valuable 
service.  He died at Boston on the 21st of November 1886. 

He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols.. 1850-1856), and 
the Memoirs of John Quincy Adams (12 vols., 1874-1877).  See the 
excellent biography (Boston, 1900), in the ``American Statesmen 
Series,'' by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.) 

ADAMS, HENRY (1838-- ), American historian, son of Charles 
Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was born 
in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 16th of February 1838.  
He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was 
private secretary to his father.  From 1870 to 1877 he was 
assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876 
was editor of the North American Review. He is considered 
to have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical 
seminary work in the United States.  His great work is his 
History of the United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 
1889--1891), which is incomparably the best work yet published 
dealing with the administrations of Presidents Jefferson and 
Madison.  It is particularly notable for its account of the 
diplomatic relations of the United States during this period, 
and for its essential impartiality.  Adams also published: 
Life of Albert Gallatin (1879), John Randolph (1882) 
in the ``American Statesmen Series,'' and Historical Essays 
(1891); besides editing Documents Relating to New England 
Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert Gallatin 
(3 volumes, 1879).  In collaboration with his elder brother 
Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters of Erie 
and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest 
Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876). 

His elder brother, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1833-1894), a graduate 
of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Democratic 
member for several terms of the Massachusetts general 
court.  In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the 
Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley. 

Another brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Jr. (1835- ), born 
in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard in 
1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War, receiving 
in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular 
army.  He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from 
1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an 
authority on the management of railways.  In 1900-1901 he 
was president of the American Historical Association.  Among 
his writings are: Railroads, Their Origin and Problems 
(1878); Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892); 
a biography of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900); 
Lee at Appomattox and Other Papers (1902); Theodore 
Lyman and Robert Charles Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs 
(1906); and Three Phi Beta Kappa Addresses (1907). 

Another brother, BROOKS ADAMS (1848-- ), born in Quincy, 
Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at 
Harvard in 1870, and until 1881 practised law.  His writings 
include: The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887); 
The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895); America's 
Economic Supremacy (1900); and The New Empire (1902). 

ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852-- ), American economist, 
was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 31st of December 
1852.  He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins 
University, of which latter he was fellow and lecturer 
(1880--1882).  He was afterwards a lecturer in Cornell 
University, and in 1887 became professor of political economy 
and finance in the university of Michigan.  He also became 
statistician to the Interstate Commerce Committee and was 
in charge of the transportation department in the 1900 
census.  His principal works are The State in Relation to 
Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the United States, 
1787 to 1816 (1884); Public Debts (1887); The Science 
of Finance (1888); Economics and Jurisprudence (1897). 

ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was born at West 
Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858.  He was educated 
at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of Technology, 
and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in 1885-1890 
he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris.  In 1890-1898 
he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute, 
Brooklyn, New York.  In 1906 he was elected vice-president 
of the National Academy of Design, New York.  He experimented 
successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted marbles, 
notably in the ``Rabbi's Daughter'' and a portrait of Miss 
Julia Marlowe, the actress; and he is at his best in his 
portrait busts of women, the best example being the study, 
completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards 
married.  Among his other productions are a fountain for 
Fitchburg, Massachusetts (1888); a number of works for the 
Congressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors 
(``Writing'') begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor 
Joseph Henry; memorial tablets for the Boston State House; a 
memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.; statues 
of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia, and of 
William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902); and the Vanderbilt 
memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church, New York. 

ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American historian and 
educationalist, was born at Shutesbury (near Amherst), 
Massachusetts, on the 16th of April 1850.  He graduated at 
Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872; and between 1873 
and 1876 he studied political science, history and economics 
at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, receiving 
the degree of Ph.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest 
honours (summa cum lande). From 1876 almost until his 
death he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, 
Baltimore, Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate 
in history (1878--1883), an associate professor (1883--1891) 
and after 1891 professor of American and institutional 
history, In addition he was lecturer on history in Smith 
College, Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1878-1881, and for 
many years took an active part in Chautauqua work.  In 1884, 
also, he was one of the founders of the American Historical 
Association, of which he was secretary until 1900.  In 1882 he 
founded the ``Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical 
and Political Science,'' and at the time of his death some 
forty volumes had been issued under his editorship.  After 
1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Education 
the series of monographs entitled ``Contributions to American 
Educational History,'' he himself preparing the College 
of William and Mary (1887), and Thomas Jefferson and 
the University of Virginia (1888).  It was as a teacher, 
however, that Adams rendered his most valuable services, 
and many American historical scholars owe their training 
and to a considerable extent their enthusiasm to him.  He 
died at Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 30th of July 1901. 

In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he 
published: Maryland's Influence in Founding a National 
Commonwealth (1877); Methods of Historical Study 
(1884); Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the 
United States (1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared 
Sparks (2 vols., Boston, 1893), his most important work. 

See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902), extra 
volume (xxiii.) of ``Studies in Historical and Political Science.'' 

ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United 
States of America, was born on the 30th of October 1735 in 
what is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts.  His father, a 
farmer, also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent 
from Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, 
to Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston 
Adams.  Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1755, 
and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in 
the office of Rufus Putnam.  In 1758 he was admitted to the 
bar.  From an early age he developed the habit of writing 
descriptions of events and impressions of men.  The earliest 
of these is his report of the argument of James Otis in the 
superior court of Massachusetts as to the constitutionality 
of writs of assistance.  This was in 1761, and the argument 
inspired him with zeal for the cause of the American 
colonies.  Years afterwards, when an old man, Adams undertook 
to write out at length his recollections of this scene; it is 
instructive to compare the two accounts.  John Adams had none 
of the qualities of popular leadership which were so marked a 
characteristic of his second cousin, Samuel Adams; it was rather 
as a constitutional lawyer that he influenced the course of 
events.  He was impetuous, intense and often vehement, 
unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his whole soul to the 
cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his pride of opinion 
and his inborn contentiousness were serious handicaps to him 
in his political career.  These qualities were particularly 
manifested at a later period---as, for example, during his 
term as president.  He first made his influence widely felt 
and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs 
during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765.  
In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the 
town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts 
legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in 
drawing up instructions to their representatives; in August 
1765 he contributed anonymously four notable articles to the 
Boston Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 
as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he 
argued that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act 
was a part of the never-ending struggle between individualism 
and corporate authority; and in December 1765 he delivered a 
speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced 
the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being 
without representation in parliament, had not assented to 
it.  In 1768 fee removed to Boston, Two years later, with that 
degree of moral courage which was one of his distinguishing 
characteristics, as it has been of his descendants, he, 
aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr., defended the British soldiers 
who were arrested after the ``Boston Massacre,'' charged 
with causing the death of four persons, inhabitants of the 
colony.  The trial resulted in an acquittal of the officer 
who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers; 
but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter.  These 
claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and 
released.  Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking 
the unpopular side in this case met with its just reward 
in the following year, in the shape of his election to the 
Massachusetts House of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118. 

John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 
1778.  In June 1775, with a view to promoting the union of 
the colonies, he seconded the nomination of Washington as 
commander-in-chief of the army.  His influence in congress was 
great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a 
separation of the colonies from Great Britain.  On the 7th 
of June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by 
Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that ``these colonies are, and of 
a right ought to be, free and independent states,'' and no 
man championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) 
so eloquently and effectively before the congress.  On the 
8th of June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, 
Franklin, Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of 
Independence; and although that document was by the request 
of the committee written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John 
Adams who occupied the foremost place in the debate on its 
adoption.  Before this question had been disposed of, Adams 
was placed at the head of the Board of War and Ordnance, 
and he also served on many other important committees. 

In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas Deane 
in the American commission there.  But just as he embarked that 
commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance, and soon 
after his arrival he advised that the number of commissioners 
be reduced to one.  His advice was followed and he returned home 
in time to be elected a member of the convention which framed 
the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the organic law 
of that commonwealth.  With James Bowdoin and Samuel Adams, he 
formed a sub-committee which drew up the first draft of that 
instrument, and most of it probably came from John Adams's 
pen.  Before this work had been completed he was again sent to 
Europe, having been chosen on the 27th of September 1779 as 
minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a treaty of peace 
and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain.  Conditions were 
not then favourable for peace, however; the French government, 
moreover, did not approve of the choice, inasmuch as Adams 
was not sufficiently pliant and tractable and was from the 
first suspicious of Vergennes; and subsequently Benjamin 
Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were 
appointed to co-operate with Adams.  Jefferson, however, did 
not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took little part in the 
negotiations.  This left the management of the business to the other 
three.  Jay and Adams distrusted thc good faith of the French 
government.  Outvoting Franklin, they decided to break their 
instructions, which required them to ``make the most candid 
confidential communications on all subjects to the ministers 
of our generous ally, the king of France; to undertake 
nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their 
knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to govern yourself 
by their advice and opinion''; and, instead, they dealt 
directly with the British commissioners, without consulting 
the French ministers.  Throughout the negotiations Adams was 
especially determined that the right of the United States 
to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be 
recognized.  Political conditions in Great Britain, at the 
moment, made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity 
with the British ministry, and eventually the American 
negotiators were able to secure a peculiarly favourable 
treaty.  This preliminary treaty was signed on the 30th of 
November 1782.  Before these negotiations began, Adams had 
spent some time in the Netherlands.  In July 1780 he had been 
authorized to execute the duties previously assigned to Henry 
Laurens, and at the Hague was eminently successful, securing 
there recognition of the United States as an independent 
government (April 19, 1782), and negotiating both a loan 
and, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce, 
the first of such treaties between the United States and 
foreign powers after that of February 1778 with France. 

In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line of 
able and distinguished American ministers to the court of St 
James's.  When he was presented to his former sovereign, 
George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack 
of confidence in the French government.  Replying, Mr Adams 
admitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: ``I must 
avow to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own 
country''--a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's 
sensibilities.  While in London Adams published a work 
entitled A Defence of the Constitution of Government of 
the United States (1787).  In this work he ably combated 
the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the 
viciousness of the frame-work of the state governments.  
Unfortunately, in so doing, he used phrases savouring of 
aristocracy which offended many of his countrymen,---as in the 
sentence in which he suggested that ``the rich, the well-born 
and the able'' should be set apart from other men in a 
senate.  Partly for this reason, while Washington had the vote 
of every elector in the first presidential election of 1789, 
Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty-nine.  As this 
was the second largest number he was declared vice-president, 
but he began his eight years in that office (1789-- 1797) with 
a sense of grievance and of suspicion of many of the leading 
men.  Differences of opinion with regard to the policies to be 
pursued by the new government gradually led to the formation 
of two well-defined political groups---the Federalists and the 
Democratic-Republicans--and Adams became recognized as one of 
the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the former. 

In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another 
election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jefferson; 
though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had asked that 
an equal vote should be cast for Adams and Thomas Pinckney, 
the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order that 
Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded 
altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney 
should in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in 
accordance with the system then obtaining, be elected president, 
though he was intended for the second place on the Federalist 
ticket.  Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797--1801) 
were marked by a succession of intrigues which embittered 
all his later life; they were marked, also, by events, such 
as the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought 
discredit on the Federalist party.  Moreover, factional strife 
broke out within the party itself; Adams and Hamilton became 
alienated, and members of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked 
to Hamilton rather than to the president as their political 
chief.  The United States was, at this time, drawn into the 
vortex of European complications, and Adams, instead of taking 
advantage of the militant spirit which was aroused, patriotically 
devoted himself to securing peace with France, much against 
the wishes of Hamilton and of Hamilton's adherents in the 
cabinet.  In 1800, Adams was again the Federalist candidate 
for the presidency, but the distrust of him in his own 
party, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition 
Acts and the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, 
combined to cause his defeat.  He then retired into private 
life.  On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary 
of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, he died at 
Quincy.  Jefferson died on the same day.  In 1764 Adams had married 
Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the daughter of a Congregational 
minister at Weymouth, Massachusetts.  She was a woman of much 
ability, and her letters, written in an excellent English 
style, are of great value to students of the period in which she 
lived.  President John Quincy Adams was their eldest son. 

AUTHORITIES.--C.  F. Adams, The Works of John Aadms, with 
Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856); John and Abigail Adams, 
Familiar Letters during thc Revolution (Boston, 1875); 
J. T. Morse, John Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 
1899), in the ``American Statesmen Series''; and Mellen 
Chamberlain, John Adams, the Statesman of the Revolution; 
with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 1898). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1819--1892), British astronomer, was born 
at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June 
1819.  His father, Thomas Adams, was a tenant farmer; his 
mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at 
Badharlick.  From the village school at Laneast he went, at 
the age of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, 
the Rev. John Couch Grylls, kept a private school.  His 
promise as a mathematician induced his parents to send him to 
the university of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered 
as a sizar at St John's College.  He graduated B.A. in 1843 
as the senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman of his 
year.  While still an undergraduate he happened to read 
of certain unexplained irregularities in the motion of 
the planet Uranus, and determined to investigate them as 
soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether they 
might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered 
planet.  Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once 
proceeded to attack the novel problem.  It was this: from 
the observed perturbations of a known planet to deduce by 
calculation, assuming only Newton's law of gravitation, the 
mass and orbit of an unknown disturbing body.  By September 
1845 he obtained his first solution, and handed to Professor 
Challis, the director of the Cambridge Observatory, a paper 
giving the elements of what he described as ``the new planet.'' 

On the 21st of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory, 
for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer-royal, a 
similar document, still preserved among the archives.  A fortnight 
afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point in the 
solution.  Adams, who thought the query unessential, did not 
reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify by 
telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's 
investiation.  Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the 10th of November 
1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus, 
showing that the existing theory failed to account for its 
motion.  Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, 
and on the 1st of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the 
position, but not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body 
whose existence was presumed.  The longitude he assigned 
differed by only 1 deg.  from that predicted by Adams in the 
document which Airy possessed.  The latter was struck by the 
coincidence, and mentioned it to the Board of Visitors of 
the Observatory, James Challis and Sir John Herschel being 
present.  Herschel, at the ensuing meeting of the British 
Association early in September, ventured accordingly to 
predict that a new planet would shortly be discovered.  
Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis that the 
planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equatorial.  
The search was begun by a laborious method at the end of the 
month.  On the 8th and 12th of August, as afterwards 
appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to 
the want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as 
planetary.  Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, 
presented on the 31st of August 1846 a third memoir, giving 
for the first time the mass and orbit of the new body.  He 
communicated his results by letter to Dr Gane, of the Berlin 
Observatory, who at once examined the suggested region of the 
heavens.  On the 23rd of September he detected near the 
predicted place a small star unrecorded in the map, and next 
evening found that it had a proper motion.  No doubt remained 
that ``Leverrier's planet'' had been discovered.  On the 
announcement of the fact, Herschel and Challis made known 
that Adams had already calculated the planet's elements and 
position.  Airy then at length published an account of the 
circumstances, and Adams's memoir was printed as an appendix 
to the Nautical Almanac. A keen controversy arose in France 
and England as to the merits of the two astronomers.  In the 
latter country much surprise was expressed at the apathy of 
Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown Englishman 
were resented as detracting from the credit due to Leverrier's 
achievement.  As the indisputable facts became known, the 
world recognized that the two astronomers had independently 
solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each equal 
glory.  The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. 
Arago, received by general consent the neutral name of 
Neptune. Its mathematical prediction was not only an 
unsurpassed intellectual feat; it showed also that Newton's 
law of gravitation, which Airy had almost called in question, 
prevailed even to the utmost bounds of the solar system. 

The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen 
Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a 
subsequent occasion, his modesty led him to decline it.  
The Royal Society awarded him its Copley medal in 1848.  In 
the same year the members of St John's College commemorated 
his success by founding in the university an Adams prize, to 
be given biennially for the best treatise on a mathematical 
subject.  In 1851 he became president of the Royal Astronomical 
Society.  His lay fellowship at St John's College came to 
an end in 1852, and the existing statutes did not permit 
of his re-election.  But Pembroke College, which possessed 
greater freedom, elected him in the following year to a lay 
fellowship, and this he held for the rest of his life.  In 
1858 he became professor of mathematics at St Andrews, but 
lectured only for a session, when he vacated the chair for 
the Lowndean professorship of astronomy and geometry at 
Cambridge.  Two years later he succeeded Challis as director 
of the Observatory, where he resided until his death. 

Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which attracted 
widest notice, the work he subsequently performed in relation to 
gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism was not less 
remarkable.  Several of his most striking contributions to 
knowledge originated in the discovery of errors or fallacies 
in the work of his great predecessors in astronomy.  Thus 
in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's 
parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied 
corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A. 
Plana and P. G. D. de Pontecoulant.  In the following year his 
memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion 
partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which 
had held its place unchallenged for sixty years.  At first, 
Leverrier, Plana and other foreign astronomersi controverted 
Adams's result; but its soundness was ultimately established, 
and its fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory 
has only developed further with time.  For these researches 
the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 
1866.  The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention 
to the Leonids, whose probable path and period had already 
been discussed by Professor H. A. Newton.  Using a powerful 
and elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster 
of meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an 
elongated ellipse in 33 1/4 years, and is subject to definite 
perturbations from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and 
Uranus.  These results were published in 1867.  Ten years 
later, when Mr. G. W. Hill of Washington expounded a new and 
beautiful method for dealing with the problem of the lunar 
motions, Adams briefly announced his own unpublished work 
in the same field, which, following a parallel course had 
confirmed and supplemented Hill's.  In 1874-1876 he was 
president of the Royal Astronomical Society for the second time, 
when it fell to him to present the gold medal of the year to 
Leverrier.  The determination of the constants in Gauss's 
theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied him at intervals for 
over forty years.  The calculations involved great labour, 
and were not published during his lifetime.  They were edited 
by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and appear in the 
second volume of the collected Scientific Papers. Numerical 
computation of this kind might almost be described as his 
pastime.  The value of the constant known as Euler's, and 
the Bernoullian numbers up to the 62nd, he worked out to an 
unimagined degree of accuracy.  For Newton and his writings he 
had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed, bear 
the cast of Newton's thought.  He laboured for many years at 
the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection 
of Newton's unpublished mathematical writings, presented 
in 1872 to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the 
account of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 
1888.  The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, 
but he preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching 
and research in Cambridge.  He was British delegate to the 
International Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 
1884, when he also attended the meetings of the British 
Association at Montreal and of the American Association at 
Philadelphia.  Five years later his health gave way, and 
after a long illness he died at the Cambridge Observatory 
on the 21st of January 1892, and was buried in St Giles's 
cemetery, near his home.  He married in 1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, 
of Dublin, who survived him.  An international committee was 
formed for the purpose of erecting a monument to his memory 
in Westminster Abbey; and there, in May 1895, a portrait 
medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was placed near the grave 
of Newton, and adjoining the memorials of Darwin and of 
Joule.  His bust, by the same sculptor, stands opposite 
that of Sir John Herschel in the hall of St John's College, 
Cambridge.  Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and 
Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St 
John's.  Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to 
the Royal Astronomical Society.  A memorial tablet, with 
an inscription by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the 
Cathedral at Truro; and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public 
institute in his honour at Launceston, near his birthplace. 

The Scientific Papers of John Couch Adams, 4to, vol. i. 
(1896), and vol. ii. (1900), edited by William Grylls 
Adams and Ralph Allen Sampson, with a memoir by Dr J. W. L. 
Glaisher, were published by the Cambridge University Press.  
The first volume contains his previously published writings; 
the second those left in manuscript, including the substance 
of his lectures on the Lunar Theory.  A collection, virtually 
complete, of Adams's papers regarding the discovery of 
Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of St John's 
College.  A description of them by Professor Sampson was 
inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society 
(vol. liv. p. 143).  Consult: Month.  Notices Roy. Astr.  
Soc., liii. 184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 
565, xlv. 301; Astr. Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, Hist. of 
Physical Astronomy, p. 168; Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72. 

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848), eldest son of President 
John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born 
on the 11th of July 1767, in that part of Braintree that is 
now Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy 
(1689--1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many 
years a prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature.  
In 1778, and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his 
father to Europe; studying in Paris in 1778-1779 and at the 
university of Leiden in 1780.  In 1780, also, he began to 
keep that diary which forms so conspicuous a record of the 
doings of himself and his contemporaries.  In 1781, at the 
age of fourteen, he accompanied Francis Dana (1743-1811), 
American envoy to Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana 
was not received by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams 
joined his father at Paris, where he acted as ``additional 
secretary'' to the American commissioners in the negotiation 
of the treaty of peace which concluded the War of American 
Independence.  Instead of accompanying his father to London, 
he, of his own choice, returned to Massachusetts, graduated 
at Harvard College in 1787, three years later was admitted 
to practise at the bar and at once opened an office in 
Boston.  A series of papers written by him in which he 
controverted some of Thomas Paine's doctrines in the Rights 
of Man, and later another series in which he ably supported 
the neutral policy of the administration toward France and 
England, led to his appointment by Wnshington as minister to 
the Netherlands in May 1794.  There was little for him to do 
at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister at London, he 
transacted certain public business with the English foreign 
secretary.  In 1796 Washington appointed him minister to 
Portugal, but before his departure thither his father John 
Adams became president and changed his destination to Berlin 
(1797).  While there, he negotiated (1799) a treaty of amity 
and commerce with Prussia.  On Thomas Jefferson's election 
to the presidency in 1800, the elder Adams recalled his 
son, who returned home in 1801.  The next year, he was 
elected to the Massachusetts senate, and in 1803 was sent to 
Washington as a member of the Senate of the United States. 

Up to this time, John Quincy Adams was regarded as belonging 
to the Federalist party, but he now found its general policy 
displeasing to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his 
father, by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found 
himself nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular 
minority.  He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict party 
man.  On the first important question that came before him 
in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with 
the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own 
section.  In December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's 
suggestion of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, 
saying: ``The president has recommended the measure on his high 
responsibility.  I would not consider, I would not deliberate; 
I would act!'' Within five hours the Senate had passed the 
Embargo Bill and sent it to the House.  The support of a 
measure so unpopular in New England caused him to be hated by 
the Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his 
successor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months 
before the usual time of filling the vacancy, and five days later 
Adams resigned.  In the same year he attended the Republican 
congressional caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency, 
and thus definitely joined the Republicans.  From 1806 to 
1809 Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. 

In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent the 
United States.  He arrived at St Petersburg at the psychological 
moment when the tsar had made up his mind to break with 
Napoleon.  Adams therefore met with a favourable reception and 
a disposition to further the interests of American commerce 
in every possible way.  On the outbreak of the war between 
the United States and England in 1812, he was still at St 
Petersburg.  In September of that year, the Russian government 
suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator between 
the two belligerents.  Madison precipitately accepted this 
proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to act 
as commissioners with Mr Adams; but England would have nothing 
to do with it.  In August 1814, however, these gentlemen, 
with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations 
with English commissioners which resulted in the signature 
of the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that 
year.  After this Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the 
return of Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, 
with Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) 
a ``Convention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation.'' Soon 
afterwards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his 
father had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis 
Adams, was after him.  After accomplishing little in London, 
he returned to the United States in the summer of 1817 to 
become secretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe. 

As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in 
two most important episodes--the acquisition of Florida 
and the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine.  Ever since 
the acquisition of Louisiana successive administrations 
had sought to include a part at least of Florida in that 
purchase.  In 1819, after long negotiations, Adams succeeded 
in bringing the Spanish minister to the point of signing 
a treaty in which the Spaniards abandoned all claims to 
territory east of the Mississippi, and the United States 
relinquished all claim to what is now known as Texas.  Before 
the Spanish government ratified the treaty in 1820, Mexico, 
including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the mother 
country, and the United States had occupied Florida by force of 
arms.  The Monroe Doctrine (q.v.) rightly bears the name of 
the president who in 1823 assumed the responsibility for its 
promulgation; but it was primarily the work of John Quincy 
Adams.  The eight years of Monroe's presidency (1817-1825) 
are known as the ``Era of Good Feeling.'' As his second term 
drew to a close, there was a great lack of good feeling among 
his official advisers, three of whom--Adams, secretary of 
state, Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of 
the treasury--aspired to succeed him in his high office.  In 
addition, Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates.  
Calhoun was nominated for the Vice-presidency.  Of the other 
four, Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 
41, and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was 
made by the House of Representatives, which was confined 
in its choice to the three candidates who had received the 
largest number of votes.  Clay, who was speaker of the House 
of Representatives, and had for years assumed a censorious 
attitude toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and 
thereby secured his election on the first ballot.  A few days 
later Adams offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was 
accepted.  The wholly unjust and baseless charge of ``bargain and 
corruption'' followed, and the feud thus created between Adams 
and Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States. 

Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly 
successful, but his presidency (1825--1829) was in most 
respects a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of 
the Jacksonians; in 1828 Jackson was elected president over 
Adams.  It was during his administration that irreconcilable 
differences developed between the followers of Adams and the 
followers of Jackson, the former becoming known as the National 
Republicans, who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors 
of the Whigs.  In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the 
town of Quincy; but only for a brief period, for in 1830, 
largely by Anti-Masonic votes, he was elected a member of the 
national House of Representatives.  On its being suggested 
to him that his acceptance of this position would degrade an 
ex-president, Adams replied that no person could be degraded 
by serving the people as a representative in congress or, he 
added, as a selectman of his town.  His service in congress 
from 1831 until his death is, in some respects, the most 
noteworthy part of his career.  Throughout he was conspicuous 
as an opponent of the extension of slavery, though he was 
never technically an abolitionist, and in particular he was 
the champion in the House of Representatives of the right 
of petition at a time when, through the influence of the 
Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that 
body.  His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called 
``Gag Laws'' is one of the most dramatic contests in the 
history of congress.  The agitation for the abolition of 
slavery, which really began in earnest with the establishment 
of the Liberator by William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led 
to the sending of innumerable petitions to congress for the 
abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, over which 
the Federal government had jurisdiction, and for other action 
by congress with respect to that institution.  These petitions 
were generally sent to Adams for presentation.  They aroused 
the anger of the proslavery members of congress, who, in 
1836, brought about the passage of the first ``Gag Rule,'' the 
Pinckney Resolution, presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South 
Carolina.  It provided that all petitions relating to slavery 
should be laid on the table without being referred to committee 
or printed; and, in substance, this resolution was re-adopted 
at the beginning of each of the immediately succeeding 
sessions of congress, the Patton Resolution being adopted in 
1837, the Atherton Resolution, or ``Atherton Gag,'' in 1838, 
and the Twenty-first Rule in 1840 and subsequently until 
repealed.  Adams contended that these ``Gag Rules'' were 
a direct violation of the First Amendment to the Federal 
Constitution, and refused to be silenced on the question, 
fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in spite of the 
bitter denunciation of his opponents.  Each year the number of 
anti-slavery petitions received and presented by him increased; 
perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams presented a petition 
from twenty-two slaves, and, when threatened by his opponents 
with censure, defended himself with remarkable keenness and 
ability.  At each session, also, the majority against him 
decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal the Twenty-first 
Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his battle was 
won.  On the 21st of February 1848, after having suffered 
a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on the 
floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later 
died.  Few men in American public life have possessed more 
intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit and 
more ability than Adams, but throughout his political career 
he was handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity 
and coolness of manner, and by his consequent inability to 
appeal to the imaginations and affections of the people as a 
whole.  He had, indeed, few intimate political or personal 
friends, and few men in American history have, during 
their lifetime, been regarded with so much hostility and 
attacked with so much rancour hy their political opponents. 

AUTHORITIES.--J.  T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1883; 
new edition, 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of, John 
Quincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of 
John Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 
1795 to 1848 (12 vols., Philadelphia. 1874-1877). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722--1803), American statesman, was 
born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 
1722.  He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams.  
His father, whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a 
wealthy and prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active 
part in the politics of the town, and was a member of the 
Caucus (or Caulker's) Club, with which the political term 
``caucus'' is said to have originated; his mother was Mary 
Fifield.  Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1740, 
and three years later, on attaining the degree of A.M., chose 
for his thesis, ``Whether it be Lawful to resist the Supreme 
Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved.'' 
Which side he took, and how the argument proceeded, is not 
known, but the subject was one which well forecasted his 
career.  He began the study of law in response to his father's 
advice; he discontinued it in response to his mother's 
disapproval.  He repeatedly failed in business, notably as 
manager of a malt-house, largely because of his incessant 
attention to politics; but in the Boston town-meeting he 
became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of that 
institution for training in statecraft.  He has, indeed, been 
called the ``Man of the Town Meeting.'' About 1748 he began 
to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and 
became a leader in the debates of a political club which he 
was largely instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly 
publication, the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous 
articles.  From 1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's 
tax-collectors, but in this office he was unsuccessful, 
his easy business methods resulting in heavy arrears. 

Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the beginning 
of the Stamp Act episode, in 1764, when as author of Boston's 
instructions to its representatives in the general court of 
Massachusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of 
parliament.  The next year he was for the first time elected to 
the lower house of the general court, in which he served until 
1774, after 1766 as clerk.  As James Otis's vigour and influence 
declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the 
revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis 
and Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation 
in parliament was out of the question and advised against any 
form of compromise.  Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary 
documents, including the famous ``Massachusetts Resolves'' 
and the circular letter to the legislatures of the other 
colonies, are from his pen; but owing to the fact that he 
usually acted as clerk to the House of Representatives and to 
the several committees of which he was a member, documents were 
written by him which expressed the ideas of the committee as a 
whole.  There can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams 
was one of the first, if not the first, of American political 
leaders to deny the legislative power of parliament and 
to desire and advocate separation from the mother country. 

To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-importation, 
instituted the Boston committees ofcorrespondence, urged that 
a Continental Congress be called, sought out and introduced 
into public service such allies as John Hancock, Joseph Warren 
and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of articles for the 
newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over a multitude of 
signatures.  He was, in fact, one of the most voluminous and 
influential political writers of his time.  His style is clear, 
vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are characterized by 
strength of logic, and, like those of other patriots, are, as 
the dispute advances, based less on precedent and documentary 
authorities and more on ``natural right.'' Although he lacked 
oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like his writings, 
were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways helped to 
make him extremely popular with the common people, in whom he 
had much greater faith than his cousin John had; and, above 
all, he was an eminently successful manager of men.  Shrewd, 
wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts 
of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any 
other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War of 
Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his community. 

The intense excitement which followed the ``Boston Massacre'' 
Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers 
from the town to a fort in the harbour.  He it was, also, 
who managed the proceedings of the ``Boston Tea Party,'' and 
later he was moderator of the convention of Massachusetts 
towns called to protest against the Boston Port Bill.  One 
of the objects of the expedition sent by Governor Thomas 
Gage to Lexington (q.v.) and Concord on April 18-19, 
1775, was the capture of Adams and John Hancock, temporarily 
staying in Lexington, and when Gage issued his proclamation 
of pardon on June 12 he excepted these two, whose offences, 
he said, were ``of too flagitious a Nature to admit of 
any other Consideration than that of condign Punishment.'' 

As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 1781, 
Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to 
the British government; strove for harmony among the several 
colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees, 
among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and 
signed the Declaration of Independence.  But he was rather 
a destructive than a constructive statesman, and his most 
important service was in organizing the forces of revolution 
before 1775.  In 1779 he was a member of the convention which 
framed the constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 
1780, and is still, with some amendments, the organic law of 
the commonwealth and one of the oldest fundamental laws in 
existence.  He was one of the three members of the sub-committee 
which actually drafted that instrument; and although John Adams 
is generally credited with having performed the principal part 
of that task, Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of 
the bill of rights.  In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the 
Massachusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of the United 
States.  When he first read that instrument he was very much 
opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but 
was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed 
at a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or ``tradesmen''---his 
own firmest supporters---and by the suggestion that its 
ratification should be accompanied by a recommendation of 
amendments designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of 
rights.  Without his aid it is probable that the constitution 
would not have been ratified by Massachusetts.  From 1789 to 
1794 Adams was lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1794 
to 1797 was governor.  After the formation of parties he became 
allied with the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the 
Federalists.  He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston. 

AUTHORITIES.--Life, and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 
vols., Boston, 1863), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson--a 
valuable biography, containing a mass of information, but 
noticeably biassed: J. K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), 
an excellent short biography in the ``American Statesmen Series'': 
M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (2 
vols.,New Vork, 1897): and H. A. Cushing (ed.), The Writings 
of Samuel Adams (4 vols., New York, 1904-1908). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612, 
``a preacher of the gospel at Willington,'' in Bedfordshire, 
where he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven 
and Earth Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet and other 
works.  In 1614-1615 he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, 
probably as vicar, and published a number of works in 
quick succession; in 1618 he held the preachership at St 
Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and was ``observant 
chaplain'' to Sir Henry Montague, the lord chief justice of 
England.  These bare facts we gather from epistles-dedicatory 
and epistles to the reader, and title-pages.  These epistles 
show him to have been on the most friendly terms with some 
of the foremost men in state and church, though his ardent 
protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment. 
his ``occasionally'' printed sermons, when collected in 
1629, placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the 
preachers of England, and had something to do with shaping John 
Bunyan.  He equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies, 
and Thomas Fuller in wit.  Robert Southey calls him ``the 
prose Shakespeare of Puritan theologians.'' His numerous works 
display great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique 
in their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns. 

His worns were edited in J. P. Nichol's Puritan 
Divines, by J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862). 

ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born 
at Gillingham, near Chatham, England.  When twelve years 
old he was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards 
entering the British navy, and later serving the Company 
of Barbary merchants for a number of years as master and 
pilot.  Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped 
as pilot major with a little fleet of five ships despatched 
from the Texel in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants.  
The vessels, boats ranging from 75 to 250 tons and crowded 
with men, were driven to the coast of Guinea, where the 
adventurers attacked the island of Annabon for supplies, 
and finally reached the straits of Magellan.  Scattered 
by stress of weather the following spring the ``Charity,'' 
with Adams on board, and the ``Hope,'' met at length off 
the coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost 
their lives in an encounter with the Indians.  In fear of the 
Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to sail across the 
Pacific.  On this voyage the ``Hope'' was lost, but in April 
1600 the ``Charity,'' with a crew of sick and dying men, was 
brought to anchor off the island of Kiushiu, Japan.  Adams was 
summoned to Osaka and there examined by Iyeyasu, the guardian 
of the young son of Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just 
died.  His knowledge of ships and shipbuilding, and his nautical 
smattering of mathematics, raised him in the estimation of the 
shogun, and he was subsequently presented with an estate at 
Hemi near Yokosuka; but was refused permission to return to 
England.  In 1611 news came to him of an English settlement 
in Bantam, and he wrote asking for help.  In 1613 Captain 
John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship ``Clove'' with the 
object of establishing a trading factory for the East India 
Company, and after obtaining the necessary concessions from 
the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home (permission for 
which had now been given him) in order to take a leading part, 
under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this new English 
settlement.  He had already married a Japanese woman, by 
whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life was 
spent in the service of the English trading company, for 
whom he undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and 
Cochin China in 1617 and 1618.  He died on the 16th of May 
1620, some three years before the dissolution of the English 
factory.  His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory was 
preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot 
Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour. 

See England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. 
Hillary (1905; Letters written by the English Residents in 
Japan, ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters 
reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. 
Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, 
with preface by N. Murakami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt 
Society ed. 1883); R. Hildreth's Japan (1835); J. Harris's 
Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca (1764), i. 
856; Voyage of John Saris, ed. by Sir E. M. Satow (Hakluyt 
Society, 1900); Asiatic Society of Japan Transactions, xxvi. 
(sec. 1898) pp. 1 and 194, where four more hitherto unpublished 
letters of Adams are given; Collection of State Papers; East 
Indies, China and Japan. The MS. of his logs written during his 
voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. 

ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire county, 
N.W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 23 sq. m.  Pop. 
(1880) 5591; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were 
foreign-born; (1910, census) 13,026.  It includes a portion 
of the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac 
Range on the E., and on the W. to Mt. Williams (3040 ft.), 
and Grey'lock Mountain (3535 ft ), partly in Williamstown, 
and the highest point in the state.  The valley portion is 
level and contains several settlement centres, the largest 
of which, a busy industrial village (manufactures of cotton 
and paper), bears the same name as the township, and is on 
a branch of the Boston and Albany railroad.  The village 
is the nearest station to Greylock, which can be easily 
ascended, and affords fine views of the Hoosac and Housatonic 
valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the Green Mountains; 
the mountain has been a state timber reservation since 
1898.  The township's principal industry is the manufacture 
of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261) was 
84.1% of the value of the township's total factory products; 
in 1905 no other place in the United States showed so high 
a degree of specialization in this industry.  The township 
(originally ``East Hoosuck'') was surveyed and defined in 
1749.  Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, 
was destroyed in 1746 by the French.  An old Indian trail 
between the Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the 
township, and was once a leading outlet of the Berkshire 
country.  Adams was incorporated in 1778, and was named in 
honour of Samuel Adams, the revolutionary leader.  Part of 
Adams was included in the new township of Cheshire in 1793, 
and North Adams was set off as a separate township in 1878. 

ADAM'S APPLE, the movable projection, more prominent in 
males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by 
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx.  The name was given from 
a legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's 
throat.  The ``Adam's apple'' is one of the particular points of 
attack in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu. 

ADAM'S BRIDGE, or RAMA'S BRIDGE, a chain of sandbanks 
extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of 
Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, 
and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. and Palk 
Strait on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers 
a serious impediment to navigation.  Some of the sandbanks 
are dry; and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 
or 4 ft. at high water, except three tortuous and intricate 
channels which have recently been dredged to a sufficient 
depth to admit the passage of vessels, so as to obviate the 
long journey round the island of Ceylon which was previously 
necessary.  Geological evidence shows that this gap was 
once bridged by a continuous isthmus which according to 
the temple records was breached by a violent storm in 
1480.  Operations for removing the obstacles in the channel 
and for deepening and widening it were begun as long ago as 
1838.  A service of the British India Steam Navigation 
Company's steamers has been established between Negapatam 
and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow passage. 

ADAM SCOTUS (d. 1180), theological writer, sometimes called 
Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of 
Scotland in the first half of the 12th century.  About 1150 he 
was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some twenty 
years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn) in 
Galloway.  He gained a European reputation for his writings, 
which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account 
of the Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival 
sermons, and a Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, 
formerly attributed to his contemporary, Adam of St Victor. 

ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537--1592), Scottish divine, archbishop 
of St Andrews, was born at Perth.  He studied philosophy, and 
took the degree of M.A. at St Andrews.  After being minister 
of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 1566 he set out for 
Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the 
clerk-general.  In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem 
on the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as 
serenissimus princeps of France and England.  The French 
court was offended, and he was confined for six months.  He 
was released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of 
Scotland and some of the principal nobility, and retired with 
his pupil to Bourges.  He was in this city at the time of 
the massacre of St Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed 
for seven months in a public-house, the aged master of which, 
in reward for his charity to a heretic, was thrown from the 
roof.  While in this ``Sepulchre,', he wrote his Latin 
poetical version of the book of Job, and his tragedy of 
Herod in the same language.  In 1572 or 1573 he returned to 
Scotland, and became minister of Paisley.  In 1575 he was 
appointed by the General Assembly one of the commissioners 
to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church; and the 
following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to report 
their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent.  In 
1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise 
to a protracted conflict with the Presbyterian party in the 
Assembly.  He had previously published a catechism in Latin 
verse dedicated to the king, a work highly approved even by 
his opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish 
Confession of Faith.  In 1578 he submitted himself to the 
General Assembly, which procured him peace for a little time, 
but next year fresh accusations were brought against him.  He 
took refuge in St Andrews Castle, where ``a wise woman,'' Alison 
Pearson, who was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him 
of a serious illness.  In 1583 he went as James's ambassador 
to the court of Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather 
badly.  On his return he took strong parliamentary measures 
against Presbyterians, and consequently, at a provincial 
synod held at St Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of 
heresy and excommunicated, but at the next General Assembly 
the sentence was remitted as illegal.  In 1587 and 1588, 
however, fresh accusations were brought against him, and he 
was again excommunicated, though afterwards on the inducement 
of his old opponent, Andrew Melville, the sentence was again 
remitted.  Meanwhile he had published the Lamentations of 
Jeremiah, and the book of Revelation in Latin verse, which 
he dedicated to the king, complaining of his hard usage.  
But James was unmoved by his application, and granted the 
revenue of his see to the duke of Lennox.  For the rest 
of his life Adamson was supported by charity; he died in 
1592.  His recantation of Episcopacy (1590) is probably 
spurious.  Adamson was a man of many gifts, learned and 
eloquent, but with grave defects of character.  His collected 
works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course of which 
it is said that ``he was a miracle of nature, and rather seemed 
to be the immediate production of God Almighty than born of a 
woman,'' were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas Wilson, in 1619. 

ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1902), Scottish philosopher, was born 
in Edinburgh on the 19th of January 1852.  His father was a 
solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew Buist, 
factor to Lord Haddington.  In 1855 Mrs Adamson was left a 
widow with small means, and devoted herself entirely to the 
education of her six children.  Of these, Robert was successful 
from the first.  At the end of his school career he entered 
the university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four 
years later graduated with first-class honours in mental 
philosophy, with prizes in every department of the faculty of 
Arts.  He completed his university successes by winning the 
Tyndall-Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), 
the Ferguson scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship 
(1873).  After a short residence at Heidelberg (1871), where 
he began his study of German philosophy, he returned to 
Edinburgh as assistant first to Henry Calderwood and later to 
A. Campbell Fraser; he joined the staff of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica (9th ed.) (1874) and studied widely in the Advocates' 
Library.  In 1876 he came to England as successor to W. S. 
Jevons in the chair of logic and philosophy, at Owens College, 
Manchester.  In 1883 he received the honorary degree of 
LL.D.  In 1893 he went to Aberdeen, and finally in 1895 
to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he held till his 
death on the 5th of February 1902.  His wife, Margaret 
Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was a woman 
of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy. 

It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active 
labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic 
production.  His writings consisted of short articles, of which 
many appeared in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) and 
in Mind, a volume on Kant and another on Fichte.  At the 
time of his death he was writing a History of Psychology, 
and had promised a work on Kant and the Modern Naturalists. 
Both in his life and in his writings he was remarkable for 
impartiality.  It was his peculiar virtue that he could quote 
his opponents without warping their meaning.  From this point 
of view he would have been perhaps the first historian of 
philosophy of his time, had his professional labours been less 
exacting.  Except during the first few years at Manchester, 
he delivered his lectures without manuscripts.  In 1903, 
under the title The Development of Modern Philosophy and 
Other Essays, his more important lectures were published 
with a short biographical introduction by Prof.  W. R. 
Sorley of Cambridge University (see Mind, xiii. 1904, p. 73 
foll.).  Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the 
note-book of one of his students.  Under the same editorship 
there appeared, three years later, his Development of Greek 
Philosophy. In addition to his professional work, he did much 
administrative work for Victoria University and the university of 
Glasgow.  In the organization of Victoria University he took 
a foremost part, and, as chairman of the Board of Studies 
at Owens College, he presided over the general academical 
board of the Victoria University.  At Glasgow he was soon 
elected one of the representatives on the court, and to him 
were due in large measure the extension of the academical 
session and the improved equipment of the university. 

Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical and 
historical method without formulating a constructive theory of his 
own.  He felt that any philosophical advance must be based on 
the Kantian methods.  It was his habit to make straight for 
the ultimate issue, disregarding half-truths and declining 
compromise.  He left a hypothesis to be worked out by 
others; this done, he would criticize with all the rigour of 
logic, and with a profound distrust of imagination, metaphor 
and the attitude known as the will-to-believe.  As he grew 
older his metaphysical optimism waned.  He felt that the 
increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical 
science.  But this empirical tendency as regards science 
never modified his metaphysical outlook.  He has been called 
Kantian and Neo-Kantian, Realist and Idealist (by himself, 
for he held that appearance and reality are co-extensive and 
coincident).  At the same time, in his criticism of other views 
he was almost typical of Hegelian idealism.  All processes 
of reasoning or judgment (i.e. all units of thought) are 
(1) analysable only by abstraction, and (2) are compound of 
deduction and induction, i.e. rational and empirical.  An 
illustration of his empirical tendency is found in his attitude 
to the Absolute and the Self.  The ``Absolute'' doctrines he 
regarded as a mere disguise of failure, a dishonest attempt 
to clothe ignorance in the pretentious garb of mystery.  The 
Self as a primary, determining entity, he would not therefore 
admit.  He represented an empiricism which, so far from 
refuting, was actually based on, idealism, and yet was alert to 
expose the fallacies of a particular idealist construction (see 
his essay in Ethical Democracy, edited by Dr Stanton Coit). 

ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from 
Colombo, in N. lat. 6 deg.  55', E. long. 80 deg.  30'. It rises 
steeply to a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnificent 
prospect.  Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 
74 ft. by 24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form 
of a human foot, 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; and this has been 
consecrated as the footprint of Buddha.  The margin of this 
supposed footprint is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy 
protects it from the weather.  It is held in high veneration 
by the Sinhalese, and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred 
spot, where a priest resides to receive their offerings and 
bless them on their departure.  By the Mahommedans the impression 
is regarded as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according 
to their tradition, fulfilled a penance of one thousand 
years; while the Hindus claim it as that of their god Siva. 

ADANA. (1) A vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which 
includes the ancient Cilicia.  The mountain districts are rich 
in unexploited mineral wealth, and the fertile coast-plain, 
which produces cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, 
and affords abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers 
that descend from the Taurus range.  Imports and exports pass 
through Mersina (q.v.). (2) The chief town of the vilayet, 
situated in the alluvial plain about 30 m. from the sea in 
N. lat. 37 deg.  1', E. long. 35 deg.  18', on the right bank of 
the Seihan (Sihun, anc.  Sarus), which is navigable by small 
craft as far as the town.  Adana is connected with Tersus and 
Mersina by a railway built in 1887, and has a magnificent stone 
bridge, which carries the road to Missis and the east, and 
dates in parts from the time of Justinian, but was restored 
first in 743 A.D. and called Jisr al-Walid after the 
Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 hy the Caliph 
Mutasim.  There are, also, a ruined castle founded by Harun 
al-Rashid in 782, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side 
quays, cotton mills and an American mission with church and 
schools.  Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to 
importance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, 
and was at one time a rival of Tarsus.  The town was largely 
rebuilt by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries 
it often changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes.  Its 
position, commanding the passage of the mountains to the north 
of Syria, rendered it important as a military station in the 
contest between the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832.  After the 
defeat of the Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim 
Pasha, and though the firman announcing his appointment named 
him only muhassil, or collector of the crown revenue, it 
continued to be held by the Egyptians till the treaty of July 
1840 restored it to the Porte.  The chief productions of the 
province are cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely 
exported.  The population of the town is greatly mixed, and, 
having a large element of nomads in it, varies much from time to 
time.  At its maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.) 

ADANSON, MICHEL (1727-1806), French naturalist, of Scottish 
descent, was born on the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in 
Provence.  After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in 
Paris, he was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur 
and Bernard de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des 
Plantes.  At the end of 1748 he left France on an exploring 
expedition to Senegal, which from the unhealthiness of its 
climate was a terra incognita to naturalists.  His ardour 
remained unabated during the five years of his residence in 
Africa.  He collected and described, in greater or less detail, 
an immense number of animals and plants; collected specimens 
of every object of commerce; delineated maps of the country; 
made systematic meteorological and astronomical observations; 
and prepared grammars and dictionaries of the languages spoken 
on the banks of the Senegal.  After his return to Paris in 
1754 he made use of a small portion of the materials he had 
collected in his Histoire naturelle du Senegal (Paris, 
1757).  This work has a special interest from the essay on 
shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his 
universal method, a system of classification distinct from 
those of Buffon and Linnaeus.  He founded his classification 
of all organized beings on the consideration of each individual 
organ.  As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he 
established a corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements.  
Those beings possessing the greatest number of similar organs 
were referred to one great division, and the relationship was 
considered more remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of 
organs.  In 1763 he published his Familles naturelles des 
plantes. In this work he developed the principle of arrangement 
above mentioned, which, in its adherence to natural botanical 
relations, was based on the system of J. P. Tournefort, and 
had been anticipated to some extent nearly a century before 
by John Ray. The success of this work was hindered by its 
innovations in the use of terms, which were ridiculed by 
the defenders of the popular sexual system of Linnaeus; but 
it did much to open the way for the establishment, by means 
principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera Plantarum (1789), 
of the natural method of the classification of plants.  In 
1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the Academy of 
Sciences an immense work, extending to all known beings and 
substances.  It consisted of 27 large volumes of manuscript, 
employed in displaying the general relations of all these 
matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more, occupied 
with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000 species; a 
vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations; 
and a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000 
specimens of the three kingdoms of nature.  The committee 
to which the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted 
strongly recommended Adanson to separate and publish all 
that was peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely 
compilation.  He obstinately rejected this advice; and 
the huge work, at which he continued to labour, was never 
published.  He had been elected a member of the Academy 
of Sciences in 1759, and he latterly subsisted on a small 
pension it had conferred on him.  Of this he was deprived in 
the dissolution of the Academy by the Constituent Assembly, 
and was consequently reduced to such a depth of poverty as 
to be unable to appear before the French Institute when it 
invited him to take his place among its members.  Afterwards 
he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve his simple 
wants.  He died at Paris after months of severe suffering, on 
the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only decoration of 
his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the fifty-eight 
families he had differentiated--``a touching though transitory 
image,'' says Cuvier, ``of the more durable monument which 
he has erected to himself in his works.'' Besides the books 
already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the 
baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin 
of the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees. 

ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare, to fit to), a process of 
fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering 
its form or original purpose.  In literature there may be, 
e.g., an adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an 
arrangement of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c. In 
biology, according to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation 
plays a prominent part as the process by which an organism or 
species of organisms becomes modified to suit the conditions 
of its life.  Every change in a living organism involves 
adaptation; for in all cases life consists in a continuous 
adjustment of internal to external relations.  Every living 
organism reacts to its environment; if the reaction is 
unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate extinction is the 
result.  If the reaction is favourable, its result is called an 
adaptation.  How far such adaptations are produced afresh in 
each generation, whether or no their effects are transmitted 
to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what extent 
adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have come 
about by selection of individuals capable, in each generation, 
of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of 
individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how 
far, possibly by the inheritance of the responses to the 
environment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved. 

ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of North Italy.  Its true 
source is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele 
glen, but its volume is increased by the union with several 
smaller streams, near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian 
Alps.  Thence it flows first S.W., then due W., through 
the fertile Valtellina (q.v.), passing Tirano, where the 
Poschiavino falls in on the right, and Sondrio, where is 
the junction with the Malero, right.  It falls into the 
Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that 
fake.  On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it 
crosses the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course 
of about 150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona.  The lower 
course of the Adda was formerly the boundary between the 
territories of Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several 
important battles have been fought, notably that of Lodi, 
where Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.) 

ADDAMS, JANE (1860- ), American sociologist, was born at 
Cedarville, Illinois, on the 6th of September 1860.  After 
graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now 
Rockford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the 
study of economic and sociological questions in both Europe and 
America, and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established 
in Chicago, Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull 
House, of which she became the head-worker.  The success of 
this settlement, which became a great factor for good in the 
city, was principally due to Miss Addams's rare executive 
skill and practical common-sense methods.  Her personal 
participation in the life of the community is exemplified 
in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets and 
alleys under the municipal government.  She became widely 
known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published 
Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace 
(1907), and The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909). 

ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. 
nasomaculatus) from North Africa and Arabia.  It is a little 
over 3 ft. high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane 
and a fringe of the same hue on the throat.  Both sexes carry 
horns, which are ringed and form an open spiral.  The addax 
is a desert antelope, and in habits probably resembles the 
gemsbuck.  It is hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test 
the speed of their horses and greyhounds; it is during these 
hunting parties that the young are captured for menagerie purposes. 

ADDER, a name for the common viper ( Vipera cevus), ranging 
from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness to the north 
of Spain.  The puff-adder (Bitis s.  Echidna arietans) of 
nearly the whole of Africa, and the death-adder (Acanthophis 
antarcticus) from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very 
poisonous (see VIPER). The word was in Old Eng. noedre, 
later nadder or naddre; in the 14th century ``a nadder'' 
was, like ``a napron,'' wrongly divided into ``an adder.'' It 
appears with the generic meaning of ``serpent'' in the older 
forms of many Teutonic languages, cf.  Old High Ger. natra; 
Goth. nadrs. It is thus used in the Old Eng. version of 
the Scriptures for the devil, the ``serpent'' of Genesis. 

ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719), English essayist, poet and 
man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of 
Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in 
Wiltshire, on the 1st of May 1672.  After having passed through 
several schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he 
went to Oxford when he was about fifteen years old.  He was 
first entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two 
years was elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having 
been recommended by his skill in Latin versification.  He 
took his master's degree in 1693, and subsequently obtained 
a fellowship which he held until 1711.  His first literary 
efforts were poetical, and, after the fashion of his day, in 
Latin.  Many of these are preserved in the Musae Anglicanae 
(1691-1699), and obtained academic commendation from academic 
sources.  But it was a poem in the third volume of Dryden's 
Miscellanies, followed in the next series by a translation 
of the fourth Georgic, which brought about his introduction 
to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably through Tonson) to Lord 
Somers and Charles Montagu.  To both of these distinguished 
persons he contrived to commend himself by An Account of the 
Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to King William 
(1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled Pax Gulielmi 
(1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result that in 1699 
he obtained a pension of L. 300 a year, to enable him (as he 
afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown) ``to 
travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty.'' In the 
summer of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for 
the purpose of learning the language, he remained till the 
end of 1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy.  In 
Switzerland, on his way home, he was stopped by receiving 
notice that he was to attend the army under Prince Eugene, 
then engaged in the war in Italy, as secretary from the 
king.  But his Whig friends were already tottering in their 
places; and in March 1702 the death of King William at once drove 
them from power and put an end to the pension.  Indeed Addison 
asserted that he never received but one year's payment of it, 
and that all the other expenses of his travels were defrayed by 
himself.  He was able, however, to visit a great part of 
Germany, and did not reach Holland till the spring of 1703.  His 
prospects were now sufficiently gloomy: he entered into treaty, 
oftener than once, for an engagement as a travelling tutor; 
and the correspondence in one of these negotiations has been 
preserved.  Tonson had recommended him as the best person 
to attend in this character Lord Hertford, the son of the 
duke of Somerset, commonly called ``The Proud.'' The duke, a 
profuse man in matters of pomp, was economical in questions of 
education.  He wished Addison to name the salary he expected; 
this being declined, he announced, with great dignity, that 
in addition to travelling expenses he would give a hundred 
guineas a year; Addison accepted the munificent offer, saying, 
however, that he could not find his account in it otherwise 
than by relying on his Grace's future patronage; and his Grace 
immediately intimated that he would look out for some one 
else.  In the autumn of 1703 Addison returned to England. 

The works which belong to his residence on the continent were the 
earliest that showed hm to have attained maturity of skill and 
genius.  There is good reason for believing that his tragedy of 
Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have suffered, was 
in great part written while he lived in France, that is, when 
he was about twenty-eight years of age.  In the winter of 1701, 
amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across Mt. 
Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter from 
Italy to Charles Montagu.  This contains some fine touches 
of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical 
enthusiasm.  While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues on 
Medals, which, however, were not published till after his 
death.  These have much liveliness of style and something of 
the gay humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more 
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning 
or of critical ingenuity.  In tracing out parallels between 
passages of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear 
in ancient sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of 
inquiry which was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, 
with the apparatus of spirited metrical translations from the 
classics, gave the work a likeness to his account of his 
travels.  This account, entitled Remarks on Several Parts of 
Italy, &c. (1705), he sent home for publication before his own 
return.  It wants altogether the interest of personal narrative: 
the author hardly ever appears.  The task in which he chiefly 
busies himsell is that of exhibiting the illustrations which the 
writings of the Latin poets, and the antiquities and scenery of 
Italy, mutually give and receive.  Christian antiquities and 
the monuments of later Italian history had no interest for him. 

With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life, which 
extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was thirty-eight.  
This was the first term of his official career; and though very 
barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from 
indigence, but settled definitely his position as a public 
man.  His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, 
he had been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists 
and men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled 
in the Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into 
communication with the gentry of the Whig party.  Although 
all accounts agree in representing him as a shy man, he was 
at least saved from all risk of making himself disagreeable 
in society, by his unassuming manners, his extreme caution 
and that sedulous desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope 
exaggerated into a positive fault.  His knowledge and ability 
were esteemed so highly as to confirm the expectations formerly 
entertained of his usefulness in public business; and the 
literary fame he had already acquired soon furnished an occasion 
for recommending him to public employment.  Though the Whigs 
were out of office, the administration which succeeded them 
was, in all its earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and 
uncertain that the influence of their leaders was not entirely 
lost.  Not long after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, 
it is said that Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to 
Lord Halifax a desire to have the great duke's fame extended 
by a poetical tribute.  Halifax seized the opportunity 
of recommending Addison as the fittest man for the duty; 
stipulating, we are told, that the service should not be 
unrewarded, and doubtless satisfying the minister that his 
protege possessed other qualifications for office besides 
dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Campaign (December 
1704), the poem thus written to order, was received with 
extraordinary applause; and it is probably as good as any 
that ever was prompted by no more worthy inspiration.  It 
has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Dryden threw into 
occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish that 
would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make such 
uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing; 
and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several 
others, there is even something of force and imagination. 

The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was 
faithfully paid.  A vacancy occurred by the death of another 
celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one 
of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise.  The duties 
of the place must have been as light for him as they had 
been for his predecessor, for he continued to hold it with 
all the appointments he subsequently received from the same 
ministry.  But there is no reason for believing that he 
was more careless than other public servants in his time; 
and the charge of incompetency as a man of business, which 
has been brought so positively against him, cannot easily 
be true as to this first period of his official career.  
Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively to the last 
years of his life; and, if he had not really shown practical 
ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to 
see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or 
fashionable liveliness and of family interest, could have been 
promoted, for several years, from office to office, as he 
was, till the fall of the administration to which he was 
attached.  In 1706 he became one of the under-secretaries of 
state, serving first under Sir Charles Hedges, who belonged to 
the Tory section of the government, and afterwards under Lord 
Sunderland, Marlborough's son-in-law, and a zealous follower 
of Addison's early patron, Somers.  The work of this office, 
however, like that of the commissionership, must often have 
admitted of performance by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs 
having become stronger, Lord Halifax was sent on a mission 
to the elector of Hanover; and, besides taking Vanbrugh the 
dramatist with him as king-at-arms, he selected Addison as his 
secretary.  In 1708 Addison entered parliament, sitting at 
first for Lostwithiel, but afterwards for Malmesbury, which 
he represented from 1710 till his death.  Here unquestionably 
he did fail.  What part he may have taken in the details 
of business we are not informed; but he was always a silent 
member, unless it be true that he once attempted to speak 
and sat down in confusion.  In 1708 Lord Wharton, the father 
of the notorious duke, having been named lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, Addison became his secretary, receiving also an 
appointment as keeper of records.  This event happened only 
about a year and a half before the dismissal of the ministry. 

But there are letters showing that Addison made himself 
acceptable to some of the best and most distinguished persons 
in Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with 
Swift, his acquaintance with whom had begun some time before. 

In his literary history those years of official service are 
almost a blank, till we approach their close.  Besides furnishing 
a prologue to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband (1705), 
he admittedly gave him some assistance in its composition; 
he defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The 
Present State of the War (1707); he united compliments 
to the all-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts 
at lyrical poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and during 
the last few months of his tenure of office he contributed 
largely to the Tatler. His entrance on this new field 
nearly coincides with the beginning of a new period in his 
life.  Even the coalition-ministry of Godolphin was too 
Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and the Tories, the 
favourites of the court, gained, both in parliamentary power 
and in popularity out of doors, by a combination of lucky 
accidents, dexterous management and divisions and double-dealing 
among their adversaries.  The real failure of the prosecution 
of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the ruin of 
the Whigs; and in August 1710 an entire revolution in the 
ministry had been completed.  The Tory administration which 
succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 1714, 
and Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years 
of his life, from his thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, 
to occupations less lucrative than those in which his time 
had recently been frittered away, but much more conducive to 
the extension of his own fame and to the benefit of English 
literature.  Although our information as to his pecuniary 
affairs is very scanty, we are entitled to believe that he 
was now independent of literary labour.  He speaks, in an 
extant paper, of having had (but lost) property in the West 
Indies; and he is understood to have inherited something 
from a younger brother, who had been governor of Madras.  In 
1711 he purchased, for L. 10,000, the estate of Bilton, near 
Rugby--the place which afterwards became the residence of Mr 
Apperley, better known by his assumed name of ``Nimrod.'' 

During those four years he produced a few political 
writings.  Soon after the fall of the ministry, he started 
the Whig Examiner in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then 
conducted by Prior, and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most 
vehement invectives against the party he had once belonged 
to.  These are certainly the most ill-natured of Addison's 
writings, but they are neither lively nor vigorous, and 
the paper died after five numbers (14th September to 12th 
October 1710).  There is more spirit in his allegorical 
pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff. 

But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his principal 
employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical 
essays.  The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions, 
as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, 
belongs to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of 
Addison at the Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate 
terms with him afterwards and attached himself with his 
characteristic ardour to the same political party.  When, 
in April 1709, Steele published the first number of the 
Tatler, Addison was in Dublin, and knew nothing of the 
design.  He is said to have detected his friend's authorship 
only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical remark 
which he remembered having himself communicated to Steele.  
Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and suggestions, 
assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly.  According 
to Mr Aitken (Life of Steele, i. 248), he contributed 42 
out of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 
more.  The Tatler exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms 
of being an experiment.  For some time the projector, imitating 
the news-sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in 
each number, news in addition to the essay; and there was a 
want, both of unity and of correct finishing, in the putting 
together of the literary materials.  Addison's contributions, 
in particular, are in many places as lively as anything he 
ever wrote; and his style, in its more familiar moods at 
least, had been fully formed before he returned from the 
continent.  But, as compared with his later pieces, these 
are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches are 
to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of 
them.  In his invention of incidents and characters, one 
thought after another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, 
as if he were putting his own powers to the test or trying the 
effect of various kinds of objects on his readers; his most 
ambitious flights, in the shape of allegories and the like, 
are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite field of literary 
criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he still 
wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the Public. 

The Tatler was dropped in January 1711, but only to be 
followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the 1st day of 
March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December 
1712.  It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected 
in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 
to Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from 
the very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole 
space to the essays.  They relied, with a confidence which 
the extraordinary popularity of the work fully justified, 
on their power of exciting the interest of a wide audience 
by pictures and reflexions drawn from a field which embraced 
the whole compass of ordinary life and ordinary knowledge, 
no kind of practical themes being positively excluded except 
such as were political, and all literary topics being held 
admissible, for which it seemed possible to command attention 
from persons of average taste and information.  A seeming 
unity was given to the undertaking, and curiosity and interest 
awakened on behalf of the conductors, by the happy invention 
of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele made the first 
sketch.  The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, however, the best 
even in the opening group, is the only one that was afterwards 
elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of most of the 
papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so admirably 
delineated.  Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir Roger's 
love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting party. 

To Addison the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant, 
if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human 
character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires 
on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in 
public taste; these topics, however, making up a department 
in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more famous 
co-adjutor.  But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor 
critical acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching 
the series with such literary disquisitions as those which 
Addison insinuated so often into the lighter matter of his 
essays, and of which he gave an elaborate specimen in his 
criticism on Paradise Lost. Still farther beyond the powers 
of Steele were those speculations on the theory of literature 
and of the processes of thought analogous to it, which, in 
the essays ``On the Pleasures of the Imagination,'' Addison 
prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical depth, 
but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall 
undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy 
was to be found in any critical views previously propounded in 
England.  To Addison, further, belong those essays which (most 
frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers 
of Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious 
meditation, and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful 
as to allure the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as 
in the ``Walk through Westminster Abbey,', enlivening solemn 
thought by gentle sportiveness; sometimes flowing on with an 
uninterrupted sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes 
shrouding sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as 
in the ``Vision of Mirza.'' While, in short, the Spectator, 
if Addison had not taken part in it, would probably have 
been as lively and humorous as it was, and not less popular 
in its own day, it would have wanted some of its strongest 
claims on the respect of posterity, by being at once lower 
in its moral tone, far less abundant in literary knowledge 
and much less vigorous and expanded in thinking.  In point of 
style, again, the two friends resemble each other so closely 
as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are dealing with 
familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising above that 
of conversation.  But in the higher tones of thought and 
composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising him 
very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his 
contemporaries.  Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, 
in any age of English literature, has united, so strikingly 
as he did, the colloquial grace and ease which mark the 
style of an accomplished gentleman, with the power of soaring 
into a strain of expression nobly and eloquently dignified. 

On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the 
Guardian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end in 
October, with its 175th number.  To this series Addison gave 53 
papers, being a very frequent writer during the latter half 
of its progress.  None of his essays here aim so high as the 
best of those in the Spectator; but he often exhibits both 
his cheerful and well-balanced humour and his earnest desire 
to inculcate sound principles of literary judgment.  In the 
last six months of the year 1714, the Spectator received its 
eighth and last volume; for which Steele appears not to have 
written at all, and Addison to have contributed 24 of the 80 
papers.  Most of these form, in the unbroken seriousness both 
of their topics and of their manner, a contrast to the majority 
of his essays in the earlier volumes; but several of them, both 
in this vein and in one less lofty, are among the best known, 
if not the finest, of all his essays.  Such are the ``Mountain 
of Miseries''; the antediluvian novel of ``Shalum and Hilpa''; 
the ``Reflections by Moonlight on the Divine Perfections.'' 

In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly, 
as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of 
Cato. Its success was dazzling; but this issue was mainly 
owing to the concern which the politicians took in the 
exhibition.  The Whigs hailed it as a brilliant manifesto 
in favour of constitutional freedom.  The Tories echoed 
the applause, to show themselves enemies of despotism, 
and professed to find in Julius Caesar a parallel to the 
formidable Marlborough.  Even with such extrinsic aids, 
and the advantage derived from the established fame of the 
author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good dramatic 
work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and insight 
were almost extinct.  It is poor even in its poetical 
elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of 
its moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable 
smoothness of its diction.  That it obtained the applause 
of Voltaire must be ascribed to the fact that it was written 
in accordance with the rules of French classical drama. 

The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed 
soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August 
1714, when he had lately completed his 42nd year.  His own life 
extended only five years longer; and in this closing portion of 
it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but a 
few happy inventions interspersed in political pamphlets, and the 
gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of George I. 

The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the elector 
of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's demise, 
were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs.  They appointed 
Addison to act as their secretary.  He next held, for a very 
short time, his former office under the Irish lord-lieutenant; 
and, late in 1716, he was made one of the lords of trade.  
In the course of the previous year had occurred the first of 
the only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent, 
good-tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been 
betrayed.  His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a 
few years before, had received, with an appearance of humble 
thankfulness, Addison's friendly remarks on his Essay 
on Criticism (Spectator, No. 253); but who, though still 
very young, was already very famous, and beginning to show 
incessantly his literary jealousies and his personal and party 
hatreds.  Several little misunderstandings had paved the way 
for a breach, when, at the same time with the first volume of 
Pope's Iliad, there appeared a translation of the first book 
of the poem bearing the name of Thomas Tickell.  Tickell, in 
his preface, disclaimed all rivalry with Pope, and declared 
that he wished only to bespeak favourable attention for his 
contemplated version of the Odyssey. But the simultaneous 
publication was awkward; and Tickell, though not so good a 
versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being a good 
Greek scholar.  Further, he was Addison's under-secretary 
and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he 
was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's 
translation was more faithful than the other.  Pope's anger 
could not be restrained.  He wrote those famous lines in 
which he describes Addison under the name of Atticus, and 
although it seems doubtful whether he really sent a copy 
to Addison himself, he afterwards went so far as to profess 
a belief that the rival translation was really Addison's 
own.  Addison, it is pleasant to observe, was at the pains, 
in his Freeholder, to express hearty approbation of the 
Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after Addison's 
death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant verses 
in the ``Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot.'' In 1716 there was acted, 
with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or 
the Haunted House. It contributes very little to his 
fame.  From September 1715 to June 1716 he defended the 
Hanoverian succession, and the proceedings of the government 
in regard to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, 
which he wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th 
number.  It is much better tempered, not less spirited and 
much more able in thinking than his Examiner. The finical 
man of taste does indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of 
discussing constitutional questions; but he aims many enlivening 
thrusts at weak points of social life and manners; and the 
character of the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the 
representative of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour 
and force that we regret not being allowed to see more of him. 

In August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year, Addison 
married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of 
fifteen years' standing.  She seems to have forfeited her 
jointure by the marriage, and to have brought her husband 
nothing but the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington.  
The assertion that the courtship was a long one is probably 
as erroneous as the contemporary rumour that the marriage was 
unhappy.  Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the 
contrary.  What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes,--among 
which it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was 
one---Addison's health was shattered before he took the last, and 
certainly the most unwise, step in his ascent to political power. 

For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the 
ministry; and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when those 
who had been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the 
opposition.  Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated 
dismissal by resignation.  There was now formed, under 
the leadership of General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an 
administration which, as resting on court-influence, was 
nicknamed the ``German ministry.'' Sunderland, Addison's 
former superior, became one of the two principal secretaries 
of state; and Addison himself was appointed as the other.  
His elevation to such a post had been contemplated on the 
accession of George I., and prevented, we are told, by his 
own refusal; and it is asserted, on the authority of Pope, 
that his acceptance now was owing only to the influence of his 
wife.  Even if there is no ground, as there probably is 
not, for the allegation of Addison's inefficiency in the 
details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such 
circumstances was undeniable and glaring.  It was impossible 
that a government, whose secretary of state could not open his 
lips in debate, should long face an opposition headed by Robert 
Walpole.  The decay of Addison's health, too, was going on 
rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by 
anxiety, if no worse causes were at work.  Ill-health was the 
reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation 
which he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months 
after his appointment.  He received a pension of L. 1500 a year. 

Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated 
him from his oldest friend.  The Peerage Bill, introduced 
in February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, 
in a weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by 
Steele.  Addison answered the attack in the Old VVhig, 
and this belum plusquam civile--as Johnson calls it--was 
continued, with increased acrimony, through two or three 
numbers.  How Addison, who was dying, felt after this painful 
controversy we are not told directly; but the Old Whig 
was excluded from that posthumous collection of his works 
(1721-1726) for which his executor Tickell had received from 
him authority and directions.  It is said that the quarrel 
in politics rested on an estrangement which had been growing 
for some years.  According to a rather nebulous story, for 
which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's 
lawyer, put an execution for L. 100 in Steele's house by 
way of reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance.  
This well-meant interference seems to have been pardoned by 
Steele, but his letters show that he resented the favour 
shown to Tickell by Addison and his own neglect by the Whigs. 

The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have been 
asthma.  It became more violent after his retirement from 
office, and was now accompanied by dropsy.  His deathbed was 
placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes 
which he had so often suggested to others, and the value of 
which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to 
have now inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son.  
He died at Holland House on the 17th of June 1719, six weeks 
after having completed his 47th year.  His body, after lying in 
state, was interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. 

Addison's life was written in 1843 by Lucy Aikin.  This 
was reviewed by Macaulay in July of the same year.  A more 
modern study is that m the ``Men of Letters'' series by W. J. 
Courthope (1884).  There is a convenient one-volume edition 
of the Spectator, by Henry Morley (Routledge, 1868), and 
another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory Smith.  Of 
the Tatler there is an edition by G. A. Aitken in 8 vols. 
(1898).  A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon 
Hurd) is included in Bohn's British Classics. (W. S.; A. D.) 

ADDISON'S DISEASE, a constitutional affection manifesting 
itself in an exaggeration of the normal pigment of the skin, 
asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and 
weakness and irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms 
being due to loss of function of the suprarenal glands.  It 
is important to note, however, that Addison's Disease may 
occur without pigmentation, and pigmentation without Addison's 
Disease.  The condition was first recognized by Dr Thomas 
Addison of Guy's Hospital, who in 1855 published an important 
work on The Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of 
the Suprarenal Capsules. Sir Samuel Wilks worked zealously 
in obtaining recognition for these observations in England, 
and Brown-Sequard in France was stimulated by this paper to 
investigate the physiology of these glands.  Dr Trousseau, 
many years later, first called the condition by Addison's 
name.  Dr Headlam Greenhow worked at the subject for many 
years and embodied his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 
1875.  But from this time on no further work was undertaken 
until the discovery of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid 
extract, and the consequent researches into the physiology of 
the ductless glands.  This stimulated renewed interest in the 
subject, and work was carried on in many countries.  But it 
remained for Schafer and Oliver of University College, London, 
to demonstrate the internal secretion of the suprarenals, 
and its importance in normal metabolism, thereby confirming 
Addison's original view that the disease was due to loss of 
function of these glands.  They demonstrated that these glands 
contain a very powerful extract which produces toxic effects 
when administered to animals, and that an active principle 
``adrenalin'' can be separated, which excites contraction 
of the small blood vessels and thus raises blood pressure.  
The latest views of this disease thus stand: (1) that it is 
entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the result of 
a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else of 
a perversion of their secretion; or (2) that it is of nervous 
origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large 
sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a 
combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation. 

The morbid anatomy shows (1) that in over 80% of the cases 
the changes in the suprarenals are those due to tuberculosis, 
usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more or 
less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually 
secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of 
the spinal column.  In the remaining cases (2) simple atrophy 
has been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation 
which would lead to atrophy; and finally (4) an apparently 
normal condition of the glands, but the neighbouring 
sympathetic ganglia diseased or involved in a mass of fibrous 
tissue.  Other morbid conditions of the suprarenals 
do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's Disease. 

The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but 
increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the 
patient.  There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart 
resulting in attacks of syncope which may prove fatal.  Blood 
pressure is extremely low.  From time to time there may be 
severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea.  The best 
known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease 
has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing 
pigmentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to 
brown or even occasionally black.  This pigmentation shows 
itself (1) over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever 
pigment appears normally, as in the axillae and round the 
nipples; (3) wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; 
and (4) occasionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth. 

The patient's temperature is uqually somewhat subnormal.  The 
disease is found in males far more commonly than in females, and 
among the lower classes more than the upper.  But this latter fact 
is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic conditions 
rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to tuberculosis. 

The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, 
and often in the later, is by no means easy.  Pigmentation of 
the skin occurs in many conditions---as in normal pregnancy, 
uterine fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart 
disease, exophthalmic goitre, &c., and after the prolonged use 
of certain drugs---as arsenic and silver.  But the presence 
of a low blood pressure with weakness and irritability of the 
heart and some of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis 
fairly certain.  The latest researches on the subject tend 
to indicate a more certain diagnosis in the effect on the 
blood pressure of administering suprarenal extract, the blood 
pressure of the normal subject being unaffected thereby, 
that of the man suffering from suprarenal inadequacy being 
markedly raised.  The disease is treated by promoting the 
general health in every possible way; by diet; by tonics, 
especially arsenic and strychnine; by attention to the 
hygienic conditions; and always by the administration of one 
of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland extract. 

``ADDRESS, THE'', an English parliamentary term for the 
reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the 
House of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the 
opening of a new parliament or session.  There are certain 
formalities which distinguish this stage of parliamentary 
proceedings.  The ``king's speech'' itself is divided into three 
sections: the first, addressed to ``My Lords and Gentlemen,'' 
touches on foreign affairs; the second, to the ``Gentlemen of 
the House of Commons,'' has reference to the estimates; the 
third, to ``My Lords and Gentlemen,'' outlines the proposed 
legislation for the session.  Should the sovereign in person 
open parliament, he does so in the House of Lords in full 
state, and the speaker and members of the House of Commons 
are summoned there into the royal presence.  The sovereign 
then reads his speech.  If the sovereign is not present in 
person, the speech is read by commission.  The Commons then 
return to their House, and an address in answer is moved in 
both Houses.  The government of the day selects two of its 
supporters in each House to move and second the address, and 
when carrying out this honourable task they appear in levee 
dress.  Previous to the session of 1890-1891, the royal speech 
was answered paragraph by paragraph, but ``the address'' is 
now moved in the form of a single resolution, thanking the 
sovereign for his most gracious speech.  The debate on the 
address is used as a means of ranging over the whole government 
policy, amendments being introduced by the opposition.  A 
defeat on an amendment to the address is generally regarded 
by the government as a vote of no-confidence.  After the 
address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the 
sovereign.  The thanks of the sovereign for the address are 
then conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household 
and to the Commons by the comptroller of the household. 

ADELAER, or ADELER (Norwegian for ``eagle''), the 
surname of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivertsen 
(1622-1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander.  
He was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen 
became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a 
few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which 
was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey.  In 1645 he had 
risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various 
victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most 
brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the 13th of May 1654, 
when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line 
of Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, 
causing a loss to the enemy of 5000 men.  The following day he 
entered Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the 
Turks.  On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, 
and became admiral-lieutenant in 1660.  Numerous tempting 
offers were made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 
he left Venice to return to the Netherlands.  Next year he 
was induced, by the offer of a title and an enormous salary, 
to accept the command of the Danish fleet from Frederick 
III. Under Christian V. he took the command of the combined 
Danish fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of 
November 1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out.  
When in the Venetian service, Adelaer was known by the name of 
Curzio Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for ``naval cadet''). 

ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931--999), queen of Italy and 
empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy and of 
Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia.  On the death 
of Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to 
whose son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed.  
She was married to him in 947; but after an unhappy union 
of three years Lothair died (November 22, 950).  The young 
widow, remarkable for her character and beauty, was seized 
by Lothair's successor, Berengar II., margrave of Ivrea, 
who, angered probably at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert 
and thus secure his title to the Italian kingdom, kept her 
in close confinement at Como.  After four months (August 
951), she escaped, and took refuge at Canossa with Atto, count 
of Modena-Reggio (d. 981).  Meanwhile Otto I., the German 
king, whose English wife Edgitha had died in 946, had formed 
the design of marrying her and claiming the Italian kingdom 
in her right, as a step towards the revival of the empire of 
Charlemagne.  In September 951, accordingly, he appeared in 
Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted his invitation to meet him 
at Pavia and at the close of the year the fateful union was 
celebrated.  From the first her part in German affairs was 
important.  To her are ascribed the influences which led in 953 
to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by his first marriage, the 
crushing of which in the following year established Adelaide's 
power.  On the 2nd of February 962 she was crowned empress 
at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately after her husband, 
and she accompanied Otto in 966 on his third expedition to 
Italy, where she remained with him for six years.  After 
Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some 
years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor, 
Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are 
obscure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish 
expenditure in charity and church building, which endeared 
her to ecclesiastics but was a serious drain on the imperial 
finances.  In 978 she left the court and lived partly in 
Italy, partly with her brother Conrad, king of Burgundy, 
by whose mediation she was ultimately reconciled to her 
son.  In 983, shortly before his death, she was appointed 
his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in concert with the 
empress Theophano, widow of Otto II., and Archbishop Willigis 
of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant grandson, 
Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions of 
Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria.  In June 984 the 
infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two 
empresses; but the masterful will of Theophano soon obtained 
the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, 
on the 15th of June 991, Adelaide had no voice in German 
affairs.  She now assumed the regency, in concert with Bishop 
Willigis and a council of princes of the Empire, and held 
it until in 995 Otto was declared of age.  In 996 the young 
king went to Italy to receive the imperial crown; and from 
this date Adelaide ceased to concern herself with worldly 
affairs, but devoted herself to pious exercises, to intimate 
correspondence with the abbots Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, 
and the foundation of churches and religious houses.  She died 
on the 17th of December 999, and was buried in the convent 
of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite foundation, at Salz in 
Alsace.  She was proclaimed a saint by the grateful German 
clergy; but her name has never found a place in the Roman 
calendar.  Like her daughter-in-law Theophano and other 
exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed considerable 
literary attainments (literatissima erat), and her 
knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I., who only learned the 
language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar. 

By the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II. (d. 
983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 999), Adelheid 
(Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who 
married Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 955. 

Adelaide's life (Vita or Epitaphium Adalheidae imperatricis) 
was written by St Odilo of Cluny.  It is valuable only for 
the latter years of the empress, after she had retired from 
any active share in the world's affairs.  The rest of her life 
is merely outlined, though her adventures in escaping from 
Berengar are treated in more detail.  The best edition is in 
Duchesne, Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, pp. 353. 362., see 
Giov.  Batt.  Semeria, Vita politico-religiosa di s.  
Adeleida, &c. (Turin, 1842); Jul. Bentzinger, Das Leben 
der Kaiserin Adelheid ...weahrend der Regierung Ottos III., 
Inaug.  Dissertation (Breslau, 1883); J. J. Dey, Hist. de 
s.  Adelaide, &c. (Geneva, 1862); F. P. Wimmer, Kaiserin 
Adelheid, Gemahlin Ottos I. des Grossen (Regensb. 1889); 
Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart 
and Berlin, 1904).  Further references in Chevalier, 
Repertoire des sources historiques (Paris, 1903). 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia.  It is situated in 
the county to which it gives name, on the banks of the river 
Torrens, 7 m. from its mouth.  Its site is a level plain, near 
the foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself 
reaches 2334 ft.  The broad streets of the city intersect at right 
angles.  It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, 
and South Adelaide, the business quarter.  A broad strip of 
park lands lies between them, through which runs the river 
Torrens, crossed by five bridges and greatly improved by a 
dam on the west of the city.  The banks are beautifully laid 
out.  Broad belts of park lands surround both North and South 
Adelaide, and as the greater portion of these lands is planted 
with fine shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of 
the most attractive cities in Australasia.  South Adelaide is 
bounded by four broad terraces facing north, south, east and 
west.  The main thoroughfare, King William Street, runs north 
and south, passing through Victoria Square, a small park 
in the centre of the city.  Handsome public buildings are 
numerous.  Government House stands in grounds on the north 
side of North Terrace, with several other official buildings 
in the vicinity; but the majority are in King William Street.  
Here are the town hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the 
general post office, with the Victoria Tower--which, with the 
old and new Government offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral 
of St Francis Xavier and the court houses, surround Victoria 
Square.  On North Terrace are the houses of parliament, and 
the institute, containing a public library and museum.  Here 
is also Adelaide University, established by an act of 1874, 
and opened in 1876.  The existing buildings were opened in 
1882.  Munificent gifts have from time to time assisted in the 
extension of its scope, as for example that of Sir Thomas Elder 
(d. 1897), who took a leading part in the foundation of the 
university.  This gift, among other provisions, enabled the 
Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established, the building 
for which was opened in 1900.  In 1903 a building for the 
schools of engineering and science was opened.  The total 
number of students in the university approaches 1000.  To the 
east of the university is the building in which the exhibition 
was held in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 
1887.  This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural 
and Horticultural Society, a technical museum, &c. The 
school of mines and industries (1903) stands east of this 
again.  The buildings of the numerous important commercial, 
social and charitable institutions add to the dignity of the 
city.  The Anglican cathedral of St Peter (1878) is in North 
Adelaide.  The Botanical Park, which has an area of 84 acres, 
lies on the south bank of the Torrens, on the east of the 
city.  It includes the Zoological Garden, is beautifully 
laid out and forms one of the most attractive features of 
Adelaide.  The city has a number of good statues, chief among 
which are copies of the Farnese Hercules (Victoria Square) 
and of Canova's Venus (North Terrace), statues of Queen 
Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas Elder's statue at the 
university, and a memorial (1905) over the grave of Colonel 
Light, founder of the colony, in Light Square.  Adelaide is 
governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by the whole 
body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city in 
which the mayor is so elected.  The chief industries are the 
manufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing, 
starch-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling.  Adelaide 
is also the central share market of Australia, for West 
Australian goldmines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, 
and for the coppermines at Wallaroo, Burra Burra and Moonta; 
while Port Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent 
Gulf, ranks as the third in the Commonwealth.  Adelaide is 
the terminus of an extensive railway system, the main line 
of which runs through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to 
Rockhampton.  In summer the climate is often oppressively hot 
under the influence of winds blowing from the interior, but the 
proximity of the sea on the one side and of the mountains on 
the other allows the inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; 
at other seasons, however, the climate is mild and pleasant; 
with a mean annual rainfall of 20.4 ins.  The vice-regal 
summer residence is at Marble Hill, on the Mount Lofty 
range.  Adelaide was founded in 1836 and incorporated in 
1843.  It received its name at the desire of King William 
IV., in honour of Queen Adelaide.  Round the city are many 
pleasant suburbs, connected with it by rail and tramways; 
the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont, Unley, Mitcham, 
Goodwood, Plymton, Hindmarsh, Prospect, St Peters, Norwood 
and Kensington.  Glenelg is a favourite watering-place.  
The population of the city proper was 39,240 in 1901; of 
the city and suburbs within a 10-miles radius, 162,261. 

ADELARD (or AETHELARD) of Bath (12th century), English 
scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of 
medieval England.  He studied in France at Laon and Tours, and 
travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and 
Asia Minor, during a period of seven years.  At a time when 
Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intellectual 
eminence, he gained so high a reputation that he was described 
by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosophus Anglorum. He lived 
for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned to 
England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31 Henry 
I. 1130) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant of 
money from the revenues of Wiltshire.  The great interest of 
Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that 
he made a special study of Arabian philosophy during his 
travels, and, on his return to England, brought his knowledge 
to bear on the current scholasticism of the time.  He has been 
credited with a knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his 
translation of Euclid's Elements was made from the original 
Greek.  It is probable, however, from the nature of the text, 
that his authority was an Arabic version.  This important 
work was published first at Venice in 1482 under the name 
of Campanus of Novara, but the work is always attributed to 
Adelard.  Campanus may be responsible for some of the notes.  
It became at once the text-book of the chief mathematical 
schools of Europe, though its critical notes were of little 
value.  His Arabic studies he collected under the title 
Perdifficiles Quaestiones Naturales, printed after 
1472.  It is in the form of a dialogue between himself and 
his favourite nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop 
of Bayeux from 1113 to 1133.  He wrote also treatises on 
the astrolabe (a copy of this is in the British Museum), on 
the abacus (three copies exist in the Vatican library, the 
library of Leiden University and the Bibliotheque Nationale 
in Paris), translations of the Kharismian tables and an 
Arabic Introduction to Astronomy. His great contribution to 
philosophy proper was the De Eodem et Diverso (On Identity 
and Difference), which is in the form of letters addressed 
to his nephew.  In this work philosophy and the world are 
personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia in conflict for 
the soul of man.  Philosophia is accompanied by the liberal 
arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world by Power, 
Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune.  The work deals with 
the current difficulties between nominalism and realism, the 
relation between the individual and the genus or species.  
Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent, and 
yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus 
and the species.  He was either the founder or the formulator 
of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus 
and species retain their identity in the individual apart 
altogether from particular idiosyncrasies.  For the relative 
importance of this doctrine see article SCHOLASTICISM. 

See Jourdain, Recherches sur Les traductions d'Aristote 
(2nd ed., 1843); Haureau, Philosophie Scholastique (2nd 
ed., 1872), and works appended to art. SCHOLASTICISM. 

ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina), a market-town in Carniola, 
Austria, 30 m.  S.S.W. of Laibach by rail, Pop. (1900) 3636, 
mostly Slovene.  About a mile from the town is the entrance 
to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and 
most magnificent in Europe.  The cavern is divided into four 
grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the 
distance of about a mile and a half from the entrance.  The 
river Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is 
heard murmuring in its recesses.  In the Kaiser-Ferdinand 
grotto, the third of the chain, a great ball is annually held 
on Whit-Monday, when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated.  
The Franz-Joseph-Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and 
the farthest from the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft. 
in breadth and more than 100 ft. high.  Besides the imposing 
proportions of its chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the 
variegated beauty of its stalactite formations, some resembling 
transparent drapery, others waterfalls, trees, animals or human 
beings, the more grotesque being called by various fanciful 
appellations.  These subterranean wonders were known as far 
back as 1213, but the cavern remained undiscovered in modern 
times until 1816, and it is only in still more recent times 
that its vast extent has been fully ascertained and explored.  
The total length of the passages is now estimated at over 5 1/2 
m.  The connexion with the Ottokar grotto was established in 
1890.  The Magdalene grotto, about an hour's walk to the 
north, is celebrated for the extraordinary subterranean 
amphibian, the proteus anguinus, first discovered 
there.  It is about a foot in length, lives on snails 
and worms and is provided with both lungs and gills. 

ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732-1806), German grammarian and 
philologist, was born at Spantekow, in Pomerania, on the 8th of 
August 1732, and educated at the public schools of Anklam and 
Klosterbergen, and the university of Halle.  In 1759 he was 
appointed professor at the gymnasium of Erfurt, but relinquished 
this situation two years later and went to reside in a private 
capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted himself to philological 
researches.  In 1787 he received the appointment of principal 
librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, where he continued 
to reside until his death on the 10th of September 1806. 

The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there 
is not one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit 
some proofs of the genius, industry and erudition of the 
author.  By means of his excellent grammars, dictionary and 
various works on German style, he contributed greatly towards 
rectifying the orthography, refining the idiom and fixing 
the standard of his native tongue.  His German dictionary--
Grammatisch-kritisches Worterbuch der hochdeutschen 
Mundart (1774-1786)--bears witness to the patient spirit 
of investigation which Adelung possessed in so remarkable a 
degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history of the 
different dialects on which modern German is based.  No man 
before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of 
Germany.  Shortly before his death he issued Mithridates, 
oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde (1806).  The hint of this work 
appears to have been taken from a publication, with a similar 
title, published by Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565) in 1555; 
but the plan of Adelung is much more extensive.  Unfortunately 
he did not live to finish what he had undertaken.  The first 
volume, which contains the Asiatic languages, was published 
immediately after his death; the other two were issued under 
the superintendence of Johann Severin Vater (1771-1826).  
Of the very numerous works by Adelung the following may be 
noted: Directorium diplomaticum (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche 
Sprachlehre fur Schulen (Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, 
Magazin fur die deutsche Sprache (Leipzig, 1782-1784). 

ADEMPTION (Lat. ademptio, from adimere, a taking away), 
in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see LEGACY.) 

ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically 
part of British India, under the governor of Bombay.  The 
seaport is situated in 12 deg.  45' N. lat., and 45 deg.  4' E. 
long., on a peninsula near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 
m.  E. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb.  The peninsula of Aden 
consists chiefly of a mass of barren and desolate volcanic 
rocks, extending five miles from east to west, and three 
from its northern shore to Ras Sanailah or Cape Aden, its 
most southerly point; it is connected with the mainland by 
a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet high; and its 
greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft. above the 
level of the sea.  The town is built on the eastern coast, 
in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 
surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable natural 
defence.  There are two harbours, an outer, facing the 
town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially 
choked with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, 
by the Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the 
peninsula, which at all periods of the year admits vessels 
drawing less than 20 ft.  On the whole, Aden is a healthy 
place, although it suffers considerably from the want of good 
water, and the heat is often very intense.  From time to time 
additional land on the mainland has been acquired by cession 
or purchase, and the adjoining island of Perim, lying in 
the actual mouth of the strait, was permanently occupied in 
1857.  Farther inland, and along the coast, most of the 
Arab chiefs are under the political control of the British 
government, which pays them regular allowances.  The area of 
the peninsula is only 15 sq. m., but the total area of British 
territory is returned at 80 sq. m., including Perim (5 sq. 
m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate is about 9000 sq. 
m.  The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified.  Modern science 
has converted ``Steamer Point'' into a seemingly impregnable 
position, the peninsula which the ``Point'' forms to the 
whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which runs 
from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs.  
The administration is conducted by a political resident, 
who is also the military commandant.  All food requires to 
be imported, and the water-supply is largely derived from 
condensation.  A little water is obtained from wells, and some 
from an aqueduct 7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of 
L. 30,000, besides an irregular supply from the old reservoirs. 

From its admirable commercial and military position, Aden early 
became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and 
Asia.  It is the 'Arabia eudaimon of the Periplus.  
It was known to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Attanae, 
and was captured by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. 
In 1513 it was unsuccessfully attacked by the Portuguese 
under Albuquerque, but subsequently it fell into the hands 
of the Turks in 1538.  In the following century the Turks 
themselves relinquished their conquests in Yemen, and the 
sultan of Sana established a supremacy over Aden, which was 
maintained until the year 1735, when the sheikh of Lahej, 
throwing off his allegiance, founded a line of independent 
sultans.  In 1837 a ship under British colours was wrecked near 
Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously maltreated by the 
Arabs.  An explanation of the outrage being demanded by the 
Bombay government, the sultan undertook to make compensation 
for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed to sell his 
town and port to the English.  Captain Haines of the Indian 
navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the sultan's 
son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had 
made.  A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon 
despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to 
British India on the 16th of January 1839.  The withdrawal 
of the trade between Europe and the East, caused by the 
discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and 
the misgovernment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced 
Aden to a state of comparative insignificance; but about the 
time of its capture by the British the Red Sea route to India 
was reopened, and commerce soon began to flow in its former 
channel.  Aden was made a free port, and was chosen as one of 
the coaling stations of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship 
Company.  Its importance as a port of call for steamers and a 
coaling station has grown immensely since the opening of the Suez 
Canal.  It also conducts a considerable trade with the interior of 
Arabia, and with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side 
of the Red Sea. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph 
Company here diverge--on the one hand to India, the Far East 
and Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape. 

In 1839 the population was less than 1000, but in 1901 it 
had grown to 43,974.  The gross revenue (1901-1902) was Rs. 
37,25,915.  There are three printing-presses, of which one 
is in the gaol and the other two belong to a European and 
a Parsee firm of merchants.  The port is visited yearly by 
some 1300 steamers with a tonnage of 2 1/2 million tons.  The 
principal articles of import are coffee, Cotton-piece goods, 
&c., grain, hides, coal, opium, cotton- twist and yarn.  The 
exports are, in the main, a repetition of the imports.  Of 
the total imports nearly one-third come from the east coast of 
Africa, and another third from Arabia.  Of the total exports, 
nearly one-third again go to the east coast of Africa.  The 
Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps of India. 

ADENES (ADENEZ or ADANS), surnamed LE ROI, French 
trouvere, was born in Brabant about 1240.  He owed his 
education to the kindness of Henry III., duke of Brabant, 
and he remained in favour at court for some time after the 
death (1261) of his patron.  In 1269 he entered the service 
of Guy de Dampierre, afterwards count of Flanders, probably 
as roi des menestrels, and followed him in the next year 
on the abortive crusade in Tunis in which Louis IX. lost his 
life.  The expedition returned by way of Sicily and Italy, 
and Adenes has left in his poems some very exact descriptions 
of the places through which he passed.  The purity of his 
French and the absence of provincialisms point to a long 
residence in France, and it has been suggested that Adenes 
may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on her marriage 
with Philip the Bold.  He seems, however, to have remained 
in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent visits 
to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey of St 
Denis.  The poems written by Adenes are four: the Enfances 
Ogier, an enfeebled version of the Chevalerie Ogier de 
Danemarche written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning 
of the century; Berte aus granspies, the history of the 
mother of Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which 
are also preserved in the anonymous Chronique de France, 
and in the Chronique rimee of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de 
Comarchis, belonging to the cycle of romance gathered round the 
history of Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long roman d'aventures, 
Cleomades, borrowed from Spanish and Moorish traditions 
brought into France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who 
after the death of her Spanish husband returned to the French 
court.  Adenes probably died before the end of the 13th century. 

The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academie 
Imperiale et Royale of Brussels by A. Scheler and A. van 
Hasseh in 1874; Berte was rendered into modern French by 
G. Hecq (1897) and by R. Perie(1900); Cleomades, by 
Le Chevalier de Chatelain (1859).  See also the edition of 
Berte by Paulin Paris (1832); an article by the same writer 
in the Hist. litt. de la France, vol. xx. pp. 679-718; 
Leon Gautier, Les epopees francaises, vol. iii., &c. 

ADENINE, or 6-AMINO-PURIN, C5H5N5, in chemistry, a 
basic substance which has been obtained as a decomposition 
product of nuclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of 
oxen.  It has been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berichte, 
1897, 30, p. 2238) by heating 2.6.8-trichlorpurin with 10 
times its weight of ammonia for six hours at 100 deg.  C.; by 
this means 6-amino-2.8-dichlorpurin is obtained, which on 
reduction by means of hydriodic acid and phosphonium iodide 
is converted into adenine.  In 1898 E. Fischer also obtained 
it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104).  
It crystallizes in long needles; forms salts C5H5N5.2HI and 
(C5H5N5)2.H2SO4.2H2O, and is converted by nitrous acid 
into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin.  On heating with hydrochloric 
acid at 180-200 deg.  C. it is decomposed; the products of the 
reaction being glycocoll, ammonia, formic acid and carbon 
dioxide.  Various methyl derivatives of adenine have been 
described by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1898, 31, on 104) and 
by M. Kruger (Zeit. fur physiol.  Chemie, 1894, 18, p. 
434).  For the constitution of adenine see PURIN. 

ADENOIDS, or ADENOID GROWTHS (from Gr. adenoeides, glandular), 
masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose 
and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the 
air-way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the 
proper development of the chest.  The growths are apt to keep 
up a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating 
tubes which pass from the throat to the ear, and so render 
the child dull of hearing or even deaf.  They also give 
rise to asthma, and like enlarged tonsils--with which they 
are often associated-- they impart to the child a vacant, 
stupid expression, and hinder his physical and intellectual 
development.  They cause his voice to be ``stuffy,'' thick, and 
unmusical.  Though, except in the case of a cleft palate, 
they cannot be seen with the naked eye, they are often 
accompanied by a visible and suggestive granular condition 
of the wall at the back of the throat.  Their presence may 
easily be determined by the medical attendant gently hooking 
the end of the index-finger round the back of the soft 
palate.  If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to postpone 
this digital examination of the throat until the child is 
under the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the 
tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at 
the same time that the tonsils are dealt with.  Though the 
disease is a comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer 
in its treatment being Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably 
existed as long as tuberculosis itself, with which affection 
it is somewhat distantly connected.  In the unenlightened 
days many children must have got well of adenoids without 
operation, and even at the present time it by no means follows 
that because a child has these postnasal vegetations he must 
forthwith be operated on.  The condition is very similar 
to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time, patience and 
attention to general measures, operation is often rendered 
unnecessary.  But if the child continues to breathe with 
his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf and 
dull, and is troubled with a chronic ``cold in his head,'' 
the question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx 
and of a surgical operation should most certainly be 
considered.  In recent years the comparatively simple operation 
for their removal has been very frequently performed, and, 
as a rule, with marked benefit, but this treatment should 
always be followed by a course of instruction in respiratory 
exercises; the child must be taught regularly to fill his 
lungs and make the tidal air pass through the nostrils.  These 
respiratory exercises may be resorted to before operation is 
proposed, and in some cases they may render operative treatment 
unnecessary.  Operations should not be performed in cold 
weather or in piercing east winds, and it is advisable to 
keep the child indoors for a day or two subsequent to its 
performance.  To expose a child just after operating on his 
throat to the risks of a journey by train or omnibus is highly 
inadvisable.  Although the operation is not a very painful one, it 
ought not to be performed upon a child except under the influence 
of chloroform or some other general anaesthetic. (F. O.*) 

ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if 
as an adjective adept; from Lat. adeptus, one who has 
attained), completely and fully acquainted with one's 
subject, an expert.  The word implies more than acquired 
proficiency, a natural inborn aptitude.  In olden times 
an adept was one who was versed in magic, an alchemist, 
one who had attained the great secrets of the unknown. 

ADERNO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 22 
m.  N.W. of the town of that name.  Pop. (1901) 25,859.  It 
occupies the site of the ancient Adranon, which took its name 
from Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman 
times identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated 
here, and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps 
some substructures of this building still extant outside the 
town.  The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius 
I.; very fine remains of its walls are preserved.  For a time 
it was the headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town 
taken by the Romans in the First Punic War (263 B.C..) In 
the centre of the modern town rises the castle, built by Roger 
I.; in the chapel are frescoes representing his granddaughter, 
Adelasia, who founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157, taking the 
veil.  The columns in the principal church are of black lava. 

See P. Russo, Illustrazione storica di Aderno (Adorno, 1897). 

ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Muller to imply the 
denial of gods (Sans. deva), on the analogy of Atheism, 
the denial of God. Max Muller used it particularly in 
connexion with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative 
of ignorance or nescience (Gifford lectures, 1892, c. ix.). 

ADHEMAR DE CHABANNES (c. 988-c. 1030), medieval 
historian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in 
the French department of Haute-Vienne.  Educated at the 
monastery of St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as a 
monk, either at this place or at the monastery of St Cybard at 
Angouleme.  He died about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, 
whither he had gone on a pilgrimage.  Adinemar's life 
was mainly spent in writing and transcribing chronicles, 
and his principal work is a history entitled Chronicon 
Aquitanicum et Francicum or Historia Francorum. This 
is in three books and deals with Frankish history from the 
fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks, to A.D. 
1028.  The two earlier books are scarcely more than a copy of 
the Gesta regum Francorum, but the third book, which deals 
with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable historical 
importance.  This is published in the Monumenta Germaniac 
historica.  Scriptores. Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 
1826-1892).  He also wrote Commemoratio abbatum Lemovicensium 
basilicae S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) and Epistola 
ad Jordanum Lemovicensem episcopum et alios de apostolatu 
S. Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne 
in the Patrologia Latinia, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844-1855). 

See F. Arbellot, Etude historique et litteraire sur Ademar de 
Chabannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne, Dissertation sur 
le lieu de naissance et sur la famille du chroniqueur Ademar, 
moine de l'abbaye de St Cybard d'Angouleme (Angouleine, 1850). 

ADHEMAR (ADEMAR, AIMAR, AELARZ) DE MONTEIL (d. 1098), 
one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was bishop 
of Puy en Velay from before 1087.  At the council of Clermont in 
1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and having been named 
apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied Raymond IV., count 
of Toulouse, to the east.  He negotiated with Alexis Comnenus 
at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea some discipline 
among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch to be raised 
and died in that city of the plague on the 1st of August 1098. 

See the article by C. Kohler in La Grande 
Encyclopedie; Bibliographie du Velay (1902), 640-650. 

ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere), the process 
of adhering or clinging to anything.  In a figurative sense, 
adhesion (like ``adherent'') is used of any attachment to a 
party or movement; but the word is also employed technically 
in psychology, pathology and botany.  In psychology Bain 
and others use it of association of ideas and action; in 
pathology an adhesion is an abnormal union of surfaces; 
and in botany ``adhesion'' is used of dissimilar parts, 
e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to ``cohesion,'' 
which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl. 

ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. adiaforos, indifferent).  The Adiaphorist 
controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional 
scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a 
general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the 
diet of Augsburg, 15th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg 
Interim.  It satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants.  
As head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of 
Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig, 
on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the 
Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points 
neither enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture.  This sanctioned 
jurisdiction of Catholic bishops, and observance of certain 
rites, while all were to accept justification by faith 
(relegating sola to the adiaphora.) This modification was 
known as the Leipzig Interim; its advocates were stigmatized as 
Adiaphorists.  Passionate opposition was led by Melanchthon's 
colleague, Matth.  Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial 
power was not the judge of adiaphora, and that the measure 
was a trick to bring back popery.  From Wittenberg he fled, 
April 1549, to Magdeburg, making it the headquarters of rigid 
Lutheranism.  Practically the controversy was concluded by the 
religious peace ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which 
left princes a free choice between the rival confessions, 
with the right to impose either on their subjects; but much 
bitter internal strife was kept up by Protestants on the 
theoretical question of adiaphora; to appease this was one 
object of the Formula Concordiae, 1577.  Another Adiaphorist 
controversy between Pietists and their opponents, respecting 
the lawfulness of amusements, arose in 1681, when Anton 
Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as antichristian. 

See arts. by J. Gottschick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie 
(1896); by Fritz in I. Goschler's Dict.  Encyclop. de la 
Theol.  Cath. (1858); other authorities in J. C. L. Gieseler, 
Ch. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868, vol. iv.); monograph by 
Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich und historisch 
untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view. 

ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Athesis), a considerable river 
in North Italy.  The true source of the Adige is in some 
small lakes on the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 
ft.), and it is swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, 
where the roads over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall 
in.  It thence flows east to Meran, and then south-east to 
Botzen, where it receives the Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes 
navigable.  It then turns south-west, and, after receiving the 
Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves Tirol, and enters 
Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto.  After traversing North 
Italy, in a direction first southerly and then easterly, it 
falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles north 
of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on its 
banks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol, 
and Verona and Legnago, in Italy.  It is a very rapid river, 
and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause 
great damage to the surrounding country.  It is navigable from 
the heart of Tirol to the sea.  In Lombardy it has a breadth 
of 200 yds., and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength 
of the current renders its navigation very difficult, and 
lessens its value as a means of transit between Germany and 
Italy.  The Adige has a course of about 220 m., and, after the 
Po, is the most important river in Italy.  In Roman times 
it flowed, in its lower course, much farther north than at 
present, along the base of the Euganean hills, and entered 
the sea at Brondolo.  In A.D. 587 the river broke its 
banks, and the main stream took its present course, but 
new streams opened repeatedly to the south, until now the 
Adige and the Po form conjointly one delta. (W. A. B. C.) 

ADIPOCERE (from the Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a 
substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted, and 
so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both fat and 
wax.  When the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris was removed in 
1786-1787, great masses of this substance were found where the 
coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed very closely 
together.  The whole body had been converted into this fatty 
matter, except the bones, which remained, but were extremely 
brittle.  Chemically, adipocere consists principally of a 
mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent.  Saponification 
with potash liberates a little ammonia (about 1%), and gives 
a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margaric and 
oxymargaric acids.  The insoluble residue consists of lime, 
&c., derived from the tissues.  The artificial formation 
of adipocere has been studied; it appears that it is not 
formed from albuminous matter, but from the various fats in 
the body collecting together and undergoing decomposition. 

ADIRONDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern New York, 
U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton counties, 
often included by geographers in the Appalachian system, 
but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands of 
Canada.  They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain, 
which separates them from tho Green Mountains.  Unlike the 
Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected 
range, but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, 
arranged with little appearance of system.  There are about 
one hundred peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; 
the highest peak, Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or 
``cloud-splitter''), is near the eastern part of the group 
and attains an elevation of 5344 ft.  Other noted peaks are 
M`Intyre (5210 ft,), Haystack (4918), Dix (4916) and Whiteface 
(4871).  These mountains, consisting of various sorts of 
gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro, have been formed partly 
by faulting but mainly by erosion, the lines of which have 
been determined by the presence of faults or the presence of 
relatively soft rocks.  Lower Palaeozoic strata lap up on to 
the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain group.  The 
region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though mined for 
many years are not yet fully developed.  Other mineral products 
are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite and zinc 
ore.  The mountains form the water-parting between the Hudson 
and the St Lawrence rivers.  On the south and south-west 
the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises 
in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the 
Mohawk.  On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence 
by way of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they 
flow directly into that stream or reach it through Lake 
Ontario.  The most important streams within the area are the 
Hudson, Black, Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausable 
rivers.  The region was once covered, with the exception of 
the higher summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, 
while perhaps having little effect on the larger features of the 
country, has greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and 
ponds, whose number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many 
falls and rapids in the streams.  Among the larger lakes are 
the Upper and Lower Saranac, Big and Little Tupper, Schroon, 
Placid, Long, Raquette and Blue Mountain.  The region known as 
the Adirondack Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces 
between 5000 and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and 
forest, which for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in 
any other part of the United States.  The mountain peaks are 
usually rounded and easily scaled, and as roads have been 
constructed over their slopes and in every direction through 
the forests, all points of interest may be easily reached by 
stage.  Railways penetrate the heart of the region, and small 
steamboats ply upon the larger lakes.  The surface of most 
of the lakes lies at an elevation of over 1500 ft. above 
the sea; their shores are usually rocky and irregular, and 
the wild scenery within their vicinity has made them very 
attractive to the tourist.  The mountains are easily reached 
from Plattsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone and Saratoga 
Springs.  Every year thousands spend the summer months in the 
wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas and hotels are 
numerous.  The resorts most frequented are in the vicinity 
of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake Placid.  In the 
Adirondacks are some of the best hunting and fishing grounds 
in the eastern United States.  Owing to the restricted period 
allowed for hunting, deer and small game are abundant, and the 
brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well stocked with trout 
and black bass.  At the head of Lake Placid stands Whiteface 
Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest views of the 
Adirondacks may be obtained.  Two miles south-east of this 
lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist John 
Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented by 
visitors.  Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable 
river, which for a part of its course flows through a 
rocky chasm from 100 to 175 ft. deep and rarely over 30 ft. 
wide.  At the head of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, 
where the stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft.  Another 
impressive feature of the Adirondacks is Indian Pass, a gorge 
about eleven miles long, between Mt. M`Intyre and Wallface 
Mountain.  The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically 
from the pass to a height of 1300 ft.  Keene Valley, in 
the centre of Essex county, is another picturesque region, 
presenting a pleasing combination of peaceful valley and 
rugged hills.  Though the climate during the winter months 
is very severe--the temperature sometimes falling as low 
as -42 deg.  F.--it is beneficial to persons suffering from 
pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have been 
established.  The region is heavily forested with spruce, 
pine and broad-leaved trees.  Lumbering is an important 
industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of 
a state forest preserve, containing in 1907, 1,401,482 acres, 
and by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and 
recreation grounds by private clubs.  The so-called Adirondack 
Park, containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the 
state preserve and large areas held in private ownership. 

For a description of the Adirondacks, see S. R. Stoddard, 
The Adirondacks Illustrated (24th ed., Glen Falls, 
1894); and E. R. Wallace, Descriptive Guide to the 
Adirondacks (Syracuse, 1894).  For geology and mineral 
resources consult the Reports of the New York State 
Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York State Museum. 

ADIS ABABA (``the new flower''), the capital of Abyssinia 
and of the kingdom of Shoa, in 9 deg.  1' N., 38 deg.  56' E., 220 
m.  W. by S. of Harrar, and about 450 m.  S.W. of Jibuti on 
the Gulf of Aden.  Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes 
of the Entotto range, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on 
bare, grassy undulations, watered by small streams flowing 
S.S.E. to the Hawash.  It is a large straggling encampment 
rather than a town, with few buildings of any architectural 
merit.  The Gobi or royal enclosure completely covers a small 
hill overlooking the whole neighbourhood, while around it 
are the enclosures of the abuna and principal nobles, and the 
residences of the foreign ministers.  The principal traders 
are Armenians and Hindus.  About a mile north-east of the 
palace is the military camp.  On the hills some five miles to 
the north, 1500 ft. above the camp, are the ruins of an old 
fortress, and the churches of St Raguel and St Mariam.  The 
town is in telegraphic communication with Massawa, Harrar and 
Jibuti.  It was founded by Menelek II. in 1892 as the 
capital of his kingdom in succession to Entotto, a deserted 
settlement some ten or twelve miles north of Adis Ababa. 

ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectivus, added), a word used 
chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the 
noun to which it refers.  Formerly grammarians used not to 
separate a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of 
them together as a noun-adjective.  In the art of dyeing, certain 
colours are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing 
with some basis to render them permanent. ``Adjective law'' 
is that which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to 
``substantive law,'' the rules of right administered by a court. 

ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat. 
adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day), 
the act of postponing a meeting of any private or public 
body, particularly of parliament, or any business, until 
another time, or indefinitely (in which case it is an 
adjournment sine die.) The word applies also to the period 
during which the meeting or business stands adjourned. 

ADJUDICATION (Lat. adjudicatio; adjudicare, to award), 
generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise 
of judicial power; a judgment.  In a more technical sense, 
in English and American law, an adjudication is an order of 
the bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt 
and his property vested in a trustee.  It usually proceeds 
from a resolution of the creditors or where no composition 
or scheme of arrangement has been proposed by the debtor.  It 
may be said to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then does 
a debtor's property actually vest in a trustee for division 
among the creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy 
till adjudication it is protected by a receiving order. 
As to the effect which adjudication has on the bankrupt, see 
under BANKRUPTCY. The same process in Scots law is called 
sequestration.  In Scots law the term ``adjudication'' has quite 
a different meaning, being the name of that action by which a 
creditor attaches the heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his 
debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appropriate it to 
himself either in payment or security of his debt.  The term 
is also applied to a proceeding of the same nature by which 
the holder of a heritable right, labouring under any defect in 
point of form, gets that defect supplied by decree of a court. 

ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join), that which 
is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it 
in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies 
it.  Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they 
qualify.  Learning, says Shakespeare, is an ``adjunct to ourself'' 
(Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314).  Twelve members of the 
Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris are called ``adjuncts.'' 

ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxtare, derived from 
juxta. near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation 
from justus, right), regulating, adapting or settling; in 
commercial law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on 
insured goods.  The calculation of the amounts to be made 
good to and paid by the several interests is a complicated 
matter.  It involves much detail and arithmetic, and requires 
a full and accurate knowledge of the principles of the 
subject.  Such adjustments are made by men called adjusters, 
who make the subject their profession.  In Great Britain 
they are for the most part members of the Average Adjusters' 
Association (1870), a body which has done much careful 
work with a view to making and keeping the practice uniform 
and in accord with right principles.  This association 
has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body 
of practical rules which the individual members undertake 
to observe. (See AVERAGE and INSURANCE, Marine.) 

ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join 
on; an older English form was ``adjustage''), a mouthpiece 
or nozzle, so formed as to facilitate the outflow of 
liquids from a vessel or pipe. (See HYDRAULICS.) 

ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid), a helper or junior in 
command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer 
who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of 
troops.  In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held 
by a captain or lieutenant.  The adjutant acts as staff officer 
to the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the 
work of the orderly room and the general administration of the 
corps, and is responsible for musketry duties and the training of 
recruits.  Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all 
units of the auxiliary forces.  On the European continent the 
word is not restricted to the lower units of organization; for 
example, in Germany the Adjutantur includes all ``routine'' 
as distinct from ``general'' staff officers in the higher 
units, and the aides-decamp of royal persons and of the higher 
commanders are also styled adjutant-generals, flugel-adj 
utanten, &c . For the so-called adjutant bird see JABIRU. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as indicated 
by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuvare) staff-officer 
to a general in command, but now a distinct high functionary 
at the head of a special office in the British and American war 
departments.  In England the second military member of the 
Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the forces.  He 
is a general officer and at the head of his department of 
the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to 
personnel.  The adjutant-general of the United States army is 
one of the principal officers in the war department, the head 
of the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the 
records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual 
American states also have their own adjutant-general, with 
cognate duties regarding the state militia.  In many countries, 
such as Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original 
meaning of an officer on the personal staff, and is the 
designation of personal aides-de-camp to the sovereign. 

By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of 
provinces, in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials 
under the superintendence of and auxiliary to the 
general, are sometimes called adjutants-general. 

ADLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was born 
at Alzey, Germany, on the 13th of August 1851.  His father, 
a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857, 
and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870.  After 
completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in 
1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell 
University.  In 1876 he established in New York City the 
Society for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension 
of which he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and 
before which he delivered a regular Sunday lecture.  In 1902 
he became professor of political and social ethics at Columbia 
University.  He also acted as one of the editors of the 
International Journal of Ethics. Under his direction the 
Society for Ethical Culture became an important factor in 
educational reform in New York City, exercising through its 
technical training school and kindergarten (established in 
January 1878) a wide influence.  Dr Adler also took a prominent 
part in philanthropic and social reform movements, such as the 
establishment of a system of district nursing, the erection 
of model tenement houses, and tenement house reform.  He 
published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral Instruction 
of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1903), Marriage 
and Divorce (1905), and The Religion of Duty (1905). 

ADMETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in 
Thessaly.  By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave-- 
either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of 
affection for his mortal master--he won the hand of Alcestis, 
the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of Iolcus.  
When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to lead 
to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates) to 
prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his 
place.  His parents refused, but Alcestis consented.  She is 
said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles, 
who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later story 
represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill. 

Homer, Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9; Euripides, 
Alcestis; Plutarch, Amatorius, 17; Dissel, Der Mythus 
von Admetos und Alkestis, progr.  Brandenburg, 1882. 

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the performance 
or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for 
the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person 
(see WILL OR TESTAMENT.) It is also used generally for
``government,'' and specifically for ``the government'' or the executive 
ministry, and in such connexions as the administration (administering 
or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c. 

Letters of administration.--Upon the death of a person 
intestate or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, 
or when the executors appointed by the will cannot or will 
not act, the Probate Division of the High Court is obliged 
to appoint an administrator who performs the duties of an 
executor.  This is done by the court granting letters of 
administration to the person entitled.  Grants of administration 
may be either general or limited.  A general grant is made 
where the deceased has died intestate.  The order in which 
general grants of letters will be made by the court is as 
follows: (1) The husband, or widow, as the case may be; 
(2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a creditor; (5) a 
stranger.  Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the administrator 
is the real as well as the personal representative of the 
deceased, and consequently when the estate to be administered 
consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will grant 
administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of 
kin.  In the absence of any heir or next of kin the crown 
is entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to 
the reality by escheat.  If a creditor claims and obtains 
a grant he is compelled by the court to enter into a bond 
with two sureties that he will not prefer his own debt to 
those of other creditors.  The more important cases of grants 
of special letters of administration are the following:-- 

Administration cum testamento annexo, where the deceased 
has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the 
executor appointed has died or refuses to act.  In this case the 
court will make the grant to the person (usually the residuary 
legatee) with the largest beneficial interest in the estate. 

Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs 
in two cases--(a) where the executor dies intestate 
after probate without having completely administered the 
estate; (b) where an administrator dies.  In the first 
case the principle of administration cum testamento is 
followed, in the second that of general grants in the 
selection of the person to whom letters are granted. 

Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor 
or the person entitled to the general grant is under age. 

Administration durante absentia, when the executor or 
administrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year. 

Administration pendente lite, where there is a dispute as to 
the person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the 
court appoints an administrator till the question has been decided. 

ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the 
Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the 
ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the 
sovereign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the 
goods of a person deceased, in default of an executor.  The 
origin of administrators is derived from the civil law.  Their 
establishment in England is owing to a statute made in the 31st 
year of Edward I. (1303).  Till then no office of this kind 
was known besides that of executor; in default of whom, the 
ordinary had the disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c. 
(See also EXECUTORS, and, for intestate estates, INTESTACY.) 

ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, is a person legally 
empowered to act for another whom the law presumes incapable 
of acting for himself, as a father for a pupil child. 

ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a 
fleet, or subdivision of a fleet.  The origin of the word is 
undoubtedly Arabic.  In the 12th century the Mediterranean 
states which had close relations with the Moslem powers 
on the shores or in the islands of that sea, found the 
title amir or emir in combination with other words used 
to describe men in authority; the amir-al-mumenin--prince 
of the faithful--or al-bahr--commander of the sea.  They 
took the substantive ``amir'' and the article ``al'' to 
form one word, ``amiral'' or ``ammiral'' or ``almirante.'' 
The Spaniards made miramamolin, out of amiral-mumenin, in 
the same way. ``Amiral,'' as the name of an eastern ruler, 
became familiar to the northern nations during the crusades.  
Layamon, writing in the early years of the 13th century, 
speaks of the ``ammiral of Babilon,'' and the word was for 
long employed in this sense.  As a naval title it was first 
taken by the French from the Genoese during the crusade of 
1249.  By the end of the 13th century it had come to be used 
in England as the name of the officer who commanded the Cinque 
Port ships.  The English form ``admiral'' arose from popular 
confusion with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were 
naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle 
ages.  In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of 
laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for 
the Spanish form ``almirante'' by its supposed derivation 
from the Latin admirari, since the admiral is ``to be 
admired'' for the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and 
because he is the chief of those who see the wonders of the 
Lord in the deep--mirabilia ejus (sc. Domini) in profundo. 
Both in Spanish and in Elizabethan English the word has 
been applied to the flagship of an officer commanding a 
fleet or part of one.  The Spanish almiranta is the ship 
of the second in command, and the capitana of the first.  
In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the narratives 
of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so used by 
Milton in Paradise Lost--``the mast of some tall ammiral.'' 

As the title of an office it was borne by the great military, 
judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand 
amiral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirante 
mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally 
absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided among 
judicial and administrative officials (see NAVY, History; 
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION.) 
The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour 
by the descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in 
Spain.  It is a purely honorific distinction representing the 
admiralship of the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the 
discoverer by the Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. 

In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to 
the general officers in the army.  Where, as in Russia, the 
grand admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank 
is that of lieutenant admiral general.  In Great Britain 
there is the rank of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to 
field-marshal.  It is, however, little more than an honorary 
distinction.  The three active ranks are those of admiral, 
vice-admiral and rear-admiral, corresponding to general, 
lieutenant-general and major-general in the army.  They are 
found in all navies under very slightly varied forms.  The 
only difference which is not one of mere spelling is in the 
equivalent for rear-admiral, which is contre amiral in 
French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe 
involves some slight variation of the word ``contre'' (first 
used at the time of the French Revolution).  The vice- and 
rear-admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, 
without the active functions, conferred in compliment on 
senior naval officers. ``Admiral'' is also the name given to 
the chief of fishery fleets.  On the banks of Newfoundland 
it was given to officials who had powers conferred by the 
state.  In the case of an ordinary fishing-fleet in European 
waters, it is of private origin, and is of merely customary use. 

AUTHORITIES.--Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal 
Navy; La Ronciere, Histoire de la marine francarse; 
Youge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; C. 
Fernandez Duro, Historia de la Armada de Castilea. (D. H.) 

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION. 1. The Administrative System.-- 

British Empire. 

That the navy (q.v.) is the only real defence of the 
British islands has been recognized by English people ever 
since the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his 
successors the admirable lesson that ``he who would be secure 
on land must be supreme at sea.'' The truth of the lesson 
thus learnt is sanctioned by all the experience of English 
history, and parliament has repeatedly enforced the fact.  The 
navy is the only force that can safeguard the British islands 
from hostile descents; it is the only force that can protect 
their vast sea-borne commerce and food supplies; by giving 
safety to the home country it sets British troops free for 
operations abroad, and makes their passage secure; and thus, 
as also by giving command of the sea, the fleet is the means 
by which the empire is guarded and has become a true imperial 
bond.  It is natural for British admiralty administration 
to be taken here as the type of an efficient system. 

The Board of Admiralty. 

British naval administration is conducted by the Board of 
Admiralty, and the function of that board is the maintenance 
and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy of 
the government, and the supplying of it with trained officers 
and men; its distribution throughout the world; and its 
preservation in readiness and efficiency in all material and 
personal respects.  The character of the Admiralty Board is 
peculiar to the British constitution, and it possesses certain 
features which distinguish it from other departments of the 
state.  The business it conducts is very great and complex, 
and the machinery by which its work is done has grown with 
the expansion of that business.  The whole system of naval 
administration has been developed historically, and is 
not the product of the organizing skill of one or a few 
individuals, but an organic growth possessing marked and special 
characteristics.  The Admiralty Board derives its character 
from the fact that it represents the lord high admiral, and 
that its powers and operation depend much more upon usage 
than upon those instruments which actually give it authority, 
and which, it may be remarked, are not in harmony among 
themselves.  The executive operations are conducted by a 
series of civil departments which have undergone many changes 
before reaching their present constitution and relation 
to the Board.  The salient characteristic of the admiralty 
is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it 
works.  Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of 
departments.  Subject to the necessary and constitutional 
supremacy of tho cabinet minister at their head, they are 
jointly and co-equally ``commissioners for executing the 
office of high admiral of the United Kingdom, and of the 
territories thereunto belonging, and of high admiral of the 
colonies and other dominions.'' The members of the Board are 
in direct and constant communication with the first lord and 
with one another, as also with the civil departments which 
work under their control.  It was enjoined by James I. that 
the principal officers and commissioners of the navy should 
be in constant communication among themselves, consulting and 
advising ``by common council and argument of most voices,'' 
and should live as near together as could conveniently 
be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice a 
week.  This system of intercommunication still exists in a 
manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be 
remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, 
that a Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a 
secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there.  Such 
an emergency board was actually constituted some years ago 
on board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant 
with an event which had just occurred in the fleet.  At the 
same time it must be remarked that, in practice, the first 
lord being personally responsible under the orders in council, 
the operations of the Board are dependent upon his direction. 

History. 

The present system of administering the navy dates from the 
time of Henry VIII.  The naval business of the country had 
so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the Admiralty 
and Navy Board reorganized or established; and it is worthy 
of remark that there existed at the time an ordnance branch, 
the navy not yet being dependent in that matter upon the 
War Department.1 The Navy Board administered the civil 
departments under the admiralty, the directive and executive 
duties of the lord high admiral remaining with the admiralty 
office.  A little later the civil administration was vested 
in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord 
high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil 
administration being conducted under the navy and victualling 
boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself.  
This was a system which continued during the time of all the 
great wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James 
Graham, by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided 
control.  Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, 
it sufficed to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest 
achievements, and through all the wars which were waged with the 
Spaniards, the Dutch and the French.  The original authority 
for the present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found 
in a declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1690), in which it is 
enacted that ``all and singular authorities, jurisdictions 
and powers which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been 
lawfully vested'' in the lord high admiral of England had always 
appertained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners 
for executing the office for the time being ``to all intents 
and purposes as if the said commissioners were lord high 
admiral of England.'' The admiralty commission was dissolved 
in 1701, and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of 
Denmark, lord high admiral in 1709.  From that time forward, 
save for a short period in 1827-1828, when the duke of Clarence 
was lord high admiral, the office has remained in commission. 

A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation of 
the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in 1832 
(see NAVY, History), but the general principle remains the 
same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil 
departments is described below.  The Board consists of the 
first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in 
theory are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet 
sometimes daily, but at all times frequently; and the system 
developed provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for 
the co-ordinated exertion of effort.  The system has worked 
well in practice, and has certainly won the approval and the 
admiration of many statesmen.  Lord George Hamilton said, 
before the Royal Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, 
that ``It has this advantage, that you have all departments 
represented round a table, and that if it is necessary to take 
quick action, you can do in a few minutes that which it would 
take hours under another system to do''; and the report of the 
Royal Commission of 1889 remarked that ``The constitution of 
the Board of Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be 
placed under present regulations on a satisfactory footing.'' 

Powers. 

The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have 
been described are accompanied by a very peculiar and noteworthy 
feature, which is not without relation to the untrammelled and 
undefined operations of the admiralty.  This feature arises from 
the discrepancy between the admiralty patent and the orders in 
council, for the admiralty is not administered according to 
the terms of the patent which invests it with authority, and 
its operations raise a singular point in constitutional law. 

The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord 
and the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure.  Under 
the patent the full power and authority are conferred upon 
``any two or more'' of the commissioners, though, in the 
patent of Queen Anne, the grant was to ``any three or more 
of you.'' It was under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords 
received the necessary authority to legalize any action of 
the Board; but already, under an act of 1822, two lords had 
been empowered to sign so long as the Board consisted of six 
members.  We therefore find that the legal authority of 
the Board under the patent is vested in the Board; but in 
the order in council of the 14th of January 1869 the sole 
responsibility of the first lord was officially laid down, and 
in the order in council of the 19th of March 1872 the first 
lord was made ``responsible to your Majesty and to parliament 
for all the business of the admiralty.'' As a matter of 
fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his 
colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient 
times.  Before a select committee of the House of Commons 
in 1861 the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the 
first lord responsible, that he had always ``acted under that 
impression,'' and that he believed ``all former first lords 
were of this opinion''; while Sir James Graham said that ``the 
Board of Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might 
be, unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise 
constantly supreme and controlling authority.'' It is not, 
therefore, surprising to find that there has been undoubtedly 
direct government without a Board.  Thus, in the operations 
conducted against the French channel ports in 1803-1804, Lord 
Melville, then first lord, took steps of great importance 
without the knowledge of his colleagues, though he afterwards 
bowed to their views, which did not coincide with his own.  
Again, when Lord Gambier was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he 
was instructed to obey all orders from the king, through the 
principal secretary of state for war, and in this way received 
orders to attack Copenhagen, which were unknown to all but the 
first lord.  In a similar way the secretary of the admiralty 
was despatched to Paris in 1815 with instructions to issue 
orders as if from the Board of Admiralty when directed to do 
so by the foreign secretary who accompanied him, and these 
orders resulted in Napoleon's capture.  These instances were 
cited, except the first of them, by Sir James Graham before 
the select committee of the House of Commons in 1861, in 
order to illustrate the elastic powers under the patent which 
enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters 
that concerned the public safety.  It is not surprising that 
this peculiar feature of admiralty administration should 
have attracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds 
to regard the Board as ``a fiction not worth keeping up.'' 

Between 1860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased 
to have the effective character they had once possessed.  
During the administration of Mr Childers,2 first lord 
from 1868 to 1871 in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system 
was introduced by which the free intercommunication of the 
members of the Board was hampered, and its sittings were quite 
discontinued.  The case of the ``Captain'' led, however, to 
a return to the older practice.  The ``Captain'' was a low 
freeboard masted turret ship, designed by Captain Cowper Phipps 
Coles, R.N. Competent critics believed that she would be 
unsafe, and said so before she was built; but the admiralty 
of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866 gave their consent to her 
construction.  She was commissioned early in 1870, and 
capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of September of that 
year.  Mr Childers, who was nominally responsible for 
allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame right and 
left, largely upon men who had not approved of the ship at 
all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsibility 
for allowing her to be built.  The disaster was justly held 
to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the 
advantage of constant communication with his professional 
advisers.  When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in 
March 1871, his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), 
reverted to the original system.  It cannot be said, 
however, that the question of ultimate responsibility is well 
defined.  The duke of Somerset, Sir James Graham and Sir 
Charles Wood, afterwards Lord Halifax, held the view that 
the first lord was singly and personally responsible for the 
sufficiency of the fleet.  Sir Arthur Hood expressed before 
the House of Commons committee in 1888 the view that the Board 
collectively were responsible; whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins 
assigned the responsibility to the first lord alone with 
certain qualifications, which is a just and reasonable view. 

2. Admiralty Organization.--Under the organization which now 
exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord, the 
first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and 
controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord, who are 
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, 
and with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary 
and the permanent secretary.  As has been explained, the first 
lord is responsible under the orders in council to the crown 
and to parliament for all admiralty business.  In the hands 
of the other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully 
defined, and they direct the civil departments which are the 
machinery of naval administration.  The first naval lord, the 
second naval lord and the junior naval lord are responsible 
to the first lord in relation to so much of the business 
concerning the personnel of the navy and the movements and 
condition of the fleet as is confided to them, and the additional 
naval lord or controller is responsible in the same way for 
the material of the navy; while the parliamentary secretary 
has charge of finance and some other business, and the civil 
lord of all shore works--i.e. docks, buildings, &c.--and 
the permanent secretary of special duties.  The first lord of 
the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom the navy 
receives its political direction in accordance with imperial 
policy.  He is the representative of the navy in parliament, 
which looks to him for everything concerned with naval 
affairs.  The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their 
advice is not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or 
resignation.  It cannot be denied that the responsibility 
of the members of the Board, if their advice should be 
disregarded, must cease, and it is sufficiently obvious that the 
remedy of resignation will not always commend itself to those 
whose position and advancement depend upon the favour of the 
government.  Something will be said a little later concerning 
the working of the system and the relation of the first lord 
to the Board in regard to the navy estimates.  In addition 
to general direction and supervision, the first lord has 
special charge of promotions and removals from the service, 
and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as well as 
the appointments of flag officers, captains and other officers 
of the higher ranks.  With him rests also the nomination for 
the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships. 

Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most 
important officer of the Board of Admiralty.  It seems to be 
unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing 
the senior naval lord as his ``first naval adviser.'' 
Theoretically, the first naval lord is responsible for the 
personnel of the fleet; but in practice he is necessarily 
concerned with the material also as soon as it is put into 
commission, and with the actual commissioning of it.  It 
is correct to say that he is chiefly concerned with the 
employment of the fleet, though his advice has weight in 
regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always sought 
in relation to the shipbuilding programme.  Broadly speaking, 
the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the fighting 
efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him and 
upon the controller the naval business of the country largely 
falls.  He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent 
of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the 
director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo 
training establishments are concerned, and the naval intelligence 
department, and he has charge of all matters relating to 
discipline.  The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard 
to personnel and material, also falls to him, and among 
a mass of other business in his department are necessary 
preparations for the protection of trade and the fisheries.  
It will thus be seen that the first naval lord is the chief 
officer of the Board of Admiralty, and that the operations of 
the other members of the Board all have relation to his work, 
which is no other than preparation for war.  It may here be 
remarked that it appears most necessary to change the naval 
lords frequently, so that there may always be in the Board 
some one who possesses recent touch with the service afloat. 

The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of 
the first naval lord, with whose operations his duties are 
very closely related, though, like every other member of the 
Board, he is subordinate only to the first lord.  The duties of 
the second naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel 
of the fleet, the manning of the navy and mobilization.  In 
his hands rests the direction of naval education, training 
and the affairs of the royal marine forces.  The training 
establishments and colleges are in his hands.  He appoints 
navigating officers and lieutenants to ships (unless they be 
to command), sub-lieutenants, midshipmen and cadets, engineer 
officers, gunners and boatswains, and supervises the management 
of the reserve.  In his province is the mobilization of the 
personnel, including the coastguard and the royal naval 
reserve.  Necessarily, the first and second naval lords 
work together, and upon occasion can replace each other.3 

Most important are the duties that fall to the additional 
naval lord and controller.  He has charge of everything that 
concerns the material of the fleet, and his operations are the 
complement of the work of the first naval lord.  A great number 
of civil departments are directed by the controller, and his 
survey and supervision extend to the dockyards and building 
establishments of the fleet.  He submits plans to the Board 
for new ships, and is responsible for carrying into effect 
its decisions in regard to all matters of construction and 
equipment.  The building operations both in the dockyards and 
in private yards are therefore under his supervision.  In regard 
to all these matters the director of naval construction and 
the engineer-in-chief are the heads of the civil departments 
that carry on the work.  Again, the controller is responsible 
in regard to armament--both gunnery and torpedo--and it 
is the work of his department to see to all gunnery and 
torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms and electric 
apparatus.  The officer in immediate charge of this branch of 
the controller's work, under his direction, is the director of 
naval ordnance.  In regard to work at the dockyards (q.v.) 
the controller is aided by the director of dockyards.  He 
supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done 
in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and 
its appropriation to particular work in accordance with the 
programme.  Other officers who conduct great operations under 
the authority and responsibility of the controller are the 
director of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of 
coal and stores at home and abroad, and examines the store 
accounts of ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense 
accounts, who has charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure 
and seeing that outlay is charged as directed.  In regard to 
the navy estimates, the controller, through his subordinates, 
is responsible for the preparation and administration of the 
votes for shipbuilding and naval armaments, except in regard 
to some sub-headings of the former, and thus in recent years 
for the expenditure of something like L. 15,000,000 or over. 

The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important 
duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and 
victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, 
the charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other 
duties that conduce to the practical efficiency of the 
navy.  He also appoints chaplains, naval instructors, 
medical officers (except in special cases) and officers 
of the accountant branch.  A vast business in regard to 
the internal economy of ships greatly occupies the junior 
lord.  He has charge, for example, of uniforms, prize-money, 
bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to seamen and 
marines and the widows of naval and marine officers.  The 
work of the junior naval lord places under his direction the 
director of transports, the director-general of the medical 
department, the director of victualling, and, in regard to 
particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant- 
general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence 
Department, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned. 

The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, 
the Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and 
works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of 
building stores and land.  He is also responsible for the 
civil staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to 
certain officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich 
Hospital, compassionate allowances, charitable funds, 
and business of like character.  The accountant-general, 
in regard to these matters, is directed by him, and the 
director of Greenwich Hospital is under his authority. 

The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible 
for the finance of the department, the navy estimates and 
matters of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard 
to all matters involving reference to the treasury.  His 
position in regard to estimates and expenditure is very 
important, and the accountant- general is his officer, while 
he has financial control over the director of contracts.  The 
financial secretary also examines proposals for new expenditure. 

A most important official of the Board is the permanent secretary, 
whose office has been described as the ``nerve-centre'' of the 
admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers for 
the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication 
of departments and for the correspondence of the Board.  
The tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the 
permanent secretary, and it is most important that he should 
be chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in 
as many of them at possible, in order that he may possess a 
thorough knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty 
system.  In addition to the secretarial duties of the 
permanent secretary's department, the permanent secretary 
has charge of the military, naval and legal branches, each 
under a principal clerk, the civil branch and the record 
office.  The various branches deal with matters concerning the 
commissioning of ships and the distribution of the fleet, and 
the manning and discipline of the navy, with other associated 
matters, being the channels for the operations of the naval 
lords.  It is a highly important function of the department 
of the permanent secretary to preserve the inter-related 
working of the various departments, and to keep unbroken the 
thread of administration when a new Board is constituted. 

3. Business and Responsibility.--The manner in which the 
Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its 
charge has been indicated.  It would be impossible here to 
describe it in detail, though something concerning the civil 
departments, which are the machinery of naval administration, 
will be found below.  It will, however, indicate the character 
of admiralty administration if we explain to some extent the 
conditions which surround the preparation of the estimates and 
the shipbuilding programme, the more so because this matter 
has been the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the 
admiralty.  It has already been pointed out that the naval 
lords, if they dissent from the estimates that are presented, 
have no remedy but that of protest or resignation.  Into the 
controversies that have arisen as to the responsibility of the 
several lords it is unnecessary to enter here.  The Admiralty 
Board possesses, in fact, the character of a council, and its 
members can only be held responsible for their advice.  It 
has even been contended that, in the circumstances, it should 
not be incumbent upon them to sign the navy estimates, and 
there have been instances in which the estimates have been 
presented to parliament without the signature of certain naval 
lords.  It is in any case obvious, as has been explained 
above, that the ultimate responsibility must always rest 
with the first lord and the cabinet, by whom the policy 
of the country is shaped and directed.  In the report of 
the Hartington Commission in 1890 (the chairman of which 
became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the civil 
and professional administration of the Naval and Military 
Departments, and the relation of these departments to each 
other and to the treasury, the following recommendation occurs: 
``On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility 
of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval 
requirements of the empire, and the existence of a council 
should be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility.'' 

Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the 
strength of the navy.  They are, the foreign policy of the 
Cabinet, and, on the ground of practical expediency, the 
amount of money available. ``The estimates and strength 
of the navy,'' said Rear-Admiral Hotham before the select 
committee on the navy estimates, 1888, ``are matters for 
the cabinet to determine.'' ``Expense,'' said Sir Anthony 
Hoskins, ``governs everything.'' The needs of the empire and 
financial considerations, as it is scarcely necessary to remark, 
may prove to be antithetical conditions governing the same 
problem, and in practice it follows that the Admiralty Board 
directs its operations in accordance with the views of the 
government, but limited by the public funds which are known 
to be available.  Such considerations suggest a practical 
limitation of responsibility, so far as the several lords 
of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be presumed to 
be their duty individually or collectively to place their 
views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton told 
the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should 
represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable 
for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize 
that all financial considerations should be put on one 
side.  The commissioners reported that this was the only 
common-sense view of the matter, and that it was difficult 
to see on what other footing the control of navy expenditure, 
consistently with responsibility to parliament, could be placed. 

Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuilding 
programme--the carrying forward of the work in hand and the 
new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary 
that proper provision should be made for the employment and 
distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase 
of necessary materials.  Through the director of naval 
construction and the director of dockyards, the controller 
is kept informed as to the progress of work and the amount of 
labour required, as also in regard to the building facilities 
of the yards.  These matters, in a general way, must form a 
subject of discussion between the first naval lord and the 
controller, who will report on the subject to the first 
lord.  The accountant-general, as the financial officer of the 
Board, will be called upon to place the proposed estimates 
upon a financial basis, and when the views of the cabinet 
are known as to the amount of money available, the several 
departments charged with the duty of preparing the various 
votes will proceed with that work.  The financial basis alluded 
to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous 
year, modified by the new conditions that arise.  There has 
been in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding 
programmes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence 
Act of 1889, which looked ahead and was not content with 
hand-to-mouth provision, a better state of things has grown 
up, and with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy 
characterized by something of continuity has been developed.  
Certainly the largest factor in the better state of things has 
been the growth of a strong body of public opinion as to the 
supreme value of the navy for national and imperial welfare. 

Another important and related matter that comes before 
the Board of Admiralty is the character and design of 
ships.  The naval members of the Board indicate the classes 
and qualities desired, and it is the practice that the 
sketch-design, presented in accordance with the instructions, 
is fully discussed by the first naval lord and the controller, 
and afterwards by the Board.  The design then takes further 
shape, and when it has received the final sanction of the 
Board it cannot be altered without the sanction of the same 
authority.  A similar procedure is found in the other business 
of the Admiralty Board, such as shore-works, docks and the 
preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare--the 
last being a very important matter that falls into the 
operations of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been 
described, though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly 
in no large sense, as ``the brain of the navy.'' That 
department is under the direction of the first naval lord. 

The shipbuilding programme may be described as the cornerstone 
of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it 
depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes 
relating to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But 
if the Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord 
for the preparation of the estimates, it is also charged 
with the business of supervising expenditure.  In this matter 
the financial secretary plays a large part, and is directed 
to assist the spending department of the admiralty in their 
duty of watching the progress of their liabilities and 
disbursements.  Some notes on admiralty finance will be 
found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes set the 
larger machinery of the admiralty in motion.  The executive 
departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery of 
ships and the special requirements of the director of works, 
do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the 
director of navy contracts.  Most of the important executive 
and spending branches are in the department of the controller, 
and it will be well, while we are dealing with the material 
side of the navy, to describe briefly their character and 
duties.  The civil branches of the navy tributary to the 
controller are those of the director of naval construction, 
the engineer-in-chief, the directors of naval ordnance, of 
dockyards and of stores, and the inspector of dockyard expense 
accounts.  The first duty of the controller is, as has been 
explained, in relation to the design and construction of ships 
and their machinery, and the executive officials who have 
charge of that work are the director of naval construction 
and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely 
interrelated.  A vast administrative stride has been made in 
this particular branch of the admiralty.  The work of design 
and construction now go forward together, and the admiralty 
designers are in close touch with the work in hand at the 
dockyards.  This has been largely brought about by the 
institution, in 1883, of the royal corps of naval constructors, 
whose members interchange their duties between the designing 
of ships at the admiralty and practical work at the 
dockyards.  It is through the director of naval construction 
that many of the spending departments are set in motion, since 
he is responsible both for the design of ships and for their 
construction.  It deserves to be noticed, however, that a 
certain obscurity exists in regard to the relative duties of 
the director of naval construction and the director of dockyards 
touching constructive works in the yards.  The former officer 
has also charge of all the work given out to contract, though 
it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that 
the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled.  In all 
this work the director of naval construction collaborates with 
the engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a 
subordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely 
resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships. 

The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the 
Controller's Department whose operations are very closely 
related to the duties of the director of naval construction, 
and the relation is both intimate and sustained, for in 
the Ordnance Department everything that relates to guns, 
gun-mountings, magazines, torpedo apparatus, electrical 
fittings for guns, and other electrical fittings is centred.  
A singular feature of this branch of administration is that 
the navy long since lost direct control of ordnance matters, 
through the duties connected with naval gunnery, formerly in 
the hands of the master-general of the ordnance, and those of 
the Board of Ordnance--a department common to the sea and land 
services--being vested in 1855 in the secretary of state for 
war.  A more satisfactory state of things has grown up through 
the appointment of the director of naval ordnance, taking the 
place of the naval officer who formerly advised the director 
of artillery at the War Office.  Expenditure on ordnance has 
also been transferred from the army to the navy estimates, and 
a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been created.  It cannot 
be said that the condition is yet satisfactory, nor can it be 
until the navy has control of and responsibility for its own 
ordnance.  The assistant-director of torpedoes is an officer 
instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his duty is 
to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo matters. 

The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards in 
1885, at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense 
accounts was instituted.  It is upon the director of dockyards 
(q.v.) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in 
regard to the management of dockyards and naval establishments 
at home and abroad, and to the performance of work in these 
establishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and 
refits.  In this department the programme for work in the dockyards 
is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates. 

We now come to the Stores Department, with the director of 
stores as its chief.  This officer, about the year 1869, 
took over the storekeeping duties previously vested in the 
storekeeper- general.  The Naval Store Department is charged 
with the custody and issue of naval, as distinguished from 
victualling and ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards 
and establishments for the building, fitting and repairing of 
warships.  It has, however, no concern with stores that 
belong to the Department of Works.  The business of the 
director of stores is also to receive and issue the stores 
for ships of all classes in commission and reserve, and he 
deals with a vast array of objects and materials necessary 
for the fleet, and with coals and coaling.  He frames the 
estimates for his department, but his purchases are made 
through the director of navy contracts.  In practice the 
main business of the Stores Department is to see to the 
provision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply 
of these at all the establishments, and for this purpose its 
officials direct the movements of storeships, and arrange 
for the despatch of colliers, the director being charged to 
be ``careful to provide for His Majesty's ships on foreign 
stations, and for the necessary supplies to foreign yards.'' 
Another important business of the director of stores is the 
examination of the store accounts of ships as well as some other 
accounts.  Although the director of stores is really in the 
department of the controller, he is supervised in regard 
to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord.  The 
inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded 
to.  He is the officer charged with keeping a record of 
expenditure at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts. 

Expenditure. 

It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the 
money.  Within the controller's department, as has been 
explained, are centred the more important spending branches of the 
admiralty.  While the work of designing ships and preparing 
plans is in progress, the director of stores, the director 
of dockyards and other officials of that department concerned 
are making preparation for the work.  The necessary stores, 
comprising almost every imaginable class of materials, are 
brought together, and the director of stores is specially charged 
to obtain accurate information in regard to requirements.  
He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work being 
undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is concerned 
with the whole business of supply, except in regard to hulls 
and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special 
requirements of the director of works.  At the same time, 
the civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible 
for the administration of the votes they compile, it is their 
duty to watch the outlay of money, and to see that it is well 
expended, the accountant-general being directed to assist 
them in this work.  The system is closely jointed and well 
administered, but it possesses a very centralized character, 
which interferes to some extent with flexible working, and 
with the progress of necessary repairs, especially in foreign 
yards.  In so far as ships given out to contract are concerned 
(and the same is the case in regard to propelling machinery 
built by contract), the director of navy contracts plays no 
part, the professional business being conducted through the 
controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the director 
of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief.  The work 
conducted in private establishments is closely watched by the 
admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis 
mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is 
practically the same as that which prevails in the dockyards. 

4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General's Department.-- The 
subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of vast 
importance.  The large sums of money with which the admiralty 
deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure, amounting 
recently to about L. 30,000,000 annually, implies the existence 
of the great organization which is found in the department of 
the accountant-general of the navy.  Under the authority of 
the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is 
responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and 
for the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the 
purchases, and for all matters which concern the relations 
of the admiralty to the treasury and to other departments 
of the government; and in all the practical and advisory 
work the accountant-general is his officer, acting as his 
assistant, with the director of naval contracts who, under 
the several lords, is concerned with the business of purchase. 

The organization of the accountant-general's department has 
undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the 
outcome of various modifications which have had for their 
purpose to give to this officer a measure of financial 
control.  There have been various views as to what the 
duties of the accountant- general should be.  After the 
reorganization of the admiralty by Sir James Graham in 
1832, the accountant-general was regarded as a recording 
and accounting officer, wholly concerned with receipt and 
expenditure.  His duties were limited to the auditing of 
accounts, payments and expenditure generally.  Owing to changes 
effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary secretary, 
assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the 
admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments 
into his charge. the accountant-general was invested with 
the power of criticizing these accounts financially, though 
he did not as yet possess any financial control, and the 
position was little changed by fresh rules made in 1876.  It 
was not until 1880 that the powers of the accountant-general 
were enlarged in this direction.  It was then ordered that he 
should be consulted before any expenditure which the estimates 
had not provided for was incurred, and before any money voted 
was applied to other purposes than those for which it was 
provided.  The effect of this order was not happy, for the 
accountant-general could not undertake these duties without 
setting up friction with the departments whose accounts he 
criticized.  It was contemplated by the admiralty in 1885 to 
make the accountant-general the assistant of the financial 
secretary, and to raise him to the position of a permanent 
officer of finance instead of being an officer of account 
invested with imperfect authority in the direction of 
control.  A select committee of the House of Commons reported 
that the accountant-general possessed no financial control 
over the departments, and that there was an urgent need for 
establishing such a control.  At the time the position of 
that officer did not enable him to exercise any sufficient 
general supervision over expenditure, and there was no 
permanent high official expressly charged with finance.  
Accordingly, after being submitted to a departmental committee, 
a fresh arrangement was made in November 1885, whereby the 
accountant-general, under the authority of the financial 
secretary, was given a direct share in the preparation of the 
estimates.  His written concurrence was required before the 
final approval of the votes, and each vote was referred to 
him for his approval or observations, and he was to exercise 
a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was 
properly accounted for.  He became, in fact, ``the officer 
to be consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of 
naval funds.'' It was believed that economical administration 
would result; but much opposition was raised to the principle 
that was involved of submitting the proposals of responsible 
departments to the inexpert criticism of a financial 
authority.  Mr Main, assistant accountant-general, stated 
before the Royal Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, 
that the effect had been to develop a tendency to withhold 
information or to afford only partial information, as well 
as to cause friction when questions were raised affecting 
expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in those cases 
in which these questions were manifestly of a legitimate 
character.  The result was discouraging, and in the opinion 
of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to 
defeat the purpose of the order.  It is unnecessary to detail 
the various changes that have been made by the institution of 
dockyard expense accounts in the department of the controller, 
and by various other alterations introduced.  The treasury 
instituted an independent audit of store accounts which greatly 
affected the position of the accountant-general, and the Royal 
Commission on Civil Establishments reported that the Board 
of Admiralty were of opinion that they could dispense with 
the accountant- general's review altogether.  The commission 
was, however, of opinion that the accountant-general should be 
the permanent assistant and adviser, on all matters involving 
the outlay of public money, of the financial secretary. 

The operations of the accountant-general are now conducted 
in accordance with the order in council of the 18th of 
November 1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly 
afterwards.  He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the 
parliamentary and financial secretary, and works with a 
finance committee within the admiralty, of which the financial 
secretary is president and the accountant-general himself 
vice-president.  The duties of the department are precisely 
defined as consisting in the criticism of the annual estimates 
as to their sufficiency before they are passed, and in advising 
the financial and parliamentary secretary as to their satisfying 
the ordinary conditions of economy.  The accountant-general 
also reviews the progress of liabilities and expenditure, and 
in relation to dockyard expenditure he considers the proposed 
programme of construction as it affects labour, material and 
machinery.  He further reviews current expenditure, or the 
employment of labour and material, as distinguished from cash 
payments of the yard, as well as proposals for the spending of 
money on new work or repairs of any kind for which estimates 
are currently proposed.  The accountant-general's department 
has three principal divisions: the estimates division, the 
navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division.  In 
the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the 
work of accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of 
votes, and with preparing the navy appropriation account, 
as well as the estimates and liabilities branch, in which 
the navy estimates are largely prepared after having been 
proposed and worked out in the executive departments of the 
admiralty.  There are also ships' establishments and salaries 
branches.  The navy pay division includes the full and half-pay 
branch and a registry section.  There is also the seamen's pay 
branch, which audits ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge 
of all matters concerning the wages of seamen.  The victualling 
audit is also in this branch, and is concerned with payments 
for savings in lieu of victualling and some other matters.  
Further, the navy pay division examines ships' ledgers, and 
is concerned with the service, characters, ages, &c., of men 
as well as with allotments and pensions The third division of 
the accountant-general's department, known as that of invoices 
and claims, conducts a vast amount of clerical work through 
many branches, and is concerned with the management of naval 
savings banks and matters touching prize-money and bounties. 

The importance of this great department of the admiralty 
cannot be overrated.  It is, in the first place, of supreme 
importance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a 
sound financial basis; and in practice the Board requires 
the concurrence of the accountant-general to the votes before 
they are approved, and thus in greater or less degree this 
officer is concerned in the preparation of every one of the 
votes.  He does not concern himself with matters of larger 
policy outside the domain of finance, and it must be 
confessed that there appears to be something anomalous in 
his ``review'' of naval expenditure.  It is, however, a mark 
of the flexibility or elasticity of the admiralty system 
that in practice the operations of the accountant- general's 
department work easily, and that admiralty finance is 
recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient 
basis.  There are important financial officers outside the 
accountant-general's department concerned with assisting the 
controller.  The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, 
who is entirely in the controller's department, enables 
him to exercise careful supervision over expenditure and 
the distribution of funds to special purposes.  This work, 
however, though highly important, is merely one part of the 
system of financial control.  Within recent years the bonds 
have been considerably tightened, and the work is untainted by 
corruption.  It is true that in exercising rigid supervision 
over expenditure the work has become more centralized than is 
desirable, and it is a mark of change within recent years 
that local officers have been in larger measure deprived of 
independent powers.  This, indeed, is a necessary condition 
of financial control, or at least a condition which it 
is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary. 

5. Mobilization of the Fleet.--By the mobilization of the 
fleet is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, 
in readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile 
operations.  A complete mobilization for purposes of practice 
in peace time would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which 
would be justifiable only by actual war.  Thus no country in 
peace manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes 
use of the auxiliary cruisers--merchant ships for which a 
subvention is paid, and which are constructed with a view to 
use in warfare.  Experience has shown that when vessels are 
commissioned they are liable to numerous small breakdowns 
of their machinery if they are manned by crews who have 
no familiarity with them.  Many accidents of this kind had 
occurred in the British navy at manoeuvres, though it could 
not be shown that the vessel was defective, or that the crew 
was either untrained or negligent.  These experiments led the 
admiralty to adopt a new system in 1904, designed to obviate 
the risk that vessels would be crippled at a critical moment 
by want of acquaintance on the part of the crew with their 
machinery.  Under this system all vessels which are considered 
to be available for war are divided into two classes:--first, 
those in full commission which constitute the different 
squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those which 
form the reserve and are kept in partial commission--or rather 
partially manned though in commission.  These are kept at 
the home ports--Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth--in reserve 
squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in 
war.  Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a 
proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating 
and torpedo officers.  Two-fifths of her full complement of 
crew are always on board, and they include the most skilled 
men needed for the proper management of the machinery 
of all kinds--more especially that of the torpedoes and 
guns.  These vessels go to sea for periodical practice.  When 
therefore line fleet must be mobilized for war it will only 
be necessary to fill up the number of trained men by the less 
skilled hands from the naval barracks occupied by the sailors 
not belonging to any particular ship, or from the naval 
reserve.  All ranks of the navy are placed on a roster by 
which they successively serve in ships in full commission, are 
quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to the 
ships of the reserve, from which they return to the sea-going 
ships.  It is calculated that there are always men enough in 
the barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for 
emergency service without disturbing the regular routine of 
the peace establishment.  The British admiralty may claim 
that though the machinery at its command in the past was not 
perfect it has commonly been able to send a squadron to sea 
more rapidly than any other power in Europe.  Much depends on 
the arrangement of the stores as well as the disposition of the 
men.  The introduction at the end of the 18th century of the 
businesslike practice of keeping the fittings of each ship 
together by themselves, did much to facilitate the rapid 
mobilization of a portion of the British fleet in 1790 which 
impressed all Europe.  The prompt manning of a special service 
squadron in 1895 in consequence of the troubles then arising 
in connexion with the former South African Republic, showed 
that even before its plans for mobilization were completed 
the admiralty had its resources well in hand. (R. V. H.) 

Other countries. 

As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain, 
their government is in the hands of ministers or departments 
variously constituted.  The Russian admiralty is a highly 
organized bureau, divided into departments, and under the supreme 
control of a high admiral, usually a grand duke of the Imperial 
House.  The German admiralty was, till 1872, a branch of the War 
Office, though governed by a vice-admiral under a naval prince 
of the reigning family.  In 1872 it was severed from the War 
Office, though remaining an appanage thereof, and a general 
of the army was placed at its head.  The French minister of 
marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls the navy 
of France on a highly centralized system of administration; 
but the departments are well organized, and work well.  The 
Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the 
French, but with a large admixture of the English representative 
element.  The American system is worth describing in more detail. 

United States Navy Department. 

The president of the United States is commander-in-chief 
of the navy--a constitutional prerogative which he seldom 
asserts.  The Navy Department is administered by a civilian 
secretary of the navy--a cabinet officer appointed by the 
president--who exercises general supervision.  Next in 
authority is the assistant-secretary, also a civilian nominee, 
who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, certain specific 
duties, including general supervision of the marine corps, 
naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental 
limits of the United States.  The details of administration 
are supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are 
eight.  They are appointed by the president from the navy 
list for a period of four years, and have the rank of 
rear-admiral while serving in this capacity.  They have 
direct control of the business and correspondence pertaining 
to their respective bureaus; and orders emanating from 
them have the same force as though issued by the secretary. 

The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau, 
and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulations 
prescribed by the secretary; it has general direction of the 
procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the 
personnel.  It also controls the movements of ships, including 
the authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target 
practice.  The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical 
appliances, compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all 
that relates to the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those 
articles that come naturally under the cognizance of other 
bureaus.  It has charge of the naval observatory, where the 
Ephemeris is prepared annually, and of the hydrographic 
office, where charts, sailing directions, notices to mariners, 
&c., are issued.  The bureau of ordnance has charge of the gun 
factory, proving ground, and torpedo station, and all naval 
magazines; all the details that pertain to the manufacture, 
tests, installation or storage of all offensive and defensive 
apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists, ammunition rooms, 
&c., though much of the actual installation is performed by the 
bureau of construction after consultation with the bureau of 
ordnance.  The bureau of construction and repair has charge 
of the designing, building and repairing of hulls of ships, 
including turrets, spars and many other accessories.  It builds 
all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels and the care of 
ships in reserve.  The chief of this bureau is usually a naval 
constructor.  The bureau of steam engineering has charge of all 
that relates to the designing, building and repairing of steam 
machinery, and of all the steam connexions on board ship.  
The bureau of supplies and accounts procures and distributes 
provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay department afloat, 
and acts as the purchasing agent for all materials used at 
naval stations, except for the medical department and marine 
corps.  It also has charge of the disbursement of money 
and keeping of accounts.  The chief of this bureau is a pay 
officer.  The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge 
of all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, 
and of all that pertains to the care of sick afloat and 
ashore.  The chief of this bureau is a medical officer.  
The bureau of yards and docks has charge of construction 
and maintenance of wet and dry docks, buildings, railways, 
cranes, and generally all permanent constructions at naval 
stations.  The chief of this bureau is often a civil engineer. 

Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office 
of the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the 
president from the navy list for a term of four years, with the 
rank of captain while so serving.  He is legal adviser to the 
department, and reviews the records of all courts and statutory 
boards.  Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's 
office is the office of naval intelligence, which collates 
information on naval matters obtainable at home and 
abroad.  The staff is composed of naval officers on shore 
duty, the senior in charge being usually a captain, and known 
as chief intelligence officer.  Several boards are employed 
under the various bureaus, or directly as advisers to the 
secretary.  Some are permanent in character, while others 
are composed of officers employed on other duty, and are 
convoked periodically or when required.  The naval policy 
board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once 
a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in 
armies.  The board of construction consists of the chiefs of 
bureaus of ordnance, equipment, construction and repair, steam 
engineering, and the chief intelligence officer.  Its duty 
is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the 
construction policy in detail.  The general construction policy 
is suggested by the naval policy board.  The board of inspection 
and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who 
inspect vessels soon after commission and on return from a 
cruise, and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency 
of its personnel; it also conducts the official trials of new 
vessels.  The boards for the examination of officers for 
promotion are composed of officers of the corps to which the 
candidate belongs and of medical officers.  Every officer 
is examined professionally, morally and physically at each 
promotion.  The Navy Department is located at Washington, 
D.C., and occupies a building together with the State and War 
Departments (the latter being charged solely with army affairs). 

The personnel (see also under NAVY) is limited in number by 
law.  The engineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then 
engineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective 
relative grades.  Line officers are the military and executive 
branch, and are required besides to perform engineer duties.  
They are graduates of the Naval Academy.  Vacancies occurring 
in the construction corps are filled from the graduates of 
the Naval Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, 
who are given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, 
on being graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed 
assistant naval constructors.  All other staff officers are 
appointed directly from civil life by the president, from 
candidates passing prescribed examinations.  Each representative 
and delegate in Congress has authority to nominate a candidate 
for naval cadet whenever his congressional district has no 
representative in the Naval Academy.  The candidate must be 
a resident of the district which the congressman represents, 
between fifteen and twenty years old, and must pass prescribed 
mental and physical examinations.  The president is allowed 
ten representatives at the Academy at all times, appointed 
``at large,'' and one appointed from the District of Columbia. 

The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, 
each comprising eight months' study, three months' practice 
cruise, and one month's furlough.  At the expiration of four 
years, cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' 
further instruction, and are then commissioned ensigns.  
After three years' further sea service, ensigns are promoted 
to lieutenants (junior grade).  After this, promotion is 
dependent upon seniority alone, the senior officer in any 
grade being promoted to the lowest number in the next higher 
grade when a vacancy occurs in the higher grade, and not 
before.  All officers are retired on three-fourths sea pay at 
the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of medical officers 
certifies that an officer is not physically qualified to 
perform all duties of his grade.  A few officers are allowed 
to retire voluntarily in certain circumstances, to stimulate 
promotion.  Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by 
the secretary to such duty as he may be able to perform: this 
is a legal provision to provide for emergencies.  Promotion in 
the staff corps is dependent upon seniority, though relative 
rank in the lower grades in some corps somewhat depends upon 
promotion of line officers of the same length of service, 
and accounts for the existence of staff officers in the same 
grade having different ranks.  All sea-going officers, after 
commission, are required to spend three years at sea, and are 
then usually employed on shore-duty for a time, according to 
the needs of the service--short terms of shore-duty thereafter 
alternating with three-year cruises.  This rule is adhered 
to as strictly as circumstances will permit.  Shore-duty 
includes executive or distinctly professional duties in the 
Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards and 
stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c., under 
construction by private firms; duty on numerous temporary or 
permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy; recruiting 
duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; inspection duty 
in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical schools; 
as attaches with United States legations; and many others.  
Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and professors of 
mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty connected 
with their professions, the Naval Observatory, Nautical 
Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of the last. 

Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, sailmakers, 
warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the 
secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy 
who have shown marked ability for the positions.  They must be 
between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an 
examination.  After serving satisfactorily for one year under 
an acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the 
permanency of their office.  Ten years after appointment, 
boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible 
for examination for a commission as chief-boatswain, 
&c., and as such they rank with, but next after, ensigns.  
Mates are rated by the secretary from seamen or ordinary 
seamen.  They have no relative rank, but take precedence 
of all petty officers.  Their duties approximate to those 
of boatswains, though they seldom serve on large cruising 
vessels.  Clerks to pay officers are appointed by the 
secretary on the nominations of the pay officers.  They have 
no rank and are not promoted or retired.  Their appointments 
are revoked when their services are no longer needed. 

Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good character, 
who can read and write and pass the physical examination, may 
enlist for the term of their minority.  They enlist as third- 
class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a 
training station, and thence go to sea in apprentice training 
vessels.  When proficient they are transferred to regular 
cruising vessels as second class, and when further qualified 
are rated first class.  All other enlistments are for four 
years.  Recruits must speak English.  Landsmen are usually 
sent to sea on special training-ships until proficient, 
and are then sent into general service.  Raw recruits may 
enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers or mess attendants.  
Ordinary seamen must have served two years, and seamen four 
years before the mast, prior to first enlistment as such; 
and before enlistment in any other rating allowed on first 
enlistment, applicants must prove their ability to hold such 
rating.  Landsmen, coal-passers, &c., as soon as they become 
proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if American 
citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking with 
army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments.  
In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is 
established, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an 
acting appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. 
Permanent appointments are not revokable except by sentence of 
court-martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which 
he held a permanent appointment in his previous enlistment.  
All persons re-enlisting within four months after expiration 
of previous enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four 
months' pay, and in addition receive a ``continuous service 
certificate,'' which entitles them to higher pay and to other 
special considerations.  The same is true for each re-enlistment.  
When an enlisted man completes thirty years' service and is 
over fifty years of age he may retire on three-fourths pay. 

The Marine corps (see MARINES) is a wholly separate military 
body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department. 

United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at 
private yards under contracts awarded after competition.  
The government is not committed to any fixed policy or 
building programme.  Each year the secretary recommends 
certain new construction.  The final action rests with 
Congress, which must appropriate money for the new ships 
before the construction can be commenced.  Repairing and 
reconstruction are usually done at government navy yards. 

Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (1) 
the North Atlantic, i.e. the Atlantic coast of the United 
States, Central America, and South America as far as the 
Amazon, also the West Indies; (2) the South Atlantic, i.e. 
the remainder of the Atlantic coast of South America and both 
coasts of South Africa; (3) the European, comprising the coast 
of Europe, including the inland seas, and the North Atlantic 
coast of Africa; (4) the Asiatic station, comprising the 
coast of Asia, including the islands north of the equator, 
also the east coast of North Africa; (5) the Pacific station, 
comprising the Pacific coast of North and South America, 
and Australia and the adjacent islands lying south of the 
equator.  Each station is commanded by a flag officer, and 
the number of ships under the command varies according to 
circumstances.  Ships in commission on special service, 
such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c., are not 
attached to stations.  The shore stations of the navy 
are enumerated in the article on DOCKYARDS. (W. T. S.) 

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF. The High Court of Admiralty of 
England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant of the 
admiral.  It is supposed in the Black Book of the Admiralty 
to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would 
appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that 
it was established as a civil court by Edward III. in the 
year 1360; the power of the admiral to determine matters of 
discipline in the fleet, and possibly questions of piracy and 
prize, being somewhat earlier.  Even then the court as such 
took no formal shape; but the various admirals began to receive 
in their patents express grants of jurisdiction with powers to 
appoint lieutenants or deputies.  At first there were separate 
admirals or rear-admirals of the north, south and west, each 
with deputies and courts.  A list of them was collected by Sir H. 
Spelman.  These were merged in or absorbed by one high court 
early in the 15th century.  Sir Thomas Beaufort, afterwards 
earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter (appointed admiral of the 
fleet 1407, and admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, 
which latter office he held till his death in 1426), certainly 
had a court, with a marshal and other officers, and forms of 
legal process--mandates, warrants, citations, compulsories, 
proxies, &c. Complaints of encroachment of jurisdiction by the 
Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts, 13 Ric. II. c. 5 
(1389), 15 Ric. II. c. 3 (1391) and 2 Hen. IV. c. 11 (1400). 

Jurisdiction. 

The original object of the institution of the courts or court 
seems to have been to prevent or punish piracy and other 
crimes upon the narrow seas and to deal with questions of 
prize; but civil jurisdiction soon followed.  The jurisdiction 
in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences at Sea 
Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three or four 
other substantial persons appointed by the lord chancellor, 
who were to proceed according to the course of the common 
law.  By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of 
crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty 
was given to the central criminal court.  By an act of 
1844 it has been also given to the justices of assize; 
and crimes done within the jurisdiction of the admiralty 
are now tried as crimes committed within the body of a 
county.  See also the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861. 

From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting 
the civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till 
the time of Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, 
enabling the admiral or his lieutenant to decide on certain 
complaints of freighters against shipmasters for delay in 
sailing, and one of 1562, giving the lord high admiral of 
England, the lord warden of the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants 
and judges, co-ordinate power with other judges to enforce 
forfeitures under that act--a very curious and miscellaneous 
statute called ``An Act for the Maintenance of the Navy.'' 

In an act of 1534, with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from 
the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided 
that the appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, ``and 
that upon every such appeal a commission shall be directed 
under the great seal to such persons as shall be named by 
the king's highness, his heirs or successors, like as in 
cases of appeal from the Admiralty Court.'' The appeal to 
these ``persons,'' called delegates, continued until it was 
transferred first to the privy council and then to the judicial 
committee of the privy council by acts of 1832 and 1833. 

The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been 
exercised very much under the same procedure as that 
used by the courts of common law.  Juries are mentioned, 
sometimes of the county and sometimes of the county and 
merchants.  But the connexion with foreign parts led to the 
gradual introduction of a procedure resembling that coming 
into use on the continent and based on the Roman civil 
law.  The Offences at Sea Act 1536 states the objection to 
this application of the civil law to the trial of criminal 
cases with much force: ``After the course of the civil laws, 
the nature whereof is that before any judgment of death can be 
given against the offenders, either they must plainly confess 
their offences (which they will never do without torture or 
pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly 
proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences 
committed, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times.'' 

Restraining Acts. 

The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as 
follows:--An act of 1389 (13 Ric. II. c. 5) provided that ``the 
admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from henceforth 
of anything done within the realm, but only of a thing done 
upon the sea, as it hath been used in the time of the noble 
prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord the king that now 
is.'' The act of 1391 (15 Ric. II. c. 3) provided that ``of 
all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other things 
rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as by 
water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court shall 
have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction; but all 
such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other 
things rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land 
as by water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be 
tried, determined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the 
land, and not before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in 
anywise.  Nevertheless, of the death of a man, and of a 
maihem done in great ships, being and hovering in the main 
stream of great rivers, only beneath the [bridges] of the 
same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in none other places of 
the same rivers, the admiral shall have cognizance, and also 
to arrest ships in the great flotes for the great voyages 
of the king and of the realm; saving always to the king all 
manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming; and he shall 
have also jurisdiction upon the said flotes, during the said 
voyages only; saving always to the lords, cities, and boroughs, 
their liberties and franchises.'' The act of 1400 (2 Hen. 
IV. c. 11) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction, 
but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments, 
providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the 
court, and those officials of the court who improperly assert 
jurisdiction.  It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 
1861.  The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the 
second, were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879.  
The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete. 

In the reign of James I. the chronic controversies between 
the courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the 
limits of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute 
stage.  We find the records of it in the second volume of 
Marsden's Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, and in 
Lord Coke's writings: Reports, part xiii. 51; Institutes, 
part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage Lord Coke records 
how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted to have been made 
in 1575 between the justices of the King's Bench and the 
judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common law courts 
successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits in 
admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens, or 
creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body 
of any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for 
torts committed within the body of a county, whether on land 
or water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas.  
It is due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to 
say that, at any rate as regards contracts made in partibus 
transmarinis, the same rule appears to have been applied at 
least as early as 1544, the judges then holding that ``for 
actions transitory abroad action may lie at common law.'' 

Judge's patent. 

All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty 
judge purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction 
than the jealousy of the other courts would concede to 
him.  The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert 
Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867, styles him 
``Lieut.  Off. Princ. and Commissary Gen. and Special in 
our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge 
of the same,'' and gives to him power to take cognizance 
of ``all causes, civil and maritime, also all contracts, 
complaints, offences or suspected offences, crimes, pleas, 
debts, exchanges, accounts, policies of assurance, loading of 
ships, and all other matters and contracts which relate to 
freight due for the use of ships, transportation, money or 
bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime between merchants 
or between proprietors of ships and other vessels for matters 
in, upon, or by the sea, or public streams, or fresh-water 
ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever within 
the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or 
upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the 
first bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland 
and the dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas.'' 
Power is also given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also 
``to arrest . . . according to the civil laws and ancient 
customs of our high court . . . all ships, persons, things, 
goods, wares and merchandise''; also ``to enquire by the 
oaths of honest and lawful men . . . of all . . . things 
which . . . ought to be enquired after, and to mulct, arrest, 
punish, chastise and reform''; also ``to preserve the public 
streams of our admiralty as well for the preservation of our 
royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our kingdom . 
. . as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers''; also 
``to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and 
instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes''; also to 
take cognizance ``of the wreck of the sea . . . and of the 
death, drowning and view of dead bodies,'' and the conservation 
of the statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office 
of coroner [1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and ``the 
cognizance of mayhem'' within the ebb and flow of the tide; 
all in as ample manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr 
David Lewis [judge from 1558 to 1584], Sir Julius Caesar, 
and the other judges in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert 
Phillimore.  This form of patent differs in but few respects 
from the earlier Latin patents --tempore Henry VIII.--except 
that they have a clause non obstantibus statutis. 

Modern progress. 

As has been said, however, the contention of the common 
law judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for 
a temporary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative 
insignificance during the 17th century.  The great maritime 
wars of the 18th century gave scope to the exercise of its 
prize jurisdiction; and its international importance as a 
prize court in the latter half of the 18th and the first 
part of the 19th centuries is a matter of common historical 
knowledge.  There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each 
year between 1803 and 1811, in some years upwards of 2000. 

There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, afterwards 
Lord Stowell, is the most famous.  Before his time there were 
no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's prize 
decisions.  But from his time onwards there has been a continuous 
stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find important 
cases decided on the instance as well as on the prize side. 

In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840 and 
1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the 
court.  The manner in which these statutes were administered 
by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose 
tenure of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign 
till the creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable 
assistance rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity 
House, the great increase of shipping, especially of steam 
shipping, and the number and gravity of cases of collision, 
salvage and damage to cargo, restored the activity of the 
court and made it one of the most important tribunals of the 
country.  In 1875, by the operation of the Judicature Acts 
of 1873 and 1875, the High Court of Admiralty was with the 
other great courts of England formed into the High Court of 
Justice.  The principal officers of the court in subordination 
to the judge were the registrar (an office which always points 
to a connexion with canon or civil law), and the marshal, who 
acted as the maritime sheriff, having for his baton of office 
a silver oar.  The assistance of the Trinity Masters, which 
has been already mentioned, was provided for in the charter of 
incorporation of the Trinity House.  These officers and their 
assistance have been preserved in the High Court of Justice. 

Practitioners in the court. 

Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court 
of Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical 
courts and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary 
courts.  Advocates took the place of barristers, and proctors of 
solicitors.  The place of the attorney-general was taken 
by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and that of the 
treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's procurator or 
proctor.  There were also an admiralty advocate and an admiralty 
proctor.  The king's advocate also represented the crown in 
the ecclesiastical courts, and was its standing adviser in 
matters of international and foreign law.  The king's advocate 
led the bar of his courts, and before the privy council took 
precedence of the attorney-general.  The admiralty advocate 
or advocate to his majesty in his office of admiralty 
represented specially the lords of the admiralty.  In the 
Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate. 

In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open 
to barristers and to attorneys and solicitors. 

Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open, the 
crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advocate 
after the attorney- and solicitor-general.  There were two 
holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. 
Phillimore and Sir Travers Twiss.  The office was not filled 
up after the resignation of the latter.  The admiralty had, 
when the courts were thrown open, a standing counsel for the 
ordinary courts and a solicitor.  Questions soon arose as to 
the respective claims of the admiralty advocate and the counsel 
to the admiralty, and their acuteness was increased when the 
courts were fused into one High Court of Justice.  Upon the 
resignation of Sir James Parker Deane the office of admiralty 
advocate was not filled up.  In like manner the proctor to the 
admiralty has disappeared.  The office of king's or queen's 
proctor has been kept alive but amalgamated with that of the 
solicitor for the treasury.  That officer uses the title of 
king's proctor when he appears in certain matrimonial causes. 

The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the 
admiralty was Alexander Staveley Hill, K.C.,M.P.  Since his 
death the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate 
and the admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the 
ordinary law officers of the crown with the assistance of a 
junior counsel to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the 
attorney-general) perform the duties of all these offices. 

Judge advocate of the Fleet. 

The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister 
whose function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters 
connected with courts-martial.  Though section 61 of the 
Naval Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his 
presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays attend, 
but is represented by his deputy or by an officiating deputy 
judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the admiralty, the 
commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron who convenes 
the court-martial, or, if no such appointment is made, 
by the president of the court-martial.  But though the 
judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the 
courts-martial very responsible duties are imposed upon 
him.  By a minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still 
in force) all proceedings of courts-martial on officers and 
men of the royal navy, excepting those where the prisoner 
pleads guilty and no evidence is taken, are to be referred to 
him, with a view to the consideration of (a) the charge, 
(b) the evidence on which the finding is based, and (c) 
the legality of the sentence, and he writes a minute on each 
case for the information of the lords commissioners of the 
admiralty with regard to these points.  He has no power to 
modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the admiralty 
by sec.  53 (1) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except in the 
case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by the 
crown.  All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are 
examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any 
reason to think that there has been any informality or that 
the prisoner has not understood the effect of his plea, such 
case is submitted to the judge advocate of the fleet for his 
opinion.  The judge advocate of the fleet receives no 
fees but is remunerated by a salary of L. 500 per annum. 

The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by 
the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, 
but no such officer had been appointed up to 1908. 

In accordance with the provisions of sec.  61 of the Naval Discipline 
Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet and 
his deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for each 
court-martial.  His duties are described in detail by the king's 
regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of seeing that 
the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities or 
defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, 
seeing that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is 
summoned, keeping the minutes of the proceedings, advising 
on matters of law which arise at any time after the warrant 
for the court-martial is issued, drawing up the findings and 
sentence, and forwarding the minutes when completed to the 
admiralty.  The officiating judge advocate is usually the 
secretary of the flag-officer convening the court-martial or 
some other officer of the accountancy branch.  He is remunerated 
for his services by a fixed fee for each day the court sits. 

Ireland. --The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being 
formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat in 
the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal 
and a king's or queen's advocate.  In peace time and war time 
alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction, though in 
1793 it claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see ADMIRALTY 
JURISDICTION.) No prize commission ever issued to it.  By the 
Irish Judicature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should 
be amalgamated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the 
next vacancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took 
place.  There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland. 

Scotland.--At the Union, while the national functions of 
the lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was 
provided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in 
Scotland should be continued ``for determination of all maritime 
cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the 
jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court.'' This court continued till 
1831, when its civil jurisdiction was given to the Court of 
Session and the Sheriffs' Courts (see ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION), 

See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, 
Rolls series; R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas in the Court of 
Admiralty, published by the Selden Society; Godolphin, 
View of the Admiral Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.) 

1 The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the 
navy, but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment 
of the navy --the only navy of any nation that has not full 
authority over its own ordnance.  In 1653, according to 
Oppenheim, it was, owing to its inefficiency, placed under the 
admiralty.  In 1632 it appears to have been independent, 
but ``still retained that evil pre-eminence in sloth and 
incapacity it had already earned and has never since lost.'' 

2 Admiral Sir Cooper Key, when director of naval ordnance 
during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer 
that no first lord of the admiralty knew so little of 
the working of the admiralty as Mr Childers, because, 
owing to the discontinuance of board meetings, he lost 
the great advantage of hearing the discussion. (R. V. H.) 

3 The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by 
throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work. 

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying north 
of New Guinea, between 1 deg.  and 3 deg.  S., and 146 deg.  and 148 deg.  
E., within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany.  
The largest, Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest 
point is about 3000 ft. above the sea; the others are very 
small, and rise little above sea-level.  Most are of coral 
formation, but the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct 
volcanoes.  The islands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, 
and visited in 1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems 
to have been effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until 
the arrival of the ``Challenger'' in 1875.  The natives are 
of the Papuan type, but show signs of mixed origin.  They 
are cannibals, and many murders of whites have taken place. 

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far as we 
know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first 
exercised were the following.  In and throughout England the 
courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High 
Court of Admiralty (see ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF.) Within 
the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty 
of the Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction.  
In certain towns and places there were local courts of 
vice-admiralty.  In Scotland there existed the Scottish 
High Court of Admiralty, in Ireland the Irish High Court of 
Admiralty.  Of these courts that of the Cinque Ports alone 
remains untouched.  The Scottish court was abolished, and 
its civil jurisdiction given to the Court of Session and 
to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of Session Act 
1830--not, however, till a decision given by it and the appeal 
therefrom to the House of Lords had established a remarkable 
rule of admiralty law in cases of collision (Hay v. le 
Neve, 1824, 2 Shaw, Sc. App. Cas. 395).  The act states 
that the Court of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction 
with the Court of Admiralty in criminal matters.  The local 
vice-admiralty courts in England had ceased to do much work 
when they were abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act 
1835; the High Court became, with the other superior courts, 
a component part of the High Court of Justice by virtue of 
the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875.  And the Irish court has 
in like manner become a part of the High Court of Justice 
in Ireland by virtue of the Judicature Act passed in 1877. 

Vice-Admiralty Courts. 

As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired 
colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiralty courts 
were established.  The earliest known was that in Jamaica, 
established in the year 1662.  Some vice- admiralty courts 
which were created for prize purposes in the last century were 
suffered to expire after 1815.  In the year 1863, when the 
act regulating the vice-admiralty courts was passed, there 
were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua, Bahamas, Barbadoes, 
Bermuda, British Columbia, British Guiana, British Honduras, 
Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Dominica, Falkland Islands, 
Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada, Hong Kong, 
Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise Quebec), 
Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New Brunswick, 
Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand, Nova Scotia 
(otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queensland, St 
Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra Leone, 
South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Vancouver's 
Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and 
Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only) 
Aden.  By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was 
added.  These courts have been regulated from time to time 
by the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will.  IV. c. 51, 26 and 
27 Vict. c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already 
cited, and 30 and 31 Vict. c. 45 (Vice-Admiralty Courts 
Act Amendment Act 1867); and by the slave trade acts, of 
which the last and consolidating act was that of 1873. 

In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that, 
except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St 
Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be 
abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of 
admiralty.  There is power, however, reserved to the crown 
to erect through the admiralty in any British possession any 
vice-admiralty court, except in India or any British possession 
having a representative legislature.  No vice-admiralty 
court so established can exercise any jurisdiction except 
for some purpose relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave 
trade, foreign enlistment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and 
questions relating to treaties or conventions on international 
law.  Vice-admiralty courts exercised all usual admiralty 
jurisdiction, and in addition a certain revenue jurisdiction, 
and jurisdiction over matters of slave trade and prize and 
under the Pacific Islanders' Protection Act. The appeal from 
vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the High Court of Admiralty 
of England, but has been transferred to the king in council. 

Colonial Courts of Admiralty. 

By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890, already 
referred to, every court of law in a British possession 
which is declared by its legislature to be such, or if 
there be no such declaration, which has original unlimited 
civil jurisdiction, shall be a court of admiralty. 

India. 

There used at one time to be vice-admiralty courts for Calcutta, 
Madras and Bombay; but by the India High Courts Act 1861, sec.  9, the 
admiralty jurisdiction is given to the High Courts of these places. 

Consular Courts. 

Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan have 
had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and by sec.  12 of 
the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any court established by 
H.M. for the exercise of jurisdiction in any place outside 
H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty jurisdiction granted to it. 

Australia. 

By the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 
a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of 
Australia, is created, and the parliament of the Commonwealth 
may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the High 
Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, 

The Isle of Man. 

There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which 
the water-bailiff is judae.  He is also styled admiral.  
It is said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other 
maritime matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore. 

County Local Courts. 

Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City 
of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts 
in the following matters: Salvage, where the value of the 
salved property does not exceed L. 1000, or the claim for reward 
L. 300; towage, necessaries and wages, where the claim does 
not exceed L. 150; claims for damage to cargo, or by collision, 
up to L. 300 (and for sums above these prescribed limits by 
agreement between the parties); and claims arising out of 
breaches of charter parties and other contracts for carriage 
of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect thereof, up to 
L. 300.  This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects over which 
jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of Admiralty at 
the time when the first of these acts was passed, except as 
regards the last branch of it (the ``Aline,'' 1880, 5 Ex. 
Div. 227; R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, 1 Q.B. 
272).  In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction 
created in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has 
been given in Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs 
and the chairmen of certain quarter sessions; and in salvage 
cases, where a county court in England would have jurisdiction, 
magistrates, recorders and chairmen of quarter sessions may 
have jurisdiction as official arbitrators (Merchant Shipping 
Act 1894, sec.  547).  In Scotland, admiralty suits in cases 
not exceeding the value of L. 25 are exclusively tried in the 
sheriff's court; while over that limit the sheriff's court 
and the Court of Session have concurrent jurisdiction.  The 
sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction, but only 
as to crimes which he would be competent to try if committed 
on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, sec. sec.  21 and 22). 

By an act of 1821 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage 
was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports. 

Appeals. 

The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the 
High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court 
of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.  In cases 
arising within the Cinque Ports there is an optional appeal 
to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports.  The appeal from 
the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters, 
as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence to 
the House of Lords.  But it is specially provided by the 
Judicature Act 1891, as it was by the Prize Act 1864, that the 
appeal in prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council. 

The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to 
the jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in 
admiralty equity and common law cases, make the distinction 
between cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other 
civil cases of practical moment in those courts.  Arguments 
full of learning and research have been addressed to the 
courts, and weighty decisions have been given, upon questions 
which would never have arisen if the county courts had not a 
larger money area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they 
have in in other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London 
Court, 1892, 1 Q.B. 273; the ``Zeta,'' 1893, App. Cas. 
468).  But as regards the high courts, whether in England, 
Scotland or Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish 
their civil admiralty jurisdiction from their ordinary civil 
jurisdiction, except for the purpose of seeing whether there 
can or cannot be process in rem. Not that every admiralty 
action can of right be brought in rem, but that no process 
in rem lies at the suit of a subject unless it be for a matter 
of admiralty jurisdiction--one, for instance, that could in 
England have been tried in the High Court of Admiralty.  Now 
these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with process in rem 
range themselves under four primary and four supplementary 
heads.  The four primary are damage, salvage, bottomry, 
wages; and the four supplementary are extensions due to one 
or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court) and 1861 
(Admiralty Court Act).  They are damage to cargo carried in a 
ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, mortgage of ship, and 
master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a 
ship.  In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process 
of which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be 
either in personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest 
of the ship, and, in cases of salvage and bottomry, the 
cargo.  Whenever, also, the ship can be arrested, any freight 
due can also be attached, by arrest of the cargo to the extent 
only of the freight which it has to pay.  For the purpose of 
ascertaining whether or not process in rem would lie, there 
have been distinctions as nice, and the line of admiralty 
jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in the cases of the 
admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the ``Theta,'' 
1894, Prob. 280; the ``Gas Float Whitton,'' 1897, App. Cas. 
337).  There have been similar questions raised in the United 
States, from De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), 
and Ramsay v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 611), down to 
the quite modern cases which will be found quoted in the 
arguments and judgments in the ``Gas Float Whitton.'' 

Disciplinary. 

The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exercised by 
the Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant 
vessels, may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the 
last remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for 
flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the ``Minerva,'' 
1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more effectively provided 
against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894.  In time of war, 
however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the 
Admiralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable 
by the High Court of Justice (see Prize below).  It 
was, perhaps, in consequence of its ancient disciplinary 
jurisdiction that the Admiralty Court was made the court to 
enforce certain portions of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. 

Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under the 
Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certificates 
of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the Probate, 
Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice. 

Criminal cases. 

The admiralty jurisdiction in criminal matters extends over 
all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in 
tidal waters, even though such tidal waters be well within 
foreign territory (R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 
161), but not over crimes committed on board foreign vessels 
upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, 1 Denison C.C. 
104).  Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign 
ships within territorial waters of the United Kingdom, and 
whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United 
Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the 
great questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the ``Franconia,'' 
L.R. 2 Ex. Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the 
majority of the judges, rightly, as the writer of this 
article respectfully thinks.  Since then, however, the 
legislature has brought these waters within the jurisdiction 
of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 
1878.  Section 2 runs as follows: ``An offence committed 
by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject, 
on the open sea within the territorial waters of British 
dominions, is an offence within the jurisdiction of the 
admiral, although it may have been committed on board or by 
means of a foreign ship, and the person who committed such 
offence may be arrested, tried and punished accordingly.'' 
By sec.  7 the ``jurisdiction of the admiral'' is defined as 
``including the jurisdiction of the admiralty of England or 
Ireland, or either of such jurisdictions as used in any act 
of parliament; and for the purpose or arresting any person 
charged with an offence declared by this act to be within the 
jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial waters adjacent 
to the United Kingdom, or any other part of her majesty's 
dominions, shall be deemed to be within the jurisdiction of any 
judge, magistrate or officer.'' And ``territorial waters of 
her majesty's dominions'' are defined as ``in reference to the 
sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of 
the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of her 
majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international law to be 
within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and for 
the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within 
the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea 
within one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water 
mark, shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial 
waters of her majesty's dominions.'' As to those portions of 
the sea and tidal waters which, by reason of their partially 
land-locked positions, are deemed to be in the body of a 
county, there is not admiralty jurisdiction, but crimes are 
tried as if they were committed on land within the same county. 

Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 
1360 onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject 
to the admiralty jurisdiction.  The criminal jurisdiction 
of the admiralty was first exercised by the High Court of 
Admiralty; and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1536, 
transferred to commissioners appointed under the great seal, 
among whom were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their 
deputies.  Admiralty sessions were held for this purpose till 
1834.  Admiralty criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue 
of the series of statutes, the Offences at Sea Act 1799, 
the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, Offences at Sea Act 
1844, and the criminal law consolidation acts passed in 
1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court and by the 
ordinary courts of assize.  Special provision for trial 
in the colonies of offences committed at sea has been made 
by an act of William III. (1698-1699), the Offences at Sea 
Act 1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849. 

Prize. 

The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize from 
very early times; and although since the middle of the 17th 
century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction of the 
court, has been kept distinct from the prize jurisdiction, 
they were originally both administered and regarded as 
being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high 
admiral.  The early records of the admiralty show that the 
origin of the prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power 
given to the court of the admiral to try cases of piracy 
and ``spoil,'' i.e. captures of foreign ships by English 
ships.  The earliest recorded case of spoil tried before the 
admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a Portuguese subject, 
taken at sea by Englishmen from a French ship which had 
previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded by the admiral as 
good prize to the English captors; and Edward III. in a letter 
to the king of Portugal answering a complaint on the subject 
gives the admiral's decision as a reason for refusing their 
restoration.  During the 16th century a very large part of 
the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil and 
piracy, and the privy council often directed the judge of the 
court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which 
foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships 
made petition for redress to the admiral or the council.  
The spoil suit at this time (causa spolii) was a civil 
proceeding resulting in a decree absolutoria, dismissing 
the defendant, or condemnatoria, ordering restoration 
to be made by him.  In 1585 the patent of Howard, the lord 
high admiral, authorized him to issue letters of reprisal 
against Spain; and an order in council regulating the conduct 
of those to whom such letters were issued provided by an 
additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be brought 
in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the Admiralty 
Court.  The court was also resorted to at this time by 
captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of 
England, such as the king of France and the Dutch.  About 
the middle of the 17th century separate sittings of the court 
for instance and prize business began, perhaps because of 
the conflicting claims to droits of Charles II. and the 
duke of York as lord high admiral; and privateering under 
royal commission took the place of the former irregular 
``spoiling.'' The account which Lord Mansfield gave of the 
records of the Admiralty Court, that there were no prize 
act books earlier than 1641, or prize sentences earlier than 
1648, and that before 1690 the records were in confusion, must 
be qualified by the correction that there are in existence 
prize sentences (on paper, not parchment) as early as 1589. 

Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have 
interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, 
its exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but 
long previously royal ordinances (1512, 1602) and statutes 
(1661, giving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had 
given the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over 
prize.  The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give 
prize jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts 
of admiralty for the colonies and plantations in North America. 

It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction 
of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers 
given by the general patent of the judge, in which no express 
mention of it is made, or whether it required a special 
commission.  Upon this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield 
in Lindo v. Rodney (1782, Dougl. 612), the judgment 
of Mr Justice Story in De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 
Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas of the Court 
of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted.  But the 
settled practice now and for a long time past has been 
for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this 
purpose.  In connexion with this it is observable that in 
1793 the Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise 
prize jurisdiction under its general patent; and it is said 
to have been the opinion of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty 
Court of Scotland had a similar right (Brown, Civil Law of 
Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212).  Any jurisdiction of the 
Scottish court over prize of war was transferred to the 
English court by the Court of Session Act 1825, sec.  57. As 
to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was provided that 
there should remain in Ireland an instance court of admiralty 
for the determination of causes civil and maritime only. 

In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, 
which had until then been prescribed by occasional acts 
passed for each war as it arose, were for the first time made 
permanent by the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court 
of Admiralty and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or 
any other court exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British 
dominions, if for the time being authorized to exercise prize 
jurisdiction, were made prize courts.  The High Court of 
Admiralty was given jurisdiction throughout British dominions 
as a prize court, and, as such, power to enforce any order 
of a vice-admiralty prize court and the judicial committee 
of the privy council in prize appeals-- this power mutatis 
mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty prize courts.  
An appeal was given from any prize court to the sovereign in 
council.  Prize courts were given jurisdiction in cases of 
captures made in a land expedition or an expedition made 
conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize salvage 
on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of procedure 
was prescribed.  The High Court was also given exclusive 
jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom 
and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish 
masters of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting 
convoy.  By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award 
damages to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of 
the officer in charge of the convoy was also given to the High 
Court.  Under other statutes it had power to try questions 
of booty of war when referred to it by the crown, in the 
same way as prize causes, and claims of king's ships for 
salvage on recaptures from pirates, which could be condemned 
as droits of admiralty, subject to the owner's right to 
receive them on paying one-eighth of the value, and also 
power to seize and restore prizes captured by belligerents 
in violation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped in 
British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality. 

All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since 
passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize 
court under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the 
Admiralty Court in that respect; and all prize causes and 
matters within the jurisdiction of that court as a prize 
court are assigned to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty 
Division; and an appeal from it as a prize court lies only 
to the king in council (Judicature Acts 1873 and 1891). 

By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the constitution 
of prize courts in British possessions.  A commission, warrant 
or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may be issued 
at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue, subject to 
instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the possessions 
on being satisfied by information from a secretary of state 
that war has broken out between Great Britain and a foreign 
state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the commission 
or warrant comes into effect.  The commission or warrant 
may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court of 
admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty 
court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any 
time.  The court is authorized to act as a prize court during 
the war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as 
such, and finally dispose of all matters and things arising 
during the war, including all penalties and forfeitures incurred 
therein.  Rules of court may also be made by order in council 
for regulating, subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure 
and practice of prize courts under that act, the duties and 
conduct of their officers and practitioners, and the fees 
and costs therein (Prize Courts Act 1894, sec. sec. 2, 3). This 
latter power has been exercised; and prize rules for the 
High Court of Justice and the vice- admiralty prize courts 
were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and Orders, 1898). 

AUTHORITIES.--Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of 
Admiralty, Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, 
Jurisdiction of the Admiralty of England asserted; Robinson, 
Collectanea Maritima; Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; 
Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; 
Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit.  Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.) 

UNITED STATES The source of admiralty jurisdiction in 
the United States is Article 3, sec.  2 of the United States 
Constitution:--``The judicial power shall extend to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction.'' The United 
States Supreme Court has declared that by virtue of these 
words the admiralty jurisdiction extends not only to the 
high seas but to the great lakes and the rivers connecting 
them, and to all public navigable waters in the United 
States (the ``Genesee Chief'' v. Fitz Hugh, 12 Howards 
U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals (Ex. 
p.  Boyer, 109 U.S. Rep. 629, the ``Robert W. Parsons,'' 
[1903] 191 U.S. 17), and is not confined to tide waters.  The 
American colonies had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty 
jurisdiction equal to the largest claimed by the English 
admiralty courts even under Edward III. When they became 
states they delegated to the federal government their several 
``admiralty and maritime jurisdiction,'' using these words 
in the sense understood in every country in Europe, England 
excepted, and in the sense in which they had then been used 
in the colonies for a long time, and without reference to 
the very narrow jurisdiction of the English admiralty courts 
then existing (Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441). 

It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction 
not that it is ``co-equal with that of the original English, 
or that of continental European admiralty, but is rather that 
defined by the statutes of Richard II., under the construction 
given to them by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts 
of admiralty'' (2 Parsons Adm. 176), and that it embraced all 
maritime contracts, torts, injuries or offences (De Lovio v. 
Boit, 2 Gallisons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards 
U.S. Rep. 441), and that it has never been restricted by the 
action of the common law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 
Parsons Adm. 166 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Bolt.) 

Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of 1789 
(U.S.  Rev. Stats. sec.  563) granted to the United States district 
courts exclusively, except that concurrent original jurisdiction 
was given to United States circuit courts over seizures for 
slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons 
in insurrection (sec.  629; sec.  5309), and in the coolie trade 
(sec.  2159), and by the act of the 3rd of March 1901; the supreme 
court of the District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction 
as the district and circuit courts.  The Supreme Court of 
the United States has no original jurisdiction in admiralty.  
All suits are brought in the first instance in the district 
court.  Appeals lie, both on the law and on the facts, from 
a final decree of that court to the circuit court of appeals 
only, except in cases involving the jurisdiction of the court, 
the constitutionality of a law of any state or of the United 
States, or the validity or construction of any treaty of the 
United States, and except cases of prize and capital or infamous 
crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the supreme 
court.  In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme Court 
may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court 
of appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lau Ow Bew, 141 
U.S. Rep 587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, sec.  607).  
Formerly the Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from the 
district court to the circuit court, and thence to the Supreme 
Court.  But the act of the 3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) 
abolished this and created the circuit court of appeals, making 
it the final appellate court in admiralty, except as above 
stated.  In any case where the district judge is unable to 
perform his duties or is disqualified by reason of interest 
or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the 
parties to the action, it may be removed to the circuit 
court in that district (U.S.  Rev. Stats. sec. sec.  587, 589 and 
601).  These are now the only cases in which admiralty suits 
can come before the circuit court (Benedict's Adm. sec.  321). 

The subject matter in cases of contract determines the 
jurisdiction (the ``General Smith,'' 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 
438), and not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, 
current, nor that the water be an inland basin or land-locked, 
or a river, nor by its being a harbour, or a port within 
the body of the county, nor that a remedy exists at common 
law.  The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over all 
matters that concern owners and proprietors of ships as 
such; possessory actions and petitory actions to try title 
of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dockage, 
lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter 
parties, rights of passengers as such (the ``Moses Taylor,'' 
71 U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and 
loans, bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and 
cargo, marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, 
collisions, consortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, 
salvage; seizures under the laws of impost navigation or 
trade, cases of prize, ransom, condemnation, restitution 
and damages; assaults, batteries, damages and trespasses on 
the high seas and navigable waters of the United States; but 
not suits in rem for duties (Benedict's Adm. sec.  303a). 

The U.S. Supreme Court has held in Peoples Ferry Co. v. Beers, 
20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subsequent cases 
that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime contract (the 
``Robert W. Parsons'').  Contracts to furnish cargo for ships 
and to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime contracts 
(Graham v. Oregon R. & N. Co., [1905] 135 Fed. Rep. 608). 

Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by 
state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced 
by suit in rem in admiralty in the federal courts (the ``
General . Smith''; the ``Lottawanna,'' 21 Wallace Rep. 
558, Benedict's Adm. sec.  270).  In all suits by material men 
for supplies and repairs or other necessaries for a foreign 
ship, the libellant may proceed against the ship and freight 
in rem or against the master or owner in personam (12th 
Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm. sec.  268; the ``General 
Smith'').  Actions in rem and in personam may be joined 
in the same libel (Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace 257; the 
``Normandie,'' 40 Fed. Rep. 590).  But a contract to furnish 
fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal effects 
for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court 
of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the 
``May F. Chisholm,'' 1904; 129 Fed. Rep. 814).  The state 
courts have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract 
or tort (the ``Lottawanna,'' the ``Belfast,'' 7 Wallace Rep. 
624).  Admiralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; 
it must have occurred on the high seas or other navigable 
waters within admiralty cognizance (2 Farsons Adm. 347; the 
``Plymouth,'' 3 Wallace Rep. 20; the ``Genesee Chief'' v. 
Fitz-Hugh, the ``Blackheath,'' [1903] 122 Fed. Rep. 112). 

The U.S. Supreme Court in the ``Harrisburg'' (119 U.S. 199) 
and the ``Alaska'' (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of 
opinion, held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction 
under the general admiralty law to try an action for damages 
for negligence on the high seas, causing death of a human 
being, while there was no act of Congress and no statute 
of the state to which the vessel belonged giving such 
right of action (Benedict's Adm. sec. sec.  275-309a), nor 
where such statute is that of a foreign country (Rundell 
v. Compagnie Generale, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366). 

Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and 
piracy, collision and proceedings by owners to limit 
their liability under U.S. Rev. Stats. sec. sec.  4281-9. 

The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdiction 
in matters of prize (The Prize Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 
635).  The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction 
(except that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize 
is taken from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court 
of the District of Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction 
(U.S. v. Sampson, 1902, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct 
to the Supreme Court.  Special commissioners are appointed 
on the breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of 
the district courts (U.S.  Rev. Stats. sec.  4621, Prize Rule 9; 
Benedict's Adm. sec. 509; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 
233).  These commissioners take the depositions of witnesses 
and report to the court the evidence upon which it adjudicates.  
Proceedings in prize cases must be in conformity with admiralty 
proceedings, where the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. 
v. U.S., 6 Wallace 759; 2 Parsons Adm. 174).  The district 
courts have all the powers of a court of admiralty whether 
as instance or prize courts (Glass v. sloop ``Betsy,'' 
3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters of prize is one of the 
ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's Adm. sec.  509). 

The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and offences 
committed upon vessels belonging to citizens of the United States 
on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any waters within 
the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the United States 
(U.S.  Rev. Stats. sec.  5339).  High seas include the great 
lakes ( U.S. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 249). (J. A. BA.) 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

France, and countries following France. 

In France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece 
--countries which have adopted codes based on the Code 
Napoleon--the civil, or, as it would have been formerly called 
in England, the ``instance,'' jurisdiction of the admiralty 
is exercised by the ordinary tribunals, and there are no 
separate courts of admiralty for this purpose.  France and 
some other countries have special commercial tribunals, which 
deal with shipping matters, but also with ordinary commercial 
cases.  France has also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux 
(Code disciplinaire et penal de la marine marchande du 24 
mars 1852, loi du 11 mars 1891) to deal with maritime 
offences.  Austria adopts the French law in commercial 
matters.  Italy had tribunals of commerce, but has given them 
up.  She has, however, by Art. 14 of her Merchant Shipping Code, 
given jurisdiction to captains of ports to decide collision 
cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed 200 lire. 

Germany. 

In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty matters. 
Kammern fur Handelssachen, commercial courts, have been 
established in Berlin and some of the principal seaports.  These 
deal with shipping matters, but also with all other commercial suits. 

Scandinavian nations. 

In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code which 
came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1892, and 
in Norway in 1893.  This was intended to be one code for the 
three countries; but each country as it finally adopted the 
code made some modifications of its own.  Under this code 
there are in Norway permanent maritime courts for each town 
presided over by the judge of the inferior local civil court 
(civile underdommer), or if there be more than one such 
judge then by the president, with two assessors chosen out of a 
list.  Temporary local courts, consisting of the same judge 
with two other members of nautical skill and knowledge, can 
be constituted in districts where there are no permanent 
courts.  Appeals lie to the supreme court (Hoiesterei.) 
In Denmark maritime cases are brought before the local 
courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes 
(So-og-Handelsret.) In Sweden maritime cases are brought 
before local courts of first instance consisting of a 
judge and assessors.  There is an intermediate appeal to 
courts of second instance, and then to the supreme court, 
which finally decides upon all causes civil and commercial. 

Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary 
civil tribunals, with the same right of appeal. 

Prize jurisdiction. 

``By the maritime law of nations universally and immemorially 
received there is an established method of determination 
whether the capture be or be not lawful prize.  Before the 
ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor there must 
be a regular judicial proceeding wherein both parties may 
be heard and condemnation thereupon as prize in a court of 
admiralty judging by the law of nations and treaties. . . . 
If the sentence of the court of admiralty is thought to be 
erroneous, there is in every maritime country a superior court 
of review. . . .'' (duke of Newcastle's letter to M. Michell, 
secretary to the embassy of the king of Prussia, 1753). ``So 
far as belligerent states do not make a practice of giving 
up the taking of booty at sea . . . they are required by 
international law to establish prize tribunals and thus give to 
their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial character'' 
(v . Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon, tit. ``Prisengerichte''). 

In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1632 
prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral.  The duke 
had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to 
Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death 
the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one 
of grand master of navigation established in lieu.  This new 
office was first held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till 
1695.  The grand master took the admiral's place in matters 
of prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state 
and masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand 
master and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil 
there was an appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. When the office 
of admiral was restored in 1695 he exercised his jurisdiction 
in prize matters with the assistance of the Conseil des 
Prises. The appeal was then given to the Conseil Royal des 
Finances. The Ordonnance sur la marine of August 1681 
regulated the procedure.  This system continued till the 
Revolution.  The last Conseil des Prises was appointed in 
1778.  A law of the 14th of February 1793 abolished the 
Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of prize matters 
``provisionally'' to the tribunals of commerce.  On the 8th 
of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdiction 
was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the 
Conseil Executif. Later it was given to the Comite de 
Salut Public. On the 25th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, 
an IV.) the jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of 
commerce.  This was again altered on the 27th of March 1800 (6 
Germinal, an VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, 
consisting of nine councillors of state, a commissary of the 
government and a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul. 

On the 11th of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil 
d'Etat. It was disputed among French jurists whether the 
Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated 
only by political considerations or one exercising what 
the French term an ``administrative jurisdiction''; which 
is, as nearly as a parallel to it can be found in England, 
administration of justice between individuals and the state. 

As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had 
been dealt with, an ordinance of the 9th of January 1815 
suppressed the Conseil des Prises and directed the Comite 
du contentieux of the Conseil d'Etat to prepare the 
remaining prize matters for decision by the Conseil d'Etat. 
Such prize matters (probably including captures for trading 
in slaves) as required to be dealt with till 1854, appear 
to have been dealt with by this body; an ordinance of the 
9th of September 1831 directing that the proceedings before 
the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to show 
that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative. 

An Imperial decree, however, of the 18th of July 1854 restored 
the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. 
This was for the war with Russia.  A similar decree was published 
on the 9th of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy. 

On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that 
the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was 
kept in being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil 
has decided on prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and 
Germany and in Cochin China.  It consists of seven judges and 
a commissary of the government.  An appeal to the government 
in the Conseil d'Etat can be brought within three months.  
It is then decided by l'Assemblee du Conseil d'Etat. 

Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports, 
commissions colonials and commissions consulaires, 
established mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des 
Prises, but sometimes, when the ship and cargo were clearly 
those of the enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation. 

In Prussia Regulations of the 20th of June 1864 established a 
prize council consisting of a president and six associates with 
a law officer.  An appeal was given to an upper prize council 
(v. Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon, tit. ``Prisengerichte''). 

By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the 
legality of prizes made during war has to be decided by prize 
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine 
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and 
their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize 
courts were established under this law on the occasion of the East 
African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.). 

In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides 
that prize matters shall be tried by a special commission 
established by royal decree.  On the occasion of the war with 
Austria such a special commission was established by royal 
decree of the 20th of June 1866.  For the war with Abyssinia 
a fresh commission was established by royal decree of the 16th 
of August 1896.  The composition of this commission, which 
was slightly different in character from that established in 
1866, was as follows: (a) a first president of a court of 
appeal or a retired one, or a president of a section of the 
council of state or of cassation; (b) two general officers 
of the navy; (c) a member of the ``contentious part'' of 
the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of 
appeal; (e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the 
government and a secretary; five to be a quorum.  There was no 
appeal; but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court 
of Cassation at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without 
jurisdiction or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved. 

By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the whole 
matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of 
first instance were contemplated--port tribunals and fleet 
tribunals.  The latter are for captures made by ships of the 
fleet, and are to be composed of some of the principal officers 
of the fleet.  The former are to have presidents named by the 
emperor from among those ``qui font partie de l'administration 
maritime judiciaire''; the other members are to be appointed 
by the ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs.  
The court of appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty 
with the addition of two members of the senate and a nominee 
of the minister of foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p. 271). 

On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals were 
established under the authority of this ordinance by the lord 
high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the 13th of March 1904, 
at Sebastopol--Port Alexander III., Port Arthur and Vladivostock 
(Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd March 1904).  
Many cases were heard before these tribunals and on appeal. 

The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain 
is described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), 
Tratado juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz, 
1746).  On the occasion of the war with the United States 
the Spanish government published a proclamation stating 
the circumstances in which captures were to be made 
and prizes taken; but information is lacking as to the 
particular constitution of the prize court or courts. 

In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried 
by the ordinary tribunals.  See decision of Civil Tribunal 
of Athens, 1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826). 

Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize 
court and a court of appeal.  The ordinance establishing these 
courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877. 

Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize 
courts at Sasebo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo.  
Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure 
seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns. 

AUTHORITIES.--Clunet, Journal du droit international prive, 
cited shortly as Clunet; v.  Holzendorff, Rechtslexikon, 
Leipzig, 1881; De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises 
maritimes, Paris, 1855, vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, 
International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Autran, 
Code international de l'abordage, de l'assistance, et du 
sauvetage maritimes, Paris, 1902; Raikes, The Maritime 
Codes of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and 
Belgium (1898), of Italy (1900), London. (W. G. F. P.) 

ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box 
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, 
or by some person whose statements are binding on that 
party against the interest of that party. (See EVIDENCE.) 

ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged 
to a famous Frankish house, and spent much of his middle life in 
Italy.  He held his archiepiscopal see from 850 till his 
death on the 16th of December 874. Several of his letters 
are extant and reveal their writer as an energetic man of 
wide sympathies and considerable influence.  Ado's principal 
works are a Martyrologium (printed inter al. in Migne, 
Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181-420; append. pp. 419-436), 
and chronicle, Chronicon sive Breviarium chronicorum de sex 
mundi aetalibus de Adamo usque ad ann. 869 (in Migne, cxxiii. 
pp. 20-138, and Pertzn Monumenta Germ. ii. pp. 315-323, 
&c.).  Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede, with which he 
combines extracts from the ordinary sources, forming the whole 
into a consecutive narrative founded on the conception of the 
unity of the Roman empire, which he traces in the succession of 
the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs following immediately 
after Constantine and Irene. ``It is,'' says Wattenbach, 
``history from the point of view of authority and preconceived 
opinion, which exclude any independent judgment of events.'' 
Ado wrote also a book on the miracles (Miracula) of St 
Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (9th century), published in 
the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum; a life or Martyrium of St 
Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about 870 and 
published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of St 
Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon, 
Acta Sanct. i. pp. 678-681, Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and 
revised in Bollandist Acta Sanct. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843. 

See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, 
vol. i. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904). 

ADOBE (pronounced a-do-be; also corrupted to dobie; 
from the Span. adobar, to plaster, traceable through 
Arabic to an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning ``brick''), a 
Spanish-American word for the sun-dried clay used by the 
Indians for building in some of the south-western states of 
the American Union, this method having been imported in the 
16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction 
is made between the smaller ``adobes,'' which are about the 
size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ``adobines,'' 
some of which are as much as from one to two yards long. 

ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolescentia, from adolescere, to 
grow up, past part. adultus, grown up, Eng. ``adult''), the 
term now commonly adopted for the period between childhood 
and maturity, during which the characteristics--mental, 
physical and moral--that are to make or mar the individual 
disclose themselves, and then mature, in some cases by 
leaps and bounds, in others by more gradual evolution.  
The annual rate of growth, in height, weight and strength, 
increases to a marked extent and may even be doubled.  The 
development in the man takes place in the direction of a 
greater strength, in the woman towards a fitter form for 
maternity.  The sex sense develops, the love of nature and 
religion, and an overmastering curiosity both individual and 
general.  This period of life, so fraught with its power for 
good and ill, is accordingly the most important and by far 
the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal with 
efficiently.  The chief points for attention may be briefly 
indicated.  Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, 
or the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the 
individual, and environment.  In an ideal system of 
training these two factors will be so fitted in and adapted 
to one another, that what is weak or unprovided for in 
the first will be amply compensated for in the second. 

In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the 
country as much as possible rather than in the town.  Though 
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and 
take no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, 
are continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic 
catarrh, tonsillitis, bronchitis,and even the far graver 
pneumonia.  Removed to healthier conditions in the country their 
ailments tend to disappear, and normal physical development 
supervenes.  The residence should be on a well-drained soil, 
preferably near the sea in the case of a delicate child, on 
higher ground for those of more robust constitution.  The 
child should be lightly clad in woollen garments all the year 
round, their thickness being slightly greater in winter than in 
summer.  An abundance of simple well-cooked food in sufficient 
variety, ample time at table, where an atmosphere of light 
gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from restraint 
both before and after meals, should be considered fundamental 
essentials.  As regards the most suitable kinds of food--milk 
and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat once a 
day, and fish or eggs once a day.  Bread had better be three 
days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase 
the ratio of crust to crumb.  Both butter and sugar are good 
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms.  The 
exercise of the body must be duly attended to.  Nowadays this 
is provided for in the shape of games, some being optional, 
others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swimming, 
fencing, &c. But severe exercise should only be allowed 
under adequate medical control, and should be increased very 
gradually.  In the case of girls, let them run, leap and 
climb with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of 
life.  But as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress 
and strain dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately 
modified.  Rest should be enforced during the menstrual 
periods of these earlier years, and milder, more graduated 
exercise taken at other times.  In the same way all mental 
strain should be diminished.  Instead of pressure being put 
on a girl's intellectual education at about this time, as 
is too often the case, the time devoted to school and books 
should be diminished.  Education should be on broader, more 
fundamental lines, and much time should be passed in the open 
air.  With regard to the mental training of both sexes two 
points must be borne in mind.  First, that an ample number 
of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to ten 
years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years 
not less than nine.  Secondly, that the time devoted to 
``bookwork'' should be broken up into a number of short 
periods, very carefully graduated to the individual child. 

In every case where there is a family tendency towards any 
certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine 
the whole circumstances of the child's life.  That diathesis 
which is most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous 
excitable one, is by far the most important and the most 
difficult to deal with.  Every effort should be made to 
avoid the conditions in which the hereditary predisposition 
would be aroused into mischievous action, and to encourage 
development on simple unexciting lines.  The child should be 
confined to the schoolroom but little and receive most of his 
training in wood and field.  Other diatheses--the tuberculous, 
rheumatic, &c.---must be dealt with in appropriate ways. 

The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral 
perversions.  The emotions are extremely unstable, and any 
stress put on them may lead to undesirable results.  Warm 
climates, tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft 
mattresses, or indulgences of any kind, and also mental 
over-stimulation, are especially to be guarded against.  
The day should be filled with interests of an objective--in 
contradistinction to subjective--kind, and the child should 
retire to bed at night healthily fatigued in mind and body.  
Let there be confidence between mother and daughter, father 
and son, and, as the years bring the bodily changes, those 
in whom the children trust can choose the fitting moments 
for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning against 
abuses of the natural functions.  For bibliography see CHILD. 

ADOLPH OF NASSAU (c. 1255-.1298), German king, son of 
Walram, count of Nassau.  He appears to have received a good 
education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden in 
1276.  He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many of the 
feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen German 
king, in succession to Rudolph I., an election due rather 
to the political conditions of the time than to his personal 
abilities.  He made large promises to his supporters, and 
was crowned on the 1st of July at Aix-la-Chapelle.  Princes 
and towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, 
and the allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert 
I., duke of Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely 
nominal.  Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, 
he claimed Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 
1294 allied himself with Edward I., king of England, against 
France.  Edward granted him a subsidy, but owing to a 
variety of reasons Adolph did not take the field against 
France, but turned his arms against Thuringia, which he 
had purchased from the landgrave Albert II. This bargain 
was resisted by the sons of Albert, and from 1294 to 1296 
Adolph was campaigning in Meissen and Thuringia.  Meissen was 
conquered, but he was not equally successful in Thuringia, 
and his relations with Albert of Austria were becoming more 
strained.  He had been unable to fulfil the promises made at his 
election, and the princes began to look with suspicion upon his 
designs.  Wenceslaus II., king of Bohemia, fell away from his 
allegiance, and his deposition was decided on, and was carried 
out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May 1298, when Albert of Austria 
was elected his successor.  The forces of the rival kings 
met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July 1298, where Adolph was 
killed, it is said by the hand of Albert.  He was buried at 
Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were removed to Spires. 

See F. W. E. Roth, Geschichte des Romischen Konigs Adolf I. 
von Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879); V. Domeier, Die Absetzung Adolf 
von Nassau (Berlin, 1889); L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs 
Adolf von Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des 
Grossen Adolf von Nassau zum Romischen Konig; B. Gebhardt, 
Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901). 

ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862), English lawyer and 
author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768--1845), a well-known 
London barrister who wrote a History of England to 1783 
(1802), a History of France from 1790 (1803) and other 
works.  He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at 
St. John's College, Oxford.  In 1821 he published Letters to 
Richard Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of 
the then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter 
Scott.  This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the 
novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged 
by Scott.  Scott thought at first that the letters were 
written by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, 
and the discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm 
friendship.  Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his 
Circuiteers, an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of 
his colleagues on the northern circuit.  He became judge of the 
Marylebone County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner 
Temple.  He was the author of Letters from Spain in 1816 
and 1817 (1858), and was completing his father's History of 
England at the time of his death on the 24th of December 1862. 

ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was born 
at Gottorp on the 14th of May 1710.  His father was Christian 
Augustus (1673--1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, 
bishop of Lubeck, and administrator, during the war of 
1700--1721, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his nephew 
Charles Frederick; his mother was Albertina Frederica of 
Baden-Durlach.  From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of Lubeck, 
and administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke 
Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia.  In 
1743 he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the ``Hat'' 
faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of 
peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the house 
of Holstein was notorious (see SWEDEN, History). During 
his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more 
than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the 
hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party 
strife.  Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the 
intolerable tutelage of the estates.  The first occasion 
was in 1755 when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa 
Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain 
a portion of the attenuated prerogative, and nearly lost 
his throne in consequence.  On the second occasion, under 
the guidance of his eldest son, the crown prince Gustavus, 
afterwards Gustavus III., he succeeded in overthrowing the 
tyrannous ``Cap'' senate, but was unable to make any use of 
his victory.  He died of surfeit at Stockholm on the 12th 
of February 1771.  See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and 
his Contemporaries, vol. i. (London, 1895). (R. N. B.) 

ADONI, a town of British India, in the Bellary district of 
Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail.  It has manufactures of 
carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning 
and pressing cotton.  The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an 
important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is frequently 
mentioned in the wars of the 18th century.  Pop. (1901) 30,416. 

ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyah or Adoniyyahu, ``Yah is 
Lord''), a name borne by several persons in the Old 
Testament, the most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son of 
David.  He was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 
Ch. iii. 2). The natural heir to the throne, on the death of 
Absalom, he sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize 
his birthright, and made arrangements for his coronation (1 
Kings i. 5 ff.).  Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the 
help of Nathan the prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently 
with the consent of David, had ascended the throne, he fled 
for safety to the horns of the altar.  Solomon spared him 
on this occasion (1 Kings i. 50 ff.), but later commanded 
Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 ff.), because with the approval 
of Bathsheba he wished to marry Abishag, formerly David's 
concubine, and thus seemed to have designs on the throne. 

ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable 
beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite.  According to the story 
in Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king 
Theias by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired 
by Aphrodite with unnatural love.  When Theias discovered the 
truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity 
changed her into a tree of the same name.  After ten months the 
tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis.  Aphrodite, 
charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed 
him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to 
give him up.  On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that 
Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and 
a third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own 
disposal.  Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by 
Artemis.  There are many variations in the later forms of the 
story (notably in Ovid, Metam. x. 298).  The name is generally 
supposed to be of Phoenician origin (from adon--``lord''), 
Adonis himself being identified with Tammuz (but see F. 
Dummler in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyklopadie, who does not 
admit a Semitic origin for either name or cult).  The name 
Abobas, by which he was known at Perga in Pamphyha, certainly 
seems connected with abub (a Semitic word for ``flute''; cf. 
``ambubaiarum collegia'' in Horace, Satires, i. 2. 1). (See 
also ATTIS.) Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in 
his honour at Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places.  
Although there were variations in the ceremony itself and in 
its date, the central idea was the death and resurrection of 
Adonis.  A vivid description of the festival at Alexandria 
(for which Bion probably wrote his Dirge cf. Adonis) is 
given by Theocritus in his fifteenth idyll, the Adoniazusae. 
On the first day, which celebrated the union of Adonis and 
Aphrodite, their images were placed side by side on a silver 
couch, around them all the fruits of the season, ``Adonis 
gardens'' in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh, cakes of 
meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things that 
creep and things that fly.  On the day following the image 
of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the 
sea by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts.  At 
the same time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated 
to be propitious in the coming year.  This festival, like 
that at Athens, was held late in summer; at Byblus, where 
the mourning . ceremony preceded, it took place in spring. 

It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit, 
whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature 
in winter and its revival in spring.  He is born from the 
myrrh-tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is 
connected with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess.  
A special feature of the Athenian festival was the ``Adonis 
gardens,'' small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, 
which rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote 
any transitory pleasure).  The dispute between Aphrodite 
and Persephone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the 
agreement that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year 
in the lower-world (the seed at first underground and then 
reappearing above it), finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz 
and Ishtar (see APHRODITE) The ceremony of the Adonia was 
intended as a charm to promote the growth of vegetation, 
the throwing of the gardens and images into the water being 
supposed to procure a supply of rain (for European parallels see 
Mannhardt).  It is suggested (Frazer) that Adonis is not a 
god of vegetation generally, but specially a corn-spirit, 
and that the lamentation is not for the decay of vegetation 
in winter, but for the cruel treatment of the corn by the 
reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John Barleycorn.) 

All important element in the story is the connexion of 
Adonis with the boar, which (according to one version) brings 
him into the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of 
the tree into which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills 
him.  It is probable that Adonis himself was looked upon 
as incarnate in the swine, so that the sacrifice to him by 
way of expiation on special occasions of an animal which 
otherwise was specially sacred, and its consumption by its 
worshippers, was a sacramental act.  Other instances of a 
god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy are the 
sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the bear to 
Artemis.  The swine would be sacrificed as having caused the 
death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphrodite for that 
animal.  It has been observed that whenever swine sacrifices 
occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to Adonis.  
In any vase, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god does not 
contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn spirit, which 
in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a boar or sow. 

AUTHORITIES.--H.  Brugsch, Die Adonisklage und das 
Linoslied (Berlin, 1852); Grove, De Adonide (Leipzig, 
1877); W. H. Engel, Kypros, ii. (1841), still valuable; 
W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte, ii. (1905); M. P. 
Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig, 1906); articles in 
Roscher's Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklopadie J. 
G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. (2nd ed.), p. 113, and 
Adonis, Attis and Osiris (1906); L. R. Farnell, Cults of 
the Greek States, ii. p. 646; W. Robertson Smith (Religion 
of the Semites, new ed., 1894, pp. 191, 290, 411), who, 
regarding Adonis as the swine-god, characterizes the Adonia 
as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), ``in which the 
sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and 
dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, 
not forming part of the state religion, was limited.'' 

ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order 
Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the nomes of pheasant's 
eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial 
herbs with much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. 
Adonis autumnalis has become naturalized in some parts 
of England; the petals are scarlet with a dark spot at the 
base.  An early flowering species, Adonis vernalis, with 
large bright yellow flowers, is well worthy of cultivation.  
It prefers a deep light soil.  The name is also given to the 
butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue (Polyomreatus Adonis). 

ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos which 
bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the 
2nd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became 
acute.  The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism 
led to a tenacious insistence on the divine unity, and the 
task was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus 
Christ.  Some thinkers fell back on the ``modalistic'' solution 
which regards ``Father'' and ``Son'' as two aspects of the 
same subject, but a simpler and more popular method was the 
``adoptionist'' or humanitarian.  Basing their views on the 
synoptic Gospels, and tracing descent from the obscure sect 
of the Alogi, the Adoptianists under Theodotus of Byzantium 
tried to found a school at Rome c. 185, asserting that 
Jesus was a man, filled with the Holy Spirit's inspiration 
from his baptism; and sa attaining such a perfection of 
holiness that he was adopted by God and exalted to divine 
dignity.  Theodotus was excommunicated by the bishop of 
Rome, Victor, c. 195, but his followers lived on under a 
younger teacher of the same name and under Artemon. while 
in the Fast similar views were expounded by Beryllus of 
Bostra and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly influenced 
Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Arius and, later, 
Nestorius.  There is thus a traceable historical connexion 
between the early adoptian controversy and the struggle 
in Spain at the end of the 8th century, to which that name 
is usually given.  It was indeed only a renewal, under new 
conditions, of the conflict between two types of thought, the 
rational and the mystical, the school of Antioch and that of 
Alexandria.  The writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia had 
become well known in the West, especially since the strife 
over the ``three chapters'' (544-553), and the opposition 
of Islam also partly determined the form of men's views on 
the doctrine of Christ's person.  We must further remember 
the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned at the council of 
Chalcedon.  About 780 Ehpandus (b. 718), archbishop of 
Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the expression 
Christus Filius Dei adoptivus, and was aided by his much 
more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella.  They held that 
the duality of natutes implied a distinction between two 
modes of sonship in Christ---the natural or proper, and the 
adoptive.  In support of their views they appealed to scripture 
and to the Western Fathers, who had used the term ``adoption'' 
as synonymous with ``assumption'' in the orthodox sense; and 
especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians--the 
brother of God's adopted sons.  Christ, the firstborn among 
many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a 
spiritual birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his 
resurrection.  Thus they did not teach a dual personality, 
nor the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was 
due to his sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old 
disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision had left 
it--the relation of Christ's one personality to his two natures. 

Felix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which 
belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary 
to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before 
which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new 
doctrine.  Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed 
his renunciation by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom 
the synod sent him.  The recantation was probably insincere, 
for on returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as 
before.  Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, 
by which the new doctrine was again formally condemned, 
though neither Felix nor any of his followers appeared. 

In this synod Alcuin of York took part.  A friendly letter from 
Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix replied, 
were followed by the sending of several commissions of clergy 
to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy.  Archbishop 
Leidrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commissions, 
persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la-Chapelle 
in 799. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin, he again 
recanted his heresy.  The rest of his life was spent under the 
supervision of the archbishop at Lyons, where he died in 816. 
Elipapdus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved from 
the adoptian views, which, however, were almost universally 
abandoned after the two leaders died.  In the scholastic 
discussions of the 12th century the question came to the front 
again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin was not universally 
accepted.  Thus both Abelard and Peter Lombard, in the interest 
of the immutability of the divine substance (holding that God 
could not ``become', anything), gravitated towards a Nestorian 
position.  The great opponent of their Christology, which 
was known as Nihilianism, was the German scholar Gerhoch, 
who, for his bold assertion of the perfect interpenetration 
of deity and humanity in Christ, was accused of Eutychianism.  
The proposition Deus non factus est aliquid secundum quod 
est homo was condemned by a synod of Tours in 1163 and again 
by the Lateran synod of 1179, but Adoptianism continued all 
through the middle ages to be a source of theological dispute. 

See A. Harnack, Hist. of Dogma, esp. vol. v. pp. 
279-292; R. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, 
vol. i. p. 228 ff, vol. ii. pp. 151-161; Herzog-Hauck, 
Realenclyk., art. ``Adoptianismus.'' (A. J. G.) 

ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoptare, 
to choose for oneself), the act by which the relations of 
paternity and filiation are recognized as legally existing 
between persons not so related by nature.  Cases of adoption 
were very frequent among the Greeks and Romans, and the custom 
was accordingly very strictly regulated in their laws.  In 
Athens the power of adoption was allowed to all citizens who 
were of sound mind, and who possessed no male offspring of their 
own, and it could be exercised either during lifetime or by 
testament.  The person adopted, who required to be himself 
a citizen, was enrolled in the family and demus of the 
adoptive father, whose name, however, he did not necessarily 
assume.  In the interest of the next of kin, whose rights 
were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that the 
registration should be attended with certain formalities, and 
that it should take place at a fixed time--the festival of the 
Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were 
almost identical with those of natural offspring, and could 
not be renounced except in the case of one who had begotten 
children to take his place in the family of his adoptive 
father.  Adopted into another family, children ceased to 
have any claim of kindred or inheritance through their 
natural father, though any rights they might have through 
their mother were not similarly affected.  Among the Romans 
the existence of the patria potestas gave a peculiar 
significance to the custom of adoption.  The motive to the 
act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification 
of affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and 
agnate rights which were founded on the patria potestas. 
It was necessary, however, that the adopter should have no 
children of his own, and that he should be of such an age 
as to preclude reasonable expectation of any being born to 
him.  Another limitation as to age was imposed by the maxim 
adoptio imitatur naturam, which required the adoptive 
father to be at least eighteen years older than the adopted 
children.  According to the same maxim eunuchs were not 
permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget children for 
themselves.  Adoption was of two kinds according to the state 
of the person adopted, who might be either still under the 
patria potestas (alieni juris), or his own master (sui 
juris).  In the former case the act was one of adoption 
proper, in the latter case it was styled adrogation, 
though the term adoption was also used in a general sense to 
describe both species.  In adoption proper the natural father 
publicly sold his child to the adoptive father, and the sale 
being thrice repeated, the maxim of the Twelve Tables took 
effect, Si pater filium ter venunduit, filius a patre liber 
esto. The process was ratified and completed by a fictitious 
action of recovery brought by the adoptive father against the 
natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and which was 
therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation could 
be accomplished originally only by the authority of the people 
assembled in the Comitia, but from the time of Diocletian 
it was effected by an imperial rescript.  Females could not be 
adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, 
they could not exercise the right of adoption in either 
kind.  The whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will 
be found in Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. II. 

In Hindu law, as in nearly every ancient system, wills 
were formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See 
INDIAN LAW.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of 
England, Scotland or the Netherlands, though there are legal 
means by which one may be enabled to assume the name and 
arms and to inherit the property of a stranger. (See NAME.) 

In France and Germany, countries which may he said to have 
embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is 
regulated according to the principles of Justinian, though 
with several more or less important modifications, rendered 
necessary by the usages of these countries respectively.  Under 
French law the rights of adoption can be exercised only by 
those who are over fifty years of age, and who, at the time of 
adoption, have neither children nor legitimate descendants.  
They must also be fifteen years older than the person adopted.  
In German law the person adopting must either be fifty years of 
age, or at least eighteen years older than the adopted, unless 
a special dispensation is obtained.  If the person adopted 
is a legitimate child, the consent of his parents must be 
obtained; if illegitimate, the consent of the mother.  Both in 
Germany and France the adopted child remains a member of his 
original family, and acquires no rights in the family of the 
adopter other than that of succession to the person adopting. 

In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes 
of the several states.  Adoption of minors is permitted by 
statute in many of the states.  These statutes generally require 
some public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, 
and an order of approval after a hearing before some public 
authority.  The consequence commonly is that the person adopted 
becomes, in the eyes of the law, the child of the person 
adopting, for all purposes.  Such an adoption, if consummated 
according to the law of the domicile, is equally effectual 
in any other state into which the parties may remove.  The 
relative status thus newly acquired is ubiquitous. (See Whitmore, 
Laws of Adoption; Ross v. Ross, 129 Massachusetts Reports, 
243.) The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the 
constitution of primitive society and the civilization of the 
race is so important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient 
Law, expresses the opinion that, had it never existed, the 
primitive groups of mankind could not have coalesced except 
on terms of absolute superiority on the one side and absolute 
subjection on the other.  With the institution of adoption, 
however, one people might feign itself as descended from the 
same stock as the people to whose sacra gentilicia it was 
admitted; and amicable relations were thus established between 
stocks which, but for this expedient, must have submitted 
to the arbitrament of the sword with all its consequences. 

ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. ``carrying 
to one's mouth''), primarily an act of homage or worship, 
which, among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand 
to the mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction 
of the adored object.  The devotee had his head covered, 
and after the act turned himself round from left to right.  
Sometimes he kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods 
themselves, and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head 
bare.  By a natural transition the homage, at first paid to 
divine beings alone, came to be paid to monarchs.  Thus the 
Greek and Roman emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, 
laying hold of the imperial robe, and presently withdrawing 
the hand and pressing it to the lips, or by putting the royal 
robe itself to the lips.  In Eastern countries adoration has 
ever been performed in an attitude still more lowly.  The 
Persian method, introduced by Cyrus, was to bend the knee 
and fall on the face at the prince's feet, striking the earth 
with the forehead and kissing the ground.  This striking of 
the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed number of times, 
is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern potentates 
to-day.  The Jews kissed in homage.  Thus in 1 Kings xix. 
18, God is made to say, ``Yet I have left me seven thousand 
in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto Baal, 
and every mouth which hath not kissed him.'' And in Psalms 
ii. 12, ``Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish 
from the way.'' (See also Hosea xiii. 2.) In England the 
ceremony of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts 
which are performed kneeling, may be described as forms of 
adoration.  Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the 
ceremony of kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said 
to have been introduced by the popes following the example 
of the emperor Diocletian.  The toe of the famous statue of 
the apostle in St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused by 
the kisses of pilgrims.  In the Roman Church a distinction 
is made between Latria, a worship due to God alone, and 
Dulia or Hyperdulia, the adoration paid to the Virgin, 
saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c. (See further HOMAGE.) 

ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 3 m. from 
the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft. above the 
sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of railway.  Pop. 
5000.  It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries, and 
manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there is 
a convalescent home for the poor of the city of Leipzig. 

ADOUR (anc. Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, 
water), a river of south-west France, rising in the department 
of Hautes Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of 
Biscay.  It is formed of several streams having their origin 
in the massif of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de 
Bigorre, but during the first half of its course remains an 
inconsiderable river.  In traversing the beautiful valley of 
Campan it is artificially augmented in summer by the waters 
of the Lac Bleu, which are drawn off by means of a siphon, and 
flow down the valley of I esponne.  After passing Bagneres 
de Bigorre the Adour enters the plain of Tarbes, and for the 
remainder of its course in the department of Hautes Pyrenees 
is of much less importance as a waterway than as a means 
of feeding the numerous irrigation canals which cover the 
plains on each side.  Of these the oldest and most important 
is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the right bank for 36 
m.  Entering the department of Gers, the Adour receives the 
Arros on the right bank and begins to describe the large westward 
curve which takes it through the department of Landes to the 
sea.  In the last-named department it soon becomes navigable, 
namely, at St Sever, after passing which it is joined on the 
left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts and Luy, and on the right 
by the Midouze, which is formed by the union of the Douze 
and the Midour, and is navigable for 27 m.; now taking a 
south-westerly course it receives on the left the Gave de 
Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the Adour itself, 
and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through a dangerous 
estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total course 
of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable.  The mouth of the 
Adout has repeatedly shifted. its old bed being represented 
by the series of etangs and lagoons extending northward 
as far as the village of Vieux Boucau, 22 1/2 m. north of 
Bayonne, where it found a new entrance into the sea at the 
end of the 14th century.  Its previous mouth had been 10 m. 
south of Vieux Boucau.  The present channel was constructed 
by the engineer Louis de Foix in 1579.  There is a depth 
over the bar at the entrance of 10 1/2 to 16 ft. at high 
tide.  The area of the basin of the Adour is 6565 sq. m. 

ADOWA (properly ADUA), the capital of Tigre, northern 
Abyssinia, 145 m.  N.E. of Gondar and 17 m.  E. by N. of Axum, 
the ancient capital of Abyssinia.  Adowa is built on the slope 
of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft., in the midst of a rich 
agricultural district.  Being on the high road from Massawa 
to central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from 
Arabia and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise 
with the products of the country.  During the wars between 
the Italians and Abyssinia (1887-96) Adowa was on three or 
four occasions looted and burnt; but the churches escaped 
destruction.  The church of the Holy Trinity, one of the 
largest in Abyssinia, contains numerous wall-paintings of 
native art.  On a hill about 2 1/2 m. north-west of Adowa are 
the ruins of Fremona, the headquarters of the Portuguese 
Jesuits who lived in Abyssinia during the 16th and 17th 
centuries.  On the 1st of March 1896, in the hills north 
of the town, was fought the battle of Adowa, in which the 
Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italian 
forces (see ITALY, History, and ABYSSINIA, History). 

ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the 
province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra, and 
on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 11,188.  Adra is the port 
of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m. north-east; 
but its commercial development is retarded by the lack of a 
railway.  Besides lead, the exports include grapes, sugar and 
esparto.  Fuel is imported, chieffly from the United Kingdom. 

ADRAR (Berber for ``uplands''), the name of various 
districts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa.  Adrar 
Suttuf is a hilly region forming the southern part of the 
Spanish protectorate of the Rio de Oro (q.v.). Adrar or 
Adrar el Jebli, otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of 
Timbuktu.  It is the headquarters of the Awellimiden 
Tuareg (see TUAREG and SAHARA). Adrar n'Ahnet and Adrar 
Adhafar are smaller regions in the Ahnet country south of 
Insalah.  Adrar Temur, the country usually referred to when 
Adrar is spoken of, is in the western Sahara, 300 m. north 
of the Senegal and separated on the north-west from Adrar 
Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes.  Adrar is within the 
French sphere of influence.  In general barren, the country 
contains several oases, with a total population of about 
10,000.  In 1900 the oasis of Atar, on the western borders 
of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previously 
known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in Algeria. 
(Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1900, a 
few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited 
by Yrab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched 
spot.  The other centres of population are Shingeti, Wadan and 
Ujeft, Shingeti being the chief commercial centre, whence 
caravans take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and 
dates.  A considerable trade is also done in salt from the 
sebkha of Ijil, in the north-west.  Adrar occupies the most 
elevated part of a plateau which ends westwards in a steep 
escarpment and falls to the east in a succession of steps. 

Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief 
settlement in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara. 

ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of 
Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon.  
Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled to 
Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus.  After 
a time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister 
Eriphyle in marriage, and returned to Argos and occupied the 
throne.  In consequence of an oracle which had commanded him 
to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them 
to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of 
these animals or carrying shields with their figures on them, 
who claimed his hospitality.  He was the instigator of the 
famous war against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law 
Polyneices, who had been deprived of his rights by his brother 
Eteocles.  Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two 
sons-inlaw, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon 
and Parthenopaeus, marched against the city of Thebes, and 
on his way is said to have founded the Nemean games.  This 
is the expedition of the ``Seven against Thebes,'' which the 
poets have made nearly as famous as the siege of Troy.  As 
Amphiaraus had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war 
except Adrastus, who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion 
(Iliad, xxiii. 346).  Ten years later, at the instigation of 
Adrastus, the war was renewed by the sons of the chiefs who had 
fallen.  This expedition was called the war of the ``Epigoni'' 
or descendants, and ended in the taking and destruction of 
Thebes.  None of the followers of Adrastus perished except his 
son Aegialeus, and this affected him so greatly that he died 
of grief at Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army. 

Apollodorus iii. 6, 7; Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebes; Euripides, 
Phoenissae, Supplices; Statius, Thebais; Herodotus v. 67. 

ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less 
correct: Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a 
town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of 
Rovigo, 15 m.  F. by rail from the town of Rovigo.  It is 
situated between the mouths of the Adige and the Po, about 
13 1/2 m. from the sea and but 13ft. above it.  Pop. (1901) 
15,678.  The town occupies the site of the ancient Atria, 
which gave its name to the Adriatic.  Its origin is variously 
ascribed by ancient writers, but it was probably a Venetian, 
i.e. Illyrian, not an Etruscan, foundation--still less a 
foundation of Dionysius I. of Syracuse.  Imported vases of 
the second half of the 5th century B.C. prove the existence 
of trade with Greece at that period; and the town was famous 
in Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls.  Even at 
that period, however, the silt brought down by the rivers 
rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian 
Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the 
sea.  This was still open in the imperial period, and the 
town, which was a municipium, possessed its own gild 
of sailors; but its importance gradually decreased.  Its 
remains lie from 10 to 20 ft. below the modern level.  The 
Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection contain antiquities. 

See R. Schone, Le antichita del Museo 
Bocchi di Adria (Rome, 1878). (T. As.) 

ADRIAN, or HADRIAN (Lat. Hadrianus), the name of six 
popes. ADRIAN I., pope from 772 to 705, was the son of 
Theodore, a Roman nobleman.  Soon after his accession the 
territory that had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was 
invaded by Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found 
it necessary to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered 
Italy with a large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of 
Pavia, took that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in 
France and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Frankish 
possessions.  The pope, whose expectations had been aroused, 
had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of 
Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis.  In his 
contest with the Greek empire and the Lombard princes of 
Benevento, Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, 
and the friendly relations between pope and emperor were 
not disturbed by the difference which arose between them on 
the question of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne 
and the Gallican Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian 
favoured the views of the Eastern Church, and approved the 
decree of the council of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice 
and excommunicating the iconoclasts.  It was in connexion with 
this controversy that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri 
Carolini, to which Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing 
all who refused to worship the images of Christ, or the 
Virgin, or saints.  Notwithstanding this, a synod, held 
at Frankfort in 794, anew condemned the practice, and the 
dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's death.  An epitaph 
written by Charlemagne in verse, in which he styles Adrian 
``father,'' is still to be seen at the door of the Vatican 
basilica.  Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of Rome, 
and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand. 

ADRIAN II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a 
noble Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced 
age.  He maintained, but with less energy, the attitude of his 
predecessor.  Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, 
by the death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to 
mediate between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring 
to the emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of 
Lorraine.  Photius, shortly after the council in which he 
had pronounced sentence of deposition against Pope Nicholas, 
was driven from the patriarchate by a new emperor, Basil the 
Macedonian, who favoured his rival Ignatius.  An oecumenical 
council (called by the Latins the 8th) was convoked at 
Constantinople to decide this matter.  At this council Adrian 
was represented by legates, who presided at the condemnation 
of Photius, but did not succeed in coming to an understanding 
with Ignatius on the subject of the jurisdiction over the 
Bulgarian converts.  Like his predecessor Nicholas, Adrian 
II. was forced to submit, at least in temporal affairs, to 
the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who placed him under 
the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta, his confidential 
adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the librarian.  
Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and daughter 
were still living.  They were carried off and assassinated 
by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation, 
however, suffered but a momentary eclipse.  Adrian died in 872. 

ADRIAN III., pope, was born at Rome.  He succeeded Martin 
II. in 884, and died in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*) 

ADRIAN IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from 1154 to 
1159, the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, 
was born before A.D. 1100 at Langley near St Albans in 
Hertfordshire, His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese 
of Bath, who entered a monastery and left the boy to his own 
resources.  Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk 
of the cloister of St Rufus near Arles.  He rose to be prior 
and in 1137 was unanimously elected abbot.  His reforming 
zeal led to the lodging of complaints against him at Rome; 
but these merely attracted to him the favourable attention 
of Eugenius III., who created him cardinal bishop of Albano.  
From 1152 to 1154 Nlicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, 
organizing the affairs of the new Norwegian archbishopric of 
Trondhjem, and making arrangements which resulted in the 
recognition of Upsala as seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 
1164.  As a compensation for territory thus withdrawn the 
Danish archbishop of Lund was made legate and perpetual 
vicar and given the title of primate of Denmark and Sweden.  
On his return Nicholas was received with great honour by 
Anastasius IV., and on the death of the latter was elected 
pope on the 4th of December 1154.  He at once endeavoured 
to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia, the leader 
of anti-papal sentiment in Rome.  Disorders ending with the 
murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm Sunday 
1155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting 
Rome under the interdict.  The senate thereupon exiled 
Arnold, and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of 
Frederick I. Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his 
execution.  Adrian crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the 
18th of June 1155, a ceremony which so incensed the Romans 
that the pope had to leave the city promptly, not returning 
till November 1156.  With the aid of dissatisfied barons, 
Adrian brought William I. of Sicily into dire straits; but 
a change in the fortunes of war led to a settlement (June 
1156) not advantageous to the papacy and displeasing to the 
emperor.  At the diet of Besancon in October 1157, the 
legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from Adrian which 
alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the emperor, and the 
German chancellor translated this beneficia in the feudal 
sense.  In the storm which ensued the legates were glad to 
escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed 
with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium 
he meant merely bonum factum. The breach subsequently 
became wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the 
emperor when he died at Anagnia on the 1st of September 
1159.  A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by 
Henry II. of England to Adrian in 1155.  According to the 
elaborate investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as 
follows.  Henry asked for permission to invade and subjugate 
Ireland, in order to gain absolute ownership of that isle.  
Unwilling to grant a request counter to the papal claim 
(based on the forged Donation of Constantine) to dominion 
over the islands of the sea, Adrian made Henry a conciliatory 
proposal, namely, that the king should become hereditary 
feudal possessor of Ireland while recognizing the pope as 
overlord.  This compromise did not satisfy Henry, so the matter 
dropped; Henry's subsequent title to Ireland rested on conquest, 
not on papal concession, and was therefore absolute.  The 
much-discussed bull Laudabiliter is, however, not genuine.  
See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. (excellent 
bibliography), and Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd 
ed., under ``Hadrian IV.''; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies 
concerning Adriani IV`. (The University of Chicago: Decennial 
Publications, 1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, 
Pope Adrian IV.: An Historical Sketch (London, 1849); and 
A. H.Tarleton, Life of Nicholas Breakspear (London, 1896) 

ADRIAN V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a Genoese 
who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent IV. 
In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry III. 
and his barons.  He was elected pope to succeed Innocent V. 
on the 11th of July 1276, but died at Viterbo on the 18th of 
August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood. 

ADRIAN VI. (Adrian Dedel, not Boyens, probably not Rodenburgh, 
1459-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht in 
March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common 
Life either at Zwolle or Deventer.  At Louvain he pursued 
philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of 
theology (1491), dean of St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the 
university.  In 1507 he was appointed tutor to the seven-year 
old Charles V. He was sent to Spain in 1515 on a very important 
diplomatic errand; Charles secured his succession to the see 
of Tortosa, and on the 14th of November 1516 commissioned him 
inquisitor-general of Aragon.  During the minority of Charles, 
Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing 
Spain.  After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on 
the 14th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions 
of Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his 
departure from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522: he 
was, however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which 
Jimenes had been able in some degree to check.  When Charles 
left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent of Spain: 
as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt.  In 1517 
Leo X. had created him cardinal priest SS. Ioannis et Pauli; 
on the 9th of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected 
pope.  Crowned in St Peter's on the 31st of August at the 
age of sixty-three, he entered upon the lonely path of the 
reformer.  His programme was to attack notorious abuses one 
by one; but in his attempt to improve the system of granting 
indulgences he was hampered by his cardinals; and reducing 
the number of matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for 
the income had been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. 
The Italians saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind 
to the beauty of classical antiquity, penuriously docking the 
stipends of great artists.  As a peacemaker among Christian 
princes, whom he hoped to unite in a protective war against 
the Turk, he was a failure: in August 1523 he was forced 
openly to ally himself with the Empire, England, Venice, 
&c., against France; meanwhile in 1522 the sultan Suleiman 
I. had conquered Rhodes.  In dealing with the early stages 
of the Protestant revolt in Germany Adrian did not fully 
recognize the gravity of the situation.  At the diet which 
opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was represented by 
Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank admission 
that the whole disorder of the church had perchance proceeded 
from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should 
begin.  However, the former professor and inquisitor-general 
was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that 
Luther be punished for heresy.  The statement in one of his 
works that the pope could err in matters of faith (``haeresim 
per suam determinationem aut Decretalem assurondo'') has 
attracted attention; but as it is a private opinion, not 
an ex cathedra pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice 
the dogma of papal infallibility.  On the 14th of September 
1523 he died, after a pontificate too short to be effective. 

Most of Adrian VI's official papers disappeared soon after his 
death.  He published Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum 
praesertim circa sacrementa (Paris, 1512, 1516, 1518, 
1537; Rome, 1522), and Quaestiones quodlibeticae XII. (1st 
ed., Louvain, 1515).  See L. Pastor, in Geschichte der 
Papste, vol. iv. pt. ii.; Adrian VI und Klemens VII. 
(Freiburg, 1907); also Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 
2nd ed., and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., 
under ``Hadrian VI.''; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius 
recentioris theologiae catholicae, tom. iv. (Innsbruck. 
1899), 1027; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. 
(1904), 19-21; H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of 
Spain, vol. i. (1906); Janus, The Pope and the Council, 
2nd ed. (London, 1869), 376. Biographies--A.  Lepitre, 
Adrien VI. (Paris, 1880); C. A. C. von Hofler, Papst 
Adrian VI. (Vienna, 1880); L. Casartelli, ``The Dutch 
Pope,'' in Miscellaneous Essays (London, 1906). (W. W. R.*) 

ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor 
Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity, was 
martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said that 
while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he 
was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his 
faith.  He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were 
struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in 
his wife's, St Natalia's, arms.  St Adrian's festival, with 
that of his wife, is kept on the 8th of September.  He is 
specially a patron of soldiers, and is much reverenced in 
Flanders, Germany and the north of France.  He is usually 
represented armed, with an anvil in his hands or at his feet. 

ADRIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lenawee county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river, near the 
S.E. corner of the state.  Pop.(1890) 8736; (1900) 9654, of 
whom 1186 were foreign-born: (1910 census) 10,763.  It is 
served by five branches of the Lake Shore railway system, and 
by the Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit 
and Ironton railways.  Adrian is the seat of Adrian College 
(1859; co-educational), controlled by the Wesleyan Methodist 
Church in 1859-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant 
Church, and having departments of literature, theology, music, 
fine arts, commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; 
and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and 1 
m. north of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls 
(1879), for the reformation of juvenile offenders between the 
ages of ten and seventeen.  Adrian has a public library.  The 
city is situated in a rich farming region; is an important 
shipping point for livestock, grain and other farm products; 
and is especially known as a centre for the manufacture of 
wire-fences.  Among the other manufactories are flouring 
and grist mills, planing mills, foundries, and factories for 
making agricultural implements, United States mail boxes, 
furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys and electrical 
supplies.  The value of the city's factory products increased 
from $2,124,923 in 1900 to $4,897,426 in 1904, or 130.5%; 
of the total value in 1904, $2,849,648 was the value of 
wire-work.  The place was laid out as a town in 1828, and 
according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman emperor 
Hadrian.  It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was made 
the county-seat in 1838 and was chartered as a city in 1853. 

ADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1513-1579), Italian historian, 
was born of a patrician family of Florence, and was secretary 
to the republic of Florence.  He was among the defenders of 
the city during the siege of 1530, but subsequently joined the 
Medici party and was appointed professor of rhetoric at the 
university.  At the instance of Cosimo I. he wrote a history 
of his own times, from 1536 to 1574, in Italian, which is 
generally, but according to Brunet erroneously, considered a 
continuation of Guicciardini.  De Thou acknowledges himself 
greatly indebted to this history, praising it especially for its 
accuracy.  Adriani composed funeral orations in Latin on the 
emperor Charles V. and other noble personages, and was the 
author of a long letter on ancient painters and sculptors 
prefixed to the third volume of Vasari.  His Istoria dei 
suoi tempi was published in Florence in 1583; a new edition 
appeared also in Florence in 1872.  See G. M. Mazzucchelli, 
Gli Scrittori d' Italia, i. p. 151 (Brescia, 1753). 

ADRIANOPLE, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding with 
part of the ancient Thrace, and bounded on the N. by Bulgaria 
(Eastern Rumeha), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet of 
Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean Sea and 
W. by Macedonia.  Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area, 15,000 sq. 
m.  The surface of the vilayet is generally mountainous, 
except in the central valley of the Maritza, and along the 
banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c. On the 
west, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend 
as far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 
ft. in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and the 
Balkan.  Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja 
Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the entire 
south coast, which includes the promontory of Gallipoli and 
the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly or 
mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and 
of the Mesta, a western frontier stream.  The climate is 
mild and the soil fertile; but political disturbances and 
the conservative character of the people tend to thwart the 
progress of agriculture and other industries.  The vilayet 
suffered severely during the Russian occupation of 1878, 
when, apart from the natural dislocation of commerce, many 
of the Moslem cultivators emigrated to Asia Minor, to be 
free from their alien rulers.  Through the resultant scarcity 
of labour, much land fell out of cultivation.  This was 
partially remedied after the Bulgarian annexation of Eastern 
Rumella, in 1885, had driven the Moslems of that country to 
emigrate in like manner to Adrianople; but the advantage was 
counterbalanced by the establishment of hostile Bulgarian 
tariffs.  The important silk industry, however, began to 
revive about 1890, and dairy farming is prosperous; but the 
condition of the vilayet is far less unsettled than that of 
Macedonia, owing partly to the preponderance of Moslems among 
the peasantry, and partly to the nearness of Constantinople, 
with its Western influences.  The main railway from Belgrade 
to Constantinople skirts the Maritza and Ergene valleys, and 
there is an important branch line down the Maritza valley to 
Dedeagatch, and thence coastwise to Salonica.  After the city 
of Adrianople (pop. 1905, about 80,000), which is the capital, 
the principal towns are Rodosto (35,000), Gallipoli (25,000), 
Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000), Chorlu (11,500), Demotica 
(10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina (8000) and Dedeagatch (3000). 

ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or 
Edreneh; Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of 
Adrianople, Turkey in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of 
Constantinople.  Pop. (1905) about 80,000, of whom half are 
Turks, and half Jews, Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople 
ranks, after Constantinople and Salonica, third in size and 
importance among the cities of European Turkey.  It is the see 
of a Greek archbishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian 
bishops.  It is the chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, 
being defended by a ring of powerful modern forts.  It occupies 
both banks of the river Tunja, at its confluence with the 
Maritza, which is navigable to this point in spring and 
winter.  The nearest seaport by rail is Dedeagatch, west 
of the Maritza; Enos, at the river-mouth, is the nearest by 
water.  Adrianople is on the railway from Belgrade and 
Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica.  In appearance it is 
thoroughly Oriental--a mass of mean, irregular wooden buildings, 
threaded by narrow tortuous streets, . with a few better 
buildings.  Of these the most important are the Idadieh 
school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish communal 
school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial Ottoman 
Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre; palaces 
for the prefect of the city, the administrative staff of 
the second army corps and the defence works commission; a 
handsome row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French 
hospital.  Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are 
the Eski Serai, an ancient and half-ruined palace of the 
sultans; the bazaar of Ali Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque 
of the sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish 
architecture.  Adrianople has five suburbs, of which 
Kiretchhane and Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, 
and Kirjikstands on a hill overlooking the city.  The two 
last named are exclusively Greek, but a large proportion 
of the inhabitants of Kiretchhane are Bulgarian.  These 
three suburbs---as well as the little hamlet of Demirtash, 
containing about 300 houses all occupied by Bulgars---are all 
built in the native fashion; but the fifth suburb, Karagatch, 
which is on the right bank of the Maritza, and occupies the 
region between the railway station and the city, is Western 
in its design, consisting of detached residences in gardens, 
many of them handsome villas, and all of modern European 
type.  In all the communities schools have multiplied, but 
the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type.  The 
only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys---a government 
institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars.  
Like the Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has 
two sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course 
of education in each language, the pupils following both 
courses.  The several communities have each their own 
charitable institutions, the Jews being socially well endowed 
in this respect, The Greeks have a literary society, and 
there is a well-organized club to which members of all the 
native communities, as well as many foreigners, belong. 

The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired by 
the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery 
when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by 
a Customs cordon rendered the situation more than ever.  
Adrianople had previously been the commercial headquarters 
of all Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between 
the Balkans and the Danube, now Bulgaria.  But the separation 
of Eastern Rumeha isolated Adrianople, and transferred to 
Philippopolis at least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, 
as regards sea-borne merchandise, is carried on through the 
port of Burgas (q.v.). The city manufactures silk, leather, 
tapestry, woollens, linen and cotton, and has an active general 
trade.  Besides fruits and agricultural produce, its exports 
include raw silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of 
roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey red.  The surrounding 
country is extremely fertile, and its wines are the best 
produced in Turkey.  The city is supplied with fresh water 
by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over an extensive 
valley.  There is also a fine stone bridge over the Tunja. 

Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama or 
Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman emperor 
Hadrian (117-138).  In 378 the Romans were here defeated 
by the Goths.  Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish 
sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I., until 
1453, when Constantinople fell.  It was occupied by the 
Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS). 

ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the 
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian, 
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the 
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent 
ranges.  The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged 
originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus 
vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but 
was gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in 
importance.  But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense 
only extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion 
being called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however, 
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of 
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete 
and Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 
40 deg.  to 45 deg.  45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 
m., and a mean breadth of about 110 m., but the Strait of 
Otranto, through which it connects at the south with the 
Ionian Sea, is only 45 m. wide.  Moreover, the chain of 
islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore 
reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 90 
m.  The Italian shore is generally low, merging, in the 
north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand 
of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment of 
which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles 
within historic times.  On islands within one of the lagoons 
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has 
its unique situation.  The east coast is generally bold and 
rocky.  South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the 
Gulfs of Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, 
the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as 
Ragusa.  The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis 
lying parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather 
abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, while on the 
mainland, notably in the magnificent inlet of the Bocche di 
Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea.  This 
coast, though beautiful, is somewhat sombre, the prevalent 
colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly 
with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is 
luxuriant.  The north part of the sea is very shallow, and 
between the southern promontory of Istria and Rimini the depth 
rarely exceeds 25 fathoms.  Between Sebenico and Ortona a 
well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which 
exceeds 100 fathoms in depth.  From a point between Curzola 
and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano there is 
a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few 
islets extends across the sea.  The deepest part of the sea 
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of 
Durazzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and 
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls 
below 800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 
fathoms.  The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence 
of sudden squalls from this quarter or the south-east, are 
dangers to navigation in winter.  Tidal movement is slight. 
(See also MEDITERRANEAN.) For the ``Marriage of the 
Adriatic,'' or more properly ``of the sea,'' a ceremony formerly 
performed by the doges of Venice, see the article BUCENTAUR. 

 ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write), 
something written ajier, as opposed to ``subscript,'' which 
means written under. A labourer was called an ``adscript 
of the soil'' (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or 
transferred with it, as in feudal days, and as in Russia until 
1861.  Carlyle speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts. 

ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe 
of Judah, perhaps the modern Aid-el-Ma, 7 m.  N.E. of 
Beit-Jibrin.  It was in the stronghold (``cave'' is a scribal 
error) of this town that David took refuge on two occasions 
(1 Sam. xxii. 1; 2 Sam. v. 17). The tradition that Adullam 
is in the great cave of Rhareitun (St Chariton) is probably 
due to the crusaders.  From the description of Adullam as the 
resort of ``every one that was in distress,'' or ``in debt,'' 
or ``discontented,'' it has often been humorously alluded 
to, notably by Sir Walter Scott, who puts the expression into 
the mouth of the Baron of Bradwardine in Waverley, chap. 
lvii., and also of Balfour of Burley in Old Mortality. In 
modern political history the expression ``cave of Adullam'' 
(hence ``Adullamites'') came into common use (being first 
employed in a speech by John Bright on the 13th of March 
1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert 
Howe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal 
supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866.  But 
others had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. 
President Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), 
and the Tories in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined 
C. J. Fox in his temporary secession.  From the same usage 
is derived the shorter political term ``cave'' for any body 
of men who secede from their party on some special subject. 

ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify), 
the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object 
of passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine 
commodity for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an 
inferior article for a superior one, to the detriment of the 
purchaser.  Although the term is mainly used in connexion 
with the falsification of articles of food, drink or 
drugs, and is so dealt with in this article, the practice 
of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured products 
and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and (as was 
once suggested by (John Bright) is an almost inseparable 
--though none the less reprehensible---phase of keen trade 
competition.  In its crudest forms as old as commerce 
itself, it has progressed with the growth of knowledge and 
of science, and is, in its most modern developments, almost 
a branch--and that not the least vigorous one---of applied 
science.  From the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a 
stone in a loaf of bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in 
a musk baa or in a piece of opium, it has developed into the 
use of aniline dyes, of antiseptic chemicals, of synthetic 
sweetening agents in foods, the manufacture of butter from 
cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed and of pepper from olive 
stones.  Its growth and development has necessitated the 
employment of multitudes of scientific officers charged with its 
detection and the passing of numerous laws for its repression and 
punishment.  While for all common forms of fraud the common 
law is in most cases considered strong enough, special laws 
against the adulteration of food have been found necessary 
in all civilized countries.  A vigorous branch of chemical 
literature deals with it; there exist scientific societies 
specially devoted to its study; laboratories are maintained 
by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for 
its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes, 
but becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to 
health.  There are numerous references to adulteration in the 
classics.  The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in 
Hiero's crown, by the light specific gravity of the latter, is 
a well-known instance.  Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration 
of minium with lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other 
plant juices and with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white 
clay.  Both in Rome and in Athens wine was often adulterated 
with colours and flavouring agents, and inspectors were 
charged with looking after it.  In England, so far hack as the 
reign of John (1203), a proclamation was made throughout the 
kingdom, enforcing the legal obligations of assize as regards 
bread; and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III. 
Stat. 6) entitled ``the pillory and tumbrel'' was framed 
for the express purpose of protecting the public from the 
dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers and 
others.  This statute is the first in which the adulteration 
of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it seems 
to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the 
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709).  According to the 
hiber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward 
I., for it states that: ``If any default shall be found in 
the bread of a baker in the city, the first time, let him 
be drawn upon a hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house 
through the great street where there be most people assembled, 
and through the great streets which are most dirty, with 
the faulty loaf hanging from his neck; if a second time he 
shall be found committing the same offence, let him be drawn 
from the Guildhall through the great street of Cheepe in the 
manner aforesaid to the pillory, and let him be put upon the 
pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day; and 
the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be 
drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker made 
to foreswear the trade in the city for ever.'' The assize 
of 1634 provides that ``if there be any manner of person or 
persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell 
any meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it 
deceitfully or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may 
be to the hurte and infection of man's body, or use any false 
weight, or any deceitful wayes or meanes, and so deceive the 
subject, for the first offence he shall be grievously punished, 
the second he shall loose his meale, for the third offence he 
shall suffer the judgment of the pillory and the fourth time 
he shall foreswore the town wherein he dwelleth.'' Vintners, 
spicers, grocers, butchers, regrators and others were subject 
to the like punishment for dishonesty in their commercial 
dealings--it being thought that the pillory, by appealing to 
the sense of shame, was far more deterrent of such crimes than 
fine or imprisonment.  In the reign of Edward the Confessor 
a knavish brewer of the city of Chester was taken round the 
town in the cart in which the refuse of the privies had been 
collected.  Ale-tasters had to look after the ale and test it 
by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the wet place 
in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the ``residue 
obtained by evaporation'' affording the evidence of purity or 
otherwise.  If sugar had been added the taster adhered to 
the bench; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an 
adhesive extract.  In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered 
a jury of five or six vintners to rack and draw off the 
suspected wine of another vintner, and to ascertain what 
drugs or ingredients they found in the said wine or cask 
to sophisticate the same.  At another time eight pipes of 
wine were ordered to be destroyed because, on racking off, 
bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match, and ``a kind 
of gravel mixture sticking to the casks'' had been found. 

Similar records have come down from the continental European 
countries.  In 1390 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced 
to be led out of the city with his hands bound and a rope 
round his neck; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise 
severely punished; in 1435 ``were the taverner Christian 
Corper and his wife put in a cask in which he sold false 
wine, and then exposed in the pillory.  The punishment was 
adjudged because they had roasted pears and put them into 
new sour wine, in order to sweeten the wine.  Some pears 
were hung round their necks like unto a Paternoster.'' 
In Biebrich on the Rhine, in 1482, a wine-falsifier was 
condemned to drink six quarts of his own wine; from this he 
died.  In Frankfurt, casks in which false wine had been 
found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's cart, 
``the jailer marched before, the rabble after; and when they 
came to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff 
into the stream.'' In France successive ordonnances from 
1330 to 1672 forbade the mixing of two wines together under 
the penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine. 

Modern British Legislation.--In modern times the English 
parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food 
adulteration.  In 1725 it was provided that ``no dealer in 
tea or manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to 
be, shall counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure 
the same to be counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, 
fabricate or manufacture tea with terra-japonica, or with any 
drug or drugs whatsoever; nor shall mix or cause or procure 
to be mixed with tea any leaves other than the leaves of 
tea or other ingredients whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting 
and losing the tea so counterfeited, adulterated, altered, 
fabricated, manufactured or mixed, and any other thing or 
things whatsoever added thereto, or mixed or used therewith, 
and also the sum of L. 100.'' Six years afterwards, in 
1730-173i, a further act was passed prescribing a penalty for 
``sophisticating'' tea; it recites that several iii-disposed 
persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very great 
quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves 
of tea that have been before used, or the leaves of other 
trees, shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise 
mix, colour, stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with 
terra-japonica, sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other 
ingredients, and do sell and vend the same as true and real 
tea, to the prejudice of the health of his majesty's subjects, 
the diminution of the revenue and to the ruin of the fair 
trader.  This act provides that for every pound of adulterated 
tea found in possession of any person, a sum of L. 10 shall be 
forfeited.  It was followed by one passed in 1768-1767, which 
increased the penalty to imprisonment for not less than six 
nor more than twelve months.  As regards coffee, an act of 
1718 recited that ``divers evil-disposed persons have at the 
time or soon after the roasting of coffee made use of water, 
grease, butter or such-like materials, whereby the same is 
rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in weight,'' and 
a penalty of L. 20 is enacted.  In 1803 an act refers to the 
addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or other 
grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of coffee 
or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty for the 
offence at L. 100, but subsequently permission was given to 
coffee or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted 
corn, peas, beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or 
powdered, under certain excise restrictions.  An act passed 
in 1816 relating to beer and porter provides that no brewer 
of or dealer in or retailer of beer ``shall receive or have 
in his possession, or make or mix with any worts or beer, 
any liquor, extract or other preparation for the purpose 
of darkening the colour of worts or beer, other than brown 
malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his possession 
or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses, honey, 
liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of 
paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or 
any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute 
for malt or hops.'' Any person contravening was liable to a 
penalty of L. 200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or 
retail dealer any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined 
L. 500.  It was only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to 
make for their own use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening 
the colour of worts or beer and to use it in brewing. 

All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the 
interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left 
entirely in the hands of the revenue officers.  It was but 
natural that they should look primarily after the dutiable 
articles and not after those that brought no revenue to the 
state.  About the middle of the 19th century many articles, 
however, paid import duty; butter, for instance, paid 5s. 
per hundredweight; cheese from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d.; flour 
or meal of all kinds, 4 1/2d.; ginger, 10s.; isinglass, 5s.; 
and so on.  Sensational and doubtless largely exaggerated 
statements were from time to time published concerning the 
food supply of the nation.  F. C. Accum (1769-1838) by his 
Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons 
(1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book 
entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, 
or Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which 
the blood empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of 
wines, spirits, beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices, 
cheesemongery, pastry, confectionery, medicines, etc., 
etc., are laid open to the public (1830), roused the public 
attention.  In 1850 a physician, Dr. Arthur H. Hassall, 
had the happy idea of looking at ground coffee through the 
microscope.  Eminent chemists had previously found great 
difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical distinction 
between coffee, chicory and other adulterants of coffee; 
the microscope immediately showed the structural difference 
of the particles, however small.  The results of Hassall's 
examinations were embodied in a paper which was read before the 
Botanical Society of London and was reported in The Times, 
1850.  A paper on the microscopic examination of sugar, 
showing the presence in that article of innumerable living 
mites, followed and attracted much attention.  Hassall was 
in consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1795--1862), 
the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other 
articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports 
of the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly 
published, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers 
and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly 
given.  The responsibility incurred was immense, but the 
assertions of the journal were so well founded upon fact that 
they were universally accepted as accurately representing 
the appalling state of the food supply.  As instances may be 
cited, that of thirty-four samples of coffee only three were 
pure, chicory being present in thirty-one, roasted corn in 
twelve, beans and potato flour each in one; of thirty-four 
samples of chicory, fourteen were adulterated with corn, 
beans or acorns; of forty-nine samples of bread, every one 
contained alum; of fifty-six samples of cocoa, only eight 
were pure; of twenty-six milks, fourteen were adulterated; of 
twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four were genuine, thirteen 
containing red-lead and one vermilion; of upwards of one 
hundred samples of coloured sugar-confectionery, fifty-nine 
contained chromate of lead, eleven gamboge, twelve red-lead, 
six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four white-lead. 

Act of 1860. 

In consequence of the Lancet's disclosures a parliamentary 
committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted 
in 1860 in the Adulteration of Food and Drink Act, the first 
act that dealt generally with the adulteration of food.  The 
first section of this enacted ``that every person who shall 
sell any article of food or drink with which, to the knowledge 
of such person, any ingredient or material injurious to the 
health of persons eating or drinking such article has been 
mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadulterated 
any article of food or drink which is adulterated and not 
pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction, 
pay a penalty not exceeding L. 5 with costs.'' In the case of 
a second offence the name, place of abode and offence might 
be published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. 

1872. 

As the act, however, left it optional to the district authorities 
to appoint analysts or not, and did not provide for the 
appointment of any officer upon whom should rest the duty of 
obtaining samples or of prosecuting offenders, it virtually 
remained a dead letter till 1872, when the Adulteration of 
Food and Drugs Act came into force, prescribing a penalty 
not exceeding L. 50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a 
second offence, imprisonment for six months with hard labour.  
Inspectors were empowered to make purchases of samples to be 
submitted for analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left 
optional.  The definition of an adulterated article given in 
that act was essentially that still accepted at the present 
time, namely, ``any article of food or drink or any drug mixed 
with any other substances, with intent fraudulently to increase 
its weight or bulk, without declaration of such admixture 
to any purchaser thereof before delivering the same.'' The 
adoption of the act was sporadic, and, outside London and a 
few large towns, the number of proceedings against offenders 
remained exceedingly small.  Nevertheless complaints soon 
arose that it inflicted considerable injury and imposed heavy 
and undeserved penalties upon some respectable tradesmen, 
mainly owing to the ``want of a clear understanding of what 
does and does not constitute adulteration,'' and in some cases 
to conflicting decisions and the inexperience of analysts. 

Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took a 
mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale 
Of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present 
day, subject to amendments and additions made at later 
dates.  This act avoided the term ``adulteration'' altogether 
and endeavoured to give a clearer description of punishable 
offences:--Section 6. ``No person shall sell to the purchaser 
any article of food or any drug which is not of the nature, 
substance and quality of the article demanded by the purchaser 
under a penalty not exceeding L. 20; provided that an offence 
shall not be deemed to be committed under this section in 
the following cases: (1) where any matter or ingredient not 
injurious to health has been added to the food or drug because 
the same is required for the production or preparation thereof 
as an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or 
consumption, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight 
or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality 
thereof; (2) where the food or drug is a proprietary medicine, 
or is the subject of a patent in force and is supplied in 
the state required by the specification of the patent; (3) 
where the food or drug is compounded as in the act mentioned; 
(4) where the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some 
extraneous matter in the process of collection or preparation.'' 

Section 8. ``No person shall be guilty of any such offence 
as aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food 
or a drug mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious 
to health, and not intended fraudulently to increase its 
bulk, weight or measure, or conceal its inferior quality, 
if at the time of delivering such article or drug he shall 
supply to the person receiving the same a notice, by a label 
distinctly and legibly written or printed on or with the 
article or drug, to the effect that the same is mixed.'' 
The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon 
the city of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions 
and town councils or boroughs having a separate police 
establishment.  For the protection of the vendor, samples that 
had been purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be 
offered to be divided into three parts, one to be submitted 
to the analyst, the second to be given to the vendor to be 
dealt with by him as he might deem fit, and the third to 
be retained by the inspector: and, at the discretion of the 
magistrate hearing any summons, to be submitted, in case of 
dispute, to the commissioners of inland revenue for analysis 
by the chemical laboratory at Somerset House.  The public 
analyst had to give a certificate, couched in a prescribed 
form, to the person submitting any sample for analysis, which 
certificate was to be taken as evidence of the facts therein 
stated, in order to render the proceedings as inexpensive as 
practicable.  If the defendant in any prosecution could prove 
to the satisfaction of the court that he had purchased the 
article under a warranty of genuineness, and that he sold it in 
the same state as when he purchased it, he was to be discharged 
from the prosecution, but no provision was made that in that 
event the giver of the warranty should be proceeded against. 

1879. 

Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of 
litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to 
pass an amending act, making it clear that if a purchase was 
effected by an inspector with the intent to get the' purchased 
article analysed, he was as much ``prejudiced'' if obtaining 
a sophisticated article as a private purchaser who purchased 
for his own use and consumption.  The amending act also dealt 
in some small measure with a difficulty which immediately 
after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining 
whether any article was ``of the nature, substance and quality 
demanded by the purchaser''---``in determining whether an 
offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits 
not adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, 
it shall be a good defence to prove that such admixture has 
not reduced the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under 
proof for brandy, whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof 
for gin.'' Almost insuperable difficulties as to the meaning 
of ``nature, substance and quality'' subsequently arose as 
regards every conceivable food material. its it was obviously 
impossible for parliament to define every article, to lay down 
limits of composition within which it might vary, to specify 
the substances or ingredients that might enter into it, to 
limit the proportions of the unavoidable impurities that might 
be contained in it, the duty to do all this was left to the 
individual analysts.  An enormous number of substances had 
to be analysed until sufficient evidence had been accumulated 
for the giving of correct opinions or certificates.  Endless 
disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manufacturers and 
traders, unfortunately also with the referees at the inland 
revenue, who for many years were altogether out of touch with the 
analysts.  Conflicting decisions come to by various benches 
of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing of the legal 
sale of an article in one district which in another had been 
declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants often 
unsatisfactory.  It was not recognized by parliament until almost 
a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not enough to 
compel local authorities to get samples analysed, but that it 
was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific and clear 
instructions that might enable the officers to do their work.  
This has only been very partially done even at the present time. 

Difficulties of administration. 

A curious condition of things arose out of the definition 
of ``food'' given in the act of 1875: ``The term food shall 
include every article used for food or drink by man, other 
than drugs or water.'' It had been the practice of bakers to 
add alum to the flour from which bread was manufactured, in 
order to whiten the bread, and to permit the use of damaged 
and discoloured flour.  This practice had been strongly 
condemned by chemists and physicians, because it rendered the 
bread indigestible and injurious to health.  Shortly after 
the passing of the Food Act this objectionable practice was 
stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and alumed bread now 
no longer occurs.  A large trade, however, continued to be 
carried on in baking powders consisting of alum and sodium 
bicarbonate.  It was naturally thought that, as baking powder 
is sold with the obvious intention that it may enter into 
food, the vendors could also be proceeded against.  The high 
court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not being 
an article of food, its sale could not be an offence under 
the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act.  Under 
section 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be convicted, 
even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the article 
he had sold was adulterated.  In the repealed Adulteration 
Act of 1872 the words ``to the knowledge of'' were inserted, 
and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions.  The 
general rule of the law is that the master is not criminally 
responsible for the acts of his servants if they are done 
without his knowledge or authority, but under the Food Act it 
was held (Brown v. Foot, 1892, 66 L.T. 649) that a master 
was liable for the watering of milk by one of his servants, 
although he had published a warning to them that they would 
be dismissed if found doing so.  Milk might be adulterated 
during transit on the railway without the knowledge of the 
owner or receiver, and yet the vendor was liable to conviction. 

When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that 
the article sold to him is not of the nature, substance or 
quality he demanded, the sale is not to the prejudice of the 
purchaser.  The notice may be given verbally or by a label 
supplied with the article.  A common law notice may also be 
given.  In Sandys v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican 
had displayed a placard within the inn to the effect that 
the spirits sold in his establishment were watered.  This 
was held, as it were, to contract him out of the Food Act. 
Similarly, in the case of butters that had been adulterated 
with milk, the vendors, by giving a general notice in the 
shop, evaded punishment under the act.  A notice, is, 
however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the act, 
if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes.  In 
Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J.P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked 
for coffee and received a packet with a label describing it as 
a mixture of coffee and chicory.  It was sold at the price of 
coffee.  It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of 
chicory.  The high court held that this was an excessive 
quantity, and was added for the purpose of fraudulently 
increasing the bulk or weight.  In another case, however 
(Otter v. Edgley, 1893, 57 J.P. 457), where an inspector 
had asked for French coffee and had been supplied with a mixture 
containing 60% of chicory, the article being labelled as a 
mixture, the high court held that there was no evidence of 
fraud, and, in the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as 
little as 30% of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label 
stating it to be a mixture, was held to have been legally 
sold (Jones v. Jones, 1894, 58 J.P. 653).  In this case 
the label notifying the admixture was hidden by a sheet of 
opaque white paper, nor had the purchaser's attention been 
called to it, but the price of the article was much lower 
than that of pure cocoa.  It is seen from these few instances, 
taken at random out of scores, that this clause of the act 
was far from clear and was very variously interpreted at the 
courts.  The warranty clause (clause 25) also gave rise to 
an immense amount of litigation.  In the earlier high court 
decisions a very narrow interpretation was given to the 
term ``written warranty,'' but in later years a wider view 
prevailed.  A general contract to supply a pure article 
is not a sufficient warranty unless with every delivery 
there is something to identify the delivery as part of the 
contract.  An invoice containing merely a description of an 
article as ``lard'' or ``pepper'' is not a warranty; but if 
there be added the words ``guaranteed pure'' it is a sufficient 
warranty.  A label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, 
but a label bearing the words ``pure'' or ``unadulterated,'' 
coupled with an invoice which could be identified with the 
label, together were held to form an effective warranty. 

As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by 
inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been 
appointed in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number 
of cases led to disputes of law or fact, about seventy 
high court cases being decided within eighteen years of 
the passing of the act.  While these cases related to a 
variety of different articles and conditions, dairy produce, 
namely milk and butter, led to the greatest amount of 
litigation.  It may seem to be a simple matter to ascertain 
whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with milk of 
the ``nature, substance and quality demanded,'' but milk is 
subject to great variations in composition owing to a large 
number of circumstances which will be considered below. 

Margerine Act. 

Not many years after the passing of the Food Act of 1875 the 
sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and 
so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, 
an act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the 
Sale of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many 
provisions of that act.  It was called the Margarine Act 1887.  
It provided that every package of articles made in imitation of 
butter should be labelled ``margarine'' in letters 1 1/2 inches 
square.  The vendor, however, was protected if he could show 
a warranty or invoice, whereas in the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Act he was not protected by invoice merely.  Inspectors might 
take samples of ``any butter or substitute purporting to be 
butter'' without going through the form of purchase.  The 
maximum penalty was raised from L. 20 as provided by the Food 
Act, to L. 50 in the case of a first and to L. 100 in the case 
of repeated conviction.  The Margarine Act is the first statute 
that makes reference to and sanctions the use of preservatives, 
concerning which a good deal will have to be said farther on. 

Select committee, 1894. 

In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food 
Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the 
various points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee 
was appointed to inquire into the working of the various acts 
and to report whether any, and if so what, amendments were 
desirable.  During three sessions the committee sat and 
took voluminous evidence.  They reported that where the acts 
had been well administered they had been most beneficial in 
diminishing adulteration offences.  Forms of adulteration 
which were common prior to the passing of the 1875 act, such 
as the introouction of alum into bread and the colouring of 
confectionery with poisonous material, had almost entirely 
disappeared.  A close connexion had been shown to exist 
between the extent of adulteration and the number of articles 
submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion of 
adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number of 
samples taken relatively to the population increased.  Thus, in 
1890, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every 
379 persons, the percentage of adulterated samples in those 
taken for analysis being as low as 3.6; in Gloucestershire 
one to 770 persons with 6.2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire 
one to 821 with 7.1; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17.1%, 
and in Oxford one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less 
than 41.7% of adulterated samples.  The number of samples 
of articles annually submitted to analysis, according 
to the returns obtained by the Local Government Board, 
steadily increased from the commencement onward.  Whereas 
in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in 1883, 19,648 samples were 
analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was no less than 84,678, 
or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants for the whole 
country.  In the five years 1877--1881 the proportion found 
adulterated was 16.2%; in the following five years ending with 
1886, the percentage was 13.9; in the five years ending 1891, 
the percentage was 11.7; and in the year 1904 the percentage 
was only 8.5. The select committee found that wide local 
differences in the administration of the acts existed, and 
that in many parts of the country the local authorities had 
failed to exercise their powers.  In one metropolitan district, 
eight members of the local authority had been convicted of 
offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own 
inspector.  The result was that the duties of the inspector 
of the acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that 
local authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions 
should be.undertaken, and the administration of the acts was 
``little better than a farce.'' No power existed to compel 
local authorities to carry out the acts.  The committee came 
to the conclusion that in many cases the responsibility for the 
adulteration of articles of food did not rest with the retailer 
but with the wholesale dealer or manufacturer; that the law 
punished petty offences and left great ones untouched; that 
it fined a small retailer and left the wholesale offender scot 
free.  As regards warranty, they thought that the precedent 
created by the Margarine Act should be followed generally, and 
that invoices and equivalent documents should have the force of 
warranties.  They found that a considerable proportion of the 
food imports were adulterated, out of 890 samples of butter 
taken by the customs in 1895 no less than 106 being impure, 
and they recommended that in addition to tea, which by section 
30 of the act of 1875 was to be systematically analysed by 
the customs, prior to being passed for distribution, samples 
of all food imports should be taken and examined by the 
customs.  The committee further found that the penalties 
imposed under the acts had for the most part been trifling and 
quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits derived 
from the sale of adulterated articles being out of proportion 
great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recommended 
that for the second offence the penalty of L. 5 should be 
the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent 
offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be 
inflicted.  The important question of food standards was 
considered at great length.  The absence of legal standards 
or definitions of articles of food had occasioned great 
difficulty in numerous cases, but as no authority was provided 
by the existing acts that might fix such standards, they 
recommended the formation of a scientific authority or court 
of reference composed of representatives of the laboratory of 
the Inland Revenue, of the Local Government Board, the Board 
of Agriculture, the General Medical Council, the Institute of 
Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical Society, of other scientific 
men and of the trading and manufacturing community, who 
should have the duty of fixing standards of quality and 
purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary of state. 

The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted 
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899.  This unfortunately 
was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, 
but was an additional and amending one, so that at the 
present time four food acts run parallel and are together in 
force, rendering the subject from a legal point of view one 
of extreme complexity.  In this act the growing influence 
of the Board of Agriculture and the desire to assist farmers 
and dairymen more decisively than previously are clearly 
apparent.  Section 1 empowers the customs to take samples of 
consignments of imported articles of food and enjoins them 
to communicate to the Board of Agriculture the names of the 
importers of adulterated goods, any article of food to be 
considered adulterated or impoverished if it has been mixed 
with any other substance (other than preservative or colouring 
matter, of such a nature and such a quantity as not to render 
the article injurious to health), or if any part of it has been 
abstracted to the detriment of the article.  Margarine or cheese 
containing margarine has to be conspicuously marked as such; 
condensed, separated or skim milk has to be clearly labelled 
``machine-skimmed milk'' or ``skimmed milk,'' as the case may 
be.  The next sections give to the Local Government Board 
and the Board of Agriculture a roving commission to see that 
the acts are properly enforced throughout the kingdom so as 
to apply the acts more equally throughout the country than 
heretofore, and in default of local authorities carrying out 
their duties empower the government departments mentioned 
to execute and enforce the acts at the expense of the local 
authorities.  The importance of a regular and conscientious 
control of the public food supply by the local authorities 
was thus for the first time, after forty years of experimental 
legislation, fully acknowledged.  In recognition of the great 
difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in their 
endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and other milk 
constituents, and their inability to do so without statutory 
powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorized by section 4 
to make regulations ``for determining what deficiency in any 
of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter or 
cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion of 
water'' in any of these materials shall raise a presumption, 
until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not 
genuine.  In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agriculture 
did in 1901 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially 
the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the 
sale of butter regulations, which fixed 16% as the maximum 
of water that might be contained in butter.  It is important 
to note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of 
the standard is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, 
but it justifies the institution of proceedings and casts 
the onus of proving that the sample is genuine upon the 
defendant.  The Margarine Act of 1887 was extended to margarine 
cheese, the obligatory labelling of margarine packages was 
more precisely regulated, margarine manufacturers and dealers 
in that article were compelled to keep a register open to 
inspection by the Board of Agriculture, showing the quantity 
and designation of each consignment, and power was given 
to officers of the board to enter at all reasonable times 
manufactories of margarine and margarine cheese.  The amount 
of butter-fat that might be present in margarine was limited 
to 10%, while under the Margarine Act of 1887 an unlimited 
admixture might have been made, provided that the mixture, 
no matter how large the percentage of butter, was sold as 
margarine.  As is further explained below, the difficulty 
of distinguishing without chemical aid between pure butter 
and margarine containing a considerable percentage of butter 
is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be common 
after the passing of the Margarine Act. The labelling section 
of the Food Act 1875 (sec.  8), which had been systematically 
circumvented, was modified, a label being no longer recognized 
as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is 
so written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the 
label is not obscured by other matter on the label, though 
labels that had been continuously in use for at least seven 
years before the commencement of the act were not interfered 
with.  In consequence of the admitted unfairness of asking 
for a portion of the contents of a properly labelled tin 
or package and then instituting proceedings because no 
declaration of admixture had been made, it was enacted that 
no person shall be required to sell any article exposed for 
sale in an unopened tin or packet, except in the unopened 
tin or packet in which it is contained.  This removed a 
grievance which had long been felt both by retailers and 
manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance 
with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in 
factories.  The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, 
had given rise to much litigation, were more clearly defined.  
A notice that a defendant would rely for his defence upon a 
warranty had to be given within seven days of the service of 
the summons or the defence would not be available, and the 
warrantor was empowered to appear at the hearing and to give 
evidence so that no man's name could, as sometimes previously 
happened, be dragged into a case without due notice to 
him.  A warranty or invoice given by a person resident outside 
the United Kingdom was no longer recognized as a defence, 
unless the defendant could prove that he had taken reasonable 
steps to ascertain and did in fact believe in the accuracy 
of the statement contained in the warranty.  This prevented 
collusion between a foreign shipper and an importer; and, 
lastly, the definition of ``food'' was widened (in view of 
the baking-powder decision) so that the term food ``shall 
include every article used for food or drink by man, other 
than drugs or water, and any article which ordinarily enters 
into or is used in the composition or preparation of human 
food, and shall also include flavoring matters and condiments.'' 

The act of 1899 embodies, with one exception, the most 
important recommendations of the Food Products Committee, 
the exception being the omission of instituting a board of 
reference that might deal with difficulties as they arose, 
guide analysts and public authorities in fixing limits for 
articles other than milk and butter, and take up the important 
questions of preservatives and colouring matters and such 
like.  An occurrence which almost immediately followed 
the passing of the act showed in the strongest manner the 
necessity of such guiding board--namely, the outbreak of 
arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in the latter part of 1900. 

Arsenic in foods. 

In the month of June 1900 there occurred, mainly in the 
Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an 
outbreak of an illness variously described as ``alcoholism,'' 
``peripheral neuritis'' or ``multiple neuritis.'' This 
affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70 
deaths.  It was soon ascertained that the sufferers were all 
beer drinkers, and several of them were employees of a local 
brewery, the majority of whom had suffered for some months 
past.  Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some 
considerable time elapsed before Dr E. S. Reynolds of 
Manchester discovered arsenic in dangerous proportions in the 
beer.  Steps were immediately taken by brewers and sanitary 
authorities to ensure that this arsenical beer was withdrawn 
from sale, and, as a result, the epidemic came speedily to an 
end.  In all instances where this epidemic of sickness had been 
traced to particular breweries, the latter had been users of 
brewing sugars-glucose and invert sugar--supplied by a single 
firm.  The quantity of arsenic detected in specimens of 
these brewing sugars was in some cases very large, amounting 
to upward of four grains per pound.  The implicated brewing 
sugars were found to have become contaminated by arsenic 
in course of their manufacture through the use of sulphuric 
acid, some specimens of which contained as much as 2.6% of 
arsenic.  The acid had been made from highly arsenical iron 
pyrites, and as the manufacturers of the glucose had not 
specifically contracted with the acid makers for pure acid, 
the latter, not knowing for what purpose the acid was to be 
used, had felt themselves justified in supplying impure 
acid.  A royal commission was appointed in February 1901, 
with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into the matter, 
and an enormous amount of attention was naturally given 
to it by chemists and medical men.  It was soon found that 
arsenic was very widely disseminated in two classes of food 
materials, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases 
resulting from the combustion of coal, and such as had been 
more or less chemically manufactured.  All coal contains iron 
pyrites, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic. 

When the coal is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of 
the arsenic condenses and deposits.  Malt dried in English malt 
kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there 
cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past 
been thus contaminated.  At the present time coal virtually 
free from arsenic is selected for malting, or Newlands' 
process, consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which 
renders the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free 
from all but the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured.  
Part of the arsenic remains in the coalashes and wherever 
these deposit arsenic can be traced.  Sir Edward Frankland 
had, many years previously, detected arsenic in the London 
atmosphere.  Chicory roasted with coal, steaks and chops 
grilled over an open fire, thus obtain a minute arsenical 
dosing.  In sugar refineries carbonic acid gas is, at one stage 
of the process, passed through the liquor for the purpose of 
precipitating lime or strontia.  When this carbonic acid is 
derived from coal the sugar often shows traces of arsenic.  
When arsenical malt or sugar infusion is fermented, as in 
brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a considerable 
proportion of the impurity, thus partly cleaning the beer, 
but all preparations made from yeast-extracts resemble to some 
extent meat extracts, with which they are sometimes fraudulently 
mixed---are thus exposed to arsenical contamination.  On the 
continent of Europe malt is not dried in kilns with direct 
access of combustion gases but on floors heated from beneath, 
and continental beers therefore have not been found arsenical.  
The second class of causes of contamination consists of 
chemicals.  The most important chemical product is sulphuric 
acid.  This used to be made from brimstone or native volcanic 
sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic.  But since 
about 1860 sulphuric acid has been more largely made from 
iron or copper pyrites.  Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, 
but can, by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that 
impurity.  For many purposes acid that has not been purified is 
employed.  In the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step 
is the conversion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric 
acid.  The hydrochloric acid which is formed carries with 
it most of the arsenic of the sulphuric acid.  Wherever such 
hydrochloric acid is used it introduces arsenic; thus, in 
the separation of glycerin from soap lyes, the alkali of the 
latter is neutralized with hydrochloric acid and glycerin 
is in consequence frequently highly arsenical.  So is the 
soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one of the 
numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive its 
share.  All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric 
acid, such as phosphoric, tartaric, citric, boracic, may be, 
and sometimes are, thus contaminated.  All superphosphates, 
made by the action of crude sulphuric acid upon bones or 
other phosphatic materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made 
from gas-liquor and acid, that is to say, two of the most 
important manurial materials, are arsenical, and the poison 
is thus spread far and wide over meadows and fields, and can 
be traced in the soil wherever artificial manures have been 
applied.  The crops sometimes take up arsenic to a slight 
extent, but happily the plant is more selective than man, 
and no serious amount of poison absorption appears to be 
possible.  The risk of contamination is, of course, much 
greater with substances which, like glucose, are not further 
purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity 
is introduced into them.  Glucose is not only used in beer, 
in which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but 
is also substituted for sugar in a number of food products, 
and is liable to carry into them its contamination.  Sugar 
confectionery, jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are 
often admixed with glucose.  It is difficult to say in the 
present state of the law whether such admixture amounts to 
adulteration.  It was clearly made originally for fraudulent 
purposes, but usage and high court decisions have gradually 
given the practice an air of respectability.  Vinegar of sorts 
is also made from a glucose liquor produced by the action 
of sulphuric acid upon maize or other starchy material, and 
is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic contamination.  There is 
hardly a chemical substance which has directly or indirectly 
come into contact with sulphuric acid that is not at times 
arsenical.  Thus, while artificial colours, now so much used 
for the dyeing of food products, are no longer prepared---as 
was rosaniline (the parent substance of so many aniline dyes) 
at an early stage of its manufacture--with arsenic acid, yet 
they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric acid.  
Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the smelting 
of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in particular, 
as employed for pots and pans and implements, being highly 
arsenical.  From the iron the many chemical preparations 
which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be 
arsenicated.  The general presence of arsenic from some of 
these causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of 
arsenical poisoning have been due to it at various times, but 
neglect, forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the 
matter go into oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite 
of all attention which has been given to the subject, of the 
panic which was created by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of 
the shock and injury caused to manufacturers of many kinds, 
and of the watchfulness aroused in officers of health and 
analysts, that as long as the production of food materials 
or substances that go into food materials is not left to the 
care of nature, and as long as man adds the products of his 
ingenuity to our food and drink, so long will ``accidents,'' 
like the Manchester poisoning, from time to time recur.  
We now search for arsenic; some other time it is lead, or 
antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief.  Man does 
what he can according to his light, but he sees but a little 
patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal 
building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance 
to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it.  Strictly 
speaking, arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of 
adulteration.  It is not due to wilfulness but to stupidity, 
but it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to 
heart, that mankind, by relying too much upon ``science'' 
in feeding, is on a path that is fraught with considerable 
danger.  To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the 
royal commission made important recommendations concerning 
amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted 
and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for 
the purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and 
other deleterious substances in food. ``As a rule public 
analysts receive samples in order that they may pronounce 
upon their genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the 
local circumstances which led to their being taken, of their 
origin or the reasons for sending them.  The term `genuine' 
in this sense means that the analyst has not detected such 
objectionable substances as he has considered it necessary 
to look for in the sample submitted to him.  Obviously, the 
value of the statement that the sample is `genuine' depends 
upon the extent to which the analyst has means of knowing 
what are the objectionable substances which it is liable to 
contain.  In present circumstances he has not sufficient 
information on this point.'' It was also pointed out that the 
application of the Food Acts to prevention of contamination 
of foods by deleterious substances was materially hindered 
by want of an official authority with the duty of dealing 
with the various medical, chemical and technical questions 
involved, and that the absence of official standards militated 
against the efficiency of the existing acts.  The commission 
advised that a special officer be appointed by the Local 
Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various sources, 
such information as would enable the board to direct the work 
of local authorities in securing greater purity of food; and 
they further recommended that the board or court of reference, 
which had been advised by the Committee on Food Products 
Adulteration, should be established.  Pending the establishment 
of official standards in respect of arsenic under the Food 
Acts, they were of opinion that penalties should be imposed 
upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any 
liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid 
be shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain 
or more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid 
food, no matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or 
small quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden 
syrup), or mixed with water or other substances (like chicory 
or yeast extract)--if the substance contain one-hundredth of a 
grain of arsenic or more to the pound.  The board of reference, 
most urgently needed for the protection of the public and 
for the guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be 
created.  While from time immemorial certain articles of food 
have been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the 
addition of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the 
last quarter of the 10th century the use of chemicals acting 
more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives extended 
enormously, particularly in England.  A very large fraction 
of the British food supply being obtained from abroad, a 
proportionately great difficulty exists in obtaining the 
food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition.  While 
refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in 
enabling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be 
imported, other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that 
are collected from farmers and brought together at shipping 
ports, are necessary to prevent decomposition prior to such 
goods coming into cold store.  Thus it is well-nigh impossible 
to collect butter from farms in Australia or New Zealand far 
distant from the coast without the addition of some chemical 
preservative.  Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the 
modern palate, and, with the progress of specialized labour, 
the inhabitants, especially of great towns, have become 
accustomed to resort to manufactured provisions instead of 
the home-made and home-cooked food.  Manufacturers of many 
articles of preserved food gradually adopted the use of 
chemical preservatives, and at the present time the practice 
has become so general that it may be said that practically 
every person in the United Kingdom who has passed the suckling 
stage consumes daily more or less food containing chemical 
preservatives.  The Food Act allows of the addition of any 
ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for 
the production or preparation of the food, or as an article 
of commerce, in a state fit for carriage.  The legality or 
otherwise of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, 
hinges upon their innocuousness.  Upon theoretical considerations 
it is clear that a substance which is capable of acting as 
an antiseptic mnst act injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or 
yeasts, and as the human body is, generally speaking, less 
resistant to poisons than the low organisms in question, it 
would seem to follow that antiseptics are bound to affect it 
injuriously.  It is, of course, a question of dose and 
proportion.  It has further been said that all antiseptics 
possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valuable 
they may be in disease when administered under the control 
of a competent physician, they have no business to be given 
indiscriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of 
food.  The result of a general desire on the part of importers 
and manufacturers of food materials, of the officers under 
the Food Act, of the medical profession and of the public, 
resulted after many years of agitation and complaint and 
after numerous conflicting magisterial decisions, in the 
appointment in 1899, by the president of the Local Government 
Board, of a departmental committee to inquire into the use 
of preservatives and colouring matters in food, with the 
reference to report: first, whether the use of such materials 
or any of them, in certain quantities, is injurious to 
health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use become 
injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what amounts 
are they used at the present time.  After the examination 
of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in 
1901.  Perhaps the most important conclusion was that the 
instances of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred 
from the consumption of articles of food and drink chemically 
preserved were few in number, and were not at all supported 
by conclusive evidence.  During the period which has elapsed 
since chemically preserved food has been used, the mortality 
as a whole has . declined, and while this naturally cannot 
be put to the credit of the preservatives but is largely 
due to better feeding in consequence of the introduction of 
cheaper foods, which are rendered possible to some extent 
by the use of preservatives, it conclusively establishes the 
fact that no obvious harm has been done to the health of the 
community.  The committee made certain recommendations which 
are the most authoritative pronouncements upon the subject.  
They are as follows:--That the use of formaldehyde or formalin, 
or preparations thereof, in food or drinks, be absolutely 
prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not used in a greater 
proportion than one grain per pint in liquid food and one 
grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases to be 
declared.  That the use of any preservatives or colouring 
matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom 
be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Act. That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to 
use in cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and 
borax, and in amount not exceeding 0.25% expressed as boric 
acid, the amount of such preservative to be notified by a 
label upon the vessel.  That the only preservative permitted 
to be used in butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures 
of boric acid and borax, to be used in proportions not 
exceeding 0.5% expressed as boric acid.  That in the case of 
all dietetic preparations intended for the use of invalids or 
infants, chemical preservatives of all kinds be prohibited. 

Borax. 

As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric acid, 
free or in the form of borax, which is extensively employed 
in butter, cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured butter, 
cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured fish, and sometimes 
in jams and preserved fruit, the arguments for and against 
its employment deserve more detailed attention.  It cannot be 
looked upon in the light of common adulteration because, in any 
case, the quantity used is but an inconsiderable fraction, 
and the cost of it is generally greater than that of the food 
itself.  It is not used to hide any traces of decomposition that 
may have taken place or to efface its effects.  On the other 
hand, it cannot be said to be ``required for the production 
or preparation'' of the articles with which it is mixed, 
since a fraction at least of similar articles are made without 
preservative.  It enables food to be kept from decomposition, 
but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encourages 
neglect and slovenliness in factories.  It has no taste, or 
only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to 
the consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot 
therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so.  Its 
preservative action, that is, its potency, is very slight 
in comparison with most other preservatives; its potential 
injuriousness to man must be proportionately small.  It is 
practically without interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic 
digestion, unless given in large quantities.  Experiments made 
by F. W. Tunnicliffe and R. Rosenheim upon children showed 
that neither boric acid nor borax, administered in doses of 
from 15 to 23 grains per diem, exerted any influence upon 
proteid metabolism or upon the assimilation of phosphatized 
materials.  The fat assimilation was, if anything, improved, 
and the body weight increased, and the general health and 
well-being was in no way affected.  On the other hand, evidence 
was adduced that in some cases digestive disturbances, after 
continuous administration of from 15 to 40 grains, were 
observable, nausea and vomiting in some, and skin irritation, 
in one case resulting in complete baldness, in others. 

Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric 
disturbance to any particular article of food or one of its 
ingredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of 
disturbance, a fairly good case has been made out by a number 
of medical practitioners against boracic acid, taken in an 
ordinary diet and not for experimental purposes.  The most 
exhaustive investigation which has as yet been made was carried 
out by Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States 
department of agriculture.  A large number of young men who 
had offered themselves as subjects for the investigations, 
were boarded as a special ``hygienic table,'' but otherwise 
continued their usual vocations during the whole period of the 
experiment.  They were placed upon their honour to observe 
the rules and regulations prepared by the department and to 
use no other food or drink than that provided, water excepted, 
and any water consumed away from the hygienic table was to be 
measured and reported.  They were to continue their regular 
habits and not to indulge in any excessive amount of labour or 
exercise.  Weight, temperature and pulse rate were continuously 
recorded.  The periods during which the subjects of the 
experiment were kept under observation varied from thirty 
to seventy days, periods of rest being given during which 
they were permitted to eat moderately at tables other than 
the experimental one.  There was a good and ample diet.  
The observations were divided into three periods: the fore 
period, the preservative period and the after period, during 
the whole of which time the rations of each member were weighed 
or measured and the excreta collected.  Before the ``fore'' 
period was commenced a note was made of the quantities of 
food voluntarily consumed by each of the candidates, and from 
these the proper amount necessary in each case to maintain 
a comparatively constant body weight was calculated.  When 
a suitable result was thus arrived at, the same quantity of 
food was given daily during the ``preservative'' and ``after'' 
periods.  The preservative was given in the forms of borax and 
of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subsequently 
in gelatine capsules.  This was found to be necessary from 
the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the 
food and concealed in it some of the members of the table 
evinced dislike of the food with which it was supposed to 
be incorporated; those who thought that the preservative was 
in the butter were disposed to find the butter unpalatable, 
and the same was true with those who thought it might be in 
the milk or coffee, while, when the preservative was given 
openly, much less disturbance was created.  The preservative 
was given at first in small doses such as might be consumed in 
commercial food that had been preserved with borax; gradually 
the quantities were increased in order to reach the limit 
of toleration for each individual.  All food was weighed, 
measured and analysed, the same being the case with the 
excreta.  The blood was examined periodically as regards 
colouring matter and number of corpuscles.  Everything was 
done to keep up the general health of the members and to 
do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to the 
circumstances.  During the time of the experiment analyses were 
made of 2550 food samples and 1175 samples each of urine and 
faeces.  The general results were as follows: there was no 
tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism 
was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly 
decreased.  As regards phosphorus the combined results of 
all observations indicated that the preservative increased 
the excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97.3% 
in the ``fore'' period, to 103.1 in the ``preservative'' 
period.  The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was 
an increase of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease 
of those in the urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the 
preservatives interfered with the process of digestion and 
absorption.  No influence was exerted on the corpuscles 
and the haemoglobin of the blood.  The effect of boracic 
acid and borax on the general health Varied with the amount 
administered, quantities not exceeding half a gramme (7 1/2 
grains) of boracic acid, or its equivalent of borax, producing 
no immediate effects, but the long-continued administration 
of such small doses seemed to produce the same results as 
the use of large doses over a shorter period.  There was a 
tendency to diminish the appetite and to produce a fooling 
of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and sometimes actual 
nausea, also one of fulness in the head manifested as a 
dull headache which disappeared when the preservative was 
dropped.  The continued administration of large doses, 60 
to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of 
appetite, inability to perform work of any kind and general 
unfitness.  In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken 
for some time, but gradually injurious effects were observed.  
In some cases 30 and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause 
illness, but it is acknowledged that these persons may have 
been suffering from influenza.  The administration of 7.5 
grains was declared by Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal 
man to receive regularly, although for a limited period 
there might be no danger to health.  Dr Wiley concludes his 
report: ``It appears, therefore, that both boric acid and 
borax, when continuously administered in small doses for a long 
period or when given in large quantities for a short period, 
create disturbance of appetite, of digestion and of health.'' 

Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O. 
Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions of 
the experiment and the documents relating to the investigation.  
He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the 
number of persons under control so small that ``one case 
of self-deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into 
absolute uncertainty the solution of the whole question''; that 
no lasting injury to health was found in spite of transient 
disturbances attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and 
that all persons declared themselves to be in better physical 
condition after seven months than they had been before.  On 
the whole the balance of evidence seems to be that while no 
acute injury is likely to result from boron compounds in food, 
they are liable to produce slighter digestive interferences. 

Formaldehyde. 

Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose 
of preserving food materials may be treated more shortly.  
Formaldehyde, coming into commerce in the form of a 40% solution 
under the name of formalin, was for a time largely used in 
milk.  It certainly has very great antiseptic properties, 
as little as 1 part in 50,000 parts checking the growth of 
organisms in milk for some hours, but as the substance combines 
with albuminous matters and hardens them to an extraordinary 
degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine perfectly insoluble 
in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on the digestive 
ferments.  It injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic 
digestion.  A set of five kittens fed with milk containing 1 
part in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly 
retarded in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control 
kittens fed on pure milk flourished.  In even moderate doses 
formalin produces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused 
death.  It is now generally recognized as a substance 
that is admirably adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, 
but quite improper and unsuitable for food preservation. 

Salicylic acid. 

Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic acid is either obtained 
from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's 
process from phenol and carbonic acid.  Artificial salicylic 
acid generally contains impurities (creasotic acids) which act 
very injuriously upon health.  When pure, salicylic acid employed 
as a food preservative has never produced decided injurious 
effects, although administered by itself in fairly strong 
solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach and kidneys, 
and sometimes causes skin eruptions.  It is a powerful drug in 
larger doses and requires careful administration, especially 
as about 60% of the persons to whom it is administered show 
symptoms known as ``salicylism,'' namely, deafness, headache, 
delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage or heart-failure.  
It is doubtful whether pure salicyiic acid produces these 
symptoms.  When present in proportion of 1 to 1000 it inhibits 
the growth of moulds and yeasts.  In jams 2 grains per pound 
and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon are considered by 
manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative purposes.  
It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing 
sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime 
and lemon juices, syrups, cider, British wines and imported 
lager.  Its use in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in 
which it was not infrequently met with formerly, is now quite 
exceptional.  It has already been stated that the preservative 
committee recommended its permissive use in small proportions.  
To some extent benzoic acid and benzoates have taken the place 
of salicylic acid and salicylates, partly because salicylic 
acid can readily be detected analytically, while benzoic acid 
is not quite easily discoverable.  Its antiseptic potency is 
about equal to that of salicylic acid, and the arguments for 
or against its use are similar to those relating to the latter. 

For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried 
fruit, sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) and some of the 
sulphites have long been employed.  Sulphuring of hops and 
disinfection of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an 
exceedingly old practice.  Burning sulphur is well known as 
a gaseous disinfectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air 
containing 1% of the gas.  As the taste and smell of sulphurous 
acid and of sulphites are very pronounced it follows that but 
small quantities can be added to food or drink.  About 1 part 
in 4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount.  While, in larger 
quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity 
and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence 
that they have ever caused injurious effects in alcoholic 
liquors.  The excise authorities have tacitly sanctioned 
their employment in breweries, although the Customs and Inland 
Revenue Act 1885 declares that a brewer of beer shall not add 
any matter or thing thereto except finings or other matter 
or thing sanctioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, 
and although sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board 
of Inland Revenue do neither sanction nor interfere.  An 
antiseptic with a pronounced taste is obviously a safer one in 
the hands of a nonmedical person than one virtually devoid of 
taste, like boric, salicylic or benzoic acids or their salts. 

Other preservatives. 

Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic 
properties, but also at the same time clearly injurious to health 
and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has been 
found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, in quantities 
quite inadmissible in food under any circumstances.  A few 
other chemical preservatives are occasionally used.  Hydrogen 
peroxide has been found effective in milk sterilization, and 
if the substance is pure, no serious objection can be raised 
against it.  Saccharine, and other artificial sweetening 
agents, having antiseptic properties, are taking the place 
of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer and lemonade, but the 
substitution of a trace of a substance that provides sweetness 
without at the same time giving the substance and food value 
of sugar is strongly to be deprecated.  The employment of 
chemical preservative matters in articles intended for human 
consumption threatens to become a grave danger to health or 
well-being.  Each dealer in food contributes but a little; 
each one claims that his particular article of food cannot be 
brought into commerce without preservative, and each condemns 
the use of these substances by others.  There is doubtless 
something to be said for the practice, but infinitely more 
against it.  It cheapens food by allowing its collection 
in districts far away, but the chief gainer is not the 
public as a whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale 
merchant.  Our body has by inheritance acquired habits and 
needs that are quite foreign to chemical interference.  
Some day, artificially prepared foods, containing liberal 
quantities of matters that are not now food ingredients, may 
conceivably compare with natural food products, but that day 
is not yet, and meantime it ought to be clearly the duty of 
the state to see that the evil is checked.  The intention 
which has introduced this form of adulteration may be more 
or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly evil. 

Colouring matter in food. 

A similar criticism applies to the continually extending 
use of colouring matter in food.  Civilized man requires his 
food not only to be healthy and tasty. but also attractive in 
appearance.  It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that 
please the eye.  This is a difficult art, for the various 
colouring matters which are naturally present in meat and 
fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are of a delicate 
and changeable nature and easily affected or destroyed by 
cooking.  Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook found that 
green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked in a copper 
pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more brilliant 
colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware or 
iron.  The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas 
in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the 
cook in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful 
addition of a substance known to be injurious to health, 
namely, sulphate of copper.  The copper combines with the 
chlorophyll, forming copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason 
of its insolubility in the gastric juice, is comparatively 
innocuous.  Preserved peas and beans have been for so many 
years ``coppered'' in this manner that it is difficult to 
induce the public to accept the vegetables when possessed of 
their natural colour only.  Several countries endeavoured to 
abolish the objectionable practice, but the public pressure 
has been too great, and to-day the practice is almost 
universal.  In England the amount of copper corresponds to 
from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable calculated as 
crystallized copper sulphate.  The opinion of the departmental 
committee was clearly expressed that the practice should be 
prohibited.  No effect has been given to the recommendation. 

Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour.  
When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish 
one.  To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring 
matter used to be added by London milkmen.  Very gradually 
this practice, which had its origin in fraud, has extended 
to all milk sold in London.  The consumer, mis-educated into 
believing milk to be yellow, now requires it to be so.  Large 
dairy companies have endeavoured to wean the public of its 
error, without success.  From milk the practice extended to 
butter; natural butter is sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint 
fawn, and sometimes almost white.  In agricultural districts 
this is well known and taken as a matter of course.  In big 
towns, where the connexion of butter and the cow is not well 
known, the consumer requires butter to be of that colour 
which he imagines to be butter-colour.  Anatto, turmeric, 
carrot-juice used formerly to be employed for colouring 
milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, 
mostly quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable 
dyes just mentioned, are largely being used.  The same aniline 
dyes are also employed in the manufacture of an imitation 
Demerara sugar from white beet sugar crystals.  Aniline 
dyes are very frequently used by jam-makers; the natural 
colour of the fruit is apt to suffer in the boiling-pan, and 
unripe, discoloured or unsound fruit can be made brilliant 
and enticing by dye.  The brilliant colours of cheap sugar 
confectionery are almost invariably produced by artificial 
tar-colours.  Most members of this class of colouring matters 
are quite harmless, especially in the small quantities that 
are required for colouring, but there are a few exceptions, 
picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck brown 
and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous.  On 
the whole, the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an 
advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often 
highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with 
so frequently in the middle of the 19th century.  Mineral 
colours, with very few exceptions, are no longer used in 
food.  Oxide of iron or ochre is still very often found in potted 
meats, fish sauces and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is 
admixed with cheap chocolates.  All lump sugar of commerce is 
dyed.  Naturally it has a yellow tint.  Ultramarine is added 
to it and counteracts the yellowness.  In the same way our 
linen is naturally yellow and only made to look white by the 
use of the blue-bag.  The same idea underlies both practices, 
and indeed the use of all colouring matters in manufactured 
articles, namely, to make them look better than they would 
otherwise.  Within bounds, this is a reasonable and laudable 
desire, but it also covers many sins--poor materials, bad 
workmanship, faulty manufacturing and often fraud.  Like 
sugar, flour and rice are sometimes blued to make them look 
white.  All vinegar, most beers, all stout, are artificially 
coloured with burnt sugar or caramel.  The line dividing the 
legitimate and laudable from the fraudulent and punishable 
is so thin and difficult to draw that neither the law nor 
its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a 
matter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the 
state.  Practices which, when new, admit of regulation are 
almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed 
of ``vested rights.'' Recognizing this, the departmental 
committee, like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, 
recommended that ``means be provided, either by the 
establishment of a separate court of reference, or by the 
imposition of more direct obligation on the Local Government 
Board, to exercise supervision over the use of preservatives 
and colouring matters in foods and to prepare schedules of 
such as may be considered inimical to the public health.'' 

In close connexion with this subject is the occasional 
occurrence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials.  
Tin chloride is used in the West Indies to produce the yellow 
colour of Demerara sugar.  The old processes of sugar-boiling 
left some of the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving 
them both their colour and their delicious aroma; with the 
introduction of modern processes affording a much greater 
yield of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the 
result.  The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar had the 
colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin compound 
upon the sugar.  At the present time all Demerara sugar, 
with the exception of that portion that is dyed with aniline 
dye, has had its colour artificially given it and consequently 
contains strong traces of tin.  Soda-water, lemonade and 
other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead 
contamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and 
vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream 
of tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by 
their manufacturers in leaden pans.  Almost all ``canned'' 
goods contain more or less tin as a contamination from the 
tin-plate.  While animal foods do not attack the tin to any 
great extent, their acidity being small, almost all vegetable 
materials, especially fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode 
the tin covering of the plate, dissolving it and becoming 
impregnated with tin compounds.  It is quite easy to obtain 
tin-reactions in abundance from every grain of tinned 
peaches, apples or tomatoes.  These tin compounds are by no 
means innocuous; yet poisoning from tinned vegetable foods 
is of rare occurrence.  On the whole, tin-plate is a very 
unsuitable material for the storage and preservation of acid 
goods.  Certain enamels, used for glazing earthenware or for 
coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they yield 
to the food prepared in them.  Food materials that have been 
in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contaminated 
with zinc.  Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines. 

Results of English Food Acts. 

The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely 
beneficial.  Not only has the percentage proportion of samples found 
adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms of adulteration 
which prevailed in the middle of the 19th century have almost 
vanished.  Plenty of fraud still prevails, but poisoning by 
reckless admixture is of exceedingly rare occurrence.  Whilst 
formerly milk was not infrequently adulterated with an equal 
bulk of water, few fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed 
an addition of 10 or 15%. A bird's-eye view over the effect is 
obtained from the following figures for England and Wales:-- 


 
            Number of Samples
 Year    Examined   Adulterated    Percentage of Adulteration
 1877       14706          2826              19.2
 1879       17049          2535              14.8
 1884       22951          3311              14.4
 1889       26956          3096              11.5
 1894       39516          4060              10.3
 1899       53056          4970               9.4
 1904       84678          7173               8.5
 

The details of the working of the Food Acts in 1904 in 
England and Wales are set out in the table on the next page. 

United States.---Each separate state has food laws of its 
own.  From the Ist of January 1907 the ``American National 
Pure Food Law,'' applicable to the United States generally, 
came into force, without superseding the State food laws, 
the only effect of the National Law being the legalization 
of shipments of any food which complies with the provisions 
of the National Law into any state from another state, even 
though the food is adulterated within the meaning of the state 
law.  The law applies to every person in the United States 
who receives food from another state and offers it for sale 
in the original unbroken packages in which he receives it, 
and if it is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of 
the National Law he can be punished for having received it 
and offering it for sale in the original unbroken package to 
the same extent as the person who shipped it to him can be 
punished.  The mere fact that he is a citizen of a state soiling 
food within that state will not excuse him; and he will be 
subject to prosecution to the same extent as he would be if 
he uttered counterfeit money.  Retailers, however, can protect 
themselves from prosecution when they sell goods in original 
unbroken packages by procuring a written guarantee, signed by 
the person from whom they received the goods, such guarantee 
stating that the goods are not adulterated within the meaning 
of the National Law. The guarantee must also contain the name 
and address of the wholesale vendor, but unless the parties 
signing the guarantee are residents of the United States 
the guarantee is void.  The law affects all foods shipped 
from one state or district into another and also all foods 
intended for export to a foreign country.  It also affects 
all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any 

Table showing working of British Food Acts, 1904. 


 
                          Samples           Found           Percentage
                         Examined        Adulterated       Adulterated
 Milk .   .   .   .   .    36,413              4,031              11.1
 Butter   .   .   .   .    15,124                867               5.7
 Cheese   .   .   .   .     2,176                 20               0.9
 Margarine    .   .   .     1,169                 83               7.1
 Lard .   .   .   .   .     2,489                  4               0.2
 Bread    .   .   .   .       473                  1               0.2
 Flour    .   .   .   .       476                  3               0.6
 Tea  .   .   .   .   .       486                  .               . .
 Coffee   .   .   .   .     2,550                161               6.3
 Cocoa    .   .   .   .       477                 42               8.8
 Sugar    .   .   .   .       901                 49               5.4
 Mustard  .   .   .   .       812                 39               4.8
 Confectionery and Jam      1,303                 72               5.5
 Pepper   .   .   .   .     2,393                 43               1.8
 Wine .   .   .   .   .       308                 54              17.5
 Beer .   .   .   .   .     1,065                 75               7.0
 Spirits  .   .   .   .     6,938                832              12.0
 Drugs:--
   Camphorated Oil    .  395                  24              6.1
   Sweet Spirit of Nitre 243                  66             27.2
   Sulphur    .   .   .  131                   7              5.3
   Cream of Tartar       441                  88             20.0
   Glycerine  .   .   .  192                  21             10.9
   Rhubarb preparations   96                   5              5.2
   Seidlitz Powders   .   81                   3              3.7
   Linseed    .   .   .   70                   1              1.4
   Magnesia   .   .   .   48                   9             18.8
   Cod Liver Oil  .   .  245                   7              2.9
   Iron Pills .   .   .   16                  ..               ..
   Compound Liquorice
     Powder   .   .   .  111                   2              1.8
   Tincture of Iodine .   23                   4             17.4
   Other Drugs    .    1,124                 124             11.0
 Total Drugs  .   .   .     3,214                365              11.3
 Other Articles:--
   Ginger .   .   .   .  704                  ..               ..
   Syrup and Treacle  .  183                   8              4.4
   Baking Powder  .   .  281                  11              3.9
   Vinegar    .   .   .  773                  57              7.4
   Arrowroot  .   .   .  467                   3              0.6
   Oatmeal    .   .   .  359                  ..               ..
   Sago   .   .   .   .  227                  14              6.2
   Olive Oil  .   .   .  306                   9              2.9
   Dripping and Fat   .   85                   1              1.2
   Sundries   .   .    2,496                 329             13.2
 Total other Articles       5,881                432               7.3
 
 All Articles .   .   .    84,678              7,173               8.5
 

territory or the District of Columbia, wherever such foods 
may have been produced.  The law does not affect foods 
manufactured and sold wholly within one state, nor such as 
have been shipped from another state but not in the original 
package.  While thus the National Food Law is mainly intended 
to regulate the food traffic between the different states, 
and leaves to the states freedom to regulate their internal 
traffic, it must gradually tend to unify the present complicated 
state food legislation, and it is therefore here more 
usefully considered than would be the separate state laws. 

The definition of adulteration as set forth in sec. 7 is as 
follows:---``For the purpose of this act an article shall be 
deemed to be adulterated: In the case of drugs: (1) If, when 
a drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United 
States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the 
standard of strength, quality or purity, as determined by the 
test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National 
Formulary official at the time of investigation; provided 
that no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or 
National Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under 
this provision if the standard of strength, quality or purity 
be plainly stated upon the bottle, box or other container 
thereof although the standard may differ from that determined 
by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or 
National Formulary. (2) If its strength or purity fall below 
the professed standard or quality under which it is sold. 
In the case of confectionery: If it contains terra alba, 
barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other mineral substance or 
poisonous colour or flavour, or other ingredient deleterious 
or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt or spirituous 
liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the case of food: 
(1) If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so 
as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or 
strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted wholly or 
in part for the article. (3) If any valuable constituent of 
the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it 
be mixed, coloured, powdered, coated or stained in a manner 
whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain 
any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient 
which may render such article injurious to health: provided 
that when in the preparation of food products for shipment 
they are preserved by any external application applied in 
such manner that the preservation is necessarily removed 
mechanically, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and 
directions for removal of said preservations shall be printed 
on the covering of the package, the provisions of the act 
shall be construed as applying only when said products are 
ready for consumption. (6) If it consists in whole or in 
part of a filthy, decomposed or putrid animal or vegetable 
substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, whether 
manufactured or not, or if it is the product of a diseased 
animal or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. . . .'' 

Whatever vagueness attaches to these definitions is intended 
to be removed by secs. 3 and 4, which provide that the 
secretaries of the Treasury, of Agriculture, and of Commerce 
and Labour ``shall make uniform rules and regulations 
for carrying out the provisions of the act, including the 
collection and examination of specimens of food and drugs,'' 
which examination ``shall be made in the bureau of chemistry 
of the department of agriculture, or under the direction and 
supervision of such bureau, for the purpose of determining 
from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated 
or misbranded within the meaning of the act.'' Contravention 
of the act is punishable for the first offence by a fine not 
exceeding 500 dollars or 1 year's imprisonment or both, and for 
each subsequent offence by a fine not less than 1000 dollars 
or 1 year's imprisonment or both.  Under an act of congress, 
approved March 1903, the bureau of agriculture established 
standards of purity for food products, ``to determine what 
are regarded as adulterations therein for the guidance of the 
officials of the various states and of the courts of justice.'' 
The elaborate set of food definitions and standards worked 
out under the guidance of the chief of the bureau, Dr H. W. 
Wiley, have also received legal sanction and form a corollary 
to the National Food Law. For each of the more important 
articles of food an official definition of its nature and 
composition has thus been established, of the utmost value 
to food officers, manufacturers and merchants not only in 
the United States but throughout the world.  A few of these 
definitions may here find a place:-``Lard is the rendered 
fresh fat from slaughtered healthy hogs.  Leaf-lard is the 
lard rendered at moderately high temperatures from the internal 
fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that adherent to the 
intestines.  Standard lard and standard leaflard are lard 
and leaf-lard respectively, free from rancidity, containing 
not more than 1% of substances other than fatty acids, not 
fat, necessarily incorporated therewith in the process of 
rendering, and standard leaf-lard has an iodine number not 
greater than 60. Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained by 
the complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly 
fed and kept, excluding that obtained within 10 days before 
and 5 days after calving.  Standard milk is milk containing 
not less than 12% of total solids and not less than 8 1/2% of 
solids not fat, nor less than 3 1/4% of milk-fat.  Standard 
skim-milk is skim-milk containing not less than 9 1/4% of 
milk-solids.  Standard condensed milk and standard sweetened 
condensed milk are condensed milk and sweetened condensed milk 
respectively, containing no less than 28% of milk-solids, 
of which not less than one-fourth is milk-fat.  Standard 
milk-fat or butter-fat has a Reichert-Meissl number not less 
than 24 and a specific gravity at 40 C. not less than 0.905.  
Standard butter is butter containing not less than 82.5% of 
butter-fat.  Standard whole-milk cheese is cheese containing 
in the water-free substance not less than 50% of butter-fat.  
Standard sugar contains at least 99.5% of sucrose.  Standard 
chocolate is chocolate containing not more than 3% of ash 
insoluble in water, 3.5% of crude fibre, and 9% of starch, nor 
less than 45% of cocoa-fat.'' Numerous other standards with 
details too technical for reproduction here have also been fixed. 

German Empire.--The law of the 14th of May 1879, largely 
based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates 
the trade in food.  Each town or district appoints a public 
analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly 
under the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory 
functions.  The ministry, under the advice of this department, 
issues from time to time regulations concerning the sale of 
or details specifying the mode of analysis of various products 
of food or drink.  Both in the United States and in Germany, 
therefore, the executive officers (public analysts) have some 
authoritative official department for guidance and information. 

PARTICULAR ARTICLES ADULTERATED 

We now proceed to consider adulteration as practised 
during recent years in the more important articles of food. 

Milk.---Milk adulteration means in modern times either 
addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition 
of chemical preservative.  The old stories of the use of chalk 
or of sheep's brains are fables.  Owing to the wide variation 
to which milk is naturally subjected in composition, it is 
exceedingly difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any 
given sample is in the state in which it came from the cow or 
has been impoverished.  The composition of cow's milk varies 
with many conditions. (1) The race of the animal: the large 
cows of the plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, 
the smaller cows from hilly districts less amount of rich 
milk.  Hence, milk from Dutch cows compares very unfavourably 
with that of Jerseys or short-horns.  Watery and acid foods 
like mangolds and brewers' grains produce a more aqueous 
milk than do albuminous and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (2) 
Sudden change of food, of weather and of temperature. (3) 
Nervous disturbances to which even a cow is subject, as, for 
instance, at shows, may greatly influence the composition 
of the milk.  The portion obtained at the beginning of 
a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded towards the 
end.  Morning milk is as a rule poorer in fat than evening 
milk.  Soon after calving the animal gives a richer product 
than at later periods, both the quantity and the composition 
declining towards the end of the lactation.  The variations due 
to these different circumstances may be very great, as is seen 
from the following analyses, fairly representing the maximum, 
minimum and mean composition of the milk of single cows:-- 


 
                            Minimum   Maximum      Mean
 Specific Gravity            1.0264    1.0370    1.0316
 Fat                          1.67%     6.47%     3.59%
 Casein                       1.79%     6.29%     3.02%
 Albumen                      0.25%     1.44%     0.50%
 Milk Sugar (lactose)         2.11%     6.12%     4.78%
 Salts                        0.35%     1.21%     0.71%
 Water                       80.32%    90.69%    87.40%
 

In market milk such wide variations are not so liable to 
occur, as the milk from one animal tends to average that 
from another, but even in the milk from herds of cows the 
variations may be considerable.  The average composition of 
genuine milk supplied by one of the largest dairy companies in 
London, as established by the analysis of 120,000 separate 
samples recorded by Dr P. Vieth, is fat 4.1%, other milk 
solids (``solids not fat'' or ``nonfatty solids'') 8.8%, total 
dissolved matters (total solids) 12.9%, the variations being 
from 3.6 to 4.6% in the fat and 8.6 to 9.1% in the solids not 
fat.  It is clear that the 4.6% of fat could be reduced, by 
skimming, to 3.0%, and the 9.1% of solids not fat to 8.5% by 
addition of water, without bringing the composition of the 
milk thus adulterated outside that of genuine milk.  In reality 
even wider limits of variation must be reckoned with, because 
small farmers self the milk of single cows, and this, as shown 
above, may fluctuate enormously.  The Board of Agriculture, 
in pursuance of the powers conferred upon it by the Food Act 
1899, issued in 1901 ``The Sale of Milk Regulations,'' which 
provide that where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as 
skimmed or separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3% of 
milk-fat, or less than 8.5% of non-fatty solids, it shall be 
presumed, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not 
genuine.  But even in these cases it is open to the vendor 
to show, if he can, that the deficiency was due to natural 
causes or to unavoidable circumstances.  The courts have 
held that when deviations are the result of negligence or 
ignorance the vendor is nevertheless liable to punishment.  
Thus, when a vendor omits to stir up the contents of a pan 
so as to prevent the cream from rising to the top, he may be 
punished, if by such omission the milk becomes altered in 
composition so as no longer to comply with the regulations; 
or, when a farmer allows an undue interval between the milkings 
whereby the composition of the milk may be affected, he may 
be liable for the consequences.  As the limits embodied in 
the milk regulations were necessarily fixed at figures lower 
than those which are usually afforded by genuine milk, and 
as it is a comparatively simple matter to ascertain the 
percentage of fatty and non-fatty solids, a strong tendency 
exists to bring down commercial milk to the low limits 
of the regulations without coming into collision with the 
law.  The fat of milk is its most valuable and most important 
constituent.  The exact determination of the percentage of 
fat is therefore the chief problem of the milk-analyst.  
All analyses made prior to the year 1885 are more or less 
inexact, because a complete separation of the fat from the 
other milk constituents had not been obtained.  In that 
year M. A. Adams, by the simple and ingenious expedient of 
spreading a known volume of the milk to be analysed upon a 
strip of blotting-paper and extracting the paper, together 
with the dried milk, by a fat solvent, such as ether or 
benzene, succeeded in completely removing the fat from the 
other constituents.  Since that time simpler and more rapid 
means have been based upon centrifugal separation of the 
fat.  When a measured quantity of milk is mixed with strong 
sulphuric acid, which dissolves the casein and other nitrogenous 
constituents of the milk, but leaves the fat-globules quite 
untouched, the latter can easily be separated in a centrifugal, 
in the form of an oil the volume of which can be ascertained 
in a suitably constructed and graduated glass vessel, and thus 
the percentage ascertained very rapidly and accurately; such 
centrifugal contrivances constructed by H. Leffman, N. Gerber 
and others are now in general use in dairies, and cheese and 
butter factories.  The amount of ``total solids'' contained in 
milk, that is to say, of all constituents other than water, is 
speedily ascertained by evaporating the water from a measured 
or weighed portion of milk and drying the residue obtained 
in a water-oven to constant weight.  By subtracting from the 
percentage of total solids that of the fat the amount of ``solids 
not fat'' results, and by cautiously burning off the organic 
substances, the salts or mineral matters are left.  When the 
percentage of ``solids not fat'' is less than 8.5 a simple 
proportion sum suffices to show what percentage of water must 
be present to reduce the ``solids not fat'' to the amount 
found.  As the added water also reduces proportionately the 
percentage of mineral matter natural to normal milk (about 
0.71 to 0.73%), the determination of the ash affords valuable 
assistance to the analyst.  When the amount of ash is higher 
than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda or other 
mineral matters that are often added as preservatives or acid 
neutralizers.  Borax is easily tested for by dissolving the milk 
ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moistening 
a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying 
it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of 
borax, the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will 
be changed into a brilliant red-brown.  Formaldehyde (which 
in 40% water solution forms the formalin of commerce) in milk 
affords a bright purple colour when the milk containing it is 
mixed with sulphuric acid containing a trace of an iron salt. 

Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under 
reduced pressure with or without the addition of sugar.  
Generally one part of condensed milk corresponds to three 
parts of the original milk.  There is no case on record of 
adulteration of unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened 
milk has in the past been frequently prepared either 
from machine-skimmed or partly skimmed milk and sold as 
whole-milk.  As sweetened condensed milk is largely used by 
the poorer part of the population for the feeding of infants, 
and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its most valuable 
constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly mischievous 
one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899 of a 
special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing 
condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous 
label showing the nature of the contents.  As the bulk of 
condensed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad, 
the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over 
the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed 
milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat.  The average 
composition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight 
variations, to be: water 24.6%, fat 11.4%, casein and albumen 
10%, milk-sugar 11.7%, cane-sugar 40.3%, mineral matters 2.0%. 

Cream.--There are not any regulations nor official standards 
relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its 
contents in fat.  Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal 
skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally 
dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand, milk 
that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as 
cream.  Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated 
minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that 
cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but 
varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is 
obtained and the food on which they are fed.  Therefore, as 
regards the most important portion of cream, the amount of 
fat, adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution 
for the milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of 
this description are exceedingly rare.  On the other hand, 
such additions of foreign materials, like starch paste or 
gelatine, which have for object the giving of an appearance 
of richness to a naturally poor and dilute article, are not 
uncommon.  While formerly the sale of cream was entirely in 
the hands of milkmen, there has been of late a tendency to 
regard cream as an article coming within the range of grocery 
goods.  To enable this perishable article to be kept in a 
grocery store it has to receive an addition of preservative, as 
a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount.  The purchaser 
may take it that all cream sold by others than milkmen, and 
much of that even, is thus preserved and should be shunned.  
The limit of boric preservative that might be permitted, 
but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of 1%. 

Butter.---Of all articles of food butter has most fully 
received the attention of the sophisticator, because it 
is the most costly of the ordinary articles of diet, and 
because its composition is so intricate and variable that its 
analysis presents extraordinary difficulties and its nature 
exceptional and various opportunities for admixture with foreign 
substances.  It is the intention of the producer of butter 
to separate the fatty portion of the milk as completely 
as is practicable from the other constituents of the milk 
without destroying the fat-globules.  This can only be done 
by churning. by which operation the milk-globules are caused 
more or less to adhere to each other without losing their 
individual existence.  Owing to this subdivision of the 
fat, and perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter 
is a more digestible fatty article of food than lard or 
oil.  It is not possible by mechanical means to remove the 
whole of the water and curd of the milk from the butter; 
indeed ``overworking'' the butter with the object of removing 
the water as completely as possible ruins the structure 
to such an extent as to make the product unmerchantable.  
In well-made butter there are contained about 85% of pure 
milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of curd and 
albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation--lactic 
acid,--and phosphates and other milk-salts.  In some kinds of 
butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather 
less.  Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, 
at higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained.  The 
curd must be got rid of as completely as practicable if 
the product is to have reasonable keeping properties.  To 
prevent rapid decomposition salt in various quantities is 
added.  Considering that 100 lb. (10 gallons) of milk yield 
only from 3 1/2 to 4 lb. of properly made butter, it is obvious 
that a great inducement exists to increase the yield either 
by leaving an undue proportion of water or curd, or by adding 
an excessive quantity of salt.  In some parts of Ireland the 
butter is worked up with warm brine into so-called pickle 
butter, whereby it becomes both watered and salted in one 
operation.  Until lately, when the English Board of Agriculture 
fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage of water that may 
legitimately be present in butter, this kind of debasement could 
not easily be dealt with, but even now, where a legal water-limit 
exists, the addition of water either as such, or in the shape 
of milk or of condensed milk, is very commonly practised, 
more or less care being taken not to exceed the legalized 
limit.  It is obvious that there is an ample margin of profit 
for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing 10% 
of water and works it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to 
16%, all the other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and 
salt, thus introduced counting as ``butter'' in the eyes of the 
law.  A very considerable number of butter-factors in London 
and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and 
consider this a legitimate operation so long as they keep 
within the legal water-limit.  Nay, they may even exceed this, 
if only they give to their adulterated article a euphonious 
name, which, while legally notifying the admixture, raises 
in the mind of the ignorant purchaser the belief that he 
is purchasing something particularly choice and excellent. 
``Milk-blended butter,'' with as much as 24 or more per cent 
of water and as little as 68% of fat, is still largely sold 
to purchasers who think that they are obtaining extra value 
for their money; several attempts to deal with the scandal by 
legislature having led to no result.  The introduction of water 
into butter is also practised on a large scale in the United 
States, where a branch of trade in ``renovated'' butter has 
sprung up.  In the States a considerable quantity of butter 
is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product 
comes into the market the addition of chemical preservatives 
to prevent decomposition not being permitted--the butter has 
so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low 
price.  It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and 
washed, then again worked up with water and salt, care 
being generally taken to leave about 16% of water in the 
product, which finds a ready sale in England.  It may here 
be pointed out that England imports an enormous quantity of 
butter from the continent of Europe, the colonies, Siberia 
and America, the imports, less exports, averaging during 
1903-1906 no less than 203,300 tons annually, and the total 
consumption (home produce plus imports) 566,441 tons, the 
consumption per head of population being 19.2 lb. per annum.  In 
butter, as in most other articles of food, adulteration with 
water is the most common, most profitable, and least risky 
form of fraud.  Great fortunes are thus made out of water. 

There is an altogether different class of butter adulteration 
which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty 
matters for the whole or part of the really valuable portion 
of the butter- fat.  Margarine is the legalized and therefore 
legitimate butter surrogate, prepared by churning any 
suitable fat with milk into a cream, solidifying the latter 
by injection into cold water and working the lumps together, 
precisely as is done in the case of the churned cream of 
milk.  The substitution of margarine for butter is frequent, 
in spite of all legal enactments directed against this fraud, 
the semblance between butter and margarine being so great 
that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the two 
articles.  Much more frequent and much more difficult to deal 
with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine.  
In order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, 
it will be necessary to consider the chemical nature of 
butter-fat, and to compare it with other fats that may enter 
into the composition of margarine.  Butter-fat is butter freed 
from water, curd and salt and extraneous matter.  Like the 
greater number of natural fats it consists of a mixture of 
triglycerides, that is, combinations of glycerin with substances 
of the nature of acids.  These acids, in the case of fats 
other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic and stearic 
acids.  Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains other 
acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority 
of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from 
those substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, 
by the circumstance that a considerable proportion of its 
acids, when separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are 
readily soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either 
alone or in a current of steam, whereas the acids separated 
from the foreign fats are practically both insoluble and 
non-volatile.  This fundamental principle serves at once to 
distinguish, for example, between butter and margarine, and 
has been made use of by analysts not only for this purpose 
but also with a view to determine the relative amounts of 
butter and margarine in a mixture of these substances.  Thus 
butter-fat contains about 88%, more or less, of ``insoluble 
fatty acids,'' while margarine contains about 95.5%; 5 
grammes of butter-fat when chemically decomposed yield an 
amount of volatile fatty acids which requires about 26 cubic 
centimetres (more or less) of deci-normal alkali solution for 
neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less than 1 
cubic centimetre (Wollny or Reichert-Meissl method).  There 
are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the 
specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most 
other fats; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; 
the ``iodine absorption'' of butter-fat is smaller than that 
of many other fatty matters, and so on.  But the composition 
of perfectly genuine butter-fat varies within somewhat wide 
limits.  The milk from a cow fed on good and ample food in 
warm weather yields a fat that is rich in characteristic 
butter-constituents, while a poorly fed animal, kept in the 
open till late in the autumn, when the nights are cold, gives 
milk exceptionally poor in fat, the differences expressed as 
``insoluble fatty acids'' lying between 86 and 91%, and in 
volatile acids, expressed as ``Wollny'' numbers, between 18 
and 36. Generally, therefore, summer butter is rich and autumn 
butter poor in volatile acids, or, geographically, Australian 
butter is more frequently high, Siberian often exceedingly low 
in these acids.  The food of the animal also may, under certain 
conditions, yield a notable proportion of its fatty matter 
to the butter; cows that have, for instance, been fed upon 
large quantities of cotton-seed cake yield butter in which the 
cotton-seed oil may be traced, and the same holds good with 
other fatty foods.  All these, and other circumstances, combine 
to render the detection of small quantities of foreign fats 
that have been fraudulently added to butter almost a matter of 
impossibility.  This is perfectly well known to unscrupulous 
butter dealers, and an enormous amount of adulteration is known 
to be practised.  Even small amounts of adulteration could, 
nevertheless, often be discovered while margarine manufacturers 
employed considerable proportions of vegetable oils in their 
products, some of these oils furnishing characteristic chemical 
reactions allowing of their discovery.  Here some firms of 
margarine manufacturers came to the aid of the butter-mixer 
and produced margarine containing nothing but animal fat, 
so-called ``neutral'' margarine being freely offered for 
fraudulent purposes.  There is one fat besides butter which 
contains ``volatile fatty acids,'' namely, cocoa-nut oil.  
Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong 
cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the 
adulteration of butter, and margarine containing Cocoa-nut 
oil and other fatty substances has freely been manufactured 
and sold specially for butter adulteration.  The seat of this 
class of fraud is mainly in Holland.  Analysts happily found 
means to detect this oil when present above 10%, and numerous 
prosecutions made mixers more careful.  Abundant evidence, 
however, exists showing that the simultaneous addition of 
water or milk so as to keep the water limit below 16% and 
that of margarine entirely composed of animal fats below 10% 
leaves a large margin of profit with a very small chance of 
detection.  For the moment at least analysis has had the worst 
of it in the battle between honesty and ``business methods.'' 

Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when 
sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently 
adulterated.  As regards the fats used in its manufacture 
there does not exist any legal restriction, and as long 
as the fat is in a state fit for human consumption the 
manufacturer can make whatever mixture he pleases.  In general 
there is no reason to think that any bad or disgusting fats 
are finding their way into the factories, which in most 
countries are under proper supervision; the old stories about 
recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite without 
foundation.  But a considerable percentage of solid paraffin 
has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of 
margarine.  As the fatty portion of the article is the 
only one of value, some manufacturers make great efforts 
to produce margarine with as small a percentage of fatty 
matter as possible, either by incorporating excessive amounts 
of water or of milk--margarines with over 30% of water 
being met with--or by introducing sugar, glucose, starch, 
gelatinous matter, in fact anything that is cheaper than 
fat.  The English law imposes a limitation upon the percentage 
of butter-fat that may be contained in margarine, but at 
present at least the tendency of manufacturers is all for 
having as little butter or other valuable fat in margarine 
as is practicable, and not to err on the other side.  For the 
purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine when it has 
been fraudulently added to butter, some countries (Germany, 
Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to 10% of 
sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientale or indicum, 
belonging to the family of Bignoniaceae) in the manufacture 
of such margarine as is to be consumed within the countries in 
question.  This oil yields a characteristic red colour when 
it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydrochloric 
solution of either sugar or furfurol, and is intended to serve 
as an ``ear-marking'' substance.  The addition of a little 
starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the 
microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence 
of any international agreement these ear-marking additions 
are of little practical use.  It is, however, interesting to 
point out that, while complying with the regulations of the 
governments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named 
have found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite 
nugatory: they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which 
itself produces a red colour with acid and quite obscures 
the real colour obtained by the official test for sesame oil. 

Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that 
has been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that 
has been more or less skimmed.  It varies consequently very 
widely in composition, so-called cream cheese containing 
not less than 60% of fat; Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar 
about 30%; Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less 
than 20%. The amount of water varies with the kind and age 
of the cheese and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. 
Under these circumstances it is impracticable to lay down 
any hard-and-fast rules as to the composition of cheese.  
When, however, cheese is made from skimmed milk and the 
fat is replaced by margarine, as is the case in so-called 
``filled'' or margarine cheeses, the sale of these amounts to an 
adulteration, unless the presence of the foreign substance is 
declared.  It may at first sight appear strange that the person 
who robs milk of its most valuable portion, the cream, may 
prepare a legitimate article of food from the remainder, while 
he who to that remainder adds something to replace the fat does 
an illegitimate act, but it must be taken into consideration 
that the replacement is frequently made with fraudulent 
intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot by taste or 
smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine article, 
while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk cheese. 

Lard.--Between the years 1880 and 1890 a gigantic fraudulent 
trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United 
States.  A great proportion of the American lard imported into 
England was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real 
lard with cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine.  Cotton-seed oil 
is one of the cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, 
beef-stearine the hard residue obtained in the manufacture 
of oleo-margarine after the more fluid fat has been pressed 
from the beef fat.  These mixtures were made so skilfully by 
large Chicago manufacturers that for some years they escaped 
detection.  A bill introduced in 1888 into the American 
Senate to stop this imposture directed general attention to 
the subject, and energetic measures, taken both in America 
and in England, quickly put an end to it.  From the memorial 
presented in the United States Senate in support of the 
bill, it appeared that in about 1887 the annual production 
of lard in the States was estimated at 600 million pounds, 
of which more than 35% was adulterated.  Compounds were made 
containing only a small quantity of lard or none at all, yet 
were sold as ``choice refined lard'' or under other eulogistic 
names.  Many lard substitutes, chiefly made from cotton-seed 
oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a legitimate 
manner.  From the germ of maize--which must be separated 
from the starchy portion of the seed before the latter can be 
manufactured into glucose--the oil (maize-oil) is expressed, 
and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection 
being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil. 

Oils.--For very many years all oils were considered to 
be composed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of 
oleic acid, with small quantities of impurities; chemists, 
therefore, to distinguish oils of various origin, confined 
themselves to tests for these impurities, employing so-called 
colour reactions based upon the change of colour of the oil 
by various reagents such as sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric 
acids.  These reactions were exceedingly indefinite and 
unsatisfactory and oil adulteration was prevalent and almost 
undiscoverable.  It has been found, however, that the old 
ideas concerning the believed uniformity in the nature and 
constitution of oils were erroneous.  Some oils, indeed, do 
consist of olein, almond oil being a type, others contain a 
glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic acid 
by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic 
acid.  To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils.  
Others again include a glyceride of an acid containing still 
less hydrogen, linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying 
oils), and lastly the liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen.  
These various acids or the oils contained in them combine with 
various percentages of iodine, oleic acid absorbing the smallest 
proportion (about 80%); For each oil the iodine absorption 
is a fairly constant quantity; this number, together with 
the determination of the amount of caustic alkali needed for 
complete saponification, the thermal rise with strong sulphuric 
acid or with bromine, the refraction of light and the specific 
gravity, now enable the analyst to form a fair idea of the 
nature of any sample under examination, and, in consequence 
of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of oils has much 
declined.  The most common adulterant of the more valuable 
oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil.  The oils expressed 
from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil) are also 
frequently admixed with olive oil.  Almond oil is adulterated 
with the closely allied oils from the peach-kernel or the 
pine-seed.  Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter 
sometimes as adulterants into edible oils.  There is, 
however, a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally. 
Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably 
genuine.  The old forms of adulteration, such as the use of 
alum for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from 
bad flour, have disappeared.  The only admixture which has 
been met with during recent years is maize-meal in American 
produce.  This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal. 

Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject 
to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes.  One 
single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial 
but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 
1880 and 1905 in England, some crushed marble having been 
found in a consignment of German sugar in a large British 
establishment.  There have, however, been numerous prosecutions 
for a fraud of another class, namely, the substitution 
of dyed beetroot sugar for Demerara sugar.  Formerly the 
sugar produced by the old imperfect and wasteful methods of 
manufacture was more or less yellow or brown from adhering 
molasses.  Sugar, as now obtained, be it from cane or beet, is 
white; yet the public is so wedded to its customs that white 
sugar except as lump or castor sugar does not,find a ready 
sale.  The manufacturer is obliged to colour his product yellow 
by artificial means, that is to say, either by the addition of 
a little aniline dye, harmless in itself, or, as in the West 
Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity of chloride 
of tin, so-called ``bloomer.'' European refined beet-sugar 
coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara cane 
sugar is sold under the name of ``yellow crystals.'' These, 
although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the 
delicious aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and 
are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara. 

Marmalade and Jams.---In the preparation of marmalade 
and jams, which articles were for a long time mado from 
fruit and sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15%, 
is often now replaced by starch glucose.  This material, 
consisting mainly of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is 
of much less sweetening power than ordinary sugar and mostly 
cheaper.  It is said to prevent the crystallization which 
frequently used to occur in some jams.  The use of glucose 
has been declared by the High Court (Smith v. Wisden, 
1901) to be legitimate, the court holding that as there was 
no recognized standard for the composition of marmalade the 
addition of saccharine material not injurious to health could 
not constitute an offence.  Artificial colouring matters and 
chemical preservatives are almost constant ingredients of 
jams.  To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar, do 
not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) 
an addition of apple juice is frequently made in the 
manufacture of jam, without much objection; the pulp of the 
apple, however, is sometimes bodily added as an adulterant. 

Tea.---In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food 
Act of 1875 that tea was to be examined by the Customs on 
importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other 
substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England, 
the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed.  Great 
numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs, 
and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned 
because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for 
the manufacture of theine being permitted, only sound and 
genuine tea coming to the British public.  The practice, very 
common a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green 
with, a mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite 
vanished with the decline of the consumption of green tea. 

Coffee.---A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee 
berries, made from flour and chicory, have been observed, but 
it would not be fair to speak of a practice of adulteration 
regarding coffee berries.  Not infrequently coffee is roasted 
with the addition of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, 
to give to the roasted coffee a glossy appearance.  These 
additions as a rule are small in amount.  Ground coffee is 
often sold adulterated with chicory, sugar or caramel.  Other 
adulterations, reference to which is found in literature relating 
to the second half of the 19th century, do not seem now to occur. 

Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent 
or questionable additions.  In the cheaper qualities of 
cocoa-powder sugar and starch--the latter in the form 
of sago flour or arrowroot--are admixed in very large 
proportions, and, in order to give to such mixtures something 
like the appearance of genuine cocoa, red oxide of iron is 
added.  This almost invariably is more or less arsenical.  
Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is mixed in a 
very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner kind.  
Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so-called 
chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery 
coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of 
the fat of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter 
that is obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is 
no longer sufficient to cover the demand.  Substitutes of 
cocoa-butter prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured 
on a large scale, and all enter without acknowledgment 
into chocolates or chocolate creams.  As there are not any 
regulations touching the composition of chocolate, sugar 
or starch or both are used in chocolate manufacture, and 
especially in that of chocolate powders in often excessive 
quantities.  In the Dutch mode of manufacture of cocoa-powders 
an addition of from 3% to 4% of an alkaline salt is made 
for the purpose of rendering the cocoa ``soluble,'' or, more 
strictly, for putting it into such a physical condition that 
it does not settle in the cup.  This addition does not, as 
is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not made 
with any fraudulent object; several countries, however, have 
passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition which 
may thus legitimately be made.  Most of the cocoa powders sold 
in England are prepared in accordance with the Dutch method. 

Wine.--If under this term a beverage is understood which 
consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great 
proportion of the wine consumed in England is not genuine 
wine.  All port and sherry comes into commerce after 
having received an addition of spirit, generally made from 
potatoes; port and sherry would not be what they are and 
as they have been for generations unless they were thus 
fortified.  The practice can now hardly be classed among 
adulterations.  A well-fermented wine made from the juice 
of properly matured grapes does not require any added 
alcohol in order that it should keep; imperfectly made wine 
is liable to turn sour; the addition of alcohol prevents 
this.  French wines, both red and white, are hardly subject to 
adulteration.  In wine-growing countries like France wine is so 
cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult to manufacture 
an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine wine.  In Germany 
the conditions are different, the districts from which those 
wines that are exported are nominally derived being small and 
insufficient to cover the world's demands.  The addition of 
sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within limits 
by German law, which not even requires that notification to 
the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious 
that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name 
of ``hock'' and some of that coming from the Moselle are 
thus diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, 
adulterated.  Wines from the Palatinate which under their own 
names would not sell out of Germany are often passed off as 
hocks.  As there is but little German red wine the law 
also permits this to be lengthened by the addition of white 
wine.  For the removal of part of the acid from sour wine 
produced in bad vintages the addition of precipitated chalk 
is also permitted.  Attention has been drawn in England to 
the very serious fact that German wines sometimes contain 
salts of zinc in small quantities.  These are introduced by 
a fining agent protected by a German patent, consisting of 
solutions of sulphate of zinc and potassium ferrocyanide, 
which, when added together in ``suitable proportions,'' 
produce a precipitate of zinc-ferrocyanide which carries down 
all turbidity in the wine and is supposed to leave neither 
zinc nor ferrocyanide behind in solution.  As a matter of 
fact, one or other of these highly objectionable substances 
is almost invariably left behind.  The use of artificial 
colouring matters in wines does not appear now to occur. 

Beer cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well 
known that materials often very different from these which the 
general public believe to be the proper raw materials for the 
manufacture of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely 
used.  By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec. 4, 
beer is defined as any liquor ``which is made or sold as a 
description of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which 
on analysis of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more 
than 2% of proof spirit.'' That is to say, beer is legally 
anything that is sold as beer provided that it has 2% of proof 
spirit.  There is not any restriction upon the materials 
that are employed provided that they are not positively 
poisonous.  For Inland Revenue purposes, however, a prohibition 
has been made against the admixture of anything to beer 
after it has been manufactured, and excise prosecutions of 
publicans for watering beer are not infrequent.  Formerly 
there was a restriction on the amount of salt that might be 
present in beer; this no longer exists.  On the other hand it 
cannot be said that any injurious materials are being used by 
brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking, most 
efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically trained 
men.  The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which is 
almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration 
in the ordinary acceptation of the term.  The thin beer which 
has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation 
contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities, 
and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could 
be sold without the addition of some sort of preservative. 

Non-Alcoholic Drinks.---The same remark applies to a good 
many of so-called temperance beverages.  Of these again it is 
hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration.  So-called 
sodawater is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated 
water, but the term ``soda-water'' is a survival from the times 
when this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed 
to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia.  Potash 
and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only 
mere traces of the substances from which they derive their 
names.  The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no 
longer due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine 
(the toluol derivative), which is possessed of sweetness but 
not of nourishment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect 
the digestion, its use in these beverages is to be deprecated. 

Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive 
alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor.  When 
this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed with other grain 
the vinegar is called a malt vinegar.  Often, however, acid 
liquors pass under that name which have been made by the action 
of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize or 
tapioca, with or without the addition of neat sugar.  Dilute 
acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as 
an adulterant of vinegar.  When properly purified such acid 
is unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell 
it as vinegar.  Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other 
acids, formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare. 

Spirits.---By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act, 
whisky, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic 
strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol 
by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol).  For many 
years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts 
related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of 
spirits with water being, of course, a profitable form of 
fraud.  No addition of any injurious matters to commercial 
spirits has been observed.  It was, however, well known that 
a very considerable proportion of so-called brandies was not 
the product of the grape, but that spirits of other origin 
were frequently admixed with grape brandy.  A report which 
appeared in 1902 in the Lancet on ``Brandy, its production 
at Cognac and the supply of genuine brandy to this country,'' 
served as a stimulus to public analysts to analyse commercial 
brandies, and convictions of retailers for selling so-called 
brandy followed.  It was shown that genuine brandy made 
in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills contained a 
considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol to 
which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among these 
flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic 
acids with alcohols (chemically described as ``esters'') 
predominate.  For the present a brandy is not considered 
genuine unless it contains in 100,000 parts (calculated free 
from water) at least 60 parts of ``esters.', As a consequence 
a trade has sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold 
for the purpose of adding them to any spirit to fraudulently 
convert it into a liquor passing as ``brandy.'' The inquiries 
into the nature of brandy led to investigations into 
whisky.  Formerly whisky was made from grain only and obtained 
by pot-still distillation, that form of ``still'' yielding 
a product containing a comparatively large proportion of 
volatile matters other than alcohol.  For many years past, 
however, improved stills--so-called patent stills--have been 
adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer and far 
stronger product, saving carriage and storage.  Attempts were 
made in England in 1905-1907 to restrict the term ``whisky'' 
solely to the pot-still product.  But the question was referred 
in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a 
restriction.  A common form of adulteration of whisky is the 
addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from 
potatoes.  This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid 
of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely 
attributed to it.  The substitution of this--a very cheap and 
quite flavourless material---for one which owes its value more to 
its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is clearly fraudulent. 

Drugs.---To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference 
can here be made.  It is satisfactory to record that but very 
few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias 
are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few 
cases on record during recent years where real fraudulent 
adulteration was involved.  The numerous preparations used 
by druggists are mostly prepared in factories under competent 
and careful supervision, and the standards laid down in the 
British Pharmacopoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered 
to.  The occurrence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that 
of arsenic in sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, 
can hardly be included in the list of adulterations.  In the 
making up of prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity 
is displayed; thus, the Local Government Board report of the 
years 1904-1905 refers to an instance of a quinine mixture 
containing 23 grains of quinine-sulphate instead of 240 
grains.  A certain latitude in the making up of physicians' 
prescriptions must necessarily be allowed, but much too frequently 
the reasonable limit of a 10% error over or under the amount 
of drug prescribed is exceeded.  Certain perishable drugs, 
such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others liable to contain 
from their mode of manufacture metallic impurities, form the 
subjects of frequent prosecutions.  The element of intentional 
fraud which characterizes many forms of food adulteration 
is happily generally absent in the case of drugs. (O. H.*) 

ADULTERY (from Lat. adultorium), the sexual intercourse of 
a married person with another than the offender's husband or 
wife.  Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman 
law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the 
offender.  The foundation of the later Roman law with regard 
to adultery was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis 
passed by Augustus about 17 B.C. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paul. 
Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson, dit Leg. Jul. de Adult.) 
In Great Britain it was reckoned a spiritual offence, that 
is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only.  The common 
law took no further notice of it than to allow the party 
aggrieved an action of damages.  In England, however, the 
action for ``criminal conversation,'' as it was called, was 
nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but 
by the 33rd section of the same act, the husband may claim 
damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife in 
a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial 
separation.  In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is 
still retained.  In Scotland damages may be recovered against 
an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the civil 
court, and the latter may be found liable for the expenses 
of an action of divorce if joined with the guilty spouse as a 
co-defender.  Adultery on the part of the wife is, by the 
law of England, a ground for divorce, but on the part of the 
husband must be either incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with 
cruelty or desertion for two or more years.  In the United 
States adultery is everywhere ground of divorce, and there 
is commonly no prohibition against marrying the paramour or 
other re-marriage by the guilty party.  Even if there be such a 
prohibition, it would be unavailing out of the state.in which 
the divorce was granted; marriage being a contract which, if 
valid where executed, is generally treated as valid everywhere.  
Adultery gives a cause of action for damages to the wronged 
husband.  It is in some states a criminal offence on the 
part of each party to the act, for which imprisonment in the 
penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may be awarded. 

In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the 
marriage could, until the creation of the Court of Probate 
and Divorce, be obtained only by an act of parliament.  
This procedure is still pursued in the case of Irish 
divorces.  In Scotland a complete divorce may be effected by 
proceedings in the Court of Session, as succeeding to the old 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commissioners.  A person 
divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scotland, prohibited 
from intermarrying with the paramour.  In France, Germany, 
Austria and other countries in Europe, as well as in some 
of the states of the United States, adultery is a criminal 
offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See DIVORCE.) 

AD VALOREM (Lat. for ``according to value''), the term 
given in commerce to a duty which is levied by customs 
authorities on goods or commodities in proportion to their 
value.  An ad valorem duty is the opposite of a specific 
duty, which is chargeable on the measure or weight of 
goods.  The United States is the one important country which 
has adopted in its tariff an extensive system of ad valorem 
duties, though it has not altogether disregarded specific 
duties; in some cases, indeed, the two are combined.  Ad 
valorem duties, in the United States, are levied according 
to the saleable value of the goods in the country of their 
origin, and it is usual to require at the port of entry the 
production of an invoice with full particulars as to the 
place where, time when, and person from whom the goods were 
purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges on 
them.  Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of 
the country for which the goods are intended.  On arrival 
at the port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the 
importer.  The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and 
if the valuation of the appraiser exceeds that which appears 
on the invoice, double duty is levied, subject to appeal 
to a general appraiser and to boards of general appraisers. 

It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is 
preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper 
proportion alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a 
commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctuates, 
the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new 
value.  In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great 
inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative 
value of two commodities may remain apparently unchanged under 
an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the cost of 
production, or through the different proportions of fixed and 
circulating capital employed in their manufacture, an ad valorem 
tax will be felt much more severely by one commodity than by 
another.  Again, there is always a difficulty in obtaining a 
true valuation on the exported goods, for values from their 
very nature are variable; while specific duties remain steady, 
and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he will have to 
pay.  The opening to fraud is also very great, for where, as 
in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep out 
foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment will be 
looked upon with the utmost suspicion, while it will always be 
a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation 
in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his 
tax, while the seller's market is increased.  The staff of 
appraisers which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry 
considerably raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance 
and delay caused both to importers and foreign shippers. 

The term ``ad valorem'' is used also of stamp duties.  By the 
Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, e.g. awards, 
bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c., must 
be stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that is, 
the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter 
of the particular instruments or writings. (See STAMP DUTIES.) 

ADVANCEMENT, a term technically used in English law for a 
sum of money or other benefit, given by a father during his 
lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by 
the child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an 
intestacy on pain of his being excluded from participating 
in such distribution.  The principle is of ancient origin; 
as regards goods and chattels it was part of the ancient 
customs of London and the province of York, and as regards 
land descending in coparcenary it has always been part 
of the common law of England under the name of hotch-pot 
(q.v.). The general rule was established by the Statutes of 
Distribution.  The conditions under which cases of advancement 
arise are as follows: There must be a complete intestacy; 
the intestate estate must be that of the father; and the 
advancement must have been made in the lifetime of the 
father.  Land which belongs or would belong to a child as 
heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in to 
the common fund, even though such land was given during the 
father's life.  The widow can gain no advantage from any 
advancement.  No child can be forced to account for his or 
her advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded 
from a share in the intestate's estate.  As to what is an 
advancement there has been much conflict of judicial opinion.  
According to one view, nothing is an advancement unless it be 
given ``on marriage or to establish the child in life.'' The 
other and probably the correct view is that any considerable 
sum of money paid to a child at that child's request is an 
advancement; thus payment of a son's debts of honour has been 
held to be an advancement.  On the other hand, trivial gifts 
and presents to a child are undoubtedly not advancements. 

ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any 
way.  The Fr. avant (before) shows the origin and meaning of 
this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted 
the spelling.  It is often contracted to ``vantage.'' In 
some games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term ``vantage'' is used 
technically in scoring (``deuce'' and ``vantage''; ``vantage 
sets'').  A position which gives a better chance of success 
than its surroundings is called a ``vantage ground.'' 
In an unfavourable sense the word ``advantage'' is used 
to express a mean use made of some favourable condition 
(e.g. to take advantage of another man's misfortunes). 

ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, ``the coming 
of the Saviour''), a holy season of the Christian church, the 
period of preparation for the celebration of the nativity or 
Christmas.  In the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's 
Day (11th of November), and in other churches from the 
Sunday nearest to St Andrew's Day (30th of November) till 
Christmas.  It is uncertain at what date the season began to be 
observed.  A canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding 
the faithful to be absent from church during the three weeks 
from the 17th of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an 
early reference to Advent.  The first authoritative mention of 
it is in the Synod of Lerida (524), and since the 6th century 
it has been recognized as the beginning of the ecclesiastical 
year.  With the view of directing the thoughts of Christians 
to the first coming of Christ as Saviour, and to his second 
coming as Judge, special lessons are prescribed for the four 
Sundays in Advent.  From the 6th century the season was kept 
as a period of fasting as strict as that of Lent; but in the 
Anglican and Lutheran churches the rule is now relaxed.  In 
the Roman Catholic church Advent is still kept as a season of 
penitence.  Dancing and festivities are forbidden, fasting 
enjoined and purple vestments are worn in the church services. 

In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse popular 
observances, some of which even still survive.  Thus in England, 
especially the northern counties, there was a custom (now 
extinct) for poor women to carry round the ``Advent images,'' two 
dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other the Virgin 
Mary.  A halfpenny was expected from every one to whom these were 
exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace the household not 
visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas Eve at the latest. 

In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve to 
run through the fields and orchards armed with torches, setting 
fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is believed driving out 
such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. III Italy among 
other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the last 
days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players, 
who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother.  The Italian 
tradition is that the shepherds played on these pipes when they 
came to the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour. 

ADVENTISTS, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose 
distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical 
return of Jesus Christ.  The first to bear the name were the 
followers of William Miller, and adherents have always been 
more numerous in America than in Europe.  There is a body of 
Seventh Day Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) 
rather than the Christian Sunday.  They counsel abstemious 
habits, but set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are 
spared the perpetual disappointments that overtake the ordinary 
adventist.  They have some 400 ministers and 60,000 members. 

ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from 
abroad), a quality from outside, in no sense part of the 
substance or circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition 
of life, his wealth or his poverty, are called by Carlyle 
``adventitious wrappages,'' as being extrinsic, superadded 
and not a natural part of him.  In botany the word means 
that which is not normal to the plant, which appears 
irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots out of 
place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the flower. 

ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to 
happen), chance, and especially chance of danger; so a hazardous 
enterprise or remarkable incident.  Thus an ``adventurer,'' 
from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course 
of action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a 
person of no character.  The word is also used in certain 
restricted legal connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, 
may be distinguished from partnership (q.v.). A bill 
of adventure in maritime law (now apparently obsolete) 
is a writing signed by the shipmaster declaring that goods 
shipped in his name really belong to another, to whom he is 
responsible.  The bill of gross adventure in French maritime 
law is an instrument making a loan on maritime security. 

ADVERTISEMENT, or ADVERTISING (Fr. avertissement, 
warning, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly 
of purchasing publicity.  The business of advertising is of 
very recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct 
to other phases of commercial activity.  In some rudimentary 
form the seller's appeal to the buyer must, however, have 
accompanied the earliest development of trade.  Under 
conditions of primitive barter, communities were so small that 
every producer was in immediate personal contact with every 
consumer.  As the primeval man's wolfish antipathy to the 
stranger of another pack gradually diminished, and as intercourse 
spread the infection of larger desires, the trapper could 
no longer satisfy his more complicated wants by the mere 
exchange of his pelts for his lowland neighbour's corn and 
oil.  A began to accept from B the commodity which he could 
in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's product 
gave to A what D had produced and bartered to C. The mere 
statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its 
clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon 
simplified the original process of bare barter.  It is 
reasonable to suppose that as soon as the introduction of 
currency marked the abandonment of direct relations between 
purchaser and consumer an informal system of advertisement 
in turn rose to meet the need of publicity.  At first the 
offer of the producer must have been brought to the trader's 
attention, and the trader's offer to the notice of the 
consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented by local 
rumour.  The gradual growth of markets and their development 
into periodical fairs, to which merchants from distant places 
resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the only 
means of extended advertisement.  In England, during the 3rd 
century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as 
well as from all parts of England, and it may be conjectured 
that the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of 
the Stour was the first form of advertisement which had any 
marked effect upon English commerce.  As the fairs of the 
middle ages, with the tedious and hazardous journeys they 
involved, gradually gave place to a more convenient system of 
trade, the 15th century brought the invention of printing, 
and led the Way to the modern development of advertising.  The 
Americans, to whom the elaboration of newspaper advertising is 
primarily due, had but just founded the first English-speaking 
community in the western hemisphere when the first newspaper 
was published in England.  But although the first periodical 
publication containing news appeared in the month of May 
1622, the first newspaper advertisement does not seem to 
have been published until April 1647.  It formed a part of 
No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Daie journall in 
Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read as 
follows:-A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called 
The Divine Right of church Government, Collected by 
sundry eminent Ministers in the Citie of London; Corrected 
and augmented in many places, with a briefe Reply to certain 
Queries against the Ministery of England; Is printed and 
published for Joseph Hunscot and George Calvert, and 
are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden 
Fleece in the Old Change.  Among the Mercuries, as the 
weekly newspapers of the day were called, was the Mercurius 
Elencticus, and in its 45th number, published on the 4th of 
October 1648, there appeared the following advertisement:-- 


 
 The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon,
 Entituled A Looking-Glasse for Levellers,
 Preached at St. Peters, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648,
 by Paul Knell, Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex
 upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament
 In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont
 Nedham, who is described as ``perhaps both the ablest and the
 readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper,'' there
 appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often
 been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper
 advertisements. It read as
 follows:--
 

Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory 
panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his 
successes in an exquisite manner.  To be sold by John Holden, 
in the New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 
1652.  The article ``On the Advertising System,'' published 
in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, contains the 
fullest account of early English advertising that has ever been 
given, and it has been very freely drawn upon by all writers 
who have since discussed the subject.  But it describes this 
advertisement in the Mercurius Politicus as ``the very first,'' 
and the discovery of the two earlier instances above quoted was 
due to the researches of a contributor to Notes and Queries. 

In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William 
Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on 
the lack of advertising facilities at that period--It would 
be very expedient if each parish or village might have some 
place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers 
posted up) the wants either of the buyer or the seller, as 
such a field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, 
to be had, &c. There was a book published in London weekly 
about the year 1657 which was called (as I remember) The 
Publick Advice. At gave information in very many of these 
particulars.  A year later the same diarist says--There is an 
office near the Old Exchange in London called the office of Publick 
Advice.  From thence both printed and private information of 
this useful nature are always to be had.  But what they print 
is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal.  I was in this 
office.  The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 
1689.  In No. 62 of the London Gazette, published in June 
1666, the first advertisement supplement was announced--An 
Advertisement--Being daily prest to the Publication of Books, 
Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a Paper 
of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once for all, that we will 
not charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be 
matter of State: but that a Paper of Advertisements will be 
forthwith printed apart, & recommended to the Publick by another 
hand.  In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 
1666, there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great 
Fire should avail themselves of this means of publicity--Such 
as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and 
desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish 
the place of their present abode, or to give notice of Goods 
lost or found may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury 
on the East Side of the Great Square, before the House of 
the Right Honourable the Lord Treasurer, where there is care 
taken for the Receipt and Publication of such Advertisements. 

The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal 
notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either 
books or quack remedies.  The first trade advertisement, 
which does not fall within either of these categories, 
was curiously enough the first advertisement of a new 
commodity, tea.  The following advertisement appeared in 
the Mercurius Politicus, No. 435, for September 1658-- 

That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, 
called by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, 
alias Tee, is sold at the Sultaness Head, a cophee-house 
in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal Exchange, London. 

The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other 
curious incidents and episodes of English history during the 
17th and 18th centuries might be traced by examination of the 
antiquated advertisements which writers upon such subjects 
have already collected.  In order that space may be found 
for some consideration of the practical aspects of modern 
advertising, the discussion of its gradual development must be 
curtailed.  Nor is it necessary to preface this consideration by 
any laboured statement of the importance which advertising has 
assumed.  It is a matter of common knowledge that several 
business houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a 
larger number in the United States, who spend not less than 
L. 50,000 a year in advertising, while one patent medicine 
company, operating both in England and the United States, has 
probably spent not less than L. 200,000 in Great Britain in one 
year, and an English cocoa manufacturer is supposed to have 
spent L. 150,000 in Great Britain.  Some of the best works 
of artists as distinguished as Sir John Millais, Sir H. von 
Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have been scattered broadcast by 
advertisers.  The purchase of Sir John Millais' picture 
``Bubbles'' for L. 2200 by the proprietors of a well-known 
brand of soap is probably the most remarkable instance of the 
expenditure in this direction which an advertiser may find 
profitable.  There are in London alone more than 350 advertising 
agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known as men in 
a considerable way of business.  The statements which from 
time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard to 
the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising 
in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily 
no better than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are 
required in order to demonstrate what every reader can plainly 
see for himself, that advertising has definitely assumed 
its position as a serious field of commercial enterprise. 

Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 20th century, 
may be divided into three general classes:--1.  Advertising in 
periodical publications. 2. Advertising by posters, signboards 
(other than those placed upon premises where the advertised 
business is conducted), transparencies and similar devices. 
3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of 
persons to whom the advertiser specially desired to address 
himself.  It may be noted at the outset that advertising in 
periodical publications exercises a reflex influence upon these 
publications.  The dally, weekly and monthly publications of 
the day are accustomed to look to advertisements for so large 
a part of their revenue that the purchaser of a periodical 
publication receives much greater value for his money than he 
could reasonably expect from the publisher if the aggregate 
advertising receipts did not constitute a perpetual subsidy 
to the publisher.  It is not to be supposed, however, that 
the receipts from the sale of a paper cover all its expenses 
and that the advertising revenue is all clear profit.  The 
average newspaper reader would be amazed if he knew at how 
great a cost the day's news is laid before him.  A dignified 
journal displays no inclination to cry from the housetops 
the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an 
accident enables the public to obtain information in this 
connexion.  The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission 
disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal 
upon foreign news alone amounted to more than L. 50,000 in the 
course of one year, and that a year not characterized by any 
great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable despatches. 

In the case of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it is 
not less obvious that the costliness of news service renders 
advertising revenue indispensable, for although these less 
important journals spend less money, the price at which they 
are supplied to the news agents is very small in proportion 
to the cost of their production.  If, however, this thought 
be pursued to its logical conclusion, the advertiser must 
admit that he in turn receives, from those among newspaper 
readers who purchase his wares, prices sufficiently high 
to cover the cost of his advertising.  So that the reader 
is in the curious position of directly paying a certain 
price for his newspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth 
more than that price, while this price is supplemented by 
the indirect incidence of a sort of tax upon many of the 
commodities he consumes.  On the other hand, a great part 
of the advertisements in a daily newspaper have themselves 
an interest and utility not less than that possessed by the 
news.  The man who desires to hire a house turns to the 
classified lists which the newspaper publishes day after 
day, and servants and employers find one another by the same 
means.  The theatrical announcements are so much a part 
of the news that even if a journal were not paid for their 
insertion they could not be altogether omitted without 
inconvenience to the reader.  In the main, however, it is 
the advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks 
the advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are 
prepared, and the certainty with which the success or failure 
of a trader may be traced to his skill or want of skill as an 
advertiser, show that the proper use of advertising is one 
of the most indispensable branches of commercial training. 

Poster and sign advertisements. 

Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising 
in periodical publications it may be well to complete, 
for the use of the general reader, a brief survey of 
the whole subject by examining the two other classes of 
advertisement.  The most enthusiastic partisan of advertising 
will admit that posters and similar devices are very 
generally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance.  
A bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper 
advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's 
attention.  In the French, and in some English newspapers, 
where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of 
news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being 
hoodwinked.  He begins to read an account of a street accident, 
and finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for 
bruises.  The best English and American journals have refused 
to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and in no one 
of the best journals printed in the English language will 
there be found an advertisement which is not so plainly 
differentiated from news matter that the reader may avoid 
it if he sees fit to do so.  On the whole, then, newspaper 
advertisements ask, but do not compel attention.  The whole 
theory of poster advertising is, on the other hand, one of 
tyranny.  The advertiser who pays for space upon a hoarding or 
wall, although he may encourage a form of art, deliberately 
violates the wayfarer's mind.  A trade-mark or a catch-word 
presents itself when eye and thought are occupied with other 
subjects.  Those who object to this class of advertisement 
assert, with some show of reason, that an advertisement has 
no more right to assault the eye in this fashion than to 
storm the ear by an inordinate din; and a man who came up 
behind another man in the street, placed his mouth close to 
the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some brand 
of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable 
disturber of public peace and comfort.  Yet if the owner of 
a house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his 
exercise of the jealously guarded rights of private property 
may not lightly be disturbed.  For the most part, both law and 
public opinion content themselves with restraining the worst 
excesses of the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to 
suffer.  The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public 
Advertising (known as SCARA), founded in 1803 in London, 
was organized for purposes which it describes as follows:-- 

The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity 
of rural and river scenery, and promoting a regard for 
dignity and propriety of aspect in towns---with especial 
reference to the abuses of spectacular advertising. 

It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative 
bodies would be enabled to exercise control, by means of 
by-laws framed with a view to enabling them, at any rate, 
to grant relief in cases of flagrant and acknowledged abuse. 

It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where 
local conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will 
be so apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, 
the enforcement of a reasonable standard will gradually become 
common.  The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon 
the varying requirements of different places and positions.  
No hard-and-fast rule is suggested; no particular class of 
advertisement is proscribed; certainly no general prohibition 
of posters on temporary hoardings is contemplated.  Within 
the metropolitan area sky signs have already been prohibited, 
and it is hoped that some corresponding check will be placed 
on the multiplication of the field boards which so materially 
diminish the pleasure or comfort of railway journeys. 

The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate 
tax or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed 
advertisements not coming within certain categories of 
obviously necessary notices.  The difficulty of inducing a 
chancellor of the exchequer to move in a matter where revenue 
is not the primary consideration is not overlooked.  But it 
is thought that an impost would materially reduce the volume 
of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish 
the most offensive and the most annoying class, i.e. 
the quack advertisements by the road sides and the bills 
stuck by unauthorized persons on trees, walls and palings. 

Members are recommended to make it known that there exists 
an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising 
disfigurement, by giving preference, in private transactions, 
to makers and dealers who do not employ objectionable 
methods, and by avoiding, as far as possible, the purchase 
of wares which, in their individual opinion, are offensively 
puffed.  Action on these lines is advised rather for its 
educational than for its immediately deterrent effect; 
although, in the case of many of the more expensive 
commodities, makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by 
the knowledge that they would lose, rather than gain, custom. 

The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate 
of the conditions of the problem.  It is believed that the 
present licence causes discomfort or loss of enjoyment to 
many, and that, in the absence of authoritative restriction, 
it must grow far beyond its present limits; that beauty or 
propriety of aspect in town and country forms as real a part 
of the national wealth as any material product, and that to 
save these from impairment is a national interest; that the 
recent developments of vexatiously obtrusive advertising have 
not grown out of any necessities of honourable business, but 
are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation, and 
partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the 
consumers and the trade as a whole lose; that restriction 
as regards the size and positions of advertising notices 
would not be a hardship to those who want publicity--since 
all competitors would be treated alike, each would have the 
same relative prominence; that, as large sums of public money 
are expended on institutions intended to develop the finer 
taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must be held 
inconsistent with established public policy to permit the 
sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural 
effect to be destroyed at the discretion of a limited 
class.  The influence of this society is to be seen in many 
of the restrictions which have been imposed upon advertisers 
since its work began.  About a year after its foundation 
the London County Council abolished (under statutory powers 
obtained from Parliament) advertisements coming within 
the definition of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 
1894.  These specifications are as follows--``Sky sign', means 
any word, letter, model, sign, device, or representation in 
the nature of an advertisement, announcement, or direction 
supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard, 
framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, 
or above any building or structure, which, or any part of 
which, sky sign shall be visible against the sky from any 
point in any street or public way, and includes all and every 
part of any such post, pole, standard, framework, or other 
support.  The expression ``sky sign'' shall also include any 
balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly or in 
part for the purposes of any advertisements or announcement 
on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection 
of any kind, or on or over any street or public way. 

The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaffs, weathercocks 
and any solid signs not rising more than 3 feet above the roof. 

Another by-law of the London County Council, in great measure 
due to the observations made at coroners' inquests, protects the 
public against the annoyances and the perils to traffic occasioned 
by flashlight and searchlight advertisements.  This by-law reads 
as follows:--No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to 
be visible from any street and to cause danger to the traffic 
therein, nor shall any owner or occupier of premises permit 
or suffer any flashlight to be so exhibited on such premises. 

The expression ``flashlight'' means and includes any light used 
for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any 
word, letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the 
nature of an advertisement, announcement, or direction which 
alters suddenly either in intensity, colour, or direction. 

No person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible 
from any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, 
nor shall any owner or occupier of premises permit or 
suffer any searchlight to be so exhibited on such premises. 

The expression ``searchlight'' means and includes any 
light exceeding 500-candle power, whether in one lamp 
or lantern, or in a series of lamps or lanterns used 
together and projected as one concentrated light, and 
which alters either in intensity, colour, or direction. 

Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be 
prohibited in 1853; the ``sandwich-man'' has in the City of 
London and many towns been ousted from the pavement to the 
gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded streets, 
and as the traffic problem in the great centres of population 
becomes more urgent, he will probably be altogether suppressed. 

Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts 
that new hoardings cannot, except under special conditions, be 
erected exceeding 12 feet in height, and no existing hoardings 
can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit.  The 
huge signs which some advertisers, both in England and the 
United States, have placed in such positions as to mar the 
landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism that there is 
reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not increase. 

In 1899 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over 
ail sorts of advertising in public places, and this achievement 
has been followed by no little agitation in favour of a 
Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away with 
the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United Kingdom. 

In 1907 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act) of a 
permissive character purely, under which a local authority is 
enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the Home 
Secretary, regulating (1) the erection of hoardings, &c., exceeding 
12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertisements which 
might affect the ``amenities'' of a public place or landscape. 

The English law with regard to posters has undergone very little 
change.  The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Vict. 
cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the 
Indecent Advertisements Act of 1889 (sec.  3) penalized the public 
exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an 
indecent or obscene nature.  But in general practice there 
is hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster 
advertisements, other than good taste and public opinion.  
On the other hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, 
and there have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as 
to what public opinion really was, when its legally authorized 
exponent was in a position to insist on its own arbitrary 
definition.  Such an instance occurred some few years ago 
in the case of a large poster issued by a well-known London 
music-hail.  The Progressive majority on the London County 
Council, led by Mr (afterwards Sir) J. M`Dougall, a well-known 
``purity'' advocate, took exception to this poster, which 
represented a female gymnast in ``tights'' posed in what was 
doubtless intended for an alluring and attractive attitude; and, 
in spite of any argument, the fact remained that the decision 
as to renewing the licence of this music-hall rested solely 
with the Council.  In showing that it would have no hesitation 
in provoking even a charge of meddling prudery, the Council 
probably gave a salutary warning to people who were inclined 
to sail rather too near the wind.  But in Great Britain and 
America, at all events (though a doubt may perhaps exist as to 
some Continental countries), the advertiser and the artist are 
restrained, not only by their own sense of propriety, but by 
fear of offending the sense of propriety in their customers. 

Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public 
vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find 
the name of a station or the destination of a vehicle.  In 
respect of all these abuses it is a regrettable fact that 
unpopularity cannot be expected to deter the advertiser.  If a 
name has once been fixed in the memory, it remains there long 
after the method of its impression has been forgotten, and 
the purpose of advertisements of the class under discussion 
is really no more than the fixing of a trade name in the 
mind.  The average man or woman who goes into a shop to buy 
soap is more or less affected by a vague sense of antagonism 
towards the seller.  There is a rudimentary feeling that even 
the most ordinary transaction of purchase brings into contact 
two minds actuated by diametrically opposed interests.  The 
purchaser, who is not asking for a soap he has used before, 
has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper will try to 
sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article 
which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser 
imagines that he in some measure secures himself against a 
bad bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for 
some specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks.  If 
he has seen any one soap so persistently advertised that his 
memory retains its name, he will ask for it, not because he 
has any reason to believe it to be better or cheaper than 
others, but simply because he baffles the shopkeeper, and 
assumes an authoritative attitude by exerting his own freedom 
of choice.  This curious and obscure principle of action 
probably lies at the root of all poster advertising, for the 
poster does not set forth an argument as does the newspaper 
advertisement.  It hardly attempts to reason with the 
reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory.  It 
is possible, by lavish advertising, to go so far in this 
direction that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer 
becomes synonymous with the name of a commodity, so that when 
the consumer thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept 
inevitably couples the maker's name with the word ``soap'' 
itself.  In order that the poster may leave any impression 
upon his mind, it must of course first attract his attention.  
The assistance which the advertiser receives from the artist 
in this connexion is discussed in the article POSTER. 

The fact that the verb ``to circularize'' was first used in 
1848; sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the 
practice of plying possible purchasers with printed letters and 
pamphlets.  The penny postage was not established in England until 
1840; the halfpenny post for circulars was not introduced until 
1855.  In the United States a uniform rate of postage at two 
cents was not established until 1883.  In both countries cheap 
postage and cheap printing have so greatly encouraged the 
use of circulars that the sort of people whom the advertiser 
desires to reach--those who have the most money to spend, 
and whose addresses, published in directories, indicate 
their prosperous condition--are overwhelmed by tradesmen's 
price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other 
suggestions for the spending of money.  The addressing of 
envelopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry 
in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United 
States.  It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert 
advertisers that what is called ``general circularizing'' is 
unprofitable, and that circulars should only be sent to persons 
who have peculiar reason to be interested by their specific 
subject-matter.  It may be noted, as an instance of the 
assiduity with which specialized circularizing is pursued, 
that the announcement of a birth, marriage or death in the 
newspapers serves to calf forth a grotesque variety of circulars 
supposed to be adapted to the momentary needs of the recipient. 

In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other 
than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add 
that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which is 
known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming, 
Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a 

 
                             Sacred
                        To the memory of
                      Nathaniel Godbold Esq,
                      inventor & Proprietor
                    of that excellent medicine
                       The Vegetable Balsam
               For the Cure of Consumptions & Asthmas.
                      He departed this Life
                   The 17th. day of Decr. 1799
                          Aged 69 years.
                    Hic Cineres, ubique Fama.
 

The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press has 
within the last twenty years or so become so important a task 
that a great number of writers and artists--many of the latter 
possessing considerable abilities--gain a livelihood from this 
pursuit.  The ingenuity displayed in modern newspaper advertising 
is unquestionably due to American initiative.  The English 
newspaper advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the 
most part of the mere reiteration of a name.  An advertiser 
who took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an 
inch, and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the 
column.  Such departures from this childlike method as 
were made were for the most part eccentric to the point of 
incoherence.  It may, however, be said in defence of English 
advertisers, that newspaper publishers for a long time 
sternly discountenanced any attempt to render advertisements 
attractive.  So long as an advertiser was rigidly confined 
to the ordinary single-column measure, and so long as he was 
forbidden to use anything but the smallest sort of type, there 
was very little opportunity for him to attract the reader's 
attention.  The newspaper publisher must always remember 
that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the news, 
not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the 
advertisements are relegated to a position and a scope, in 
respect of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, 
the advertiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of 
publication.  Of late The Times, followed by almost all 
newspapers in the United Kingdom, has given the advertiser 
as great a degree of liberty as he really needs, and many 
experienced advertisers in America incline to the belief 
that the larger licence accorded to American advertisers 
defeats its own ends.  The truth would seem to be that the 
advertiser will always demand, and may fairly expect, the 
right to make his space as fantastic in appearance as that 
allotted to the editor.  When some American editors see fit 
to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, 
and to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first 
page of a newspaper, continuing one on page 2, another on 
page 4, and another on page 6, to the bewilderment of the 
reader, it can hardly be expected that the American advertiser 
should submit to any very strict code of decorum.  The 
subject of the relation between a newspaper proprietor and 
his advertisers cannot be dismissed without reference to the 
notable independence of advertisers' influence, which English 
and American newspaper proprietors authorize their editors to 
display.  Whenever an insurance company or a bank goes wrong, 
the cry is raised that all the editors in Christendom had 
known for years that the directors were imbeciles and rogues, 
but had conspired to keep mute for the sake of an occasional 
advertisement.  When the British public persisted, not long 
ago, in paying premium prices for the shares of over-capitalized 
companies, the crash had no sooner come than the newspapers 
were accused of having puffed promotions for the sake of the 
money received for publishing prospectuses.  As a matter of 
fact, in the case of the best dailies in England and America, 
the editor does not stand at all in awe of the advertiser, and 
time after time the Money Article has truthlessly attacked a 
promotion of which the prospectus appeared in the very same 
issue.  It is indeed to the interest of the advertiser, as 
well as to the interest of the reader, that this independence 
should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as an 
advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bona fide 
circulation among persons who believe it to be a serious and 
honestly conducted newspaper.  All advertisers know that the 
minor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and 
are scattered broadcast among people who pay nothing for their 
copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of 
view.  The most striking difference between the periodical 
press of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the 
former country the magazines and reviews play but a secondary 
role, while in the United States the three or four monthlies 
possessing the largest circulation are of the very first 
importance as advertising mediums.  One reason for this is 
that the advertisements in an American magazine are printed 
on as good paper, and printed with as great care, as any 
other part of the contents.  There are probably very few among 
American magazine readers who do not habitually look through 
the advertising pages, with the certainty that they will be 
entertained by the beauty of the advertiser's illustrations 
and the quaint curtness of his phrases.  Another reason is 
that the American monthly magazine goes to all parts of the 
United States, while, owing to the time required for long 
journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily paper 
can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United 
Kingdom.  In comparison with points on the Pacific coast, 
Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the exception 
of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no 
New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in 
Chicago.  The American advertiser would, therefore, have to 
spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to reach 
as widespread a public as one successful magazine offers him. 

There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers 
have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as 
``insets,'' consisting of separate cards or sheets printed 
at the advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at 
a specific charge for every thousand copies.  This system 
of insetting has the grave inconvenience that the advertiser 
finds himself compelled to print as many insets as the 
publisher asserts that he can use.  The publisher, on the other 
hand, is somewhat at the mercy of too enthusiastic agents 
and employes, who estimate over-confidently the edition of 
the periodical which will probably be printed for a certain 
month, and advertisers have had reason to fear that many of 
their insets were wasted.  The added weight and bulk of the 
insets cause inconvenience and expense to the newsdealer, 
as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are equivalent 
to at least sixteen additional pages.  Some newsdealers have 
further complicated the inset question by threaten. ing to 
remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them; and 
with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine 
publishers have seriously considered the advisability of 
altogether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of 
confining their advertisements to the sheets they themselves 
print.  In connexion with this subject, it may be added that 
many readers habitually shake loose hills out of a magazine 
before they begin to turn the pages, and that railway stations, 
railway carriages and even public streets are thus littered 
with trampled and muddy advertisements.  The old practice 
of distributing handbills in the streets is dying a natural 
death, more or less hastened by local by-laws, and when the 
loose bills in magazines and cheap novels have ceased to exist 
no one will be the loser.  Advertisements in the weekly press 
are on the whole more successful in England than in America.  
A few American weeklies cope successfully with the increasing 
competition of the huge Sunday editions of American daily 
papers.  But even the most successful among them--a paper 
for boys--has hardly attained the prosperity of some among 
its English contemporaries in the field of weekly journalism. 

The merchant who turns to these pages for practical suggestions 
concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given 
no better advice than to betake himself to an established 
advertising agent of good repute, and be guided by his 
counsels.  The chief part that he can himself play with 
advantage is to note from day to day whether the agent is 
obtaining advantageous positions for his announcements.  
Every advertiser will naturally prefer a right-hand page to 
a left-hand page, and the right side of the page to the left 
side of the page; while the advertiser who most indefatigably 
urges his claims upon the agent will, in the long run, 
obtain the largest share of the favours to be distributed.  
To the merchant who inclines to consider advertising in 
connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it may be 
suggested that a new channel of trade demands very serious 
attention.  What is called in England ``postal trade,'' 
and in America ``mail order business,'' is growing very 
rapidly.  Small dealers in both countries have complained 
very bitterly of the competition they suffer from the general 
dealers and from stores made up of departments which, under 
one roof, offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of 
merchandise.  This general trading, which, on the one hand, 
seriously threatens the small trader, and on the other hand 
offers greater possibilities of profit to the proportionately 
small number of persons who can undertake business on so 
large a scale, becomes infinitely more formidable when the 
general dealer endeavours not only to attract the trade of a 
town, but to make his place of business a centre from which 
he distributes by post his goods to remote parts of the 
country.  In America, where the weight of parcels carried by 
post is limited to 4 lb., and where the private carrying companies 
are forced to charge a very much higher rate for carriage 
from New York to California than for shorter distances, the 
centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but it is no 
secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in those 
parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London habitually 
avail themselves of the English parcel post, which carries 
packages up to 11 lb. in order to procure a great part of their 
household supplies direct from general dealers in London.  
A trading company, which conducts its operations upon such a 
scale as this, can afford to spend an almost unlimited sum in 
advertising throughout the United Kingdom, and even the trader 
who offers only one specific class of merchandise is beginning 
to recognize the possibility of appealing to the whole country. 

Legal regulation. 

The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations 
dealing with advertisements in public places in certain 
of the countries of Continental Europe and in the United 
States of America, the chief authority for which is an 
official return issued by the British Home Office in 1903. 

France.--The permission of the owner is alone required 
for the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but 
buildings, walls, &c., belonging to the government or local 
authorities are reserved exclusively for official notices, 
&c.; these alone can be printed on white paper, all others 
must be on coloured paper.  Municipal authorities control the 
size, construction, &c., of hoardings used for advertising 
purposes, and the police have full powers over the exhibition 
of indecent or other objectionable advertisements.  The 
Societe pour la protection des paysages, founded in 1901, 
has for one of its objects the prevention of advertisements 
which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise objectionable. 

Germany.--By sec. 43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance 
permission to post any trade advertisement in a public 
street, square, &c., must be first obtained from the local 
police.  The police also control (by sec. 55 of the Imperial 
Press Law 1874) advertisements which are not of a trade 
character, but this regulation does not affect the right of 
the federal legislatures to make regulations in regard to them 
(sec. 30).  It would be impossible to give in any detail the 
police regulations as to advertisements which exist, e.g. in 
Prussia, but the following rules in force in Berlin may be 
given:--Public advertisements in public streets and places 
may be posted only on the appliances, such as pillar posts, 
&c., provided for the purpose.  Owners of property may post 
advertisements on their own property but only such as concern 
their own interests.  Advertisements on public conveyances are 
forbidden.  In 1902 a Prussian law was passed authorizing 
the police to forbid all advertisement hoardings, &c., which 
would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes in rural 
districts.  The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1902 prohibits the 
placing of any advertisements, posters, &c., on a monument 
officially protected under the act, if it would be likely to 
injure the appearance of the monument.  As instances of the 
numerous local provisions against the abuse of advertising may 
be cited provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited 
those of Augsburg and Lubeck, by Which any advertisement that
would injure the Stadtbild or appearance of the town may 
be prohibited and removed by the local authority (see G. 
Baldwin Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1905).  
Full powers exist under the Imperial Criminal Code for the 
suppression of indecent or objectionable advertisements. 

Austria.---Permission of the police is required for the 
exhibition of printed notices in public places other than 
such as are of purely local or industrial interest, such 
as notices of entertainment, leases, sales, &c., or theatre 
programmes, and these can only be shown in places approved 
by the local authorities (Press Law 1862).  The press-police 
act as advertisement censors and determine whether an 
advertisement can be allowed or not.  In Hungary there 
are no general laws or regulations, but the municipalities 
have power to issue ordinances dealing with the question. 

Italy.--All control rests with the municipal and communal 
authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements 
may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being 
placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings. 
Switzerland.---The Federal Government has no authority to deal 
with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations, 
e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods 
by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police 
the power of censoring all advertisements.  Many of the communal 
authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions and 
regulations.  In Zurich the police choose the advertising 
stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of 
the right of erecting advertisements.  The Society known as 
the Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pittoresque or 
Schweitzerischer Heimatschutz has for one of its objects 
the preservation of scenery from disfiguring advertisements. 

United States.---There is no federal legislation on the 
subject, the matter being one for regulation by the states, 
which in most cases have left it to the various municipalities 
and other local authorities.  With regard to indecent 
and objectionable advertisements some states have special 
legislation on the matter, others are content with the ordinary 
criminal laws or police powers or with the law of nuisance 
or of trespass.  Thus control can be exercised over such 
advertisements as are dangerous to public safety, health or 
morals.  The state of New York prohibits advertisements of 
lotteries.  It would be impossible to give in detail the 
different laws and regulations passed in the various states or by 
municipalities.  The following are some of the more striking 
measures adopted in certain of the states.  In Massachusetts 
no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public 
highways.  Power has been granted to city and town authorities 
to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public 
parks.  In the District of Columbia no advertisement is 
allowed which obstructs a highway, and all distribution of 
handbills, circulars, &c., in public streets, parks, &c., is 
prohibited.  This prohibition against what are generally 
known as ``dodgers'' is very general in the local regulations 
throughout the states.  In Illinois, city councils are empowered 
on the incorporation of the city to regulate and prevent 
the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds for signs, 
handbills and advertisements, &c., and also the exhibition 
of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks.  Chicago 
has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently 
have been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement 
board more than 12 ft. square within 400 ft. of a public 
park or boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones 
relating to the business carried on in the premises where 
the advertisement is posted, or of sales, &c., are allowed in 
streets where three-quarters of the houses are ``residences'' 
only.  Prohibition is also extended to the advertisements 
of those professing to cure diseases or giving notice of 
the sale of medicines.  In Boston there are regulations 
prohibiting projecting or overhanging signs in the streets, 
and special rules as to the height at which street signs and 
advertisements must be placed.  The distribution of ``dodgers'' 
in the streets is prohibited.  Advertisements for places 
of amusement must be approved by the committee on licences. 

Taxation. 

France, Belgium, Italy and certain of the cantons in 
Switzerland impose a tax on advertisements, as do certain of 
the United States of America, where the form is usually that 
of a licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies.  
In many cases in the United States this is imposed by the 
municipalities.  In every case both in Europe and America 
advertisements in newspapers are not subject to any tax.  
With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition 
to the historical article in the Edinburgh Review for 
February 1843, already mentioned, and that in the Quarterly 
Review for June 1855, the Society for Checking the Abuses 
of Public Advertising issue a journal, A Beautiful World. 
The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation (N.S. 
xvi. 1906) contains an article by W.J.B.  Byles on Foreign 
Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places.  The 
advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising 
agents, will also be found to contain practical information 
of great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. WE.) 

ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, 
viewed), counsel given after consideration, or information 
from a distance giving particulars of something prospective 
( e.g. ``advice'' of an imminent battle, or of a cargo 
due).  In commerce it is a common word for a formal notice 
from one person concerned in a transaction to another. 

ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, 
especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, 
and so generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer 
authorized to plead the causes of litigants in courts of 
law.  The word is used technically in Scotland (see ADVOCATES, 
FACULTY OF) in a sense virtually equivalent to the English 
term barrister, and a derivative from the same Latin source 
is so used in most of the countries of Europe where the civil 
law is in force.  The word advocatus is not often used among 
the earlier jurists, and appears not to have had a strict 
meaning.  It is not always associated with legal proceedings, 
and might apparently be applied to a supporter or coadjutor 
in the pursuit of any desired object.  When it came to be 
applied with a more specific limitation to legal services, 
the position of the advocatus was still uncertain.  It 
was different from, and evidently inferior to, that of the 
juris-consultus, who gave his opinion and advice in questions 
of law, and may be identified with the consulting counsel 
of the present day.  Nor is the merely professional advocate 
to be confounded with the more distinguished orator, or 
patronus, who came forward in the guise of the disinterested 
vindicator of justice.  This distinction, however, appears 
to have arisen in later times, when the profession became 
mercenary.  By the lex Cineia, passed about two centuries 
B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance of 
remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was 
prohibited.  This law, like all others of the kind, was 
evaded.  The skilful debater was propitiated with a present; 
and though he could not sue for the value of his services, it 
was ruled that any honorarium so given could not be demanded 
back, even though he died before the anticipated service was 
performed.  The traces of this evasion of a law may be 
found in the existing practice of rewarding counsel by fees 
in anticipation of services.  The term advocatus came 
eventually to be the word employed when the bar had become a 
profession, and the qualifications, admission, numbers and 
fees of counsel had become a matter of state regulation, to 
designate the pleaders as a class of professional men, each 
individual advocate, however, being still spoken of as patron 
in reference to the litigant with whose interest he was 
entrusted.  The advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was 
an officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes 
at the present day, was connected with the collection of the 
revenue.  The lawyers who practised in the English courts of 
common law were never officially known as advocates, the word 
being reserved for those who practised in the courts of the 
civil and canon law (see DOCTORS' COMMONS). There was formerly 
an important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, 
or more shortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law 
officer of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' 
Commons, and in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts.  He 
discharged for these courts the duties which correspond to 
those of the solicitor of the treasury (see SOLICITOR).  
His opinion was taken by the foreign office on international 
matters, and on high ecclesiastical matters he was also 
consulted; all orders in council were submitted to him for 
approval.  The office may now be said to be obsolete, for 
after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss, the last holder, 
in 1872, it was not filled up.  There was also a second law 
officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the admiralty 
advocate.  This office has long been vacant.  Advocate is 
also the title still in use in some of the British colonies to 
denote the chief law officer of the crown there.  For instance, 
in Sierra Leone (until 1896), Lagos and Cyprus he is called 
the king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius, 
procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India 
advocate-general.  In France, the avocats, as a body, were 
reorganized under the empire by a decree of the 15th of December 
1830.  There is, however, a distinction between avocats 
and avoues.  The latter, whose number is limited, act as 
procurators or agents, representing the parties before the 
tribunals, draft and prepare for them all formal acts and 
writings, and prepare their lawsuits for the oral debates.  
The office of the avocat, on the other hand, consists 
in giving advice as to the law, and conducting the causes 
of his clients by written and oral pleadings.  The number 
of avocats is not limited; every licentiate of law being 
entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached to 
each court, and after presentation to the court, taking the 
oath of office and passing three years in attendance on some 
older advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate. 

In Germany the advocat no longer forms a distinct class of 
lawyer.  Since 1879, when a sweeping judicature act (Deutsche 
Justizgesetzgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, 
the advocat in his character of adviser, as distinguished 
from the procurator, who formerly represented the client 
in the courts, has become merged in the Rechtsanwalt, 
who has the dual character of counsellor and pleader. 

The advocates ecclesiae. 

In the middle ages the word advocatus (Fr. avoue, Ger. 
Vogt) was used on the continent as the title of the lay 
lord charged with the protection and representation in secular 
matters of an abbey.  The office is traceable as early as 
the beginning of the 5th century in the Roman empire, the 
churches being allowed to choose defensores from the body 
of advocates to represent them in the courts.  In the Frankish 
kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay representatives of 
the churches appear as agentes, defensores and advocati; 
and under the Carolingians it was made obligatory on 
bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials in 
every county where they held property.  The office was not 
hereditary, the advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot 
alone, or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the 
count.  The same causes that led to the development of the 
feudal system also affected the advocatus. In times of 
confusion churches and abbeys needed not so much a legal 
representative as an armed protector, while as feudal 
immunities were conceded to the ecclesiastical foundations, 
these required a representative to defend their rights and to 
fulfil their secular obligations to the state, e.g. to lead 
the ecclesiastical levies to war.  A new class of advocatus 
thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a grant of 
land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, 
had by the beginning of the 11th century become hereditary. 

The French avoue. 

In France the advocati (avoues) were of two classes.--(1) 
great barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or 
abbeys rather as an office than a fief, though they were 
indemnified for the protection they afforded by a domain and 
revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of Normandy was 
adpoeatus of nearly all the abbeys in the duchy; (2) petty 
seigneurs, who held their avoueries as hereditary fiefs and 
often as their sole means of subsistence.  The avoue of an 
abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a 
bishop.  Their function was generally to represent the abbot 
in his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in 
the courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in 
the abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers.  
Of the abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint. 

In England. 

In England the word advocatus was never used to denote 
an hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of 
the larger abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose 
functions and privileges were not dissimilar to those of 
the continental advocati. The word advocatus, however, 
was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an 
ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance 
was an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for 
institution.  In this way the hereditary right of presentation 
to a benefice came to be called in English an ``advowson'' 
(advocatio). The advocatus played a more important part in 
the feudal polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than 
in France, where his functions, confined to the protection of 
the interests of religious houses, were superseded from the 
13th century onwards by the growth of the central power and 
the increasing efficiency of the royal administration.  They 
had, indeed, long ceased to be effective for their original 
purpose; and from the time when their office became a fief 
they had taken advantage of their position to pillage and 
suppress those whom it was their function to defend.  The 
medieval records, not in France only, are full of complaints 
by abbots of their usurpations, exactions and acts of violence. 

The German Vogt. 

In Germany the title of advocatus ( Vogt) was given not only 
to the advocati of churches and abbeys, but to the officials 
appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the emperor to 
administer their immediate domains, in contradistinction to 
the counts, who had become hereditary princes of the Empire.  
The territory so administered was known as Vogtland (terra 
advocatorum), a name still sometimes employed to designate 
the strip of country which embraces the principalities of 
Reuss and adjacent portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria.  
These imperial advocati tended in their turn to become 
hereditary.  Sometimes the emperor himself assumed the title of 
Vogt of some particular part of his immediate domain.  In the 
Netherlands as well as in Germany advocati were often appointed 
in the cities, by the overlord or by the emperor, sometimes 
to take the place of the bailiff (Ger. Schultheiss, Dutch 
schout, Lat. scultetus), sometimes alongside this official. 

See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. 1883, Niort), s. ``Advocati''; 
A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions francaises (Paris, 
1892); Herzog Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. 
``Advocatus ecclesiae,'' where further references will be found. 

ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which what 
in England are called barristers are known in Scotland.  They 
professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh; but 
they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior 
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute.  They may 
act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some 
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it 
is customary for those who practise as barristers to pass as 
advocates in Scotland.  This body has existed by immemorial 
custom.  Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded 
on no statute or charter of incorporation.  The body formed 
itself gradually, from time to time, on the model of the 
French corporations of avocats, appointing like them by 
a general vote, a dean or doyen, who is their principal 
officer.  It also differs from the English and Irish societies 
in that there is no governing body similar to the benchers, 
nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate discipline 
and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of court.  
No curriculum of study, residence or professional training 
was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but the 
faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to 
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for 
admission.  The candidate undergoes two private examinations 
--the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, 
he may produce evidence of his having graduated as master 
of arts in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent 
degree in an English or foreign university; and the other, 
at the interval of a year, in Roman, private international 
and Scots law, He must, before the latter examination, 
produce evidence of attendance at classes of Scots law and 
conveyancing in a Scottish university, and at classes of 
civil law, public or international law, constitutional law 
and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other approved 
university.  He has then to undergo the old academic form 
of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the 
pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, 
has degenerated into a mere form.  A large proportion of the 
candidate's entrance fees (amounting to L. 339) is devoted 
to the magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which 
literary investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful. 

ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, devil's advocate, the name popularly 
given to the promoter of the Faith (promotor fidei), and 
officer of the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose 
duty is to prepare all possible arguments against the admission 
of any one to the posthumous honours of beatification and 
canonization.  This functionary is first formally mentioned 
under Leo X.(1513- 1521) in the proceedings in connexion 
with the canonization of St Lorenzo Giustiniani.  In 1631 
Urban VIII. made his presence, either in person or by 
deputy, necessary for the validity of any act connected 
with the process of beatification or canonization (see 
CANONISATION).  The phrase, ``devil's advocate,'' has by 
an easy transference come to be used of any one who puts 
himself up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, 
to argue a case in which he does not necessarily believe. 

ADVOWSON, or @ADVOWZEN (through O. Fr. advouson, from 
Lat. advocatio, a summons to), the right of presentation 
to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because 
the patron defends or advocates the claims of the person 
whom he presents.  At what period the right of advowson 
arose is uncertain; it was probably the result of gradual 
growth.  The earliest trace of the practice is found in the 
decree of the council of Orange, A.D. 441, which allowed a 
bishop, who had built a church in the diocese of another 
bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to consecrate the 
church.  The 123rd Novel of Justinian, promulgated about 
the end of the 5th century, decreed ``that if any man should 
erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto by 
himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his 
livelihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, 
they may be ordained.'' The 57th Novel empowered the bishop 
to examine them and judge of their qualifications, and, where 
those were sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk.  In 
England, for quite two centuries after its conversion, the 
clergy administered only pro tempore in the parochial 
churches, receiving their maintenance from the cathedral 
church, all the appointments within the diocese lying with the 
bishop.  But in order to promote the building and endowment 
of parochial churches those who had contributed to their 
erection either by a grant of land, by building or by endowment, 
became entitled to present a clerk of their own choice to the 
bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived from such 
contribution.  After the Norman Conquest, when the boundaries 
between church and state were more clearly marked, it became 
usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without 
the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops. 

Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in 
gross. Originally the right of nominating1 or presenting 
was annexed to the person who built or endowed the church, 
but the right gradually became annexed to the manor in 
which it was built, for the endowment was considered parcel 
of the manor, the church being built for the use of the 
inhabitants, and the tithes of the manor being attached to the 
church.  Consequently where the right of patronage (the 
right of the patron to present to the bishop the person whom 
he has nominated to become rector or vicar of the parish 
to the benefice of which he claims the right of advowson) 
remains attached to the manor, it is called an advowson 
appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance or 
sale without any special conveyance.  But where, as is often 
the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, 
and so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson 
in gross. An advowson may also be partly appendant, and 
partly in gross, e.g. if an owner granted to another 
every second presentment, the advowson would be appendant 
for the grantor's turn and in gross for the grantee's. 

Advowsons are further distinguished into presentative 
and collative. In a presentative advowson, the patron 
presents a clergyman to the bishop, with the petition 
that he be instituted into the vacant living.  The bishop 
is bound to induct if he find the clergyman canonically 
qualified, and a refusal on his part is subject to an 
appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron or by 
presentee.  In a collative advowson the bishop is himself the 
patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper 
patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised 
within the statutory period of six months after the vacancy 
occurred.  No petition is necessary in this case, and the 
bishop is said to collate to the benefice.  Before 1898 
there were also donative advowsons, but the Benefices Act 
1898 made all donations with cure of souls presentative. 
In a donative advowson, the sovereign, or any subject by 
special licence from the sovereign, conferred a benefice by 
a simple letter of gift, without any reference to the bishop, 
and without presentation and institution.  The incumbent of 
such a living was to a great extent free from the jurisdiction 
of the bishop, who could only reach him through the action 
of an ecclesiastical court.  The Benefices Act of 1898 did 
not make any substantial change in the legal character of 
advowsons, which remain practically the same as before the 
act.  Briefly, it prevents the dealing with the right of 
presentation as a thing apart from the advowson itself; 
increases the power of the bishops to refuse the presentation 
of unfit persons, and removes several abuses which had arisen 
in the transfer of patronage.  Under the previously existing 
law, simony, or ``the corrupt presentation of any person 
to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or reward,'' 
renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons 
privy or party to it to penalties; a presentation to a vacant 
benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can 
purchase for himself a next presentation.  An advowson may, 
however, be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give 
the right to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy 
an advowson even though it be only an estate for life, and 
present himself on the next vacancy.  Under the Benefices 
Act, advowsons may not be sold by public auction except in 
conjunction with landed property adjacent to the benefice; 
transfers of patronage must be registered in the registry 
of the diocese, and no such transfers can be made within 
twelve months after the last admission or institution to the 
benefice.  Restrictions had also been imposed on the transfer 
of patronage of churches built under the Church Building Acts 
and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices in the gift 
of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to augment 
others; but agreements may be made as to the patronage of 
such churches in favour of persons who have contributed to 
their building or enlargement without being void for simony. 

The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner 
whether he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners 
(who, if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of 
age) or mortgagee (who must present the nominee of the 
mortgagor), or a bankrupt (who, although the advowson 
belongs to his creditors, yet has the right to present to a 
vacancy).  Certain owners of advowsons are temporarily or 
permanently disabled from exercising the right which devolves 
upon other persons; and the crown as patron paramount of all 
benefices can fill all churches not regularly filled by other 
patrons.  It thus presents to all vacancies caused by simoniacal 
presentations, or by the incumbent having been presented to 
a bishopric or in benefices belonging to a bishopric when 
the see is vacant by the bishop's death, translation or 
deprivation.  Where a presentation belongs to a lunatic, 
the lord chancellor presents for him.  Where it belongs to 
a Roman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the 
University of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the 
river Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that 
river.  Besides the qualifications required of a presentee 
by canon law, such as being of the canonical age, and in 
priest's orders before admission, sufficient learning and 
proper orthodoxy or morals, the Benefices Act requires that 
a year shall have elapsed since a transfer of the right of 
patronage, unless it can be shown that such transfer was not 
made in view of a probable vacancy; that the presentee has 
been a deacon for three years; and that he is not unfit for 
the discharge of his duties by reason of physical or mental 
infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrassment, grave 
misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical office, 
evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his 
moral character since his ordination, or being party to 
an illegal agreement with regard to the presentation; that 
notice of the presentation has been given to the parish of the 
benefice.  Except by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the 
incumbent of a sequestered benefice cannot be presented.  The 
act also gives to both patron and presentee an alternative 
mode of appeal against a bishop's refusal to institute or 
admit, except on a ground of doctrine or ritual, to a court 
composed of an archbishop of the province and a judge of the 
High Court nominated for that purpose by the lord chancellor, 
a course which, however, bars resort being had to the ordinary 
suits of duplex querela or action of quare impedit. In 
case of refusal of one presentee, a lay patron may present 
another, and a clerical patron may do so after an unsuccessful 
appeal against the refusal.  Upon institution the church is 
full against everybody except the crown, and after six months' 
peaceable possession the clerk is secured in possession of the 
benefice, even though he may have been presented by a person 
who is not the proper patron.  The true patron can, however, 
exercise his right to present at the next vacancy, and can 
reserve the advowson from an usurper at any time within three 
successive incumbencies so created adversely to his right, or 
within sixty years.  Collation, which otherwise corresponds to 
institution, does not make the church full, and the true patron 
can dispossess the clerk at any time, unless he is a patron who 
collates.  Possession of the benefice is completed by induction, 
which makes the church full against any one, including the 
crown.  If the proper patron fails to exercise his right within 
six calendar months from the vacancy, the right devolves or 
lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an ordinary 
patron to the bishop, and if he makes similar default to 
the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the 
crown.  If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has 
accrued to it, it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a 
vacancy of a benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown 
presents.  Until the right of presentation so accruing to 
a bishop or archbishop is exercised, the patron can still 
effectually present but not if lapse has gone to the crown. 

(See also BBNEFICE; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR.) 

AUTHORITIES.---Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines 
Ecclesiasticae, or, the Antiquities of the English Church; 
Mirehouse, On Advowson; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law. 

1 The distinction between nomination to a living and 
presentation is to be noted. Nomination is the power, 
by virtue of a manor or otherwise, to appoint a clerk to 
the patron of a benefice, to be by him presented to the 
ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron in offering 
his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of 
his gift.  Nomination and presentation, though generally 
used in law lor the same thing must be so distinguishnd, 
for it is possible that the rights of nomination may be 
in one person, and the rights of presentation in another. 

ADYE, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1900), British general, son of 
Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the 1st 
of November 1819.  He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836, was 
promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the Crimean War 
as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general of artillery 
(C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel).  In the 
Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity.  
Promoted brevet-colonel in 1860, he was specially employed in 
1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy 
adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned 
home.  From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and 
stores at the War Office.  He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, 
and was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor 
of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and survey 
or general of the ordnance in 1880.  In 1882 he was chief 
of staff and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, 
and served throughout the campaign (G.C.B. and thanks of 
parliament).  He held the government of Gibraltar from 1883 to 
1886.  Promoted lieutenant-general in 1879, general and 
colonel commandant of the Royal Artillery in 1884, he 
retired in 1886.  He unsuccessfully contested Bath in the 
Liberal interest in 1892.  He died on the 26th of August 
1900.  He was author of A Review of The Crimean War; The 
Defense of Cawnpore; A Frontier Campaign in Afghanistan; 
Recollections of a Military Life; and Indian Frontier Policy. 

ADYTUM, the Latinized form of aduton (not to be entered), 
the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which 
was forbidden to all but the officiating priests.  The most 
famous adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 

ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is 
unknown), a tool used for cutting and planing.  It is somewhat 
like an axe reversed, the edge or the blade curving inward 
and placed at right angles to the handle.  This shape is 
most suitable for planing uneven timber, as inequalities 
are ``hooked off'' by the curved blade. (See TOOLS.) 

AEACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeacidae, was the 
son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus.  
His mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, 
which was afterwards called by her name.  The island having 
been depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon 
it into human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called 
Myrmidones (murmekes = ants) . Aeacus ruled over his people 
with such justice and impartiality that after his death he 
was made judge of the lower world together with Minos and 
Rhadamanthus.  By his wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon 
and Peleus.  His successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time 
of drought (Isocrates, Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by 
a temple at Aegina (Pausanias ii. 29). He himself erected a 
temple to Zeus Panhellenios and helped Poseidon and Apollo 
to build the walls of Troy.  See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901. 

AECLANUM, an ancient town of Samnium, Italy, 15 m.  
E.S.E. of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern 
Mirabella).  It became the chief town of the Hirpini after 
Beneventum had become a Roman colony.  Sulla captured it 
in 89 B.C. by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by 
which it was defended, and new fortifications were erected.  
Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this 
point, made it a colony; it has ruins of the city walls, of an 
aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions 
have also been discovered.  Two different routes to Apulia 
diverged at this point, one (Via Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading 
through the modern Ariano to Herdoniae, the other (the Via 
Appia of the Empire) passing the Lacus Ampsanctus and going 
on to Aquilonia and Venusia; while the road from Aeclanum 
to Abellinum (mod.  Avellini) may also follow an ancient 
line.  H. Nissen (Italische Landes kunde, Berlin, 1902, 
ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he believes to have 
been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum to Trevicum and 
thence to Ausculum; but Th. Monimsen (Corpus Inscrip.  Lat., 
Berlin, 1883, ix. 602) is more likely to be right in supposing 
that the road taken by Horace ran directly from Beneventum to 
Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though the course of this 
road is not yet determined in detail), and that the easier, 
though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of later date. 

AEDESIUS (d. A.D. 355), Neoplatonist philosopher, was 
born of a noble Cappadocian family.  He migrated to Syria, 
attracted by the lectures of Iamblichus, whose follower he 
became.  According to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on 
certain points connected with magic.  He taught at Pergamum, 
his chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus.  He seems 
to have modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine. 

See Ritter and Preller, 552; Ritter's Geschichte der 
Philosophie; T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (Cambridge, 1901). 

AEDICULA (diminutive of Lat. aedis or aedes, a temple 
or house), a small house or temple,--a household shrine 
holding small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates. 

AEDILE (Lat. aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of 
certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a 
temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, 
where the plebeian archives were kept.  They were originally 
two in number, called ``plebeian'' aediles.  They were created 
in the same year as the tribunes of the people (494 B.C.), 
their persons were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least 
after until they were elected at the Comitia Tributa out of 
the plebeians alone.  Originally intended as assistants to 
the tribunes, they exercised certain police functions, were 
empowered to inflict fines and managed the plebeian and Roman 
games.  According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of 
the Licinian rogations, an extra day was added to the Roman 
games; the aediles refused to bear the additional expense, 
whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition 
that they were admitted to the aedileship.  The plebeians 
accepted the offer, and accordingly two ``curule'' aediles 
were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from 
patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the 
Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the consul.  Although 
not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting in a curule 
chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta.  They took over 
the management of the Roman and Megalesian games, the care 
of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing edicts 
as superintendents of the markets.  But although the curule 
aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions 
gradually approximated and became practically identical. 

Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three 
heads:--(1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of 
temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; 
regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated 
buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and 
taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers 
and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the 
prevention of foreign superstitions.  They also punished those 
who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too 
many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: 
investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the 
correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn for 
disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of 
line games: superintendence and organization of the public 
games, as well as of those given by themselves and private 
individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense.  
Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to 
win the popula1 favour with a view to official advancement. 

In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called Cereales, 
whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply.  
Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, 
its juridical functions and the care of the games being 
transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities 
were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi.  
In the 3rd century A.D. it disappeared altogether. 

AUTHORITIES.--Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828); 
Hoffmann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842); Goll, De Aedilibus 
sub Caesarum Imperio (1860); Labatut, Les Ediles et les 
moeurs (1868); Marquardt Mommsen, Handbuch der romanischen 
Altertumer, ii. (1888); Soltau, Die ursprungliche 
Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn, 1882). 

AEDUI, HAEDUI or HEDUI (Gr. Aidouoi), a Gallic people 
of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the 
Arar (Saone) and Liger (Loire).  The statement in Strabo (ii. 
3. 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is 
incorrect.  Their territory thus included the greater part 
of the modern departments of Saone-et-Loire, Cote d'Or and 
Nievre.  According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in 
the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century 
B.C. Before Caesar's time they had attached themselves 
to the Romans, and were honoured with the title of brothers 
and kinsmen of the Roman people.  When the Sequani, their 
neighbours on the other side of the Arar, with whom they 
were continually quarrelling, invaded their country and 
subjugated them with the assistance of a German chieftain 
named Ariovistus, the Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to 
Rome to appeal to the senate for help, but his mission was 
unsuccessful.  On his arrival in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar 
restored their independence.  In spite of this, the Aedui 
joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (B.G. vii. 42), 
but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia were glad 
to return to their allegiance.  Augustus dismantled their 
native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted a 
new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum 
(mod.  Autun).  During the reign of Tiberias (A.D. 21), 
they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustudunum, 
but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus Ann. iii. 
43-46).  The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive 
from the emperor Claudius the distinction of juo hanorum.  
The oration of Eumenius (q.v.), in which he pleaded for the 
restoration of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, 
shows that the district was neglected.  The chief magistrate 
of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus 
(according to Mommsen, ``judgment-worker''), who was elected 
annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was 
forbidden to go beyond the frontier.  Certain clientes, 
or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui. 

See A. E. Desjardins, Geographie de la Gaide, ii. 
(1876-1893); T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899). 

AEGADIAN ISUANDS (Ital. Isole Egati; anc. Aegales Insulae), 
a group of small mountainous islands off the western coast of 
Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat of the 
Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C., which 
ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the largest, pop. 
(1901) 6414, lies 10 m.  S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo (Phorbantia) 8 
m.  W.; while Maritimo, the ancient iera nesos, 15 
m.  W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group.  
They belonged to the Pallavicini family of Genoa until 
1874, when they were bought by Signor Florio of Palermo. 

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric 
civilization, previously called ``Mycenaean'' because its existence 
was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's 
excavations at Mycenae in 1876.  Subsequent discoveries, however, 
have made it clear that Mycenae was not its chief centre in its 
earlier stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly, 
it is more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title. 

I. History of Discovery and Distribution of Remains.--Mycenae 
and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a 
prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical 
Greeks.  The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, 
its gate with heraldic lions, and the great ``Treasury of 
Atreus'' had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's 
time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, 
or at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, 
civilization.  It was not till Schliemann exposed the 
contents of the graves which lay just inside the gate (see 
MYCENAE), that scholars recognized the advanced stage of 
art to which prehistoric dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel 
had attained.  There had been, however, a good deal of 
other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been 
collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the 
sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually 
made.  Although it was recognized that certain tributaries, 
represented e.g. in the XVIIIth Dynasty tomb of Rekhmara 
at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar forms, were 
of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise habitat nor 
the degree of their civilization could be determined while so 
few actual prehistoric remains were known in the Mediterranean 
lands.  Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely 
in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient 
test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the 
Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to he taken 
seriously.  Both at Sevres and Neuchatel Aegean vases have 
been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in 
the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.  
Ludwig Ross, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 
1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, 
since known as Inselsteine; but it was not till 1878 that 
C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician 
products.  In 1866 primitive structures were discovered in the 
island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the 
Suez Canal works; and when this discovery was followed up in 
1870, on the neighbouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives 
of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now 
known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, 
and many stone and metal objects, were found and dated by 
the geologist Fouque, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., 
by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.  
Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded 
to M. A. Biliotti many fine painted vases of styles which 
were called later the third and fourth ``Mycenaean''; but 
these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British 
Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being 
supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric of uncertain 
date.  Nor was a connexion immediately detected between them 
and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in 
Attica and a rock-cut ``bee-hive'' grave near the Argive Heraeum. 

Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad 
(q.v.) did not excite surprise.  But the ``Burnt City'' of 
his second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications 
and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, 
which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a 
curiosity which was destined presently to spread far outside 
the narrow circle of scholars.  As soon as Schliemann came on 
the Mycenae graves three years later, light poured from all 
sides on the prehistotic period of Greece.  It was recognized 
that the character of both the fabric and the decoration 
of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any well-known 
art.  A wide range in space was proved by the identification 
of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, 
and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean 
and Hissarlik discoveries.  A relation between objects of art 
described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was generally 
allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while certainly 
posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent of the 
Mycenaean.  Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik in 1878, 
and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but 
did not recognize the Aegean remains in his ``Lydian'' city 
of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed 
till Dr W. Dorpfeld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 
after the first explorer's death (see TROAD). But by 
laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock 
of Tiryns (q.v.), Schliemann made a contribution to our 
knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified 
two years later by Chr. Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae 
palace.  Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 
1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that 
an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.  From 
1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the 
Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's 
exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, 
a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, 
has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens.  In 
that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already rifled but 
retaining some of their furniture, at Arkina and Eleusis in 
Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the 
west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia.  
The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia 
in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous 
goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of 
bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large 
bold style which remained an enigma till the excavation of 
Cnossus.  In 1890 and 1893 Staes cleared out certain less 
rich dome-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, 
either rock-cut ``bee-hives'' or chambers, were found at Spata 
and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Heraeum 
(see ARGOS) and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and 
Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa.  During the 
excavations on the Acropolis at Athens, terminated in 1888, 
many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia 
had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized 
before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced 
nothing distinctively Aegean.  The American explorations of 
the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove 
that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, 
though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae 
itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean 
periods.  Prehistoric research had now begun to extend 
beyond the Greek mainland.  Certain central Aegean islands, 
Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found 
to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean 
period.  The series of Syran built graves, containing 
crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that 
is known in the Legean.  Melos, long marked as a source of 
early objects, but not systematically excavated until taken 
in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded 
at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the 
Neolithic.  A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such 
as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue 
of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than five-and-twenty 
settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which 
one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded 
the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside 
Mycenae.  E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, 
like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria 
(q.v.), and the English archaeological expeditions, sent 
subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never falled 
to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from 
the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.  In Egypt 
in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style 
at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell 
el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 
1889.  There have now been recognized in the collections at 
Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian 
imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against 
the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to 
Egypt.  Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and 
many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriote pottery have 
been turned up during recent excavations of sites in Philistia 
by the Palestine Fund.  South-eastern Sicily, ever since P. 
Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has 
proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular 
succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from 
the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik.  Sardinia has 
Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded 
objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from 
Saragossa.  One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the 
Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric 
ages, viz.  Crete, so much so that, for the present, we 
must regard it as the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, 
and probably for long its political and social centre.  The 
island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the 
remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount 
Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the 
famous law of Gortyna; but the first undoubted Aegean remains 
reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by 
Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878.  These were followed 
by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. 
Halbherr.  W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann both made 
unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and A. J. Evans, coming on 
the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the 
island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which 
gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be 
found.  He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the 
discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in 
Aegean civilization.  The revolution of 1897-98 opened the 
door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, 
for which see CRETE. Thus the ``Aegean Area'' has now come 
to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic 
peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolic.  
Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian 
coasts.  Offshoots are found in the W. Mediterranean, in 
Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the E. in Syria and 
Egypt.  About the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed. 

II. General Nature of the Evidence.---For details of 
monumental evidence the articles on CRETE, MYCENAE, 
TIRYNS, TROAD, CYPRUS, &c., must be consulted.  The 
most representative site explored up to now is Cnossus (see 
CRETE, sect. Archaeology), which has yielded not only 
the most various but the most continuous evidence from the 
Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization.  
Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, 
Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia. 

A. The internal evidence at present available comprises-- 

Structures.---Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, 
built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, 
Greek mainland and N.W. Anatolia), but not distinct temples; 
small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, 
remains or one of which were probably found at Petsofa 
near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented 
on intaglios and frescoes.  From the sources and from 
inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses. 

(2) Structural Decoration.--Architectural features, such as 
columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, 
such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. 

(3) Furniture.--(a) Domestic, such as vessels of all 
sorts and in many materials, from huge store-jars down to tiny 
unguent-pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, 
tables, &c., these all in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) 
Sacred, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; 
of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. 
(c) Funerary, e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta. 

(4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in 
stone or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, 
copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, 
&c. Very little trace has yet been found of large free 
sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller 
work.  Vases of all kinds, carved in marble or other stones, 
cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in 
enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured 
schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration.  Examples 
of painting on stone, opaque and transparent.  Engraved 
objects in great numberr e.g. ring-bezels and gems; and 
an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these. 

(5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and 
bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or 
inlaid.  Numerous representations also of the same.  No actual 
body-armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the 
dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae. 

(6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches efbulae), pins, 
razors, tweezers, &c., often found as dedications to a deity, 
e.g. in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete.  No textiles have survived. 

(7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in 
Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, 
papyrus, &c.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written 
with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or 
pottery.  These show two main systems of script (see CRETE). 

(8) Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto 
kind, in which the dead were laid, together with 
various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, 
and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings. 

(9) Public works, such as paved and stepped 
roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, &c. 

B. There is also a certain amount of external evidence 
to be gathered from--(1) Monuments and records of other 
contemporary civilizations, e.g. representations of alien 
peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics 
and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean 
peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records. 

(2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially 
the Hellenic; such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems, 
the legenda concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c.; statements as to the 
origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic 
antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, &c. 

(3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, &c., in the 
Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the 
civilization in which they were practised and indicating 
survival from earlier systems.  There are also possible 
linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered. 

III General Features of Aegean Civalization.--The 
leading features of Aegean civilization, as deduced 
from the evidence, must be stated very briefly. 

(1) Political Organisation.--The great Cretan palaces and 
the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each 
containing little more than one great residence, and dominating 
lower towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all 
periods.  Independent local developments of art before the 
middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. suggest the early existence 
of independent units in various parts, of which the strongest 
was the Cnossian.  After that date the evidence goes strongly 
to show that one political dominion was spread for a brief 
period, or for two brief periods, over almost all the area (see 
later).  The great number of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus 
perhaps indicates that the Centre of power was always there. 

(2) Religion.--The fact that shrines have so far been found 
within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that 
the kings kept religious power in their own hands; perhaps they 
were themselves high-priests.  Religion in the area seems to 
have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest 
period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in 
dominant features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, 
&c.) and controlling fertility.  This cult passed through 
an aniconic stage, from which fetishes survived to the 
last, these being rocks or pillars, trees, weapons (e.g. 
bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), etc.  When the iconic 
stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the Divine Spirit 
represented as a goddess with a subordinate young god, as 
in many other E. Mediterranean lands.  The god was probably 
son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair represented 
the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations with 
humanity.  The goddess sometimes appears with doves, as 
uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic.  In the ritual 
fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: 
all sorts of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not 
burnt, and human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of 
offerings and simulacra, invocation, &c., were practised.  
The dead, who returned to the Great Mother, were objects 
of a sort of hero-worship.  This early nature-cult explains 
many anomalous features of Hellenic religion, especially 
in the cults of Artemis and Aphrodite. (See CRETE.) 

(3) Social Organization.---There is a possibility that 
features of a primeval matriarchate long survived; but 
there is no certain evidence.  Of the organization of the 
people under the monarch we are ignorant.  There are so few 
representations of armed men that it seems doubtful if there 
can have been any professional military Class.  Theatral 
structures found at Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts 
of the palaces, were perhaps used for shows or for sittings 
of a royal assize, rather than for popular assemblies.  The 
Cnossian remains contain evidence of an elaborate system of 
registration, account-keeping and other secretarial work, which 
perhaps indicates a considerable body of law.  The line of 
the ruling class was comfortable and even luxurious from early 
times.  Fine stone palaces, richly decorated, with separate 
sleeping apartments, large halls, ingenious devices for admitting 
light and air, sanitary conveniences and marvellously modern 
arrangements for supply of water and for drainage, attest this 
fact.  Even the smaller houses, after the Neolithic period, 
seem also to have been of stone, plastered within.  After 
1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete had more than one story, fine 
stairways, bath-chambers, windows, folding and sliding doors, 
&c. In this later period, the distinction of blocks of apartments 
in some palaces has been held to indicate the seclusion of 
women in harems, at least among the ruling caste.  Cnossian 
frescoes show women grouped apart, and they appear alone on 
gems.  Flesh and fish and many kinds of vegetables were evidently 
eaten, and wine and beer were drunk.  Vessels for culinary, 
table, and luxurious uses show an infinite variety of form and 
purpose.  Artificers' implements of many kinds were in 
use, bronze succeeding obsidian and other hard stones as the 
material.  Seats are found carefully shaped to the human 
person.  There was evidently olive- and vine-culture on a 
large scale in Crete at any rate.  Chariots were in use in the 
later period, as is proved by the pictures of them on Cretan 
tablets, and therefore, probably, the horse also was known.  
Indeed a horse appears on a gem impression.  Main ways were 
paved.  Sports, probably more or less religious, are often 
represented, e.g. bullfighting, dancing, boxing, armed combats. 

(4) Commerce was practised to some extent in very early 
times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian 
over all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early 
Minoan art.  We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt 
and the Greek mainland.  Melian vases came in their turn to 
Crete.  After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with 
Egypt, and Aegean things hnd their way to all coasts of the 
Mediterranean (see below).  No traces of currency have come 
to light, unless certain axeheads, too slight for practical 
use, had that character; but standard weights have been 
found, and representations of ingots.  The Aegean written 
documents have not yet proved (by being found outside the area) 
epistolary correspondence with other lands.  Representations 
of ships are not common, but several have been observed 
on Aegean gems, gem-sealings and vases.  They are vessels 
of low free-board, with masts.  Familiarity with the sea 
is proved by the free use of marine motives in decoration. 

(5) Treatment or the Dead.--The dead in the earlier 
period wore laid (so far as we know at present) within cists 
constructed of upright stones.  These were sometimes inside 
caves.  After the burial the cist was covered in with earth.  
A little later, in Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into 
use, containing the remains of many burials.  Possibly the 
flesh was boiled off the bones at once (``scarification''), or 
left to rot in separate cists awhile; afterwards the skeletons 
were collected and the cists re-used.  The coffins are of small 
size, contain corpses with the knees drawn up to the chin and 
are found in excavated chambers or pits.  In the later period 
a peculiar ``bee-hive'' tomb became common, sometimes wholly 
or partly excavated, sometimes (as in the magnificent Mycenaean 
``Treasuries'') constructed domewise.  The shaft-graves 
in the Mycenae circle are also a late type, paralleled in 
the later Cnossian cemetery.  The latest type of tomb is a 
flatly vaulted chamber approached by a horizontal or slightly 
inclined way, whose sides converge above.  At no period do the 
Aegean dead seem to have been burned.  Weapons, food, water, 
unguents and various trinkets were laid with the corpse at all 
periods.  In the Mycenae circle an altar seems to have been 
erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves were killed to 
bear the dead chiefs company.  A painted sarcophagus, found 
at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult of the dead. 

(6) Artistic Production.--Ceramic art reached a specially 
high standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle 
of the 3rd millennium B.C. in Crete.  The products of 
that period compare favourably with any potters' work in the 
world.  The same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably 
of metal work.  Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone 
and ivory, engraving on gems, were following it closely by 
the beginning of the 2nd millennium.  After 2000 B.C. all 
these arts revived, and sculpture, as evidenced by relief 
work, both on a large and on a small scale, carved stone 
vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and bronze, advanced 
farther.  This art and those of fresco- and vase-painting and 
of gem-engraving stood higher about the 15th century B.C. 
than at any subsequent period before the 6th century.  The 
manufacture, modelling and painting of faience objects, and 
the making of inlays in many materials were also familiar to 
Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a strong 
sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance and 
decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of 
later Hellenic art.  Architectural ornament was also highly 
developed.  The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns 
may be judged by those from the ``Treasury of Atreus'' now 
set up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have 
examples in Mycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian 
paintings.  The magnificent gold work of the later period, 
preserved to us at Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to be 
mentioned.  It should be compared with stone work in Crete, 
especially the steatite vases with reliefs found at Hagia 
Triada.  On the whole, Aegean art, at its two great 
periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia 
respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts. 

IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilization.---The 
evidence, summarized above, though very various and 
voluminous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the 
questions which may be asked as to the origin, nature 
and history of this civilization, or to answer any but a 
few questions with absolute certainty.  We shall try to 
indicate the extent to which it can legitimately be applied. 

A. Distinctive Features.---The fact that Aegean civilization 
is distinguished from all others, prior or contemporary, 
not only by its geographical area, but by leading organic 
characteristics, has never been in doubt, since its remains 
came to be studied seriously and impartially.  The truth 
was indeed obscured for a time by persistent prejudices in 
favour of certain alien Mediterranean races long known to 
have been in relation with the Aegean area in prehistoric 
times, e.g. the Egyptians and especially the Phoenicians.  
But their claims to be the principal authors of the Aegean 
remains grew fainter with every fresh Aegean discovery, and 
every new light thrown on their own proper products; with the 
Cretan revelations they ceased altogether to be considered 
except by a few Homeric enthusiasts.  Briefly, we now know 
that the Aegean civilization developed these distinctive 
features. (i) An indigenous script expressed in characters 
of which only a very small percentage are identical, or even 
obviously connected, with those of any other script.  This is 
equally true both of the pictographic and the linear Aegean 
systems.  Its nearest affinities are with the ``Asianic'' 
scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west 
Anatolian (Pamphyhan, Lycian and Carian) inscriptions.  But 
neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical 
aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means 
certain that there is parentage.  The Aegean script may be, 
and probably is, prior in origin to the ``Asianic''; and it 
may equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the 
small number of common characters being considered) be an 
entirely independent evolution from representations of natural 
objects (see CRETE). (2) An Art, whose products cannot 
be confounded with those of any other known art by a trained 
eye.  Its obligations to other contemporary arts are many and 
obvious, especially in its later stages; but every borrowed 
form and motive undergoes an essential modification at the 
hands of the Aegean craftsman, and the product is stamped 
with a new character.  The secret of this character lles 
evidently in a constant attempt to express an ideal in forms 
more and more closely approaching to realities.  We detect 
the dawn of that spirit which afterwards animated Hellenic 
art.  The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives, reliefs, free 
sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have supplied the 
clearest proof of it, confirming the impression already created 
by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the Greek mainland 
(Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural plans and 
decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces is of two main 
types.  First (and perhaps earliest in time), the chambers 
are grouped round a central court, being engaged one with the 
other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater oblongs 
are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally by 
pillars.  Second, the main chamber is of what is known as the 
megaron type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest 
of the plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a 
short side, and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars 
and perhaps hypaethral; there is no central court, and other 
apartments form distinct blocks.  For possible geographical 
reasons for this duality of type see CRETE. In spite of many 
comparisons made with Egyptian, Babylonian and ``Hittite'' 
plans, both these arrangements remain incongruous with any 
remains of prior or contemporary structures elsewhere.  Whether 
either plan suits the ``Homeric palace'' does not affect the 
present question. (4) A type of tomb, the dome or ``bee-hive,'' 
of which the grandest examples known are at Mycenae.  The 
Cretan ``larnax'' coffins, also, have no parallels outside the 
Aegean.  There are other infinite singularities of detail; 
but the above are more than sufficient to establish the point. 

B. Origin and Continuity.--With the immense expansion of the 
evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has arisen 
how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration covers 
at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one and 
continuous.  Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now 
know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive 
Neolithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, 
represented by a stratum which (on that site in particular) is 
in places nearly 20 ft. thick, and contains stone implements 
and sherds of handmade and hand-polished vessels, showing 
a progressive development in technique from bottom to 
top.  This Cnossian stratum seems to be throughout earlier 
than the lowest layer at Hissarlik.  It closes with the 
introduction of incised, white-filled decoration on pottery, 
whose motives are presently found reproduced in monochrome 
pigment.  We are now in the beginning of the Bronze Age, 
and the first of Evans's ``Minoan'' periods (see CRETE). 
Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification, eight more 
periods have been distinguished by the explorer of Cnossus, 
each marked by some important development in the universal and 
necessary products of the potter's art, the least destructible 
and therefore most generally used archaeological criterion.  
These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose close, by 
the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean Age 
is conventionally held to end.  Iron came into general Aegean 
use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a 
body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins 
of the earlier dominion.  The important point is this, that 
throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic 
Age (named by Evans, ``Minoan I. 1, 2, 3; II. 1, 2, 3; III. 
1, 2, 3''; see CRETE), there is evidence of a perfectly 
orderly and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic 
art.  From one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives 
of decoration develop gradually; so that, at the close of 
a span of more than two thousand years, at the least, the 
influences of the beginning can still be clearly seen and no 
trace of violent artistic intrusion can be detected.  This 
fact, by itself, would go far to prove that the civilization 
continued fundamentally and essentially the same throughout.  
It is, moreover, supported by less abundant remains of other 
arts.  That of painting in fresco, for instance, shows the 
same orderly development from at any rate Period II. 2 to the 
end.  About institutions we have less certain knowledge, there 
being but little evidence for the earlier periods; but in 
the documents relating to religion, the most significant of 
all, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp 
change.  We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing 
through all the normal stages down to the anthropism in 
the latest period.  There is no appearance of intrusive 
deities or cult-ideas.  We may take it then (and the fact 
is not disputed even by those who, like Dorpfeld, believe 
in one thorough racial change, at least, during the Bronze 
Age) that the Aegean civilization was indigenous, firmly 
rooted and strong enough to persist essentially unchanged 
and dominant in its own geographical area throughout the 
Neolithic and Bronze Ages.  This conclusion can hardly entail 
less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass of those who 
possessed this civilization continued racially the same. 

There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods, 
evidences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of 
small conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization 
of the conquered people and became assimilated to the 
latter.  The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in 
Period II. 1 or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the 
description of palace-plans above.  Before Period III. 1 it 
was largely rebuilt, and arguments have been brought forward 
by Dorpfeld to show that features of the second type were then 
introduced.  A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch 
at Phaestus, and possibly at Hagia Triada.  Now the second 
type, the ``megaron'' arrangement, characterizes peculiarly 
the palaces discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at 
Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarllk, where up to the present no 
signs of the first type, so characteristic of Crete, have been 
observed.  These northern ``megara'' are all of late date, 
none being prior to Minoan III. 1. At Phylakope, a ``megaron'' 
appears only in the uppermost Aegean stratum, the underlying 
structures being more in conformity with the earlier Cretan.  
At the same epoch a notable change took place in the Aegean 
script.  The pictographic characters, found on seals and discs 
of Period II. in Crete, had given way entirely to a linear 
system by Period III. That system thenceforward prevailed 
exclusively, suffering a slight modification again in III. 
2 and 3. These and other less well marked changes, say some 
critics, are signs of a racial convulsion not long after 
2000 B.C. An old race was conquered by a new, even if, in 
matters of civilization, the former capta victorem cepit. 
For these races respectively Dorpfeld suggests the names 
``Lycian'' and ``Carian,'' the latter coming in from the 
north Aegean, where Greek tradition remembered its former 
dominance.  These names do not greatly help us.  If we are 
to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomenclature, we must be 
satisfied that, in their later historic habitats, both Lycians 
and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having formerly 
possessed the civilizations attributed to them in prehistoric 
times--signs which research has hitherto wholly failed to 
find.  The most that can be said to be capable of proof is 
the infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at the 
end of Minoan Period II.; but it probably brought about no 
change of dynasty and certainly no change in the prevailing 
race.  A good deal of anthropometric investigation has been 
devoted to human remains of the Aegean epoch, especially to 
skulls and bones found in Crete in tombs of Period II. The 
result of this, however, has not so far established more than 
the fact that the Aegean races, as a whole, belonged to the 
dark, long-headed Homo Mediterraneus, whose probable origin 
lay in mid-eastern Africa---a fact only valuable in the present 
connexion in so far as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source 
for Aegean civilization.  Not enough evidence has been collected 
to affect the question of racial change during the Aegean 
period.  From the skullforms studied, it would appear, as we 
should expect, that the Aegean race was by no means pure even 
in the earlier Minoan periods.  It only remains to be added 
that there is some ground for supposing that the language 
spoken in Crete before the later Doric was non-Hellenic, but 
Indo-European.  This inference rests on three inscriptions 
in Greek characters but non-Greek language found in E. 
Crete.  The language has some apparent affinities with 
Phrygian.  The inscriptions are post-Aegean by many centuries, 
but they occur in the part of the island known to Homer 
as that inhabited by the Eteo-Cretans, or aborigines.  
Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets. 

C. History of Aegean Civilization.---History of an 
inferential and summary sort only can be derived from 
monuments in the absence of written records.  The latter do, 
indeed, exist in the Case of the Cretan civilization and in 
great numbers; but they are undeciphered and likely to remain 
so, except in the improbable event of the discovery of a long 
bi-lingual text, partly couched in some familiar script and 
language.  Even in that event, the information which would be 
derived from the Cnossian tablets would probably make but a 
small addition to history, since in very large part they are 
evidently mere inventories of tribute and stores.  The engraved 
gems probably record divine or human names. (See CRETE.) 

(1) Chronology.--The earliest chronological datum that we 
possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain 
Cretao hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. 1 and 
others discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred 
by him to the Ist Dynasty.  He goes so far as to pronounce 
the latter to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms 
being unlike anything Nilotic.  If that be so, the period 
at which stone implements were beginning to be superseded by 
bronze in Crete must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will 
be remembered that below all Evans's ``Minoan'' strata hes 
the immensely thick Neolithic deposit.  To date the beginning 
of this earliest record of human production is impossible at 
present.  The Neolithic stratum varies very much in depth, 
ranging from nearly 20 ft. to 3 ft., but is deepest on the 
highest part of the hillock.  Its variations may be due 
equally to natural denudation of a stratum once of uniform 
depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound by later 
builders.  Even were certainty as to these alternatives 
attained, we could only guess at the average rate of 
accumulation, which experience shows to proceeb very differently 
on different sites and under different social and climatic 
conditions.  In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems 
to have proceeded at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft. per thousand 
years.  Reckoning by that standard we might push the 
earliest Neolithic remains back behind 10,000 B.C.; 
but the calculation would be worthy of little credence. 

Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus, 
and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic 
Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism 
of remains belonging to the XIIth Dynasty (c. 2500 B.C. 
according to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) 
with products of Minoan Period II. 2. Characteristic Cretan 
pottery of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in 
conjunction with XIIth Dynasty remains, and various Cretan 
products of the period show striking coincidences with XIIth 
Dynasty styles, especially in their adoption of spiraliform 
ornament.  The spiral, however, it must be confessed, occurs 
so often in natural objects (e.g. horns, climbing plants, 
shavings of wood or metal) that too much stress must not 
be laid on the mutual parentage of spiraliform ornament in 
different civilizations.  A diorite statuette, referable by 
its style and inscription to Dynasty XIII., was discovered 
in deposit of Period II. 3 in the Central Court, and a 
cartouche of the ``Shepherd King,'' Khyan, was also found at 
Cnossus.  He is usually dated about 1900 B.C. This brings 
us to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan 
Periods III. 1, 2, with Dynasty XVIII. (c. 1600-1400 B.C.). 
This coincidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but 
previously, in connexion with discoveries of scarabs and other 
Egyptian objects made at Mycenae, Ialysus, Vaphio, &c. In Egypt 
itself.  Refti tributaries, bearing Vases of Aegean form, 
and themselves similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of 
hair to figures on Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., 
are depicted under this and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. 
Rekhmara tomb at Thebes).  Actual vases of late Minoan style 
have been found with remains of Dynasty XVIII., especially in 
the town of Amenophis IV. Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna; while 
in the Aegean area itself we have abundant evidence of a great 
wave of Egyptian influence beginning with this same Dynasty.  
To this wave were owed in all probability the Nilotic scenes 
depicted on the Mycenae daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and 
Cnossus, on pottery of Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, 
&c.; and also many forrus and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan 
coffins, and the faience industry of Cnossus.  These serve to 
date, beyond all reasonable question, Periods III. 1-2 in 
Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle, the Vaphio tomb, 
&c., to the 16th and 15th centuries B.C., and Period III. 
3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of the sixth 
stratum at Hissarlik, the Ialysus burials, the upper stratum 
at Phylakope, &c., to the century immediately succeeding. 

The terminus ad quem is less certain---iron does not begin to 
be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and 
then not exclusively.  If we fix its introduction to about 1000 
B C. and make it coincident with the incursion of northern 
tribes, remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, 
we must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp 
out Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its 
area.  But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated 
the ``Geometric'' Age, with which, for convenience at any 
rate, we may close the history of Aegean civilization proper. 

(2) Annals.--From these and other data the outlines of 
primitive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus.  A 
people, agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the 
Mediterranean race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean 
area from a remote Neolithic antiquity, but, except in 
Crete, where insular security was combined with great natural 
fertility, remained in a savage and unproductive condition 
until far into the 4th millennium B.C. In Crete, however, 
it had long been developing a certain civilization, and at a 
period more or less contemporary with Dynasties XI. and XII. 
(2500 B.C.?) the scattered communities of the centre of the 
island coalesced into a strong monarchical state, whose capital 
was at Cnossus.  There the king, probably also high priest 
of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone palace, 
and received the tribute of feudatories, of whom, probably, 
the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messara plain, was 
chief.  The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with Egypt, 
and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g. 
to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and 
to Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian 
obsidian knives.  A system of pictographic writing came into 
use early in this Palace period, but only a few documents, 
made of durable material, have survived.  Pictorial art of a 
purely indigenous character, whether on ceramic material or 
phster, made great strides, and from ceramic forms we may 
legitimately infer also a high skill in metallurgy.  The 
absence of fortifications both at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest 
that at this time Crete was internally peaceful and externally 
secure.  Small settlements, in very close relation with the 
capital, were founded in the east of the island to command 
fertile districts and assist maritime commerce.  Gournia and 
Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends: Zakro must have had mainly 
a commercial purpose, as the starting-point for the African 
coast.  The acme of this dominion was reached about the end 
of the 3rd millennium B.C., and thereafter there ensued a 
certain, though not very serious, decline.  Meanwhile, at 
other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly, it appears, 
on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. Tiryns 
and Hissarlik, other communities of the early race began to 
arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the 
more advanced culture of Crete, in proportion to their nearness
of vicinity.  Early Hissarlik shows less Cretan influence 
and more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early Melos.  The 
inner Greek mainland remained still in a backward state.  
Five hundred years later--about 1600 B.C.----we observe 
that certain striking changes have taken place.  The Aegean 
remains have become astonishingly uniform over the whole 
area; the local ceramic developments have almost ceased and 
been replaced by ware of one general type both of fabric 
and decoration.  The Cretans have stayed their previous 
decadence, and are once more possessors of a progressive 
civilization.  They have developed a more convenient and 
expressive written character by stages of which one is best 
represented by the tablets of Hagia Triada.  The art of all 
the area gives evidence of one spirit and common models; in 
religious representations it shows the same anthropomorphic 
personification and the same ritual furniture.  Objects produced 
in one locality are found in others.  The area of Aegean 
intercourse has widened and become more busy.  Commerce with 
Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and 
Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun 
to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central 
and western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and 
Spain.  There can be little doubt that a strong power was 
now fixed in one Aegean centre, and that all the area had 
come under its political, social and artistic influence. 

How was this brought about, and what was the imperial centre? 
Some change seems to have come from the north; and there are 
those who go so far as to say that the centre henceforward 
was the Argolid, and especially ``golden'' Mycenae, whose 
lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification of 
Aegean art on all other Aegean lands.  Others again cite the 
old established power and productivity of Crete; the immense 
advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and 
geographical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean 
civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the 
gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the 
Aegean, They point to the fact that, even in the new period, 
the palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still 
remained with Crete.  There alone we have proof that the art 
of writing was commonly practised, and there tribute-tallies 
suggest an imperial organization; there the arts of painting 
and sculpture in stone were most highly developed; there the 
royal residences, which had never been violently destroyed, 
though remodelled, continued unfortified; whereas on the 
Greek mainland they required strong protective works.  The 
golden treasure of the Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is 
not more splendid than would have been found at Cnossus had 
royal burials been spared by plunderers, or been happened upon 
intact by modern explorers.  It is not impossible to combine 
these views, and place the seat of power still in Crete, 
but ascribe the renascence there to an influx of new blood 
from the north, large enough to instil fresh vigour, but too 
small to change the civilization in its essential character. 

If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived.  The 
security of the island was apparently violated not long after 
1500 B.C., the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and 
Cretan art suffered an irreparable blow.  As the comparatively 
lifeless character which it possesses in the succeeding period 
(III. 3) is coincident with a similar decadence all over the 
Aegean area, we can hardly escape from the conclusion that 
it was due to the invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at 
least the Greek mainland and isles) by some less civilized 
conquerors, who remained politically dominant, but, like 
their forerunners, having no culture of their own, adopted, 
while they spoiled, that which they found.  Who these were 
we cannot say; but the probability is that they too came from 
the north, and were precursors of the later ``Hellenes.'' 
Under their rule peace was re-established, and art production 
became again abundant among the subject population, though 
of inferior quality.  The Cnossian palace was re-occupied in 
its northern part by chieftains WHO have left numerous rich 
graves; and general commercial intercourse must have been 
resumed, for the uniformity of the decadent Aegean products 
and their wide distribution become more marked than ever. 

About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe.  The 
palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt or 
re-inhabited.  Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean 
art, as a living thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and 
in the Aegean isles including Crete, together with Aegean 
writing.  In Cyprus, and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian 
coasts, there is some reason to think that the cataclysm was 
less complete, and Aegean art continued to languish, cut off 
from its fountain-head.  Such artistic faculty as survived 
elsewhere issued in the lifeless geometric style which is 
reminiscent of the later Aegean, but wholly unworthy of 
it.  Cremation took the place of burial of the dead.  This 
great disaster, which cleared the ground for a new growth 
of local art, was probably due to yet another incursion of 
northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, but 
possessed of superior iron weapons---those tribes which later 
Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians.  They crushed 
a civilization already hard hit; and it took two or three 
centuries for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, 
and probably preserved in suspended animation by the survival 
of Aegean racial elements, to blossom anew.  On this conquest 
seems to have ensued a long period of unrest and popular 
movements, known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration 
and the Aeolic and Dorian ``colonizations''; and when once more 
we see the Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, 
though it has not lost all memory of its earlier culture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Much of the evidence is contained in 
archaeological periodicals, especially Annual of the British 
School at Athens (1900--); Monumenti Antichi and Rendiconti 
d.  R. Ac. d.  Lincei (1901--); Ephemeris Archaiologike 
(1885- ); Journal of Hellenic Studies, Athenische 
Mittheilungen, Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, 
American Journal of Archaeology, &c. (all since about 1885). 
SPECIAL WORKS: H. Schliemann's books (see SCHLIEMANN), 
summarized by C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations 
(1891); Chr. Tsountas, Mukenai (1893); Chr. Tsountas and 
J. I. Manatt, the Mycenaean Age (1897); G. Perrot and Ch. 
Chipiez, Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite, vol. vi. 
(1895); W. Dorpfeld, Troja (1893) and Troja und Ilios 
(1904); A. Furtwangler and G. Loschke, Mykenische 
Vasen (1886); A. S. Murray, Excavations in Cyprus 
(1900); W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (1901 foll.); 
H. R. Hall, The Oldest Civilization of Greece (1901); 
A. J. Evans, ``Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult'' in Journ.  
Hell.  Studies (1901) and ``Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos,' in 
Archaeologia (1905) F. Noack, Homerische Palaste (1903); 
Excavations at Phylakopi, by members of the British School 
at Athens (1904); Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), Excavations 
at Gournia (1901) . D. G. Hogarth, ``Aegean Religion'' in 
Hastings' Dict. of Religions (1906) For a recent view of 
the place of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic 
culture see Die Hellenische Kultur by F. Baumgarten, &c. 
(1905).  Various summaries, controversial articles, &c., formerly 
quoted, are now superseded by recent discoveries.  See also 
CRETE, MYCENAE, TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE, &c. (D. G. H.) 

AEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the 
archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the east, 
bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the Dardanelles 
with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea. The name 
Archipelago (q.v.) was formerly applied specifically to this 
sea.  The origin of the namo Aegean is uncertain.  Various 
derivations are given by the ancient grammarians--one from 
the town of Aegae; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons 
who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father 
of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in 
it.  The following are the chief islands: Thasos, in the 
extreme north, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting 
the Gulf of Saros; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the 
peninsula of Gallipoli ( Thracian Chersonese); Euboea, the 
largest of all, lying close along the east coast of Greece; 
the Northern Sporades, including Sciathos, Scopelos and 
Halonesos, running out from the southern extremity of the 
Thessalian coast, and Scyros, with its satellites, north-east 
of Euboea; Lesbos and Chios; Samos and Nikaria; Cos, with 
Calymnos to the north; all off Asia Minor, with the many 
other islands of the Sporades; and, finally, the great group 
of the Cyclades, of which the largest are Andros and Tenos, 
Naxos and Paros.  Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of 
islands, are actually prolongations of promontories of the 
mainland.  Two main chains extend right across the sea---the 
one through Scyros and Psara (between which shallow banks 
intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped promontory east of 
it; and the other running from the southeastern promontory 
of Euboea and continuing the axis of that island, in a 
southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos, Nikaria and 
Samos.  A third curve, from the south easternmost promontory 
of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Ctete, Carpathos and 
Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean 
from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan 
Sea, in which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, 
north of the line, between it and the Aegean proper.  The 
Aegotu itself is naturally divided by the island-chains and 
the ridges from which they rise into a series of basins or 
troughs, the 8leepest of which is that in the north, extending 
from the coast of Thessaly fo the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated 
southward by the Northern Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the 
peninsula of Gallipoli.  The greater part of ths trough is 
over 600 fathoms deep.  The profusion of islands and their 
usually bold elevation give beauty and picturesqueness to 
the sea, but its navigation is difficult and dangerous, 
notwithstanding the large number of safe and commodious gulfs and 
bays.  Many of the islands are of volcanic formation; and 
a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan Sea on the 
north, including Milo and foimolos, Santorin (Thera) and 
Therasia, and extends to Nisyros.  Others, such as Paros, are 
mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some.  The 
larger islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys and 
plains.  The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic, 
figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and silk.  The people are 
employed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for 
bream, mullet and other fish.  The men are hardy, well built 
and handsome; and the women are noted for their beauty, the 
ancient Greek type being well preserved.  The Cyclades and 
Northern Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the 
Greek shore, belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey. 

AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of Cecrops, 
was king of Athens and the father of Theseus.  He was deposed 
by his nephews, but Theseus defeated them and reinstated his 
father.  When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver Athens from 
the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus that, if he were 
successful, he would change the black sail carried by his ship 
for a white one.  But, on his return, he forgot to hoist the 
white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had lost his 
life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was, keeping 
watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the Aegean.  
The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a shrine, and one 
of the Attic demes was named after him.  Plutarch, Theseus; 
Pausanias i. 22; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus lxiv. 207. 

AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA), an island of Greece in the Saronic 
Gulf, 20 m. from the Peiraeus Tradition derives the name from 
Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the 
island.  In Shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from 
N.W. to S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. 
m.  The western side consists of stony but fertile plains, 
which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of 
grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds and figs.  The rest 
of the island is rugged and mountainous.  The southern end 
rises in the conical Mount Oros, and the Panhellenian ridge 
stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either 
side.  From the absence of marshes the climate is the most 
healthy in Greece.  The island forms part of the modern 
Uomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms an eparchy. 
The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance.  The 
chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the 
island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants.  Capo 
d'Istria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square, 
erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, 
which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a 
school.  The museum was the first institution of its kind in 
Greece, but the collection was transferred to Athens in 1834. 

Antiquities.--The archaeological interest of Aegina is 
centred in the well-known temlple on the ridge near the northern 
corner of the island.  Excavations were made on its site in 
1811 by Baron Haller von Hallerstein and the English architect 
C. R. Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of 
sculpture from the pediments, which was bought in 1812 by the 
crown prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the 
Glyptothek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. 
Thorvaldsen.  Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient 
parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and the 
new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.  
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the 
figures.  That according to which they were set up at Munich 
was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each 
pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen 
warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel 
ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the 
composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors.  In 
1901 Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation 
of the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together 
with a fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments 
in Munich, have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, 
if not certain in all details, may be regarded as approaching 
finality.  According to this the figures of combatants do not 
all face towards the centre, but are broken up, as in other 
early compositions, into a series of groups of two or three 
figures each.  A figure of Athena still occupies the centre 
of each pediment, but is set farther forward than in the old 
reconstruction.  On each side of this, in the western pediment, 
is a group of two combatants over a fallen warrior; in the 
eastern pediment, a warrior whose opponent is falling into the 
arms of a supporting figure; other figures also--the bowmen 
especially---face towards the angles, and so give more variety 
to the composition.  The western pediment, which is more 
conservative in type, represents the earlier expedition of 
Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the eastern, which is bolder 
and more advanced, probably refers to episodes in the Trojan 
war.  There are also remains of a third pediment, which may 
have been produced in competition, but never placed on the 
temple.  For the character of the sculptures see GREEK ART. The 
plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable for the unsymmetrically 
placed door leading from the back of the cella into the 
opisthodomus.  This opisthodomus was completely fenced in 
with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it to have 
been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine).  It was disputed 
in earlier times whether the temple was dedicated to Zeus or 
Athena.  Inscriptions found by the recent excavations seem to 
prove that it must be identified as the shrine of the local goddess 
Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with Britomartis and Dictynna. 

The excavations have laid bare several other buildings, 
including an altar, early propylaea, houses for the 
priests and remains of an earlier temple.  The present 
temple probably dates from the time of the Persian wars.  
In the town of Aegina itself are the remains of another 
temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one column of this still 
remains standing, and its foundations are fairly preserved. 

AUTHORITIES.--Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pl. 
ii.-vii.; C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at 
Aegina, &c. (London, 186O); Ch. Gareier, Le Temple de Jupiter 
Panhellenien a Egine (Paris, 1884); Ad. Furtwangler and 
others, Aegina, Heiligtum der App Munich, 1906), where 
earlier authorities are collected and discussed. (E. GR.) 

History.--(1) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus (v. 
83), was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally 
subject.  The discovery in the island of a number of gold 
ornaments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art 
suggests the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own 
in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of 
Argos and Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic 
Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195).  It is probable that the island 
was not dorized before the 9th century B.C. One of the 
earliest facts known to us in its history is its membership 
in the League of Cabauria, which included, besides Aegina, 
Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, 
Nauplia and Prasiae, and was probably an organization of states 
which were still Mycenaean, for the oppression of the piracy 
which had sprung up in the Aegean as a result of the decay 
of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.  It follows, 
therefore, that the maritime importance of the island dates back 
to pre-Dorian times.  It is usually stated on the authority of 
Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.) of Argos established a mint in 
Aegina.  Though this statement is probably to be rejected, 
it may be regarded as certain that Aegina was the first state 
of European Greece to coin money.  Thus it was the Aeginetans 
who, within thirty or forty years of the invention of coinage 
by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced to the western 
world a system of such incalculable value to trade.  The fact 
that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and measures was 
one of the two scales in general use in the Greek world is 
sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the 
island.  It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian league; 
hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos, a leading 
member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of King 
Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the 
earlier half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century 
Aegina is one of the three principal states trading at the 
emporium of Naucratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of 
European Greece that has a share in this factory (Herod. ii. 
178).  At the beginning of the 5th century it seems to have 
been an entrepot of the Pontic grain trade, at a later date 
an Athenian monopoly (Herod. vii. 147).  Unlike the other 
commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., e.g. 
Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina founded no 
colonies.  The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) 
cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. 

The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost 
exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring 
state of Athens.  The history of these relations, as recorded 
by Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve 
critical problems of some difficulty and interest.  He 
traces back the hostility of the two states to a dispute 
about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which 
the Aeginetans had carried off from Epidaurus, their parent 
state.  The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual 
offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in 
payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were 
made.  Upon the refusal of the Aeginetans to continue these 
offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images.  
Their design was miraculously frustrated---according to the 
Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees---and only 
a single survivor returned to Athens, there to fall a victim 
to the fury of his comrades' widows, who pierced him with their 
brooch-pins.  No date is assigned by Herodotus for this ``old 
feud''; recent writers, e.g. J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, 
suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, c.  570 
B.C..  It may be questioned, however, whether the whole 
episode is not mythical.  A critical analysis of the narrative 
seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological 
traditions (explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the 
kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the 
use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and 
of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to 
the Ionian style.  Thc account which Herodotus gives of the 
hostilities between the two states in the early years of the 
5th century B.C. is to the following effect.  Thebes, after 
the defeat by Athens about 507 B.C., appealed to Aegina for 
assistance.  The Aeginetans at first contented themselves 
with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes 
of their island.  Subsequently, however, they entered into an 
alliance, and ravaged the sea-board of Attica.  The Athenians 
were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of 
the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking 
Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile 
with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were 
interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of 
Hippias.  In 401 B.C. Aegina was one of the states which gave 
the symbols of submission (``earth and water'') to Persia.  
Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, 
and Cleomenes I. (q.v.), one of the Spartan kings, crossed 
over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for 
it.  His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the 
deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second 
time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized 
ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as 
hostages.  After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of 
the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the 
Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a 
festival at Sunium.  Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot 
with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the 
island, for the betrayal of Aegina.  He was to seize the old 
city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with 
seventy vessels.  The plot failed owing to the late arrival 
of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the 
island.  An engagement followed in which the Aeginetans were 
defeated.  Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning 
a victory over the Athenian fleet.  Alf the incidents 
subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are expressly 
referred by Herodotus to the interval between the sending 
of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the invasion of Datis and 
Artaphernes in 490 B.C. (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94). There 
are difficulties in this story, of which the following are 
the principal:--(i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies that 
peace was concluded between the two states before 481 B.C., 
nor does he distinguish between different wars during this 
period.  Hence it would follow that the war lasted from 
shortly after 507 B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus 
of Corinth in 481 B.C. (ii.) It is only for two years 
(490 and 491) out of the twenty-five that any details are 
given.  It is the more remarkable that no incidents are 
recorded in the period between Marathon and Sabamis, seeing 
that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war is described 
as the most important one then being waged in Greece (Herod. 
vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens would have 
sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 498 B.C. 
if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is 
an incidental indication of time, which points to the period 
after Marathon as the true date for the events which are 
referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the 
thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of 
the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod. 
v. 89). As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 
B.C., the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back 
to the year 488 B.C. as the date of the dedication of the 
precinct and the outbreak of hostilities.  This inference 
is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes 
``for the war against Aegina'' on the advice of Themistocles, 
which is given in the Constitutiom of Athens as 483-482 
B.C. (Herod. vii. 144; Ath. Pol. r2. 7). It is probable, 
therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back 
the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and 
Aegina (c. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus before 
Marathon.  Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for 
an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came to 
nothing.  The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic 
form of ``sending the Aeacidae.'' The real occasion of the 
outbreak of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the 
hostages some twenty years later.  There was but one war, and 
it lasted from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in 
this war is certain.  Herodotus had no Athenian victories to 
record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles 
was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of 
the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply 
that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme 
effort was necessary.  It may be noted, in confirmation of 
this view, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by 
the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, 
i.e. the years 490-480 (Eusebius, Chron.  Can. p. 337). 

In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans 
played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus.  
The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would 
naturally seek to obscure their services.  It was to Aegina 
rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was 
awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to 
have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of 
the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, 
too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek 
scheme of defence.  In view of these considerations it becomes 
difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned 
to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, 
cf. GREEK HISTORY, sect. Authorities).  During the 
next twenty years the Philo-laconian policy of Cimon (q.v.) 
secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from 
attack.  The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was 
consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461, led to what 
is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, in which 
the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth and Aegina.  
The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a 
siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 
B.C.).  The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.  By the terms 
of the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to 
restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead 
letter.  In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 
B.C.) Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a 
cleruchy in their island.  The exiles were settled by Sparta in 
Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis.  Even in 
their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.1 A 
force landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the 
sword.  At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored 
the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, 
which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against 
Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an 
end.  The part which it plays henceforward is insignificant. 

It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely 
to the development of the Athenian navy.  It is probable that 
the powor of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty 
years after Sabamis, and that it had declined absolutely, 
as well as relatively, to that of Athens.  Commerce was the 
source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears 
to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered 
seriously from the war with Persia.  Her medism in 491 is 
to be explained by her commercial relations with the Persian 
Empire.  She was forced into patriotism in spite of herself, 
and the glory won by Salamis was paid for by the loss of 
her trade and the decay of her marine.  The completeness 
of the ruin of so powerful a state--we should look in 
vain for an analogous case in the history of the modern 
world--finds an explanation in the economic conditions of 
the island, the prosperity of which rested upon a basis of 
slave-labour.  It is impossible, indeed, to accept 
Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the 

1Pericles called Aegina the ``eye-sore'' (leme) of the Peiraeus. 

number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that 
the number must have been out of all proportion to that of 
the free inhabitants.  In this respect the history of Aegina 
does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.  The 
constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple.  So long 
as the island retained its independence the government was an 
oligarchy.  There is no trace of the heroic monarchy and no 
tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while 
it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, 
at the same time, that it could count upon little support. 

(2) Modern.---Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under 
the successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus 
of Pergamum and Rome.  In 1537 the island, then a prosperous 
Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barbarossa 
(Khair-ed-Din).  One of the last Venetian strongholds in the 
Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718) 
to the Turks.  In 1826-1828 the town became for a time 
the capital of Greece and the centre of a large commercial 
population (about 10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---Herodotus loc. cit.; Thucydides i. 105, 
108, ii. 27, iv. 56, 57. For the criticism of Herodotus's 
account of the relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, 
Aristoteles und Athen, ii. 280-288, is indispensable.  See 
also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., ii. 102-120. (E. M. W.) 

AEGINETA, PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of 
Aegina, whence he derived his name.  According to Le Clerc's 
calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era; 
but Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus) places him with more probability 
in the 7th. The title of his most important work, as given by 
Suidas, is Epitomes 'Iatrikes Biblia 'Epta (Synopsis 
of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating 
of operative surgery, is of special interest for surgical 
history.  The whole work in the original Greek was published at 
Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in 1538.  
Several Latin translations have been published, and an excellent 
English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams (1844-1848). 

AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of 
Zeus, fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels 
and bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre.  Originally 
symbolical of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from 
aisso, signifying rapid, violent motion.  When the god 
shakes it, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls 
and men are smitten with fear.  He sometimes lends it to 
Athene and (rarely) to Apollo.  In the later story (Hyginus, 
Poet.  Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said to have used the 
skin of the goat Amaltheia (aigis=goat-skin) which suckled 
him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to do battle 
against the giants.  Another legend represents the aegis as a 
fire-breathing monster like the Chimaera, which was slain by 
Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus 
Siculus iii. 70) It appears to have been really the goat's 
skin used as a belt to support the shield.  When so used it 
would generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would 
partially envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in 
front and behind to be attached to the shield under the left 
arm.  Hence, by transference, it would be employed to denote 
at times the shield which it supported, and at other times a 
cuirass, the purpose of which it in part served.  In accordance 
with this double meaning the aegis appears in works of art 
sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, 
sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding 
to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the 
centre.  It is often represented on the statues of Roman 
emperors, heroes and warriors, and on cameos and vases. 

See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre (1857); L. Freller, 
Griechische Mythologie, i. (1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's 
Real Encyclopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie 
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites, and Smith's 
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890). 

AEGISTHUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his Own 
daughter Pelopia.  Having been exposed by his mother to conceal her 
shame, he was found by shepherds and suckled by a goat-whence his 
name.  His uncle Atreus, who had married Pelopia, took him to 
Mycenae, and brought him up as his own son.  When he grew up 
Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly with his father over 
Mycenae, until they were deposed by Agamemnon on his return 
from exile.  After the departure of Agamemnon to the Trojan 
war, Aegisthus seduced his wife Clytaemnestra (more correctly 
Clytaemestra) and with her assistance slew him on his return.  
Eight years later his murder was avenged by his son Orestes. 

Homer, Od. iii. 263, iv. 517; Hyginus, Fab. 87. 

AEGOSPOTAMI (i.e. ``Goat Streams''), a small creek issuing 
into the Hellespont, N.E. of Sestos, the scene of the decisive 
battle in 405 B.C. by which Lysander destroyed the last 
Athenian armament in the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). The 
township of that name, whose existence is attested by coins of 
the 5th and 4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant. 

AEFRIC, called the ``Grammarian'' (c. 955-1020?), English 
abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the 
Benedictine monastery at Winchester under AEthelwold, who 
was bishop there from 963 to 984. AEthelwold had Carried 
on the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey 
of Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous 
efforts.  He seems to have actually taken part in the work 
of teaching. AElfric no doubt gained some reputation as a 
scholar at Winchester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cernel 
(Cerne Abbas, Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop 
AElfheah (Alphege), AEthelwold's successor, at the request of 
the chief benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman AEthelmaer, to 
teach the Benedictine monks there.  He was then in priest's 
orders. AEthelmaer and his father AEthelweard were both 
enlightened patrons of learning, and became AElfric's faithful 
friends.  It was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, it 
appears, of AEthelweard, that he planned the two series 
of his English homilies (ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844--1846, 
for the AElfric Society), come piled from the Christian 
fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, archbishop of Canterbury 
(990-994).  The Latin preface to the first series enumerates 
some of AElfric's authorities, the chief of whom was Gregory the 
Great, but the short hst there given by no means exhausts the 
authors whom he consulted.  In the preface to the first volume 
he regrets that except for Alfred's translations Englishmen had 
no means of learning the true doctrine as expounded by the Latin 
fathers.  Professor Earle (A.S. Literature, 1884) thinks 
he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to modern ideas 
superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling Homilies. 
The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain and 
direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year; 
the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history, 
AElfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, 
ed.  Thorpe, ii. 466), and his teaching on the Eucharist in the 
Canons and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. 
ii. 262 seq.) was appealed to by the Reformation writers as 
a proof that the early English church did not hold the Roman 
doctrine of transubstantiation.1 His Latin Grammar and 
Glossary 2 were written for his pupils after the two books of 
homilies.  A third series of homilies, the Lives of the 
Saints, dates from 906 to 997. Some of the sermons in the second 
series had been written in a kind of rhythmical, alliterative 
prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed. W. W. Skeat, 
1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society) the practice is 
so regular that most of them are arranged as verse by Professor 
Skeat.  By the wish of AEthelweard he also began a paraphrase 
3 of parts of the Old Testament, but under protest, for the 
stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable for simple 
minds.  There is no certain proof that he remained at Cernel.  
It has been suggested that this part of his life was chiefly 
spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of 
Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 998 his Canons 4 as 
a pastoral letter for Wulfsige, the bishop of Sherborne, the 
diocese in which the abbey was situated, afford presumption 
of continued residence there.  He became in 1005 the first 
abbot of Eynsham or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of 
AEthelmaer's.  After his elevation he wrote an abridgment 
for his monks of AEthelwold's De consuetudine monachorum5, 
adapted to their rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter 
to Wulfgeat of Ylmandun6; an introduction to the study of the 
Old and New Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle 
in 1623); a Latin life of his master AEthelwold7; a pastoral 
letter for Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, 
in Latin and English; and an English version of Bede's De 
Temporibus8.  The Colloquium9, a Latin dialogue designed 
to serve his scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may 
date from his life at Cernel.  It is safe to assume that the 
original draft of this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, 
AElfric Bata, was by AElfric, and represents what his own 
scholar days were like.  The last mention of AElfric Abbot, 
probably the grammarian, is in a will dating from about 1020. 

There have been three suppositions about AElfric. (1) He 
was identified with AElfric (995--1005), archbishop of 
Canterbury.  This view was upheld by John Bale (III. Maj. 
Bril.  Scriptorum 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 
149, s.v, Alfric); by Humphrey Wanley (Catalogus librorum 
septentrionalium, &c., Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of 
George Hickes's Antiquae literaturae septemtrionalis); by 
Elizabeth Elstob, The English Saxon Homily on the Birthday 
of St Gregory (1709; new edition, 1839); and by Edward Rowe 
Mores, AElfrico, Dorobernensi, archiepiscopo, Commentarius 
(ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in which the conclusions of earlier 
writers on AElfric are reviewed.  Mores made him abbot of St 
Augustine's at Dover, and finally archbishop of Canterbury. 
(2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concina . . .(1639, vol. i. 
p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum episcopum, and 
suggested AElfric Putta or Putto, archbishop of York, as the 
author, adding some note of others bearing the name.  The 
identity of AElfric the grammarian with AElfric archbishop of 
York was also discussed by Henry Wharton, in Anglia Sacra 
(1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation reprinted in 
J. P. Migne's Patrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70, Paris, 
1853). (3) William of Malmesbuty (De gestis pontificum 
Anglorum, ed.  N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 
406) suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of 
Crediton.  The main facts of his career were finally 
elucidated by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles 
contributed to C. W. Niedner's Zeitschrift fur historische 
Theologie (vols. for 1855 and 1856, Gotha), which have 
formed the basis of all subsequent writings on the subject. 

Sketches of AElfric's career are in B. Ten Brink's Early 
English Literature (to Wiclif) (trans.  H. M. Kennedy, 
New York, 1883, pp. 105-112), and by J. S. Westlake in The 
Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. i., 1907, pp. 
116-129).  An excellent bibliography and account of the 
critical apparatus is given in Dr R. Wulker's Grundriss 
zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 
1885; pp. 452-480).  See also the account by Professor Skeat 
in Pt. iv. pp. 8-61 of his edition of the Lives of the 
Saints, already cited, which gives a full account of the 
MSS., and a discussion of AElfric's sources, with further 
bibliographical references; and AElfric, a New Study of his 
Life and Writings, by Miss C. L. White (Boston, New York and 
London, 1898) in the ``Yale Studies in English.'' Alcuini 
Interrogationes Sigewulfi Presebyteri in Genesin (ed. G. 
E. McLean, Halle, 1883) is attributed to AElfric by its 
editor.  There are other isolated sermons and treatises by 
AElfric, printed in vol. iii. of Grein's Bibl. v.  A.S. Prosa. 

1 See A Testimonie of Antiquitie, shewing the auncient 
fayth in the Church of England touching the sacrament of 
the body and bloude of the Lord here publikely preached, 
printed by John Day (1567).  It was quoted in John Foxe's 
Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610)) 2 Ed. J. Zupitza in 
Sammlung englischer Denkmaler (vol. i., Berlin, 1880). 
3 Edited by Edward Thwaites as Heptateuchus (Oxford 1698); 
modern edition in Grein's Bibliothek der A. S. Prosa (vol. 
i.  Cassel and Gottingen, 1872).  See also B. Assmann, Abt 
AElfric's . . . Esther (Halle, 1885), and Abt AElfric's Judith 
(in Anglia, vol. x.). 4 Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in 
Ancient Laws and Institutes of England (1840), with the 
later pastoral for Wulfstan. 5 See E. Breck, A Fragment 
of AElfric; translation of AEthelwold's De Consuetudine 
Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipzig 1887). 
6 Ilmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire. 
7 Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron.  Monast. de Abingon 
(vol. ii. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858). 8 See Oswald 
Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft (vol. iii., 
1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 et. seq.) in the Rolls 
Series. 9 See an article by J. Zupitza in the Zeitschrift 
fur deutsches Altertum (vol. xix., new series, 1887). 

AELIA CAPITOLINA, the city built by the emperor Hadrian, 
A.D. 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of 
Jerusalem (q.v.), which was in ruins when he visited his 
Syrian dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family 
name, and Capilolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to 
whom a temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple. 

AELIAN (AELIANUS TACTICUS), Greek military writer of 
the 2nd century A.D., resident at Rome.  He is sometimes 
confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to 
below.  Aelian's military treatise, Taktike Theoria, is 
dedicated to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for 
Trajan, and the date A.D. 106 has been assigned to it.  It 
is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics 
as practised by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the 
Great.  The author claims to have consulted all the best 
authorities, the chief of which was a lost treatise on the 
subject by Polybius.  Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work 
lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of 
war, and in the fulness of his technical details in matters of 
drill.  Critics of the 18th century---Guichard Folard and the 
prince de Ligne--were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly 
inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate successors, the 
Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated the text for their 
own use, Aelian exercised a great influence.  The emperor Leo 
VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on the 
military art.  The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 
1350.  In spite of its academic nature, the copious details 
to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value 
to the army organizers of the 16th century, who were engaged 
in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal 
systems of previous generations.  The Macedonian phalanx of 
Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses 
of pikemen and the ``squadrons'' of cavalry of the Spanish 
and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th 
century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and 
tactics.  Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon, 
Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by 
every soldier of the 16th and 17th centuries who wished to 
be master of his profession.  It has been suggested that 
Aellan was the real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, 
and that the Taktike Theoria is a later revision of 
this original, but the theory is not generally accepted. 

The first edition of the Greek text is that of Robortelli 
(Venice, 1552); the Elzevir text (Leiden, 1613) has 
notes.  The text in W. Rustow and H. Kochly's Gricchische 
Kriegsschriftsteller (1855) is accompanied by a translation, 
notes and reproductions of the original illustrations.  
A Latin translation by Theodore Gaza of Thessalonica was 
included in the famous collection Veteres de re mililari 
scriptores (Rome and Venice, 1487, Cologne, 1528, 
&c.).  The French translation of Machault, included in his 
Milices des Grecs et Romains (Paris, 1615) and entitled 
De la Sergenterie des Grecs, a German translation from 
Theodore Gaza (Cologne, 1524), and the English version of 
Jo. B(ingham), which includes a drill-manual of the English 
troops in the Dutch service, Tacticks of Aelian (London, 
1616) are of importance in the military literature of the 
period.  A later French translation by Bouchard de Bussy. 
La Milice des Grecs on Tactique d'Elien (Paris 1737 and 
1757); Baumgartner's German translation in his incomplete 
Sammlung aller Kriegsschriftsteller der Griechen (Mannheim and 
Frankenthal, 1779), reproduced in 1786 as Von Schlachtordnungen, 
and Viscount Dillon's English version (London, 1814) may 
also be mentioned.  See also R. Forster, Studien zu den 
griechischen Taktikern (Hermes, xii., 1877, pp. 444-449); 
F. Wustenfeld, Das Heerwesen der Muhammedaner und die 
arabische Uebersetzung der Taktik des Aelianus (Gottingen, 
1880); M. Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenscharen, i. 95-97 
(Munich, 1889); Rustow and Kochly, Gesch. des griechischen 
Kriegswesens (1852). A. de Lort-Serignan, La Phalange 
(1880); P. Serre, Etudes sur L'histoire militaire et 
maritime des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. Muller, 
in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894). 

AELIAN (CLAUDIUS AELIANUS), Roman author and teacher of 
rhetoric, born at Praeneste, flourished under Septimius Severus 
and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. 222).  He spoke Greek so 
perfectly that he was called ``honey-tongued'' (meliglossos); 
Although a Roman he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in Greek 
himself.  His chief works are: On the Nature of Animals, 
curious and interesting stories of animal life, frequently 
used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784; Jacobs, 
1832); Various History-for the most part preserved only in 
an abridged form--consisting mainly of anecdotes of men and 
customs (ed. Lunemann, 1811).  Both works are valuable for the 
numerous excerpts from older writers.  Considerable fragments 
of two other works On Providence and Divine Manifestations 
are preserved in Suidas; twenty Peasants' Letters, after the 
manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed to him. 

Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 
1864-1866.  English translation of the Various History only by Fleming, 
1576, and Stanley, 1665; of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895. 

AELRED, AILRED, ETHELRED (1100-1166), English theologian, 
historical writer and abbot of Rievaulx, was born at Hexham 
about the year 1109.  In his youth he was at the court of 
Scotland as an attendant of Henry, son of David I. He was in 
high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect 
of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in 
Yorkshire, which was founded in 1131 by Walter Espec.  Here 
AElred remained for some time as master of the novices, but 
between the years 1142 and 1146 was elected abbot of Revesby in 
Lincolnshire and migrated thither.  In 1146 he became abbot of 
Rievaulx.  He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was 
credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his 
reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased.  
In 1164 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway.  He 
found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic 
and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by 
tho family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant.  He 
induced a Galwegian chief to take the habit of religion, and 
restored the peace of the country.  Two years later he died 
of a decline, at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his 
age.  In the year 1191 he was canonized.  His writings are 
voluminous and have never been completely published.  Amongst 
them are homilies ``on the burden of Babylon in Isaiah''; 
three books ``on spiritual friendship''; a life of Edward the 
Confessor; an account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the 
tract called Relatio de Standardo.  This last is an account 
of the Battle of the Standard (1138), better blown than the 
similar account by Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, 
and in places obscured by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric. 

See the Vita Alredi in John of Tynemouth's Nova Legenda 
Anglie (ed. C. Horstmann, 1901, vol. i. p. 4i), whence it 
was taken by Capgrave.  From Capgrave the work passed into 
the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum (Jan. ii p. 30). This life is 
anonymous, but of an early date.  The most complete printed 
collection of AElred's works is in Migne's Patrologia 
Latina, vol. cxcv.; but this does not include the Miracula 
Hagulstatdensis Ecclesiae which are printed in J. Raine's 
Priory of Hexham, vol. i. (Surtees Society, 1864).--A 
complete list of works attributed to AElred is given in 
T. Tanner's Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica (1748), pp. 
247,248.  The Relatio de Standardo has been critically edited 
by R. Howlett in Chronicles, &c., of Stephen, Henry II. and 
Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886). . (H. W. C. D.) 

AEMILIA VIA, or AEMILIAN WAY. (1) A highroad of Italy, 
constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
from whom it taves its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, 
a distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain 
of the Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the 
Apennines on the left.  The 79th milestone from Ariminum found 
in the bed of the Phenus at Bononia records the restoration 
of the road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 
2 B.C. (Notiz.  Scav., 1902, 539).  The bridge by which 
it crossed the Sillaro was restored by Trajan in A.D. 100 
(Notizie degli Scavi, 1888, 621).  The modern highroad 
follows the ancient line, and some of the original bridges 
still exist.  After Augustus, the road gave its name to the 
district which formed the eighth region of Italy (previously 
known as Gallia or Provincia Ariminum), at first in popular 
usage (as in Martial), but in official language as early 
as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see EMILIA). 
The district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the 
Adriatic, S. by the river Crustumium (mod.  Conca), and W. 
by the Apennines and the Ira (mod.  Staffora) at Iria (mod.  
Voghera), and corresponds approximately with the modern district. 

(2) A road constructed in 109 B.C. by the censor M. 
Aemillus Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and Luna to Vada Sabatia 
and thence over the Apennines to Ilertona (Tortona), where 
it joined the Via Postumia from Genua to Cremona.  We must, 
however (as Mommsen points out in C.I.L. v. p. 885), suppose 
that the portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to 
Genua at least must have existed before the construction of 
the Via Postumia in 148 B.C. Indeed Polybius (iii. 39. 8) 
tells us (and this must refer to the time of the Gracchi if not 
earlier) that the Romans had in his time built the coast road 
from the Rhone to Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the 
coast road in Italy itself should not have been constructed 
previously.  It is, however, a very different thing to open 
a road for traffic, and so to construct it that it takes 
its name from that construction in perpetuity. (, As.) 

AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO EMILIO ) (d. 1529), Italian 
historian, was born at Verona.  He obtained such reputation 
in his own country that he was invited to France in the reign 
of Charles VIII., in order to write in Latin the history 
of the kings of France, and was presented to a canonry 
in Notre Dame.  He enjoyed the patronage and support of 
Louis XII. He died at Paris on the 5th of May 1529.  His 
De Rebus gestis Francorum was translated into French in 
1581, and has also been translated into Italian and German. 

AENEAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and Aphrodite, 
one of the most important figures in Greek and Roman legendary 
history.  In Homer, he is represented as the chief bulwark 
of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite of the gods, 
who frequently interpose to save him from danger (Iliad, v. 
311).  The legend that he remained in the country after the 
fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom (Iliad, xx. 308; 
Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be 
of comparatively late origin.  The story of his emigration is 
post-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by 
Virgil in the Aeneid.  Carrying his aged father and household 
gods on his back and leading his little son Ascanius by the 
hand, he makes his way to the coast, his wife Creusa being 
lost during the confusion of the flight.  After a perilous 
voyage to Thrace, Delos, Crete and Sicily (where his father 
dies), he is cast up by a storm, sent by Juno, on the African 
coast.  Refusing to remain with Dido, queen of Carthage, 
who in despair puts an end to her life, he sets sail from 
Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands at the 
mouth of the Tiber.  He is hospitably received by Latinus, 
king of Latium, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and 
founds a city called after her, Lavinium.  Turnus, king of 
Rutuli, a rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and 
Latinus, but is defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river 
Numicius.  The story of the Aeneid ends with the death of 
Turnus.  According to (i. 1. 2), Aeneas, after reigning a few 
years over Latium, is slain by the Rutuli; after the battle, his 
body cannot be found, and he is supposed to have been carried 
up to heaven.  He receives divine honours, and is worshipped 
under the name of Jupiter Indiges (Dionysius Halle. i. 64). 

See J. A. Hild, La Legende d'Enee avant Vergile (1883); 
F. Cauer, De Fabuls Graecis ad Romam conditum pertinentibus 
(1884) and Die Romische Aeneassage, von Naevius bis 
Vergilius (1886); G. Boissier, ``La Legende d'Enee'' in 
Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1883; A. Forstemann, Zur 
Geschichte des Aeneasmythus (1894); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's 
Realencyclopadie (new ed., 1894); Roscher's Lexicon 
der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des 
antiquites; Preller's Griechische und romische Mythologie; 
and especially Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (1867). 

Romances.---The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of 
Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle 
ages.  The Roman d'Eneas (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain 
authorship (attributed by some to Benoit de Sainte-More), 
the first French poem directly imitated from the Aeneid, 
is a fairly close adaptation of the oriinal.  The trouvere, 
however, omits the greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, 
and adorns his narrative with gorgeous descriptions, with 
accounts of the marvellous properties of beasts and stones, 
and of single combats among the knights who figure in the 
story.  He also elaborates the episodes most attractive to 
his audience, notably those of Dido and Aeneas and Lavinia, 
the last of whom plays a far more important part than in the 
Aeneid. Where possible, he substitutes human for divine 
intervention, and ignores the idea of the glorification 
of Rome and Augustus, which dominates the Virgilian epic.  
On this work were founded the Eneide or Eneit (between 
1180 and 1190) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written in Flemish 
and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian dialect, 
and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490.  See 
Eneas, ed.  J. Salverdo de Grave (Halle, 1891); see also 
A. Litteraire de la France, xix.; Veldeke's Encide, ed.  
Ettmuller (Leipzig, 1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); 
Eneydos, ed.  F. J. Furnivall (1890).  For Italian versions 
see E. G. Parodi in Studi di filologia romanza (v. 1887). 

AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest 
Greek writers on the art of war.  According to Aelianus 
Tacticus and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises 
(Upomnemata) on the subject; the only one extant deals with 
the best methods of defending a fortified city.  An epitome 
of the whole was made by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus.  The work is chiefly valuable as containing a large 
number of historical illustrations.  Aeneas was considered by 
Casaubon to have been a contemporary of Xenophon and identical 
with the Arcadian general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon 
(Hellenica, vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle 
of Mantinea (362 B.C.). Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), 
Gronovius' (1670) and Ernesti's (1763) editions of Polybius; 
also.separately, with notes, by J. C. Orelli (Leipzig, 
1818).  Other texts are those of W. Rustow and H. Kochly 
(Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller, vol. i.  Leipzig, 183S) 
and A. Hug, Prolegomena Critica ad Aeneae editionem (Zurich 
University, 1874).  See also Count Beausobre, Commentaires 
sur la defense des places d'Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. 
Hug, Aeneas von Stymphalos (Zurich, 1877); C. C. Lange, 
De Aeneae commentario poliorcetico (Berlin, 1879); M. H. 
Meyer, Observationes in Aeneam Tacticum (Halle, 1835) ; 
Haase, in Jahns Jahrbuch, 1835, xiv. 1 ; Max Jahns, Gesch. 
der Kriegswissenschaften, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich, 1889) ; Ad. 
Bauer, in Zeitschrift fur allg.  Geschichte, &c., 1886, i.; 
T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E. 
Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894). 

AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in Crete 
and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first century 
B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as the third 
sceptical school and revived to a great extent the doctrine 
of Pyrrho and Timon.  His chief work was the Pyrrhonian 
Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero.  His philosophy 
consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and 
doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory 
and a theory of morality.  Of these the two former are 
important.  The reasons for doubt are given in the form of 
the ten ``tropes'': (1) different animals manifest different 
modes of perception; (2) similar differences are seen among 
individual men; (3) even for the same man, sense-given data are 
self-contradictory, (4) vary from time to time with physical 
changes, and (5) accord- ing to local relations; (6) and (7) 
objects are known only in- directly through the medium of air, 
moisture, &c., and are in a condition of perpetual change in 
colour, temperature, size and motion; (8) all perceptions are 
relative and interact one upon another; (9) Our impressions 
become less deep by repetition and custom; and (10) all 
men are brought up with different beliefs, under different 
laws and social conditions.  Truth varies infinitely under 
circumstances whose relative weight cannot be accurately 
gauged.  There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge, for 
every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges 
and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so 
that the sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective 
validity.  The second part of his work consists in the attack 
upon the theory of causality, in which he adduces almost 
entirely those considerations which are the basis of modern 
scepticism.  Cause has no existence apart from the mind which 
perceives; its validity is ideal, or, as Kant would have 
said, subjective.  The relation between cause and effect is 
unthinkable.  If the two things are different, they are 
either simultaneous or in succession.  If simultaneous, cause 
is effect and effect cause.  If not, since effect cannot 
precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there must 
be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not 
itself.  By these and similar arguments he arrives at 
the fundamental principle of Scepticism, the radical and 
universal opposition tion of causes; panti logo logos 
antikeitai.  Having reached this conclusion, he was able to 
assimilate the physical theory of Heraclitus, as is explained 
in the Hypotyposes of Sextus Empiricus.  For admitting that 
contraries co-exist for the perceiving subject, he was able 
to assert the co-existence of contrary qualities in the same 
object.  Having thus disposed of the ideas of truth and 
causality, he proceeds to undermine the ethical criterion, 
and denies that any man can aim at Good, Pleasure or Happiness 
as an absolute, concrete ideal.  All actions are product 
of pleasure and pain, good and evil.  The end of ethical 
endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour is vain and 
illogical.  The main tendency of this destructive scepticism 
is essentially the same from its first crystallization by 
Aenesidemus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day (ree 
SCEPTICISM). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus 
see AGRIPPA, SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. See also CARNEADES and 
ARCESILAUS. Of the Porroneioi logoi nothing remains; we 
have, however, an analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius.  
See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; F. Saisset, 
AEnesideme, Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preller, sec. sec.  364-87O. 

AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. harpe eolienne; Ger. Aolsharfe, Windharfe; 
Ital. arpa d'Eolo), a stringed musical instrument, whose 
name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind.  The aeolian 
harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft long, 5 in. wide, 
and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine, and 
having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins.  
A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but 
tuned in exact unison, and left rather slack, are attached 
to the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard 
wood, one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally 
provided with two rose sound-holes.  To ensure a proper 
passage for the wind, another pine board is placed over the 
strings, resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or 
on a continuation of the ends raised from 1 to 3 in. above the 
strings.  Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, 
who improved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, 
which was called by them Windfang and Windflugel; the 
upper board was prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape 
of a funnel, in order to direct the current of air on to the 
strings.  The aeolian harp is placed across a window so that 
the wind blows obliquely across the strings, causing them to 
vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e. (the fundamental note not 
being heard) the half or octave, the third or interval of the 
twelfth, the second Octave, and the third above it, in fact 
the upper partials of the strings in regular succession.  With 
the increased pressure of the wind, the dissonances of the 
11th and 13th overtones are heard in shrill discords, only 
to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force of the wind 
abates.  The principle of the natural vibration of strings 
by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient times; 
King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to 
hang his kinnor (kithara) over his bed at night, when it 
sounded in the midnight breeze.  The same is related of St 
Dunstan of Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with 
sorcery.  The Chinese at the present day fly kites of various 
sizes, having strings stretched across apertures in the 
paper, which produces the effect of an aerial chorus. 

See Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, where the aeolian 
harp is first described (1602-1608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop 
of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and 
Musical Strings pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket 
Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon, 
article ``Aeolsharfe.', An illustration is given in Rees' 
Encyclopedia, plates, vol. ii.  Misc. pl. xxv (K. S.) 

AEOLIS (AEOLIA), an ancient district of Asia Minor, 
colonized at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks.  The name was 
applied to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory 
of Lecture, i.o. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The 
Aeolians founded twelve cities on the mainland, including 
Cyme, and numerous towns in Mytilene: they were said also 
to have settled in the Troad and even within the Hellespont. 

AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of 
Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of 
Aeolia.  In the Odyssey (x. I) he entertains Odysseus, 
gives him a favourable wind to help him on his journey, and 
a bag in which the unfavourable winds have been confined.  
Out of curiosity. or with the idea that it contains valuable 
treasures, Odysseus' companions open the bag; the winds escape 
and drive them back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them 
with bitter reproaches.  According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on 
one of the Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or 
Strongyle (Stromboll), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in 
a vast cavern (Virgil, Aen. i. 52). Another genealogy makes 
him the son of Poseidon and Arne, granddaughter of Hippotes, 
and a descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the 
mythical ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67). 

AEON, a term often used in Greek (aion) to denote 
an indefinite or infinite duration of time; and hence, by 
metonymy, a being that exists for ever.  In the latter sense 
it was chiefly used by the Gnostic sects to denote those 
eternal beings or manifestations which emanated from the 
one incomprehensible and ineffable God. (See GNOSTICISM.) 

AEPINUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German natural 
philosopher, was born at Rostock in Saxony on the 13th of December 
1724.  He was descended from John Aepinus (1499-1553), the 
first to adopt the Greek form (aipernos) of the family name 
Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and controversialist 
at the time of the Reformation.  After studying medicine for 
a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the physical and 
mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained such distinction 
that he was admitted a member of the Berlin academy of 
sciences.  In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as member of 
the imperial academy of sciences and professor of physics, and 
remained there till his retirement in 1798.  The rest of his 
life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the 10th of August 
1802.  He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine 
II., who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured, 
without success, to establish normal schools throughout the 
empire under his direction.  Aepinus is best known by his 
researches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity 
and magnetism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae 
Electricitatis et Magnetismi, published at St Petersburg in 
1759, was the first systematic and successful attempt to apply 
mathematical reasoning to these subjects.  He also published a 
treatise, in 176I, De distributione caloris per tellurem, 
and he was the author of memoirs on different subjects in 
astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure mathematics, contained 
in the journals of the learned societies of St Petersburg and 
Berlin.  His discussion of the effects of parallax in 
the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited great 
interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of the 
two transits of Venus that took place in the 18th century. 

AEQUI, an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs 
constantly in Livy,s first decade as hostile to Rome in the 
first three Centuries of the city's existence.  They occupied 
the upper reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and 
Himella; the last two being mountain streams runing northward 
to join the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been 
taken by the Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and 
again about ninety years later (id. xiv. 106), but they 
were not finally subdued Until the end of the second Samnite 
war (Livy ix. 45,; x. 1; Diod. xx. 101), when they seem to 
have received a limited form of franchise (Cic. Off. i.  
II, 35). All we know of their subsequent political condition 
is that after the Social war the folk of Cliternia and Nersae 
appear united in a res Publica Aequiculorum, which was a 
municipium of the ordinary type (C.I.L. ix. p. 388).  The 
Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioll (298 
B.C.) must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as 
such) all over the district; through it by the chief (and for 
some time the only) route (Pia Valeria) to Luceria and the 
south.  Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman 
conquest we have no record; but since the Marsi (q.v.), who 
lived farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect 
closely akin to Latin, and since the Hernici (q.v.), their 
neighbours to the south-west, did the same, we have no ground 
for separating any of these tribes from the Latian group 
(see LATINI). If we could be certain of the origin of the 
a in their name and of the relation between its shorter 
and its longer form (note that the i in Aequicidus is 
long--Virgil, Aen. vii. 74----which seems to connect it 
with the locative of aequum ``a plain,'' so that it would 
mean ``dwellers in the plain''; but in the historical period 
they certainly lived mainly in the hills), we should know 
whether they were to be grouped with the q or the p 
dialects, that is to say, with Latin on the one hand, which 
preserved an original q, or with the dialect of Velitrae, 
commonly called Volscian (and the Volsci were the constant 
allies of the Aequi), on the other hand, in which, as in the 
Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original q is changed into 
p. There is no decisive evidence to show whether the q 
in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q as in Latin 
quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European k+u as in 
equus, Umb. ekvo-.  The derivative adjective Aequicus 
might be taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the 
Sabini, but it is not clear that this adjective was ever used 
as a real ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aeqai, 
or Aequicoli. At the end of the Republican period the Aequi 
appear, under the name Aequiculi or Aequicoh, organized as a 
municipium, the territory of which seems to have comprised 
the upper part of the valley of the Salto, still known as 
Cicolano.  It is probable, however, that they continued to 
live in their villages as before.  Of these Nersae (mod.  
Nesce) was the most considerable.  The polygonal terrace 
walls, which exist in considerable numbers in the district, 
are shortly described in Romische Mitteilungen (1903), 147 
seq., but require further study.  See further the articles 
MARSI, VOLSCI, LATINI, and the references there given; the 
place-names and other scanty records of the dialect are collected 
by R. S. Conway. The Italic Dialects, pp. 300 ff. (R. S. C.) 

AERARII (from Lat. aes, in its subsidiary sense of 
``polltax''), originally a class of Roman citizens not included 
in the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a 
poll-tax arbitrarily fixed by the censor.  They were (1) 
the inhabitants of conquered towns which had been deprived 
of local self-government, who possessed the jus eonubii 
and ius commercii, but no political rights; Caere is said 
to have been the first example of this (353 B.C.); hence 
the expression ``in tabulas Caeritum referre'' came to mean 
``to degrade to the status of an aerarius'': (2) full 
citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the 
result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), 
of dishonourable acts in private life (e.g. bigamy) or of 
conviction for certain crimes; (3) persons branded by the 
censor.  Those who were thus excluded from the tribes and 
centuries had no vote, were incapable of filling Roman 
magistracies and could not serve in the army.  According to 
Mommsen, the aerarii were originally the non-assidui 
(non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the comitia 
and the army.  By a reform of the censor Appius Claudius 
in 312 B.C. these non-assidui were admitted into the 
tribes, and the aerarii as such disappeared.  But in 304, 
Fabius Rullianus limited them to the four city tribes, and 
from that time the term meant a man degraded from a higher 
(country) to a lower (city) tribe, but not deprived of the 
right of voting or of serving in the army.  The expressions 
``tribu movere'' and ``aerarium facere,': regarded by Mommsen 
as identical in meaning (``to degrade from a higher tribe 
to a lower,'), are explained by A. H. J. Greenidge---the 
first as relegation from a higher to a lower tribe or total 
exclusion from the tribes, the second as exclusion from the 
centuries.  Other views of the original aerarii are that they 
were--artisans and freedmen (Niebuhr); inhabitants of towns 
united with Rome by a hospitium publicum, who had become 
domiciled on Roman territory (Lange); only a class of degraded 
citizens, including neither the cives sine suffragio nor 
the artisans (Madvig); identical with the capite censi of 
the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge).  See A. H. J. 
Greenidge, Infamia in Roman Law (1894), where Mommsen's theory 
is criticized; E. Belot, Histoire des chevaliers romains, 
i. p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin, 
1853); P. Willems, Le Droit public romain (1883); A. S. 
Wilkins in Smith's Dict. of Greek and Roman Antiquities 
(3rd ed., 189I); and the usual handbooks of antiquities. 

AERARIUM (from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of ``money'') 
the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given 
in ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary 
sense to the public finances.  The treasury contained the 
moneys and accounts of the state, and also the standards of 
the legions; the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees 
of the senate and other papers and registers of importance.  
These public treasures were deposited in the temple of 
Saturn, on the eastern slope of the Capitoline hill, and, 
during the republic, were in charge of the urban quaeators 
(see QUAESTOR), under the superintendence and control of the 
senate.  This arrangement continued (except for the year 45 
B.C., when no quaestors were chosen) until 28 B.C., when 
Augustus transferred the aerarium to two praojecti aerarii, 
chosen annually by the senate from ex-praetors; in 23 these 
were replaced by two praetors (praetores aerarii or ad 
aerarium), selected by lot during their term of office; 
Claudius in A.D. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated by 
the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted 
two ex-praetors, under the same conditions.  In addition 
to the common treasury, supported by the general taxes and 
charged with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special 
reserve fund, also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium 
sanctum (or sanctius), probably originally consisting of 
the spoils of war, afterwards maintained chiefly by a 5% tax 
on the value of all manumitted slaves, this source of revenue 
being established by a lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not 
to be touched except in cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 
16, xxvii. 10). Under the emperors the senate continued to 
have at least the nominal management of the aerarium, while 
the emperor had a separate exchequer, called fiseus. But 
after a time, as the power of the emperors increased and 
their jurisdiction extended till the senate existed only in 
form and name, this distinction virtually ceased.  Besides 
creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in A.D. 
6 a military treasury (aerarium militare), containing all 
moneys raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the 
army, including a pension fund for disabled soldiers.  It.was 
largely endowed by the emperor himself (see Monumentum 
Ancyranum, iii. 35) and supported by the proceeds of the tax 
on public sales and the succession duty.  Its administration 
was in the hands of three praefecti aerarii militaris, at 
first appointed by lot, but afterwards by the emperor, from 
senators of praetorian rank, for three years.  The later 
emperors had a separate aerarium privatum, containing 
the moneys allotted for their own use, distinct from the 
fiscus, which they administered in the interests of the empire. 

The tribuni aerarii have been the subject of much 
discussion.  They are supposed by some to be identical with 
the curatores tribuum, and to have been the officials 
who, under the Servian organization, levied the war-tax 
(tributum) in the tribes and the poil-tax on the aerarii 
(q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of the equites and of 
the soldiers on service in each tribe.  By the lex Aurella 
(70 B.C.) the list of judices was composed, in addition 
to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these 
were the successors of the above, or a new order closely 
connected with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is 
uncertain.  According to Mommsen, they were persons who 
possessed the equestrian census, but no public horse.  They 
were removed from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by 
Augustus.  According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii 
were not officials at all, but private individuals of considerable 
means, quite distinct from the curatores tribuuin, who 
undertook certain financial work connected with their own 
tribes.  Then, as in the case of the equites, the term was 
subsequently extended to include all those who possessed the 
property qualification that would have entitled them to serve 
as tribuni aerarii. See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with 
Furneaux's notes; O. Hirschfeld, ``Das Aerarium militare in 
der romischen Kaiserzeit,'' in Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, vol. 
xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario et Fisco Romanorum 
(Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and dictionaries of 
antiquities.  On the tribuni aerarii see E. Belot, Hist. 
des chevaliers romains, ii. p. 276; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula 
Academica, ii. p. 242; J. B. Mispoulet, Les Institutions 
politiques des Romains (1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, 
Romisches Staatsrecht, iii. p. 189; A. S. Wilkins in Smith's 
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890). 

AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger proportion of 
carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary atmospheric 
pressure occur in springs in various parts of the world (see 
MINERAL WATERS). Such waters, which also generally hold in 
solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents, 
early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when 
carbon dioxide (``fixed air'') became familiar to chemists the 
possibility was recognized, as by Joseph Priestley (Directions 
for impregnating water with fixed air . . . to communicate 
the peculiar Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont water, 1772), 
of imitating them artificially.  Many of the ordinary aerated 
waters of commerce, however, do not pretend to reproduce any 
known natural water; they are merely beverages owing their 
popularity to their effervescing properties and the flavour 
imparted by a small quantity of some salt such as sodium 
bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup.  Their manufacture on a 
considerable scale was begun at Geneva so far back as 1790 by 
Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the soda water prepared 
in London by J. Schweppe, who had been a partner of Paul's, is 
referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his Essay on the Medicinal 
Properties of Factitious Airs, published in 1798.  Many forms 
of apparatus are employed for charging the water with the 
gas.  A simple machine for domestic use, called a gasogene or 
seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes connected 
one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises nearly 
to the top of the upper and smaller globe.  Surmounting the 
small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow tube 
that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large 
globe.  To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with 
water, and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, 
is placed a mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric 
acid, which with water yields carbon dioxide.  The valve head 
is then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is 
made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper 
vessel.  The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus 
produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the 
valve, being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of the 
gas.  In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in 
little steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing 
the water which has to be aerated.  On a large scale, use is 
made of continuously acting machinery which is essentially of 
the type devised by Joseph Bramah.  The gas is prepared in a 
separate generator by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium 
bicarbonate or whiting, and after being washed is collected 
in a gas-holder, whence it is forced with water under pressure 
into a receiver or saturator in which an agitator is kept 
moving.  Some manufacturers buy their gas compressed in steel 
cylinders.  The water thus aerated or carbonated passes 
from the receiver, in which the pressure may be 100-200 lb. on 
the square inch, to bottling machines which fill and close 
the bottles; if beverages like lemonade are being made the 
requisite quantity of fruit syrup is also injected into the 
bottles, though sometimes the fruit syrup mixture is aerated in 
bulk.  For soda water sodium bicarbonate should be added to 
the water before aeration, in varying proportions up to about 
15 grains per pint, but the simple carbonated water often 
does duty instead.  Potash water, lithia water and many others 
are similarly prepared, the various salts being used in such 
amounts as are dictated by the experience and taste of the 
manufacturer.  Aerated waters are sent out from the factories 
either in siphons (q.v.) or in bottles; the latter may be 
closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal stoppers 
consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against an 
indiarubber ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas.  For use 
in ``soda-fountains'' the waters are sent out in large cylinders. 

See W. Kirkby, Evolution of artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester, 1902). 

AERONAUTICS, the art of ``navigating'' the ``air.'' It is 
divisible into two main branches--aerostation, dealing properly 
with machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, 
and aviation, dealing with the problem of artificial flight 
by means of flying machines which, like birds, are heavier 
than the air, and also with attempts to fly made by human 
beings by the aid of artificial wings fitted to their limbs. 

Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the 
legends of gods or myths of men or animals which are supposed 
to have travelled through the air, such as Pegasus, Medea's 
dragons and Daedalus, as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, 
wings appear as the means by which aerial locomotion is 
effected.  In later times there are many stories of men who have 
attempted to fly in the same way.  John Wilkins (1614-1672), 
one of the founders of the Royal Society and bishop of Chester, 
who in 1640 discussed the possibility of reaching the moon by 
volitation, says in his Mathematical Magick (1648) that 
it was related that ``a certain English monk called Elmerus, 
about the Confessor's time,'' flew from a town in Spain for 
a distance of more than a furlong; and that other persons 
had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nuremberg.  Giovanni 
Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown several 
times across Lake Trasimene.  At the beginning of the 16th 
century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy 
of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook 
to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to 
France.  He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to 
the ground and broke his thigh-bone in the fall--an accident 
which he explained by asserting that the wings he employed 
contained some fowls' feathers, which had an ``affinity'' 
for the dung-hill, whereas if they had been composed solely 
of eagles' feathers they would have been attracted to the 
air.  This anecdote furnished Dunbar, the Scottish poet, with 
the subject of one of his rude satires.  Leonardo da Vinci 
about the same time approached the problem in a more scientific 
spirit, and his notebooks contain several sketches of wings 
to be fitted to the arms and legs.  In the following century 
a lecture on flying delivered in 1617 by Fleyder, rector of 
the grammar school at Tubingen, and published eleven years 
later, incited a poor monk to attempt to put the theory into 
practice, but his machinery broke down and he was killed. 

In Francis Bacon's Natural History there are two 
passages which refer to flying, though they scarcely 
bear out the assertion made by some writers that he 
first published the true principles of aeronautics. 

The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying 
in the Air --``Certainly many birds of good wing (as kites 
and the like) would bear up a good weight as they fly; and 
spreading leathers thin and close, and in great breadth, will 
likewise bear up a great weight, being even laid, without 
tilting up on the sides. The further extension of this 
experiment might be thought upon.'' The second passage is 
more diffuse, but less intelligible; it is styled Experiment 
Solitary, touching unequal weight (as of wool and lead or 
bone and lead); if you throw it from you with the light end 
forward, it will turn, and the weightier end will recover to 
be forwards, unless the body be over long.  The cause is, for 
that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure of the 
parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though 
heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all 
violent motions; and when the hinder part moveth swifter (for 
that it less endureth pressure of parts) that the forward 
part can make way for it, it must needs be that the body 
turn over; for (turned) it can more easily draw forward the 
lighter part.'' The fact here alluded to is the resistance 
that bodies experience in moving through the air, which, 
depending on the quantity of surface merely. must exert a 
proportionally greater effect on rare substances.  The passage 
itself, however, after making every allowance for the period 
in which it was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and 
unphilosophical.  In his posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, 
published at Rome in 1680-1681, G.A.Borelli gave calculations 
of the enormous strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; 
and his proposition cciv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Est 
impossibile ut homines pro priis viribus artificiose volare 
possint, points out the impossibility of man being able by his 
muscular strength to give motion to wings of sufficient extent 
to keep him suspended in the air.  But during his lifetime two 
Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Besnier about 1678, are said to 
have succeeded in making short flights.  An account of some 
of the modern attempts to construct flying machines will be 
found in the article FLIGHT AND FLYING; here we append a 
brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of the problem. 

The very first essential for success is safety, which will 
probably only be attained with automatic stability.  The 
underlying principle is that the centre of gravity shall 
at all times be on the same vertical line as the centre of 
pressure.  The latter varies with the angle of incidence.  For 
square planes it moves approximately as expressed by Joessel's 
formula, C + (0.2 + 0.3 sin a) L, in which C is the distance 
from the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the 
angle of incidence.  The movement is different on concave 
surfaces.  The term aeroplane is understood to apply to 
flat sustaining surfaces, but experiment indicates that 
arched surfaces are more efficient.  S. P. Langley proposed 
the word aerodrome, which seems the preferable term for 
apparatus with wing-line surfaces.  This is the type to which 
results point as the proper one for further experiments.  With 
this it seems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 
40 to 50 lb. can be sustained per indicated h.p., or about 
twice that quantity per resistance or ``thrust'' h.p., and 
that some 30 or 40 k of the weight can be devoted to the 
machinery, thus requiring motors, with their propellers, 
shafting, supplies, &c., weighing less than 20 lb. per 
h.p.  It is evident that the apparatus must be designed to 
be as light as possible, and also to reduce to a minimum 
all resistances to propulsion.  This being kept in view, 
the strength and consequent section required for each member 
may be calculated by the methods employed in proportioning 
bridges, with the difference that the support (from air 
pressure) will be considered as uniformly distributed, and the 
load as concentrated at one or more points.  Smaller factors 
of safety may also have to be used.  Knowing the sections 
required and unit weights of the materials to be employed, 
the weight of each part can be computed.  If a model has been 
made to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sized 
apparatus may approximately be ascertained by the formula 


$$W' = W\sqrt{\left({S'\over S}\right)}^3,$$

in which W is the weight of the model, S its surface, and 
W' and S' the weight and surface of the intended apparatus.  
Thus if the model has been made one-quarter size in its 
homologous dimensions, the supporting surfaces will be sixteen 
times, and the total weight sixty-four times those of the 
model.  The weight and the surface being determined, the three 
most important things to know are the angle of incidence, the 
``lift,'' and the required speed.  The fundamental formula for 
rectangular air pressure is well known: P=KV2S, in which P is 
the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms, K a 
coefficient (0.0049 for British, and 0.11 for metric measures), 
V the velocity in miles per hour or in metres per second, and 
S the surface in square feet or in square metres.  The normal 
on oblique surfaces, at various angles of incidence, is given 
by the formula P = KV2Se, which latter factor is given both 
for planes and for arched surfaces in the subjoined table:--. 

PERCENTAGES OE AIR PRESSURE AT VARIOUS ANGLES OF INCIDENCE 


 
 
 PLANES (DUCHEMIN FORMULA,
 VERIFIED BY LANGLEY).                          WINGS (LILIENTHAL).
 N = P(2sina/(1+sin2a)).                        Concavity 1 in 12
 
 Angle.   Normal.   Lift.    Drift.      Normal.   Lift.    Drift.   Tangential
   a         e      ecosa    esina          e      ecosa    esina      force a
 -9 deg.                                      0.0       0.0      0.0      +0.070
 -8 deg.                                      0.040     0.0396  -0.0055   +0.067
 -7 deg.                                      0.080     0.0741  -0.0097   +0.064
 -6 deg.                                      0.120     0.1193  -0.0125   +0.060
 -5 deg.                                      0.160     0.1594  -0.0139   +0.055
 -4 deg.                                      0.200     0.1995  -0.0139   +0.049
 -3 deg.                                      0.242     0.2416  -0.0126   +0.043
 -2 deg.                                      0.286     0.2858  -0.0100   +0.037
 -1 deg.                                      0.332     0.3318  -0.0058   +0.031
  0 deg.       0.0      0.0       0.0         0.381     0.3810  -0.0      +0.024
 +1 deg.       0.035    0.035     0.000611    0.434     0.434   +0.0075   +0.016
 +2 deg.       0.070    0.070     0.00244     0.489     0.489   +0.0170   +0.008
 +3 deg.       0.104    0.104     0.00543     0.546     0.545   +0.0285    0.0
 +4 deg.       0.139    0.139     0.0097      0.600     0.597   +0.0418   -0.007
 +5 deg.       0.174    0.173     0.0152      0.650     0.647   +0.0566   -0.014
 +6 deg.       0.207    0.206     0.0217      0.696     0.692   +0.0727   -0.021
 +7 deg.       0.240    0.238     0.0293      0.737     0.731   +0.0898   -0.028
 +8 deg.       0.273    0.270     0.0381      0.771     0.763   +0.1072   -0.035
 +9 deg.       0.305    0.300     0.0477      0.800     0.790   +0.1251   -0.042
 10 deg.       0.337    0.332     0.0585      0.825     0.812   +0.1432   -0.050
 11 deg.       0.369    0.362     0.0702      0.846     0.830   +0.1614   -0.058
 12 deg.       0.398    0.390     0.0828      0.864     0.845   +0.1803   -0.064
 13 deg.       0.431    0.419     0.0971      0.879     0.856   +0.1976   -0.070
 14 deg.       0.457    0.443     0.1155      0.891     0.864   +0.2156   -0.074
 15 deg.       0.486    0.468     0.1240      0.901     0.870   +0.2332   -0.076
 

The sustaining power, or ``lift'' which in horizontal flight 
must be equal to the weight, can be calculated by the formula 
L=KV2Secosa, or the factor may be taken direct from the 
table, in which the ``lift'' and the ``drift'' have been obtained 
by multiplying the normal e by the cosine and sine of the 
angle.  The last column shows the tangential pressure on concave 
surfaces which O. Lilienthal found to possess a propelling 
component between 3 deg.  and 32 deg.  and therefore to be negative 
to the relative wind.  Former modes of computation indicated 
angles of 10 to 15 as necessary for support with planes.  These 
mere prohibitory in consequence of the great ``drift''; but 
the present data indicate that, with concave surfaces, angles 
of 2 deg.  to 5 will produce adequate ``lift.'' To compute the 
latter the angle at which the wings are to be set must first be 
assumed, and that of @ will generally be found preferable.  
Then the required velocity is next to be computed by the formula 


$$V = \sqrt{L\over KS\eta\cos\alpha};$$

or for concave wings at +3 deg. : 


$$V = \sqrt{W\over 0.545KS}.$$

Having thus determined the weight, the surface, the angle of 
incidence and the required seed for horizontal support, the 
next step is to calculate the power required.  This is best 
accomplished by first obtaining the total resistances, which 
consist of the ``drift'' and of the head resistances due to 
the hull and framing.  The latter are arrived at preferably 
by making a tabular statement showing all the spars and parts 
offering head resistance, and applying to each, the coefficient 
appropriate to its ``master section,'' as ascertained by 
experiment.  Thus is obtained an ``equivalent area'' of resistance, 
which is to be multiplied by the wind pressure due to the 
speed.  Care must be taken to resolve all the resistances at 
their proper angle of application, and to subtract or add the 
tangential force, which consists in the surface S, multiplied 
by the wind pressure, and by the factor in the table, which 
is, however, 0 for 3 and 32, but positive or negative at other 
angles.  When the aggregate resistances are known, the ``thrust 
h.p.'' required is obtained by multiplying the resistance by the 
speed, and then allowing for mechanical losses in the motor and 
propeller, which losses will generally be 50% of indicated 
h.p.  Close approximations are obtained by the above method 
when applied to full sized apparatus.  The following example 
will make the process clearer.  The weight to he carried 
by an apparatus was 189 lb. on concave wings of 143.5 sq. 
ft. area, set at a positive angle of 3 deg.  There were in 
addition rear wings of 29.5 sq. ft., set at a negative angle 
of 3 deg. ; hence, L= 189=.o.oo5XV2X143.5X0.545.  Whence 


$$V = \sqrt{189\over 0.005\times 143.5\times 0.545
= 22\hbox{ miles per hour},$$

at which the air pressure would be 2.42 lb. per sq. ft.  The area 
of spars and man was 17.86 sq. ft., reduced by various coefficients 
to an ``equivalent surface'' of 11.70 sq. ft., so that the 
resistances were:-- Drift front wings, 143.5X0.0285X2.42 . . . 
.= 9.90 lb.  Drift rear wings, 29.5X(o.o43-0.242X0.05235)X2.42 
= 2.17 lb.  Tangential force at 3 deg.  . . . . . . . . = 
0.00 lb.  Head resistance, 11.70X2.43 . . . . . = 28.31 

Total resistance . . . . . . . .= 40.38 

Speed 22 miles per hour.  Power = (40.38X22)/375 = 2.36 h.p. for 
the ``thrust'' or 4.72 h.p. for the motor.  The weight being 189 
lb., and the resistance 40.38 lb., the gliding angle of descent was 
40.38/189 = tangent of 12 deg. , which was verified by many experiments. 

The following expressions will be found useful in computing 
such projects, with the aid of the table above given: 


 
 1. Wind force, F = KV2.             8. Drift, D = KSV2esina
 2. Pressure, P = KV2S.              9. Head area E, get an equivalent 
 3. Velocity, V = sqrt. (W/(KSecosa))
                                    10. Head resistance, H = EF.
 4. Surface S varies as 1/V2.       11. Tangential force, T = Pa
 5. Normal, N = KSV2e.              12. Resistance, R = D + H (+ or -) T.
 6. Lift, L = KSV2ecsoa.            13. Ft. lb., M = RV.
 7. Weight, W = L = Ncosa.          14. Thrust, h.p., = RV/factor.
 

AEROSTATION.---Possibly the flying dove of Archytas of Tarentum 
is the earliest suggestion of true aerostation.  According to 
Aulus Genius (Noctes Atticae) it was a ``model of a dove or 
pigeon formed in wood and so contrived as by a certain mechanical 
art and power to fly: so nicely was it balanced by weights 
and put in motion by hidden and enclosed air.'' This ``hidden 
and enclosed air'' may conceivably represent an anticipation 
of the hot-air balloon, but it is at least as probable that 
the apparent flight of the dove was a mere mechanical trick 
depending on the use of fine wires or strings invisible to the 
spectators.  In the middle ages vague ideas appear of some 
ethereal substance so light that vessels containing it 
would remain suspended in the air.  Roger Bacon (1214-1294) 
conceived of a large hollow globe made of very thin metal and 
filled with ethereal air or liquid fire, which would float on 
the atmosphere like a ship on water.  Albert of Saxony, who 
was bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 to 1390, had a similar 
notion, and considered that a small portion of the principle 
of fire enclosed in a light sphere would raise it and keep it 
suspended.  The same speculation was advanced by Francis 
Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who died in 1626 at the age of 
forty-six, and by Gaspar Schott (1608-1666), also a Jesuit 
and professor of mathematics at Wurzburg, though for fire 
he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he believed to 
float above the atmosphere.  So late as 1755 Joseph Galien 
(1699-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philosophy 
and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed to 
collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose 
it in a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and 
intended to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's 
ark.  A somewhat different but equally fantastic method of 
making heavy bodies rise is quoted by Schott from Lauretus 
Laurus, according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled 
with nitre, sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the 
sun.  Laurus also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will 
ascend in the same circumstances, because dew is shed by the 
stars and drawn up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the 
day.  The same notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac 
(1619-1655) in his romances describing journeys to the moon 
and sun, for his French traveller fastens round his body a 
multitude of very thin flasks filled with the morning's dew, 
whereby through the attractive power of the sun's heat on the 
dew he is raised to the middle regions of the atmosphere, to 
sink again, however, on the breaking of some of the flasks. 

A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for aerial 
navigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (1631-1687), 
in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodromo ovvero 
Saggio di alcune invenzioni nuove promesso all' Arte Maestra. 
His idea, though useless and unpractical in so far that it 
could never be carried out, is yet deserving of notice, as 
the principles involved are sound; and this can be said of 
no earlier attempt.  His project was to procure four copper 
balls of very large dimensions (fig. 1), yet so extremely 
thin that after the air was exhausted from them they would 
be lighter than the air they displaced and so would rise; 
and to those four balls he proposed to attach a boat, with 
sails, &c., which would carry up a man.  He submitted the 
whole matter to calculation, and proposed that the globes 
should be about 25 ft. in diameter and 1/225th of an inch 
in thickness; this would give from all four balls a total 
ascensional force of about 1200 lb., which would be quite enough 
to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the obvious 
objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be quite 
impossible to construct a globe of so large a size and of 
such small thickness which would even support its own weight 
without collapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear 
the external atmospheric pressure when the internal air was 
removed.  Lana himself noticed this objection, but he 
thought that the spherical form of the copper shell would, 
notwithstanding its extreme thinness, enable it, after the 
exhaustion was effected, to sustain the enormous pressure, 
which, acting equally on every point of the surface, would tend 
to consolidate rather than to break the metal.  His proposal 
to exhaust the air from the globes by attaching to each a 
tube 36 ft. long, fitted with a stopcock, and so producing 
a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was ignorant of the 
invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke about 1650. 

We now come to the invention of the balloon, which was 
due to Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740-1810) and Jacques 
Etienne Montgolfier (1745-1799), sons of Pierre Montgolfier, 
a large and celebrated papermaker at Annonay, a town about 
40 m. from Lyons.  The brothers had observed the suspension 
of clouds in the atmosphere, and it occurred to them that 
if they could enclose any vapour of the nature of a cloud in 
a large and very light bag, it might rise and carry the bag 
with it into the air.  Towards the end of 1782 they inflated 
bags with smoke from a fire placed underneath, and found 
that either the smoke or some vapour emitted from the fire 
did ascend and carry the bag with it.  Being thus assured 
of the correctness of their views, they determined to have a 
public ascent of a balloon on a large scale.  They accordingly 
invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay, 
to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of 
June 1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of 
spectators, a linen globe of 105 ft. in circumference was 
inflated over a fire fed with small bundles of chopped straw.  
When released it rapidly rose to a great height, and descended, 
at the expiration of ten minutes, at the distance of about 
1 1/2m.  This was the discovery of the balloon.  The brothers 
Montgolfier imagined that the bag rose because of the levity 
of the smoke or other vapour given forth by the burning straw; 
and it was not till some time later that it was recognized that 
the ascending power was due merely to the lightness of heated 
air compared to an equal volume of air at a lower temperature.  
In this balloon, no source of heat was taken up, so that the 
air inside rapidly Cooled, and the balloon soon descended. 

The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted so much 
attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond 
(1741-1819), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee 
d'Histoire Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying 
the expense of repeating the experiment.  The balloon was 
constructed by two brothers of the name of Robert, under 
the superintendence of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles.  The 
first suggestion was to copy the process of Montgolfier, but 
Charles proposed the application of hydrogen gas, which was 
adopted.  The filling of the balloon, which was made of 
thin silk varnished with a solution of elastic gum, and was 
about 13 ft. in diameter, was begun on the 23rd of August 
1783, in the Place des Victoires.  The hydrogen gas was 
obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron 
filings, and was introduced through leaden pipes; but as the 
gas was not passed through cold water, great difficulty. was 
experienced in filling the balloon completely; and altogether 
about 300 lb. of sulphuric acid and twice that amount of iron 
filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins were issued daily of 
the progress of the inflation; and the crowd was so great 
that on the 26th the balloon was moved secretly by night 
to the Champ de Mars, a distance of 2 m.  On the next day 
an immense concourse of people covered the Champ de Mars, 
and every spot from which a view could be ob obtained was 
crowded.  About five o'clock a cannon was discharged as the 
signal for the ascent, and the balloon when liberated rose to 
the height of about 3000 ft. with great rapidity.  A shower 
of rain which began to fall directly after it had left the 
earth in no way checked its progress; and the excitement was so 
great, that thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them 
ladies, stood exposed, watching it intently the whole time 
it was in sight and were drenched to the skin, The balloon, 
after remaining in the air for about three-quarters of an 
hour, fell in a field near Gonesse, about 15 m. off, and 
terrified the peasantry so much that it was torn into shreds by 
them.  Hydrogen gas was at this time known by the name of 
inflammable air; and balloons inflated with gas have ever 
since been called by the people air-balloons, the kind invented 
by the Montgolfiers being designated fire-balloons.  French 
Writers have also very frequently styled them after their 
inventors, Charlieres and Montgolfieres. On the 19th 
of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated the Annonay 
experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the king, the 
queen, the court and an immense number of spectators.  The 
inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven 
minutes, when the balloon rose to the height of about 1500 
ft., and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of 
about 2 m., in the wood of Vaucresson.  Suspended below the 
balloon: in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, 
which were thus the first aerial travellers.  They were quite 
uninjured, except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in 
consequence of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this 
took place before the ascent.  The balloon, which was painted 
with ornaments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance 
(fig. 3). Francois Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785), a native 
of Metz, who was appointed superintendent of the natural 
history collections of Louis XVIII.  On the 15th of October 
1783, and following days, he made several ascents (generally 
alone, but once with a companion, Girond de Villette) in a 
captive balloon (i.e. one attached by ropes to the ground), 
and demonstrated that there was no difficulty in taking up 
fuel and feeding the fire, which was kindled in a brazier 
suspended under the balloon, when in the air.  The way being 
thus prepared for aerial navigation, on the 21st of November 
1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes first 
trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon.  The experiment was 
made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette, in the Bois de 
Boulogne.  A large fire-balloon was inflated at about two 
o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft., and passing over 
the Invalides and the Ecole Mililaire, descended beyond 
the Boulevards, about 9000 yds. from the place of ascent, 
having been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the 
air.  Only ten days later, viz. on the 1st of December 1783, 
Charles ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen 
gas.  The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the 
same kind previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was 
constructed by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the 
ascent.  It was 27 ft. in diameter, and the car was suspended 
from a hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened 
to a net, which covered the upper hemisphere.  The balloon 
ascended very gently from the Tuileries at a quarter to two 
o'clock, and after remaining for some time at an elevation 
of about 2000 ft., it descended in about two hours at Nesle, 
a small town about 27 m. from Paris, when Robert left the 
car, and Charles made a, second ascent by himself.  He had 
intended to have replaced the weight of his companion by a 
nearly equivalent quantity of ballast; but not having any 
suitable means of obtaining such at the place of descent, and 
it being just upon sunset, he gave the word to let go, and 
the balloon being thus so greatly lightened, ascended very 
rapidly to a height of about 2 m.  After staying in the air 
about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the place of ascent, 
although he believed the distance traversed, owing to different 
currents, to have been about 9 m.  In this second journey he 
experienced a violent pain in his right ear and jaw, no doubt 
produced by the rapidity of the ascent.  He also witnessed 
the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day; for when he 
ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as he mounted 
he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he descended. 

All the features of the modern balloon as now used are 
more or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at 
the top, suspended the car from a hoop, which was itself 
attached to the balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his 
use of hydrogen gas, there are anticipations that must be 
noticed.  As early as 1766 Henry Cavendish showed that this 
gas was at least seven times lighter than ordinary air, and 
it immediately occurred to Dr Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, 
that a thin bag filled with hydrogen gas would rise to the 
ceiling of a room.  He provided, accordingly, the allantois 
of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture such 
a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have 
failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great 
discovery, almost within his reach, to escape him.  Several 
years afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, 
who found that bladders, even when carefully scraped, 
are too heavy, and that China paper is permeable to the 
gas.  But in 1782, the year before the invention of the 
Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating soap-bubbles by 
inflating them with hydrogen gas.  Researches on the use of 
gas for inflating balloons seem to have been carried on at 
Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the experiments of 
the Montgolfiers; and when the news of the latter reached 
America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson, members of the 
Philosophical Society at Philadelphia; constructed a machine 
consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen gas-balloons attached 
to a car or cage.  After several preliminary experiments, in 
which animals were let up to a certain height by a rope, a 
carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter the car for 
a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he remained in 
the air about ten minutes, and only then effected his descent 
by making incisions in a number of the balloons, through 
fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching. 

First Ascents in Great Britain. 

Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experiments 
in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a topic 
of general discussion, still it was not till five months 
after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent a balloon 
into the air that any aerostatic experiment was made in 
England.  In November 1783 Count Francesco Zambeccari 
(1756-1812), an Italian who happened to be in London, made 
a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft. in diameter, and weighing 11 
lb.  It was publicly shown for several days, and on the 25th 
it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas and launched 
from the Artillery ground at one o'clock.  It descended after 
two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex, 48 m. from 
London.  This was the first balloon that ascended from English 
ground.  On the 22nd of February 1784 a hydrogen gas 
balloon, 5 ft. in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in 
Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders, 75 m. 
distant.  This was the first balloon that crossed the 
Channel.  The first person who rose into the air from British 
ground appears to have been J. Tytler1, who ascended from the 
Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784, in a 
fire-balloon of his own construction.  He descended on the road 
to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where he rose. 

But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced 
aerostation into Great Britain.  Although Tytler had the 
precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial 
success were all but unknown; whereas Lunardi's experiments 
excited an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London.  He was 
secretary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, 
and his published letters to his guardian, the chevalier 
Compagni, written while he was carrying out his project, 
and detailing all the difficulties, &c., he met with as they 
occurred, give an interesting and vivid account of the whole 
matter.  His balloon was 33 ft. in circumference (fig.4), 
and was exposed to the public view at the Lyceum in the 
Strand, where it was visited by upwards of 20,000 people.  He 
originally intended to ascend from Chelsea Hospital, but the 
conduct of a crowd at a garden at Chelsea, which destroyed 
the fire-balloon of a Frenchman named de Moret, who announced 
an ascent on the 11th of August, but was unable to keep his 
word, led to the withdrawal of the leave that had been 
granted.  Ultimately he was permitted to ascend from the Artillery 
ground, and on the 15th of September 1784 the inflation with 
hydrogen gas took place.  It was intended that an English 
gentleman named Biggin should accompany Lunardi; but the crowd 
becoming impatient, the latter judged it prudent to ascend 
with the balloon only partially full rather than risk a longer 
delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged to leave the 
car.  Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence of the 
prince of Wales and an enormous crowd of spectators.  He 
took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon 
was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise 
or lower it at pleasure.  Shortly after starting the pigeon 
escaped, and one of the oars became broken and fell to the 
ground.  In about an hour and a half he descended at South 
Mimms, in Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered 
from the cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after 
the lapse of about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near 
Ware, where he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants 
to come to his assistance; but at length a young woman, taking 
hold of one of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, 
which they then did.  The excitement caused by this ascent was 
immense, and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour.  He 
was presented to the king, and was courted and flattered on all 
sides.  To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during 
his ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, 
mistaking the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by 
his supposed destruction that she died in a few days; but, on 
the other hand, he says he was told by the judges ``that he had 
certainly saved the life of a young man who might possibly be 
reformed, and be to the public a compensation for the death 
of the lady''; for the jury were deliberating on the fate of 
a criminal, whom they must ultimately have condemned, when 
the balloon appeared, and to save time they gave a verdict 
of acquittal, and the whole court came out to view the 
balloon.  The king also was in conference with his ministers; 
but on hearing that the balloon was passing, he broke up 
the discussion, and with them watched the balloon through 
telescopes.  The balloon was afterwards exhibited in the 
Pantheon.  In the latter part of the following year (1785) 
Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh 
and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of 110 
m.); these he described in a second series of letters.  The 
first ascent from Ireland was made on the 19th of January 1785 
by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following 19th of July attempted 
to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into the 
sea.  The second person who ascended from Ireland was Richard 
Maguire.  Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the 12th 
of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up.  Maguire in 
these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and 
his offer being accepted he made the ascent.  For this he 
was knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant.  Another attempt to 
cross St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the 
1st of October 1812, and he had nearly succeeded when in 
consequence of a change of wind he was forced to descend 
into the sea off Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a 
fishing-boat.  But on the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, 
Windham Sadler, succeeded in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead. 

The first balloon voyage across the English Channel was 
accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) and Dr. 
J. Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7th of January 
1785.  In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March, Blanchard, 
who was one of the most celebrated of the earlier aeronauts, 
made his first voyage from Paris in a balloon 27 ft. in 
diameter (fig. 5), and descended at Billancourt near Sevres.  
Just as the balloon was about to start, a young man jumped 
into the car and drawing his sword declared his determination 
to ascend with Blanchard.  He was ultimately removed by 
force.  It has sometimes been incorrectly stated that he was 
Napoleon Bonaparte; his name in reality was Dupont de Chambon.  
In their Channel crossing Blanchard and his companion, who 
started from Dover, when about one-third across found themselves 
descending, and threw out every available thing from the boat or 
car.  When about three- quarters across they were descending 
again, and had to throw out not only the anchor and cords, but 
also to strip and throw away their clothing, which they found 
they were rising, and their last resource, viz. to cut away the 
car, was rendered unnecessary.  As they approached the shore 
the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch high over the 
land.  They descended in the forest of Guinnes.  On the 15th 
of June 1785, Pilatre de Rozier made an attempt to repeat the 
exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse direction, 
and cross from Boulogne to England.  For this purpose he 
contrived a double balloon, which he expected would combine the 
advantages of both kinds---a fire-balloon, 10 ft. in diameter, 
being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft. in diameter, 
so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the former 
it might be possible to ascend or descend without waste of 
gas.  Rozier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for rather 
less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all seemed 
to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus was 
seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to the 
ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft.  Rozier 
was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about ten 
minutes.  A monument was erected on the place where they fell, 
which was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the starting-point. 

Early large balloons. 

The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accounts 
are correct) ascended from Lyons on the 19th of January 
1784.  It was more than 100 ft. in diameter, about 130 ft. in 
height, and when distended had a capacity, it is said, of over 
half a million cubic feet.  It was called the ``Flesselles'' 
(from the name of its proprietor, we believe), and after having 
been inflated from a straw fire in seventeen minutes, it rose 
with seven persons in the car to the height of about 3000 
ft., but descended again after the lapse of about a quarter 
of an hour from the time of starting, in consequence of a 
rent in the upper part.  Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft. in 
diameter, was constructed by the chevalier Paul Andreani of 
Milan, and on the 25th of February he ascended in it from 
Milan, remaining in the air for about twenty minutes.  This 
is usually regarded as the first ascent in Italy (but see 
Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247).  On the 7th of November 
1836, at half-past one o'clock, a large balloon containing 
about 85,000 cub. ft. of gas ascended from Vauxhall Gardens, 
London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P., Monck Mason and Charles 
Green, and descended about two leagues from Weilburg, in the 
duchy of Nassau, at half-past seven the next morning, having 
thus traversed a distance of about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege 
was passed in the course of the night, and Coblentz in the early 
morning.  In consequence of this journey the balloon became 
famous as the ``Nassau Balloon'' (fig. 6). Charles Green 
(1785-1870), who constructed it and subsequently became its 
owner, was the most celebrated of English aeronauts, and made 
an extraordinary number of ascents.  His first, made from the 
Green Park, London, on the 19th of July 1821 at the coronation 
of George IV., was distinguished for the fact that for the first 
time coal-gas was used instead of hydrogen for inflating the 
balloon.  In 1828 he made an equestrian ascent from the 
Eagle Tavern, City Road, London, seated on his favourite 
pony.  Such ascents have since been repeated; in 1852 Madame 
Poitevin made one from Cremorne Gardens, but was prevented 
from giving a second performance by police interference, the 
exhibition outraging public opinion.  It was in descending 
from the ``Nassau Balloon'' in a parachute that Robert 
Cocking was killed in 1837 (see PARACHUTE) . Green was the 
inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope 
trailing below the car.  Its function is to reduce the waste 
of gas and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper 
altitude.  When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of 
the guide-rope rests on the ground, it is relieved of so 
much weight and therefore tends to rise; if on the other 
hand it rises so that most of the rope is lifted off the 
ground, it has to bear a greater weight and tends to sink. 

In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, constructed ``Le 
Geant,'' which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that 
time and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas.  Underneath 
it was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, 
the object of which was to prevent loss of gas during the 
voyage.  The car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model 
of a cottage in wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft. in 
length, containing a small printing-office, a photographic 
department, a refreshment-room, a lavatory, &c. The first 
ascent took place at five o'clock on Sunday the 4th of 
October 1863, from the Champ de Mars.  There were thirteen 
persons in the car, including one lady, the princess de 
la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis and Jules 
Godard.  In spite of the elaborate preparations that had been 
made and the stores of provisions that were taken up, the 
balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent 
being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the 
valve-line.  At a second ascent, made a fortnight later, 
there were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar.  The 
balloon descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near 
Nienburg in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m.  A strong wind 
was blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 
m.  All the passengers were bruised, and some seriously 
hurt.  The balloon and car were then brought to England, 
and exhibited at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and 
beginning of 1864.  The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited 
an extraordinary amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly 
out of proportion to what they were entitled to.  Nadar's 
idea was to obtain sufficient money, by the exhibition of his 
balloon, to carry out a plan of aerial locomotion he had 
conceived possible by means of the principle of the screw; in 
fact, he spoke of ``Le Geant'' as ``the last balloon.'' He 
also started L'Aeronaute, a newspaper devoted to aerostation, 
and published a small book, which was translated into English 
under the title The Right to Fly. Directly after Nadar's two 
ascents, Eugene Godard constructed a fire-balloon of nearly 
half a million cubic feet capacity--more than double that of 
Nadar's and only slightly less than that attributed to the 
``Flesselles'' of 1783.  The air was heated by an 18-ft. stove, 
weighing, with the chimney, 980 lb.  This furnace was fed 
by straw; and the ``car'' consisted of a gallery surrounding 
it.  Two ascents of this balloon, the first fire-balloon seen 
in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens in July 1864.  
After the first journey the balloon descended at Greenwich, 
and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was injured 
by being blown against a tree.  Notwithstanding its enormous 
size, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half an 
hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more than an 
hour.  In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation was 
effected, few who saw the ascent could fail to receive an 
impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter 
of safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it 
were in the car, could not be other than most dangerous. 

Long balloon voyages. 

In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York 
Daily Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 
1840, determined to construct a very large balloon, and 
enable the American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his 
favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to Europe, by 
taking advantage of the current from west to east which was 
believed by many to exist constantly at heights above 10,000 
ft.  The project came to nothing owing to the quality of 
the material of which the balloon was made.  When it was 
being inflated in September 1873 a rent was observed after 
325,000 cub. ft. of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly 
collapsed.  The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000 
cub. ft., so that it would lift a weight of 14,000 lb.  No 
balloon voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the 
breadth of the Atlantic.  In fact only two voyages exceeding 
1000 m. are on record--that of John Wise from St Louis to 
Henderson, N.Y., 1120 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry 
de la Vaulx from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1193 m., in 
1900.  On the 11th of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two 
companions, Strendberg and Frankel, ascended from Spitzbergen 
in a daring attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. 
distant.  One carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours 
after the start, was shot, and two floating buoys with messages 
were found, but nothing more was heard of the explorers. 

Scientific Ascents. 

At an early date the balloon was applied to scientific 
purposes. as far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from 
London in which he carried out barometric, thermometric and 
hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of the air 
at different heights.  In 1803 the St Petersburg Academy of 
Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experiments made 
on mountain-sides by J. A. Deluc, H. B. de Saussure, A. von 
Humboldt and others must give results different from those 
made in free air at the same heights, resolved to arrange a 
balloon ascent.  Accordingly, on the 30th of January 1808, 
.Sacharof, a member of the academy, ascended in a gas balloon, 
in company with a French aeronaut, E.  G. Robertson, who at 
one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris.  The ascent 
was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected 
at a quarter to eleven.  The height reached was less than 1 1/2 
m.  The experiments were not very systematically made, and 
the chief results were the filling and bringing down of 
several flasks of air collected at different elevations, 
and the supposed observation that the magnetic dip was 
altered.  A telescope fixed in the bottom of the car and 
pointing vertically downwards enabled the travellers to 
ascertain exactly the spot over which they were floating at any 
moment.  Sacharof found that, on shouting downwards through 
his speaking-trumpet, the echo from the earth was quite 
distinct, and at his height was audible after an interval 
of about ten seconds (Phil. Mag., 1805, 21, p. 193). 

Some of the results reported by Robertson appearing doubtful, 
Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of 
Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their 
disposal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be 
utilized in sending up balloons to test their accuracy.  The 
proposition was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, 
who was then minister of the interior, and accordingly the 
necessary arrangements were speedily effected, the charge 
of the experiments being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. 
Biot.  The principal object of this ascent was to determine 
whether the magnetic force experienced any appreciable diminution 
at heights above the earth's surface.  On the 24th of August 
1804, Gay-Lussac and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des 
Arts at ten o'clock in the morning.  Their magnetic experiments 
were incommoded by the rotation of the balloon, but they found 
that, up to the height of 13,000 ft., the time of vibration 
of a magnet was appreciably the same as on the earth's 
surface.  They found also that the air became drier as they 
ascended.  The height reached was about 13,000 ft., and the 
temperature declined from 63 deg.  to 51 deg.  F. The descent was 
effected about half-past one, at Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris. 

In a second experiment, which was made on the 16th of September 
1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone.  The balloon left the 
Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 A.M., and descended at 3.45 
P.M. between Rouen and Dieppe.  The chief result obtained was 
that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience 
any sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface 
which we can attain to.  Gay-Lussac also brought down air 
collected at the height of nearly 23,000 ft., and on analysis 
it appeared that its composition was the same as that of air 
collected at the earth's surface.  At the time of leaving the 
earth the thermometer stood at 82 deg.  F., and at the highest 
point reached (23,000 ft.) it was 14.9 deg.  F. Gay-Lussac remarked 
that at his highest point there were still clouds above him. 

From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents 
in balloons having been undertaken.  In the latter year 
J. A. Bixio (1808-1865) and A. Barral (1819-1884) made two 
ascents of this kind.  In the first they ascended from the 
Paris observatory on the 29th of June 1850, at 10.27 A.M., 
the balloon being inflated with hydrogen gas.  The day was 
a rough one, and the ascent took place without any previous 
attempt having been made to test the ascensional force of the 
balloon.  When liberated, it rose with great rapidity, and 
becoming fully inflated it pressed upon the network, bulging 
out at the top and bottom.  The ropes by which the car was 
suspended being too short, the balloon soon covered the 
travellers like an immense hood.  In endeavouring to secure 
the valve-rope, they made a rent in the balloon, and the 
gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to suffocate 
them.  Finding that they were descending then too rapidly, 
they threw overboard everything available, including their 
coats and only excepting the instruments.  The ground was 
reached at 10h. 45m., near Lagny.  Of course no observations 
were made.  Their second ascent was made on the 27th of 
July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met 
with.  At about 20,000 ft. the temperature was 15 deg.  F., the 
balloon being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the 
cloud, at 23,000 ft., the temperature sank to --38 deg.  F., 
no less than 53 deg.  F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac 
at the same elevation.  The existence of these very cold 
clouds served to explain certain meteorological phenomena 
that were observed on the earth both the day before and the 
day after the ascent.  Some pigeons were taken up in this, 
as in most other high ascents; when liberated, they showed a 
reluctance to leave the car, and then fell heavily downwards. 

In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved 
to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of 
investigating such meteorological and physical phenomena as 
require the presence of an observer at a great height in the 
atmosphere.  John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was 
the observer, and the great ``Nassau Balloon'' was employed, 
with Green himself as the aeronaut.  Four ascents were made 
in 1852, viz. on the 17th and 26th of August, the 31st of 
October and the 10th of November.  The heights attained 
were 19,510, 19,100, 12,680 and 22,930 ft., and the lowest 
temperatures met with in the four ascents were 8.7 deg.  F. (19,380 
ft.), 12.4 deg.  F. (18,370 ft.), 16.4 deg.  F. (12,640 ft.) and 
10.5 deg.  F. (22,370 ft.).  The decline of temperature was very 
regular.  A siphon barometer, dry and wet bulb thermometers, 
aspirated and free, and a Regnault hygrometer were taken 
up.  Some air collected at a considerable height was found 
on analysis not to differ appreciably in its composition 
from air collected near the ground.  For the original 
observations see Phil.  Trans., 1853, pp. 311-346. 

Glaisher's ascents. 

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed 
for the purpose of making observations in the higher strata 
of the atmosphere by means of the balloon.  For two years 
nothing was effected, owing to the want both of an observer 
and of a suitable balloon.  After its reappointment at 
the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee communicated 
with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1819-1900), an aeronaut who had 
made a good many ascents, and he agreed to construct a new 
balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft. capacity, on the condition that 
the committee would undertake to use it, and pay L. 25 for 
each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying 
also the cost of gas, &c., so that the expense of each high 
ascent amounted to nearly L. 50.  An observer being still 
wanted, James Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered 
himself to take the observations, and accordingly the first 
ascent was made on the 17th of July 1862, from the gas-works 
at Wolverhamiton, this town being chosen on account of its 
central position in the country.  Altogether, Glaisher made 
twenty-eight ascents, the last being on the 26th of May 
1866.  Of these only seven were specially high ascents, 
although six others were undertaken for the objects of the 
committee alone. . On the ether occasions he availed himself 
of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and other places 
of entertainment, merely taking his place like the other 
passengers.  In the last six ascents another aeronaut and a 
smaller balloon were employed.  The dates, places of ascent 
and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight 
ascents were--1862: July 17, Wolverhampton, 26,177; July 30, 
Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; August 
20, Crystal Palace, 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; September 
1, Crystal Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhampton, 37,000; 
September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March 31, Crystal 
Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163; June 26, 
Wolverton, 23,200; July 11, Crystal Palace, 6623; July 21, 
Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 8033; 
September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,590; October 9, Crystal Palace, 
7310. 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897; April 6, Woolwich, 
11,075; June 13, Crystal Palace, 3543; June 20, Derby, 4280; 
June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August 29, Crystal Palace, 
14,581; December 1, Woolwich, 5431; December 30, Woolwich, 
3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, 4865; October 2, Woolwich, 
1949; December 2, Woolwich, 4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325. 

The primary object of the ascents was to determine the temperature 
of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different elevations 
to as great a height as could be reached; and the secondary 
objects were-(1) to determine the temperature of the dew-point 
by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well as by the 
dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the results; 
(2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer with those 
of a mercurial barometer up to the height of 5 m.; (3) to 
determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic 
condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration 
of a magnet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; 
(7) to note the height and kind of clouds, their density and 
thickness; (8) to determine the rate and direction of different 
currents in the atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on 
sound.  The instruments used were mercurial and aneroid 
barometers, dry and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point 
hygrometer, Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and 
minimum thermometers, a magnet for horizontal vibration, 
hermetically sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an 
electrometer.  In one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up. 

The complete observations, both as made and after reduction, 
are printed in the British Association Reports, 1862-1866; 
here only a general account of the results can he given.  
It appeared that the rate of the decline of temperature with 
elevation near the earth was very different according as 
the sky was clear or cloudy; and the equality of temperature 
at sunset and increase with height after sunset were very 
remarkable facts which were not anticipated.  Even at the 
height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were seen high in the air, 
apparently as far above as they seem when viewed from the 
earth.  The results of the observations differed very much, 
and no doubt the atmospheric conditions depended not only 
on the time of day, but also on the season of the year, and 
were such that a vast number of ascents would be requisite 
to determine the true laws with anything approaching to 
certainty and completeness.  It was also clear that England is 
a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, 
as, from whatever place the balloon started, it was never 
safe to be more than an hour above the clouds for fear of 
reaching the sea.  It appeared from the observations that an 
aneroid barometer could be trusted to read as accurately as 
a mercurial barometer to the heights reached.  The time of 
vibration of a horizontal magnet was taken in very many of the 
ascents, and the results of ten different sets of observations 
indicated that the time of vibration was longer than on the 
earth.  In almost all the ascents the balloon was under the 
influence of currents of air in different directions which 
varied greatly in thickness.  The direction of the wind on the 
earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up to 20,000 
ft., whilst at other times the direction changed within 500 
ft. of the earth.  Sometimes directly opposite currents were 
met with at different heights in the same . ascent, and three 
or four streams of air were encountered moving in different 
directions.  The direct distances between the places of ascent 
and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon under 
the influence of these various currents, were always very much 
greater than the horizontal movement of the air as measured by 
anemometers.  For example, on the 12th of January 1862, the 
balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. P.M., and descended at 
Lakenheath, 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4h. 
19m. P.M. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson 
anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m. 
only.  With regard to physiological observations, Glaisher 
found that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, 
as also did the number of inspirations.  The number of his 
pulsations was generally 76 per minute before starting, 
about 90 at 10,000 ft., 100 at 20,000 ft., and 110 at higher 
elevations.  But a good deal depended on the temperament of the 
individual.  This was also the case in respect to colour; at 
10,000 ft. the faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst 
others would be scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher 
found the pulsations of his heart distinctly audible, and 
his breathing was very much affected, so that panting was 
produced by the slightest exertion; at 29,000 ft. he became 
insensible.  In reference to the propagation of sound, it 
was at all times found that sounds from the earth were more 
or less audible according to the amount of moisture in the 
air.  When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train was heard; 
but when clouds were far below, no sound ever reached the ear 
at this elevation.  The discharge of a gun was heard at 10,000 
ft.  The barking of a dog was heard at the height of 2 m., 
while the shouting of a multitude of people was not audible 
at heights exceeding 4000 ft.  In his ascent of the 5th of 
September 1862, Glaisher considered that he reached a height 
of 37,000 ft.  But that figure was based, not on actual 
record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft., when he 
became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft. a minute, 
and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen minutes 
later it was falling 2000 ft. a minute, and the accuracy of 
his conclusions has been questioned.  Few scientific men have 
imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological 
observations.  In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made eight 
or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes.  The 
heights attained were not great, but the general result was 
to confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see 
Voyages aeriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, 
London, 1871, in which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are 
noticed.  On the 15th of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. 
Croce-Spinelli and Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in 
the balloon ``Zenith,'' and reached a height of 27,950 ft.; 
but only Tissandier came down alive, his two companions being 
asphyxiated.  This put an end to such attempts for a time.  
But Dr A. Berson and Lieut.  Gross attained 25,840 ft. on 
the 11th of May 1894; Berson, ascending alone from Strassfurt 
on the 4th of December 1894, attained about 31,500 ft. and 
recorded a temperature of --54 deg.  F.; and Berson and Stanley 
Spencer are stated by the latter to have attained 27,500 ft. 
on the 15th of September 1898 when they ascended in a hydrogen 
balloon from the Crystal Palace, the thermometer registering 
--29 deg.  F. On the 31st of July 1901, Berson and R. J. Suring, 
ascending at Berlin, actually noted a barometric reading 
corresponding to a height of 34,500 ft., and possibly rose 
1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of oxygen inhalations 
they were unconscious during the highest portion of the ascent. 

The personal danger attending his ascents led Gustave Hermite 
and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the sending up of 
unmanned balloons (ballons sondes) equipped with automatic 
recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also been employed 
for similar meteorological purposes. (See also METEOROLOOY.) 

Military balloons. 

The balloon had not been discovered very long before it 
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of 
the French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was founded 
at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau, the chemist, and 
Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835).  Four balloons were 
constructed for the armies of the north, of the Sambre and 
Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt.  In June 1794 
Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general to reconnoitre 
the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus, and two 
reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours.  It is 
generally stated that it was to the information so gained that 
the French victory was due.  The balloon corps was in constant 
requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear that, 
with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, 
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of 
view.  But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much 
disconcerted at having their movements so completely watched, 
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior 
information it was believed they were gaining.  An attempt 
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign 
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be 
employed.  It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon 
was sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons 
loaded with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses.  In the French 
campaign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the 
use of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic 
corps, and their management was entrusted to the brothers 
Godard.  Several reconnaissances were made, and one of 
especial interest the day before the battle of Solferino.  No 
information of much importance seems, however, to have been 
gained thereby.  In the American Civil War (1861) balloons 
were a good deal used by the Federals.  There was a regular 
balloon staff attached to Mcclellan's army, with a captain, an 
assistant-captain and about 50 non-commissioned officers and 
privates.  The apparatus consisted of two generators, drawn 
by four horses each; two balloons, drawn by four horses each, 
and an acid-cart, drawn by two horses.  The two balloons used 
contained about 13,000 and 26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation 
usually occupied about three hours. (See Royal Engineers' 
Papers, vol. xii.) By their aid useful information was 
gained about the enemy round Richmond and in other places, 
but eventually difficulties of transport and the topography 
of the theatre of war made ballooning impracticable; and 
little was heard of it after the first two years of the war. 

The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege of 
Paris (1870-71).  It was by it alone that communication was 
kept up between the besieged city and the external world, 
as the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which 
afterwards brought back to it the news of the provinces.  The 
total number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the 
siege, conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four--the 
first having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the 
last on the 28th of January 1871.  Gambetta effected his 
escape from Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon 
``Armand-Barbes,', an event which doubtless led to the 
prolongation of the war.  Of the sixty-four balloons only two 
were never heard of; they were blown out to sea.  One of the 
most remarkable voyages was that of the ``Ville d'Orleans,'' 
which, leaving Paris at eleven o'clock on the 21st of November, 
descended fifteen hours afterwards near Christiania, having 
crossed the North Sea. Several of the balloons on their 
descent were taken by the Prussians, and a good many were 
fired at while in the air.  The average size of the balloons 
was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. 
ft.  The above facts are extracted from Les Ballons du 
siege de Paris, a sheet published by Buila and Sons, 
Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well-known 
French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times of 
ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the 
Da.mes of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the
weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those 
balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended.  
The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally from 
(the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway) under 
the direction of the Post Office.  The aeronauts employed were 
mostly sailors, who did their work very well.  No use whatever 
was made in the war of balloons for purposes of reconnaissance. 

Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only 
dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the 
powers organized regular balloon establishments.  In 1884-85 
the French found balloons very useful during their campaign 
in Tongking; and the British government also despatched 
balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that 
to Suakin in those years.  During the latter campaign several 
ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it was 
said that a great moral effect was produced.  The employment 
of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars. 

We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military 
operations.  The French in the campaigns of the 19th century 
used varnished silk balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft. 
capacity.  The Americans in the Civil War used much 
larger ones. those of 26,000 cub. ft. being found the most 
suitable.  These were also of varnished silk.  In the present 
day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft., made 
of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of 
goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size, 
the normal capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 
7000 and 4500 cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin.  
The usual shape is spherical; but since 1896 the Germans, 
and now other nations, have adopted a long cylindrical-shaped 
balloon, so affixed to its cable as to present an inclined 
surface to the wind and thus act partly on the principle of a 
kite.  Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasionally be used 
for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness fat 
preferable.  In the early days of ballooning this had to 
be manufactured in the field, but nowadays it is almost 
universally carried compressed in steel tubes.  About 100 such 
tubes, each weighing 75lb., are required to fill a 10,000-ft. 
balloon.  Tubes of greater capacity have also been tried. 

The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed 
to go free it will usually be rapidly carried away by the 
wind and the results of the observations cannot easily be 
transmitted back.  Occasions may occur when such ascents 
will be of value, but the usual method is to send up a 
captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft.  
With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, 
one of whom has now particularly to attend to the management 
of the balloon, while the other makes the observations. 

With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends on 
circumstances.  In a thickly wooded country, such as that in 
which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in 
the war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose 
the troops to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a 
rule, to be obtained; but in fairly open country all important 
movements of troops should be discernible by an experienced 
observer at any point within about four or five miles of the 
balloon.  The circumstances, it may be mentioned, are such 
as would usually preclude one unaccustomed to ballooning 
from affording valuable reports.  Not only is he liable to 
be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous situation, 
but troops and features of the ground often have so peculiar 
an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will 
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a 
column of troops or a ploughed field.  Then again, much will 
depend on atmospheric conditions.  Thus, in misty weather 
a balloon is well-nigh useless; and in strong winds, with a 
velocity of anything over 20 m. an hour, efficient observation 
becomes a matter of difficulty.  When some special point has 
to be reported on, such as whether there is any large body 
of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid ascent may 
still be mace in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the balloon 
would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be 
made.  It is.usually estimated that a successful captive 
ascent can only be made in England on half the days of the 
year.  As a general rule balloon ascents would be made for 
one of the following objects-- to examine the country for an 
enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's position; to ascertain the 
strength of his force, number of guns and exact situation of 
the various arms; also to note the plan of his earthworks or 
fortifications.  During an action the aerial observer would 
be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give 
warning of flank attacks or surprises.  Such an observer 
could also keep the general informed as to the progress of 
various detached parties of his own force, as to the advance of 
reinforcements, or to the conduct of any fighting going on at a 
distance.  Balloon observations are also of especial use 
to artillery in correcting their aim.  The vulnerability 
of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been tested 
by many experiments with variable results.  One established 
fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely 
difficult to judge, and, as its altitude can he very rapidly 
altered, it becomes a very difficult mark for artillery to 
hit.  A few bullet-holes in the fabric of a balloon make but 
little difference, since the size of the perforation is very 
minute as compared with the great surface of material, but 
on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of may 
cause a rapid fall.  It is therefore considered prudent to 
keep the balloon well away from an enemy, and two miles are 
laid down as the nearest approach it should make habitually. 

Besides being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have 
been tried in connexion with the naval service.  In France 
especially regular trials have been made of inflating balloons 
on board ships, and sending them aloft as a look-out; but it 
is now generally contended that the difficulties of storing 
the gas and of manoeuvring the balloon are so great on 
board ship as to be hardly worth the results to be gained. 

A very important development of military ballooning is the navigable 
balloon.  If only a balloon could be sent up and driven in any 
required direction, and brought back to its starting-point, it 
is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war. 

Dirigible balloons. 

From the very first invention of balloons the problem has 
been how to navigate them by propulsion.  General J. B. M. 
C. Meusnier (1754-1793) proposed an elongated balloon in 
1784.  It was experimented on by the brothers Robert, who 
made two ascensions and claimed to have obtained a deviation 
of 22 deg.  from the direction of a light wind by means of aerial 
oars worked by hand.  The relative speed was probably about 
3 m. an hour, and it was so evident that a very much more 
energetic light motor than any then known was required to 
stem ordinary winds that nothing more was attempted till 
1832, when Henri Giffard (1825-1882) as ascended with a 
steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness.  The subjoined 
table exhibits some of the results subsequently obtained :--- 


 
 Year.  Inventor.  Length.  Dia-     Con-   Lifting  Weight  Weight  H.P.  Speed
                            meter.   tents. Capa-    of      of            per
                                            city.    Ballon. Motor.        hour.
                     Ft.     Ft.     Cub.ft. lb.        lb.       lb.            Miles
 1852   Giffard     144      39      88,300  3,978   2,794    462    3.0   6.71
 1872   Dupuy de
         Lome       118      49     120,088  8,358   4,728   2000    0.8   6.26
 1884   Tissandier   92      30      37,439  2,728     933    616    1.5   7.82
 1885   Renard and
         Krebs      165      27      65,836  4,402   2,449   1174    9.0  14.00
 1897   Schwarz     157   {46  39}  130.500  8,133   6,800   800?   16.0  17.00
 1900   Zeppelin I  420      39     400,000 25,000  19,000   1500   32.0  18.00
 1901   Santos
        Dumont VI.  108      20      22,200   ..      ..      ..    16.20 19.00
 1908   ``Repub-
          lique''   195      35     130,000  3,100    ..      ..    80       30
 1908   Zeppelin IV 446      42 1/2    450,000   ..      ..      ..   220       ..
 

Giffard, the future inventor of the injector, devised a 
steam-engine weighing, with fuel and water for one hour, 
154 lb.  per horse-power, and was bold enough to employ it in 
proximity to a balloon inflated with coal gas.  He was not 
able to stem a medium wind, but attained some deviation.  
He repeated the experiment in 1855 with a more elongated 
spindle, which proved unstable and dangerous.  During the 
siege of Paris the French Government decided to build a 
navigable balloon, and entrusted the work to the chief naval 
constructor, Dupuy de Lome.  He went into the subject very 
carefully, made estimates of all the strains, resistances and 
speeds, and tested the balloon in 1872.  Deviations of 12 deg.  
were obtained from the course of a wind blowing 27 to 37 m. per 
hour.  The screw propeller was driven by eight labourers, a 
steam-engine being deemed too dangerous; but it was estimated 
that had one been used, weighing as much as the men, the 
speed would have been doubled.  Tissandier and his brother 
applied an electric motor, lighter than any previously built, 
to a spindle-shaped balloon, and went up twice in 1883 and 
1884.  On the latter occasion he stemmed a wind of 7 m. per 
hour.  The brothers abandoned these experiments, which 
had been carried on at their own expense, when the French 
War Department took up the problem.  Renard and Krebs, the 
Officers in charge of the War Aeronautical Department at 
Heudon, built and experimented with in 1884 and 1885 the 
fusiform balloon `` La France,'' in which the `` master'' 
or maximum section was about one-quarter of the distance 
from the stem.  The propelling screw was at the front of 
the car and driven by an electric motor of unprecedented 
lightness.  Seven ascents were made on very calm days, a 
maximum speed of 14 m. an hour was obtained, and the balloon 
returned to its starting-point on five of the seven occasions.  
Subsequently another balloon was constructed, said to be 
capable of a speed of 22 to 28 m. per hour, with a different 
motor.  After many years of experi- ment Dr Wolfert built and 
experimented with in Berlin, in 1897, a cigar-shaped balloon 
driven by a gasoline motor.  An explosion took place in the 
air, the balloon fell and Dr Wolfert and his assistant were 
killed.  It was also in 1897 that an aluminium balloon was 
built from the designs of D. Schwarz and tested in Bedin.  
It was driven by a Daimler benzine motor, and attained a 
greater speed than ``La France''; but a driving belt slipped, 
and in coming down the balloon was injured beyond repair. 

From 1897 onwards Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, of the German 
army, was engaged in constructing an immense balloon, truly an 
airship, of most careful and most intelligent design, to carry 
five men.  It consisted of an aluminium framework containing 
sixteen gas bags with a total capacity of nearly 400,000 
cub. ft., and it had two cars, each containing a 16 h.p. 
motor.  It was first tested in June 1900, when it attained 
a speed of 18 m. an hour and travelled a distance of 3 1/2 
m. before an accident to the steering gear necessitated the 
discontinuance of the experiment.  In 1905 Zeppelin built 
a second airship which had a slightly smaller capacity 
but much greater power, its two motors each developing 85 
h.p.  This, after making some successful trips, was wrecked 
in a violent gale, and was succeeded by a third airship, 
which, at its trial in October 1906, travelled round Lake 
Constance and showed itself able to execute numerous curves and 
traverses.  At a second series of trials in September 1907, 
after some alterations had been effected, it attained a 
speed of 36 m. an hour, remaining in the air for many hours 
and carrying nine or eleven passengers.  A fourth vessel of 
similar design, but with more powerful motors, was tried in 
1908, and succeeded in travelling 250 m. in 11 hours, but 
owing to a storm it was wrecked when on land and burnt at 
Echterdingen on the 5th of August.  Subscriptions, headed by 
the emperor, were at once raised to enable Zeppelin to build 
another.  Meanwhile in 1901 Alberto Santos Dumont had begun 
experiments with dirigible balloons in Paris, and on the 19th 
of October won the Deutsch prize by steering a balloon from 
St Cloud round the Eiffel tower and back in half an hour, 
encountering on his return journey a wind of nearly 5 metres a 
second.  An airship constructed by Pierre and Paul Lebaudy in 
1904 also made a number of successful trials in the vicinity 
of Paris; with a motor of 40 h.p., its speed was about 25 m. an 
hour, and it regularly carried three passengers.  In October 
1907 the ``Nulli Secundus,'' an airship constructed for the 
British War Office, sailed from Farnborough round St Paul's 
Cathedral, London, to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a distance 
of about 50 m., in 3 hours 35 minutes.  The weight carried, 
including two occupants, was 3400 lb., and the maximum speed 
was 24 m. an hour, with a following wind of 8 m. an hour. 

Thus the principles which govern the design of the dirigible 
balloon may be said to have been evolved.  As the lifting 
power crows as the cube of the dimensions, and the resistance 
approximately as the square, the advantage lies with the 
larger sizes of balloons, as of ocean steamers, up to the 
limits within which they may be found practicable.  Count 
Zeppelin gained an advantage by attaching his propellers 
to the balloon, instead of to the car as heretofore; but 
this requires a rigid framework and a great increase of 
weight.  Le Compagnon endeavoured, in 1892, to substitute 
flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former can 
be suspended near the centre of resistance.  C. Danilewsky 
followed him in 1898 and 1899, but without remarkable 
results.  Dupuy de Lome was the first to estimate in detail 
the resistances to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed 
that in the aggregate they were greater than he calculated.  
Renard and Krebs also found that their computed resistances 
were largely exceeded, and after revising the results they 
gave the formula R=0.01685 D2V2, R being the resistance in 
kilograms, D the diameter in metres and V the velocity in 
metres per second.  Reduced to British measures, in pounds, 
feet and miles per hour, R=0.0006876 D2V2, which is somewhat 
in excess of the formula computed by Dr William Pole from 
Dupuy de Lome's experiments.  The above coefficient applies 
only to the shape and rigging of the balloon ``La France,'' 
and combines all resistances into one equivalent, which is 
equal to that of a flat plane 18% of the ``master section.'' 
This coefficient may perhaps hereafter be reduced by one-half 
through a better form of hull and car, more like a fish than a 
spindle, by diminished sections of suspension lines and net, 
and by placing the propeller at the centre of resistance.  
To compute the results to be expected from new projects, it 
will be preferable to estimate the resistances in detail.  The 
following table shows how this was done by Dupuy de Lome, and 
the probable corrections which should have been made by him:-- 

RESISTANCES--DUPUY DE LOME'S BALLOON 


 
          Computed by Dupuy de Lome.               More Probable Values.
             V = 2.22 m. per sec.                   V = 2.82 m. per sec.
              Area   Coeffici-  Air     Resist-    Coeffici-   Air    Resist-
    Part.      Sq.     ent.     Pres-    ance,       ent.     Pres-    ance,
             Metres             sure.     Kg.                 sure      Kg.
 Hull,
 without net 172.96   1/30     0.665     3.830       1/15     0.875   10.091
 Car           3.25   1/5        ,,      0.432       1/5        ,,     0.569
 Men's bodies  3.00   1/5        ,,      0.400       1/5        ,,     1.312
 Gas tubes     6.40   1/5        ,,      0.850       1/2        ,,     2.750
 Small cords  10.00   1/2        ,,      3.325       1/2        ,,     4.375
 Large cords   9.90   1/3        ,,      2.194       1/3        ,,     2.887
 
                                        11.031                        21.984
 

When the resistances have been reduced to the lowest minimum 
by careful design, the attainable speed must depend upon the 
efficiency of the propeller and the relative lightness of the 
motor.  The commercial uses of dirigible balloons, however, 
will be small, as they must remain housed when the wind aloft is 
brisk.  The sizes will be great and costly, the loads small, 
and the craft frail and short-lived, yet dirigible balloons 
constitute the obvious type for governments to evolve, 
until they are superseded by efficient flying machines. (See 
further, as to the latter, the article FLIGHT AND FLYING.) 

Practice of aerostation. 

The chief danger attending ballooning lles in the descent; for 
if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will sometimes trail 
for miles over the ground at the rate of ten or twenty miles 
an hour, catching now and then in hedges, ditches, roots of 
trees, &c.; and, after giving the balloon a terrible jerk, 
breaking loose again, till at length some obstruction, such 
as the wooded bank of a stream, affords a firm hold.  This 
danger, however, has been much reduced by the use of the 
``ripping-cord,'' which enables a panel to be ripped open and 
the balloon to be completely deflated in a few seconds, just 
as it is reaching the earth.  But even a very rough descent 
is usually not productive of any very serious consequences; 
as, although the occupants of the car generally receive many 
bruises and are perhaps cut by the ropes, it rarely happens 
that anything worse occurs.  On a day when the wind is light 
(supposing that there is no want of ballast) nothing can be 
easier than the descent, and the aeronaut can decide several 
miles off on the field in which he will alight.  It is very 
important to have a good supply of ballast, so as to be able 
to check the rapidity of the descent, as in passing downwards 
through a wet cloud the weight of the balloon is enormously 
increased by the water deposited on it; and if there is no ballast 
to throw out in compensation, the velocity is sometimes very 
great.  It is also convenient, if the district upon which 
the balloon is descending appear unsuitable for landing, to 
be able to rise again.  The ballast consists of fine baked 
sand, which becomes so scattered as to be inappreciable 
before it has fallen far below the balloon.  It is taken 
up in bags containing about  1/2 cwt. each.  The balloon at 
starting is liberated by a spring catch which the aeronaut 
releases, and the ballast should be so adjusted that there 
is nearly equilibrium before leaving, else the rapidity of 
ascent is too great, and has to be checked by parting with 
gas.  It is almost impossible to liberate the balloon in such 
a way as to avoid giving it a rotary motion about a vertical 
axis, which continues during the whole time it is in the 
air.  This rotation makes it difficult for those in the car to 
discover in what direction they are moving; and it is only by 
looking down along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended 
that the motion of the balloon over the country below can be 
traced.  The upward and downward motion at any instant is at once 
known by merely dropping over the side of the car a small piece 
of paper: if the paper ascends or remains on the same level or 
stationary, the balloon is descending; while, if it descends, 
the balloon is ascending.  This test is exceedingly delicate. 

REPERENCES.--Tiberius Cavallo, Treatise on the Nature 
and Properties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids 
(London, 1781); Idem, History and Practice of Aerostation 
(London, 1785); Vincent Lunardi, Account of the First Aerial, 
Voyage in England, in a Series of letters to his Guardian 
(London, 1785); T. Forster, Annals of some Remarkable aerial 
and alpine Voyages (London, 1832); Monck Mason, Aeronautica 
(London, 1908; John Wise, A System of Aeronautics, 
comprehending its Earliest Investigations (Philadelphia, 
1850); Hatton Tumor, Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures 
in the Atmosphere (London, 1863); J. Glaisher, C. Flammarion, 
W. de Fonvielle and G. Tissandier, Voyages aeriens (Paris, 
1870) (translated and edited by James Glaisher under the title 
Travels in the Air (London, 1871); O. Chanute, Progress 
in Flying Machines (New York, 1894); W. de Fonvielle, Les 
Ballons sondes (Paris, 1899); Idem, Histoire de la navigation 
aerienne (Paris, 1907); F. Walker, Aerial Navigation 
(London, 1902); J. Lecornu, La Navigation aerienne (Paris, 
1903); M. L. Marchis, Lecons sur la navigation aerienne 
(Paris, 1904), containing many references to books and 
periodicals on pp. 701-704; Navigating the Air (papers 
collected by the Aero Club of America) (New York, 1907); A. 
Hildebrandt, Airships past and present (London, 1908). 

1 Mr Tytler contributed largely to, and, indeed, 
appears to have been virtually editor of, the second 
edition (1778-1783) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

AEROTHERAPEUTICS, the treatment of disease by atmospheric 
air: a term which of late has come to be used somewhat more 
loosely to include also pneumotherapeutics, or the treatment 
of disease by artificially prepared atmospheres.  The physical 
and chemical properties of atmospheric air, under ordinary 
pressure or under modified pressure, may be therapeutically 
utilized either on the external surface of the body, on the 
respiratory surface, or on both surfaces together.  Also 
modifications may be induced in the ventilation of the lungs by 
general gymnastics or respiratory gymnastics.  The beneficial 
effects of air under ordinary pressure are now utilized in 
line open-air treatment of phthisical patients, and the main 
indications of benefit resulting therefrom are reduction 
of the fever, improvement of appetite and the induction of 
sleep.  The air, however, may be modified in composition or in 
temperature.  Inhalation is the most common and successful 
method of applying it--when modified in composition--to the human 
body.  The methods in use are as follows: (1) Inhalation 
of gases, as oxygen and nitrous oxide.  The dyspnoea and 
cyanosis of pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, heart failure, 
&c., are much relieved by the inhalation of oxygen; and 
nitrous oxide is largely used as an anaesthetic in minor 
operations; (2) Certain liquids are used as anaesthetics, 
which volatilize at low temperatures, as chloroform and 
ether. (3) Mercury and sulphur, both of which require heat for 
volatilization, are very largely used.  In a mercurial or 
sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a sheet, sits on a 
chair beneath which a spirit lamp is placed to vaporize the 
drug, the best resuits being obtained when the atmosphere is 
surcharged with steam at the same time.  The vapour envelops 
the patient and is absorbed by the skin.  This method is 
extensively used in the treatment of syphilis, and also for 
scabies and other parasitic affections of the skin. (4) Moist 
inhalations are rather losing repute in the light of modern 
investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower 
than the larger bronchial tubes is affected.  Complicated 
apparatus has been devised for the application, although 
a wide-mouthed jug filled with boiling water, into 
which the drug is thrown, is almost equally efficacious. 

Artificial atmospheres may be made for invalids by 
respirators which cover the mouth and nose, the air being 
drawn through tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the 
disinfectant to be used.  This is most valuable in the 
intensely offensive breath of some cases of bronchiectasis. 

The air may be modified as to temperature.  Cold air at 
32--33 deg.  F. has been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of 
the lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse 
becomes fuller and slower and the general condition improves.  
The more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to 
show that this may be immensely valuable in the treatment of 
haemoptysis.  The inspiration of superheated dry air has been the 
subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful results. 

Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its 
therapeutic effects.  If a current of hot air is directed 
upon healthy skin, the latter becomes pale and contracts 
in consequence of vaso-constriction.  But if it is directed 
on a patch of diseased skin, as in lupus, an inflammatory 
reaction is set up and the diseased part begins to undergo 
necrosis.  This fact has been used with good results in lupus, 
otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and laryngeal troubles. 

Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied.  The 
physiological effects of compressed air were first studied in 
diving-bells, and more recently in caissons.  Caisson workers 
at first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, 
however, the opposite effect is produced and intenbe debility 
supervenes.  In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series 
of troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See 
CAISSON DISEASE.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has 
been utilized by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to 
hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of 
the atmosphere can be exactly regulated.  This form of treatment 
has been found of much value in the treatment of emphysema, early 
pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of persistent high 
temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppuration), delayed 
absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease, anaemia and 
chlorosis.  But compressed air is contra-indicated in advanced 
tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or intestines. 

Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod, 
who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod 
Boot.  By means of this the blood could be drawn into any 
part to which it was applied, the vessels of which became 
gorged with blood at the expense of internal organs.  More 
recently this method of treatment has undergone far-reaching 
developments and is known as the passive hyperaemic treatment. 

There are also various forms of apparatus by means of which 
air at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the 
lungs, and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various 
kinds.  Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which 
is much used.  A committee of the Brompton Hospital, London, 
investigating its capabilities, decided that its use brought 
about (1) an increase of chest circumference, and (2) in cases 
of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area of dulness. 

AERTSZEN (or AARTSEN), PIETER (1507-1573), called 
``Long Peter'' on account of his height, Dutch historical 
painter, was born and died at Amsterdam.  When a youth he 
distinguished himself by painting homely scenes, in which he 
reproduced articles of furniture, cooking utensils, &c., with 
marvellous fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical 
painting.  Several of his best works---altar-pieces in 
various churches---were destroyed in the religious wars of the 
Netherlands.  An excellent specimen of his style on a small 
scale, a picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp 
Museum.  Aertszen was a member of the Academy of St Luke, 
in whose books he is entered as Langhe Peter, schilder. 
Three of his sons attained to some note as painters. 

AESCHINES (389-314 B.C.), Greek statesman and orator, was 
born at Athens.  The statements as to his parentage and early 
life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents, 
though poor, were respectable.  After assisting his father 
in his school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent 
success, served with distinction in the army, and held 
several clerkships, amongst them the office of clerk to the 
Boule.  The fall of Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the 
political arena, and he was sent on an embassy to rouse the 
Peloponnesus against Philip.  In 347 he was a member of the 
peace embassy to Philip of Macedon, who seems to have won him 
over entirely to his side.  His dilatoriness during the second 
embassy (346) sent to ratify the terms of peace led to his 
accusation by Demosthenes and Timarchus on a charge of high 
treason, but he was acquitted as the result of a powerful 
speech, in which he showed that his accuser Timarchus had, by 
his immoral conduct, forfeited the right to speak before the 
people.  In 343 the attack was renewed by Demosthenes in his 
speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines replied in a speech 
with the same title and was again acquitted.  In 339, as one 
of the Athenian deputies (pylagorae) in the Amphictyonic 
Council, he made a speech which brought about the Sacred 
War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix the 
blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes.  In 336, when 
Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be 
rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services 
to the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated 
the law in bringing forward the motion.  The matter remained 
in abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their 
speeches Against Ctesiphon and on the crown. The result 
was a complete victory for Demosthenes.  Aeschines went 
into voluntary exile at Rhodes, where he opened a school of 
rhetoric.  He afterwards removed to Samos, where he died in 
the seventy-fifth year of his age.  His three speeches, called 
by the ancients ``the Three Graces,'' rank next to those of 
Demosthenes.  Photius knew of nine letters by him which 
he called the Nine Muses; the twelve published under his 
name (Hercher, Epistolographi Graeci) are not genuine. 

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES.---Demosthenes, De Corona and De 
Falsa Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legatione and 
In Ctesiphontem; Lives by Plutarch, Philostratus and 
Libanius; the Exegesis of Apollonius. EDITIONS.--Benseler 
(1855-1860) (trans. and notes), Weidner (1872), Blass (1896); 
Against Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872, 1878), G.A.and W.H. 
Simcox (1866), Drake (1872), Richardson(1889), Gwatkin and 
Shuckburgh (1890). ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS.--Leland (1771).  
Biddle (1881), and others.  See also Stechow, Aeschinis 
Oratoris vita (1841); Marchand, Charakteristik des Redners 
Aschines (1876): Castets, Eschine, l'Orateur (1875); 
for the political problems see histories of Greece, esp.  A. 
Holm, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896); A. Schofer, Demosth. 
und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1856-1858); also DEMOSTHENES. 

AESCHINES (5th century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher.  
According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage-maker, 
but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog.  Laert. ii. 
60; Suidas, q.v..) He was an intimate friend of Socrates, 
who is reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son 
alone knew how to honour him.  Diogenes Laertius preserves 
a tradition that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help 
Socrates to escape from prison.  He was always a poor man, and 
Socrates advised him ``to borrow from himself, by diminishing 
his expenditure.'' He started a perfumery shop in Athens on 
borrowed capital, became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan 
court, where he was well received by Aristippus.  According to 
Diog.  Laert. (ii. 61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly 
ignored Aeschines, but this does not agree with Plutarch, De 
adulatore et amico (c. 26). On the expulsion of the younger 
Dionysius, he returned to Athens, and, finding it impossible 
to profess philosophy publicly owing to the contempt of Plato 
and Aristoue, was Compelled to teach privately.  He wrote also 
forensic speeches; Phrynichus, in Photius, ranks him amongst 
the best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard 
of the pure Attic style.  Hermogenes also spoke highly of him 
(Peri ideon.) He wrote several philosophical dialogues: 
(1) Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught; (2) 
Eryxias, or Erasistratust concerning riches, whether they 
are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is 
to be feared,--but those extant on the several subjects 
are not genuine remains.  J. le Clerc has given a Latin 
translation of them, with notes and several dissertations, 
entitled Silvae Philologicae, and they have been edited 
by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig, 1786), and K. F. Hermann, De 
Aeschin.  Socrat. relig. (Gott. 1850).  The genuine dialogues 
appear to have been marked by the Socratic irony; an amusing 
passage is quoted by Cicero in the De inventione (i. 31). 

See Hirzel, Der Dialog. i. 129-140; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 
vol. iii. p. 342 (Eng. trans.  G. G. Berry, London, 1905). 

AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the 
only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive, 
and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of 
the Greek drama, was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. 

Life. 

His father, Euphorion, belonged to the ``Eupatridae'' or old 
nobility of Athens, as we know on the authority of the short 
Life of the poet given in the Medicean Manuscript (see 
note on ``authorities'' at the end).  According to the same 
tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle 
of Greece against Persia; and was present at the battles of 
Marathon, Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, in the years 
490-479.  At least one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with 
him at Marathon, and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act 
of bravery; and the brothers' portraits found a place in the 
national picture of the battle which the Athenians set up as a 
memorial in the Stoa Poecile (or ``Pictured Porch'') at Athens. 

The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus' 
poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native 
genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly 
inspired by the personal share he took in the great actions 
of a heroic national uprising.  In the same way, the poet's 
brooding thoughtfulness on deep questions---the power of the 
gods, their dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, 
the future life in Hades--though largely due to his turn of 
mind and temperament, was doubtless connected with the place 
where his childhood was passed.  Eleusis was the centre of 
the most famous worship of Demeter, with its processions, its 
ceremonies, its mysteries, its impressive spectacles and 
nocturnal rites; and these were intimately connected with 
the Greek beliefs about the human soul, and the underworld. 

His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more 
than forty years.  In 499, his 26th year, he first exhibited 
at Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at 
Athens, was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. 
The total number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have 
been ninety; and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named 
or nameable which survive only in fragments, amount to over 
eighty, so that Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable 
tradition.  It is well known that in the 5th century each 
exhibitor at the tragic contests produced four plays; and 
Aeschylus must therefore have competed (between 499 and 458) 
more than twenty times, or once in two years.  His first 
victory is recorded in 484, fifteen years after his earliest 
appearance on the stage; but in the remaining twenty-six 
years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was successful 
at least twelve times.  This clearly shows that he was the 
most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458; and 
for more than half that time was usually the victor in the 
contests.  Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional 
position among his contemporaries is the well-known decree 
passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to 
exhibit a play of Aeschylus should ``receive a chorus,'' 
i.e. be officially allowed to produce the drama at the 
Dionysia.  The existence of this decree, mentioned in the 
Life, is strongly confirmed by two passages in Aristophanes: 
first in the prologue of the Acharnians (which was acted 
in 425, thirty-one years after the poet's death), where the 
citizen, grumbling about his griefs and troubles, relates his 
great disappointment, when he took his seat in the theatre 
``expecting Aeschylus,'' to find that when the play came 
on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the Frogs 
(acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested 
in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former complains 
(Fr. 860) that ``the battle is not fair, because my own 
poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and 
therefore he will have it with him to recite''-a clear 
reference, as the scholiast points out, to the continued 
production at Athens of Aeschylus' plays after his death. 

Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is 
said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's 
life that deserve mention are connected with his Sicilian 
visits, and the charge preferred against him of revealing 
the ``secrets of Demeter.'' This tale is briefly mentioned 
by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2), and a late commentator 
(Eustratius, 12th century) quotes from one Heraclides 
Pontius the version which may be briefly given as follows:-- 

The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there 
was a reference to Demeter.  The audience suspected him of 
revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet 
fled to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved 
his life for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd 
respected the inviolable sanctuary.  He was afterwards charged 
with the crime before the Areopagus; and his plea ``that he 
did not know that what he said was secret'' was accepted by 
the court and secured his acquittal.  The commentator adds 
that the prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was 
the real cause of the leniency of his judges.  The story was 
afterwards developed, and embellished by additions; but in the 
above shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main 
fact seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic. 

As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that 
certain descriptions in the Persae, and the known facts 
that he wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king 
Lycurgus, persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his 
having a special knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely 
that he had visited it.  This, however, remains at best a 
conjecture.  For his repeated visits to Sicily, on the other 
hand, there is conclusive ancient evidence.  Hiero the First, 
tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned about twelve years (478-467), 
and amongst other efforts after magnificence invited to his 
court famous poets and men of letters, had founded a new town, 
Aetna, on the site of Catana which he captured, expelling the 
inhabitants.  Among his guests were Aeschylus, Pindar, 
Bacchylides and Simonides.  About 476 Aeschylus was entertained 
by him, and at his request wrote and exhibited a play called 
The Women of Aetna in honour of the new town.  He paid a 
second visit about 472, the year in which he had produced the 
Persae at Athens; and the play is said to have been repeated 
at Syracuse at his patron's request.  Hiero died in 467, the 
year of the Seven against Thebes; but after 458, when the 
Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find the poet again 
in Sicily for the last time.  In 456 he died, and was buried 
at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph in two elegiac 
couplets saying: ``Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus, son of 
Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat-bearing 
land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon can 
speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well.'' The 
authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says 
it was inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while 
Athenaeus and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus.  Probably 
most people would agree that only the poet himself could 
have praised the soldier and kept silence about the poetry. 

Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name 
little need be said.  Pausanias' tale, how Dionysus appeared 
to the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and 
bade him write a tragedy---or the account in the Life, how 
he was killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise 
whose shell the bird was unable to crack---clearly belong to 
the same class of legends as the story that Plato was son of 
Apollo, and that a swarm of bees settled upon his infant 
lips as he lay in his mother's arms.  Less supernatural, 
but hardly more historical, is the statement in the Life 
that the poet left Athens for Sicily in consequence of his 
defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by Sophocles; or the 
alternative story of the same authority that the cause of 
his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes slain at 
Marathon was preferred to his own.  Apart from the inherent 
improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither story 
fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles' 
success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with 
the Septem; and the Marathon elegy must have been written 
in 490, fourteen years before his first visit to Sicily. 

Work. 

In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously 
far more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with 
the fragments of more than seventy others), and particularly 
in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics. The real 
importance of our poet in the development of the drama (see 
DRAMA: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four 
known predecessors--who are at best hardly more than names to 
us--is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review 
of the rise of tragedy (Poet. iv. 13), names no one before 
Aeschylus.  He recognizes, it is true, a long process of 
growth, with several stages, from the dithyramb to the 
drama; and it is not difficult to see what these stages 
were.  The first step was the addition to the old choric song 
of an interlude spoken, and in early days improvised, by 
the leader of the chorus (Poet. iv. 12). The next was the 
introduction of an actor (upokrites or ``answerer''), 
to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue added to 
recitation.  The ``answerer'' was at first the poet himself 
(Ar. Rhet. iii. 1). This change is traditionally attributed 
to Thespis (536 B.C.), who is, however, not mentioned by 
Aristotle.  The mask, to enable the actor to assume different 
parts, by whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' 
day.  The third change was the enlarged range of subjects.  
The lyric dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and 
the interludes had, of course, to follow suit.  Nothing in the 
world so tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; 
and it is interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, 
as ever, eager for ``some new thing'') nevertheless opposed 
at first the introduction of other tales.  But the innovators 
won; or other-wise there would have been no Attic drama. 

In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in honour 
of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical) interlude by 
the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one actor (at first 
the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in more than one part. 

But everything points to the fact that in the development of 
the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator.  The two things 
that were important, when the 5th century began, if tragedy 
was to realize its possibilities, were (1) the disentanglement 
of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an 
artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and 
(2) its general elevation of tone.  Aeschylus, as we know on 
the express authority of Aristotle (Poet. iv. 13), achieved 
the first by the introduction of the second actor; and though 
he did not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse 
and consummation by the overwhelming effect of his serious 
thought, the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic 
purpose, and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness 
of the construction and presentment of his tragedies. 

As to the importance of the second actor no argument is 
needed.  The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy 
between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the 
mask, a series of messengers), as must have been the case when 
Aeschylus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic 
sense at all, but rather narrative.  The discussion, the 
persuasion, the instruction, the pleading, the contention---in 
short, the interacting personal influences of different 
characters on each other--are indispensable to anything 
that can be called a play, as we understand the word; and, 
without two ``personae dramatis'' at the least, the drama 
in the strict sense is clearly impossible.  The number of 
actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus are due 
the perception and the adoption of the essential step; 
and therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very 
real sense to be called the founder of Athenian tragedy. 

Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Septem contra 
Thebas, Prometheus, Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, 
five can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's 
name is preserved in the Arguments; and the other two 
approximately.  The dates rest, in the last resort, on the 
didaskaliai, or the official records of the contests, of 
which we know that Aristotle (and others) compiled catalogues; 
and some actual fragments have been recovered.  The order 
of the plays is probably that given above; and certainly 
the Persae was acted in 472, Septem in 467, and the last 
three, the trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is generally, 
though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest; and the best 
authorities tend to place it not far from 490. The early 
date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme 
simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) 
opening, and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 
54, or the highest of all the seven plays.  The chief doubt 
is in regard to Prometheus, which is variously placed by 
good authorities; but the very low percentage of lyrics (only 
27, or roughly a quarter of the whole), and still more the 
strong characterization, a marked advance on anything in the 
first three plays, point to its being later than any except 
the trilogy, and suggest a date somewhere about 460, or 
perhaps a little earlier.  A few comments on the extant plays 
will help to indicate the main points of Aeschylus' work. 

Supplices.---The exceptional interest of the Supplices 
is due to its date.  Being nearly twenty years earlier than 
any other extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in 
the evolution of Attic drama which would otherwise have been 
unrepresented.  Genius, as Patin says, is a ``puissance 
libre,'' and none more so than that of Aeschylus; but with 
all allowance for the ``uncontrolled power'' of this poet, we 
may feel confident that we have in the Supplices something 
resembling in general structure the lost works of Choerilus, 
Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th century pioneers of drama. 

The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus 
(who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their 
father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to 
Argos, to escape the marriage which they abhor.  They claim 
the protection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but 
timid; and he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to 
the people, who agree to protect the fugitives.  The pursuing 
fleet of suitors is seen approaching; the herald arrives (with 
a company of followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the 
cowering Danaids to the ships and finally attempts to drag them 
away.  Pelasgus interposes with a force, drives off the 
Egyptians and saves the suppliants.  Danaus urges them to 
prayer, thanksgiving and maidenly modesty, and the grateful 
chorus pass away to the shelter offered by their protectors. 

It is clear that we have here the drama in its nascent 
stage, just developing out of the lyric pageant from which it 
sprang.  The interest still centres round the chorus, who 
are in fact the ``protagonists'' of the play.  Character and 
plot---the two essentials of drama, in the view of all critics 
from Aristotle downwards--are both here rudimentary.  There 
are some fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a 
single situation, The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation 
of the king, the resolve of the people; the defeat of insolent 
violence; and the rescue.  It should not be forgotten, 
indeed, that the play is one of a trilogy---an act, therefore, 
rather than a complete drama.  But we have only to compare it 
with those later plays of which the same is true, to see the 
difference.  Even in a trilogy, each play is a complete 
whole in itself, though also a portion of a larger whole. 

Persae.---The next play that has survived is the Persae, 
which has again a special interest, viz. that it is the 
only extant Greek historical drama.  We know that Aeschylus' 
predecessor, Phrynichus, had already twice tried this 
experiment, with the Capture of Miletus and the Phoenician 
Women; that the latter play dealt with the same subject 
as the Persae, and the handling of its opening scene was 
imitated by the younger poet.  The plot of the Persae is 
still severely simple, though more developed than that of 
the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the first 
quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the 
anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge 
army.  Then comes the messenger with the news of Salamis, 
including a description of the sea-fight itself which can 
only be called magnificent.  We realize what it must have been 
for the vast audience---30,000, according to Plato (Symp. 
175 E)-- to hear, eight years only after the event, from 
the supreme poet of Athens, who was himself a distinguished 
actor in the war, this thrilling narrative of the great 
battle.  But this reflexion at once suggests another; it 
is not a tragedy in the true Greek sense, according to the 
practice of the 5th-century poets.  It may be called in one 
point of view a tragedy, since the scene is laid in Persia, 
and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of the Persian 
pride.  But its real aim is not the ``pity and terror'' of 
the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of 
Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one 
place, over the ruin of their foe.  This is best shown 
by the praise of Aeschylus' great admirer and defender 
Aristophanes, who (Frogs, 1026-1027) puts into the poet's 
mouth the boast that in the Persae he had ``glorified a noble 
exploit, and taught men to be eager to conquer their foe.'' 

Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, 
the Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, 
the experiment was not repeated either by the author or his 
successors.  One further point may be noted.  Aeschylus 
always has a taste for the unseen and the supernatural; and 
one effective incident here is the raising of Darius's ghost, 
and his prophecy of the disastrous battle of Plataea.  But 
in the ghost's revelations there is a mixture of audacity and 
naivete, characteristic at once of the poet and the early 
youth of the drama.  The dead Darius prophesies Plataea, but 
has not heard of Salamis; he gives a brief (and inaccurate) 
list of the Persian kings, which the queen and chorus, 
whom he addresses, presumably know; and his only practical 
suggestion, that the Persians should not again invade Greece, 
seems attainable without the aid of superhuman foresight. 

Septem contra Thebas.---Five years later came the Theban 
Tragedy.  It is not only, as Aristophanes says (Frogs, 
1024), ``a play full of the martial spirit,'' but is (like the 
Supplices) one of a connected series, dealing with the evil 
fate of the Theban House.  But instead of being three acts of 
a single story like the Supplices, these three plays trace 
the fate through three generations, Laius, Oedipus and the two 
sons who die by each other's hands in the fight for the Theban 
sovereignty.  This family fate, where one evil deed leads to 
another after many years, is a larger conception, strikingly 
suited to Aeschylus' genius, and constitutes a notable stage 
in the development of the Aeschylean drama.  And just as 
here we have the tragedy of the Theban house, so in the last 
extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces the tragedy of 
the Pelopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin to Orestes' 
vengeance and purification.  And the names of several lost 
plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy. 

The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and 
again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in 
detail.  Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; 
and the two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the 
kingdom.  Eteocles has driven out Polynices, who fled to 
Argos, gathered a host under seven leaders (himself being 
one), and when the play opens has begun the siege of his own 
city.  The king appears, warns the people, chides the clamour of 
women, appoints seven Thebans, including himself, to defend the 
seven gates, departs to his post, meets his brother in battle 
and both are killed.  The other six chieftains are all slain, 
and the enemy beaten off.  The two dead princes are buried 
by their two sisters, who alone are left of the royal house. 

Various signs of the early drama are here manifest.  Half the 
play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole 
action is recited by messengers; and the fatality whereby the 
predicted mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about 
is no accidental stroke of destiny, but the choice of the 
king Eteocles himself.  On the other hand, the opening is no 
longer lyric (like the two earlier plays) but dramatic; the 
main scene, where the messenger reports at length the names 
of the seven assailants, and the king appoints the seven 
defenders, each man going off in silence to his post, must 
have been an impressive spectacle.  One novelty should not be 
overlooked.  There is here the first passage of dianoia 
or general reflexion of life, which later became a regular 
feature of tragedy.  Eteocles muses on the fate which involves 
an innocent man in the company of the wicked so that he shares 
unjustly their deserved fate.  The passage (Theb. 597-608) 
is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a new 
effort of the poet to draw character, which may have something 
to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before 
(468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy. 

There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia, which 
show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when 
we think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind. 

Prometheus.---The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays: 
Prometheus the Fire-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus 
Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the 
Fire-bringer is probably the first, though recently it has 
been held by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy.  
That Prometheus sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from 
heaven; that he was punished by fearful tortures for ages; 
that he finally was reconciled to Zeus and set free,--all 
this was the ancient tale indisoutably.  Those who hold the 
Fire-bringer (Purforos) to be the final play, conjecture 
that it dealt with the establishment of the worship of 
Prometheus under that title, which is known to have. existed at 
Athens.  But the other order is on all grounds more probable; it 
keeps the natural sequence---crime, punishment, reconciliation, 
which is also the sequence in the Oresteia. And if the 
reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme of 
action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible.1 

However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of 
unsurpassed force and impressiveness.  Nevertheless, from the 
point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first 
sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest 
of a tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except Io, who 
is a distracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between 
the opening where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, 
and the close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero 
and the chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto 
impossible.  This is just the opportunity for the poet's bold 
inventiveness and fine imagination.  The tortured sufferer 
is visited by the Oceanic Nymphs, who float in, borne by an 
(imaginary) winged car, to console; Oceanus (riding a griffin, 
doubtless also imaginary) follows, kind but timid, to advise 
submission; then appears Io, victim of Zeus' love and Hera's 
jealousy, to whom Prometheus prophesies her future wanderings 
and his own fate; lastly Hermes, insolent messenger of the 
gods, who tries in vain to extort Prometheus' secret knowledge 
of the future.  Oceanus, the well-meaning palavering old 
mentor, and Hermes, the blustering and futile jack-in-office, 
gods though they be, are vigorous, audacious and very human 
character-sketches; the soft entrance of the consoling nymphs 
is unspeakably beautiful; and the prophecy of Io's wanderings 
is a striking example of that new keen interest in the world 
outside which was felt by the Greeks of the 5th century, 
as it was felt by the Elizabethan English in a very similar 
epoch of national spirit and enterprise two thousand years 
later.  Thus, though dramatic action is by the nature of the 
case impossible for the hero, the visitors provide real drama. 

Another important point in the development of tragedy 
is what we may call the ``balanced issue.'' The question 
in Suppliants is the protection of the threatened 
fugitives; in Persae the humiliation of overweening 
pride.  So far the sympathy of the audience is not doubtful or 
divided.  In the Septein there is an approach to conflict 
of feeling; the banished brother has a personal grievance, 
though guilty of the impious crime of attacking his own 
country.  The sympathy must be for the defender Eteocles; 
but it is at least somewhat qualified by his injustice to his 
brother.  In Prometheus the issue is more nearly balanced.  
The hero is both a victim and a rebel.  He is punished for his 
benefits to man; but though Zeus is tyrannous and ungrateful, 
the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling.  
As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated 
by the attitude of the chorus.  They enter overflowing with 
pity.  They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's 
violence and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last 
crisis, the mean advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and 
save themselves; and in the final crash they share his fate. 

Oresteia.---The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the 
Oresteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete 
trilogy preserved to us.  It is a three-act drama of family 
fate, like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the 
revenge, the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy.  
Again, as in Prometheus, the plot, at first sight, is such 
that the conditions of drama seem to exclude much development in 
character-drawing.  The gods are everywhere at the root of the 
action.  The inspired prophet, Calchas, has demanded the sacrifice 
of the king's daughter Iphigenia, to appease the offended 
Artemis.  The inspired Cassandra, brought in as a spear-won 
slave from conquered Troy, reveals the murderous past of the 
Pelopid house, and the imminent slaughter of the king by his 
wife.  Apollo orders the son, Orestes, to avenge his father by 
killing the murderess, and protects him when after the deed he 
takes sanctuary at Delphi.  The Erinnyes (``Furies'') pursue 
him over land and sea; and at last Athena gives him shelter at 
Athens, summons an Athenian council to judge his guilt, and 
when the court is equally divided gives her casting vote for 
mercy.  The last act ends with the reconciliation of Athena 
and the Furies; and the latter receive a shrine and worship 
at Athens, and promise favour and prosperity to the great 
city.  The scope for human drama seems deliberately restricted, 
if not closed, by such a story so handled.  Nevertheless, 
as a fact, the growth of characterization is, in spite of 
all, not only visible but remarkable.  Clytemnestra is one 
of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek 
drama.  Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken purpose, 
her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice, 
Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and 
her unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable 
fate, when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all 
portrayed with matchless force--her very craft being scornfully 
assumed, as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped 
when the purpose is served.  And there is one other noticeable 
point.  In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has 
attempted some touches of character in two of the humbler 
parts, the Watchman in Agameninoni, and the Nurse in the 
Choephoroe. The Watchman opens the play, and the vivid and 
almost humorous sententiousness of his language, his dark 
hints, his pregnant metaphors drawn from common speech, at 
once give a striking touch of realism, and form a pointed 
contrast to the terrible drama that impends.  A very similar 
effect is produced at the crisis of the Choephoroe by the 
speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message to Aegisthus pours 
out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported death of Orestes 
and her fond memories of his babyhood---with the most homely 
details; and the most striking realistic touch is perhaps 
the broken structure and almost inconsequent utterance of the 
old faithful slave's speech.  These two are veritable figures 
drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear only 
once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innovation 
is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus. 

It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas 
of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry. 

The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was prominent 
from the first, owing to its evolution from the choral 
celebration of the god Dionysus.  But the new spirit imported 
by the genius of Aeschylus into the early drama was religious 
in a profounder meaning of the term.  The sadness of human lot, 
the power and mysterious dealings of the gods, their terrible 
and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (aga and pthonos), 
their certain vengeance upon sinners, all the more fearful 
it delayed.---Such are the poet's constant themes, delivered 
with strange solemnity and impressiveness in the the songs, 
especially in the Oresteia. And at times, particularly in 
the Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, 
he almost approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. ``One God 
above all, who directs all, who is the cause of all'' (Ag. 
163, 1485); the watchfulness of this Power over human action 
(363-367), especially over the punishment of their sins; and 
the mysterious law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 
758-760):---these are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the 
Agamemnon with peculiar force, in a strain at once lofty and 
sombre.  One specially noteworthy point in that play is his 
explicit repudiation of the common Hellenic view that prosperity 
brings ruin.  In other places he seems to share the feeling; 
but here (Ag. 730) he goes deeper, and declares that it is 
not olbos but always wickedness that brings about men's 
fall.  All through there is a recurring note of fear in his 
view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid images---the ``death 
that lurks behind the wall'' (Ag. 1004), the ``hidden reef 
which wrecks the bark, unable to weather the headland'' (Eum. 
561-565).  In one remarkable passage of the Eumenides 
(517-525) this fear is extolled as a moral power which ought 
to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them from impious or 
violent acts, or from the pride that impels them, to such sins. 

Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, 
both in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account 
can be attempted; the briefest word must here suffice.  
He is everywhere distinguished by grandeur and power of 
conception, presentation and expression, and most of all in 
the latest works, the Prometheus and the Trilogy.  He 
is pre-eminent in depicting the slow approach of fear, as in 
the Persae; the imminent horror of impending fate, as in 
the broken cries and visions of Cassandra in the Agamemnon 
(1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to the nether powers 
in the Choephoroe (313-478), and the gradual rousing of the 
slumbering Furies in the Eumenides (117-139).  The fatal 
end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the effect is due to 
its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense which 
no poet has more powerfully rendered.  Again, he is a master 
of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic: 
as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to 
the tortured Prometheus (115-135); or the unmatched lyrics 
which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) of the death of 
Iphigenia; or the vision of his lost love that the night 
brings to Menelaus (410-426).  And not least noticeable is 
the extraordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his 
diction.  One example of his lyrics may be given which will 
illustrate more than one of these points.  It is taken from 
the long lament in the Septem, sung by the chorus and the two 
sisters, while following the funeral procession of the two 
princes.  These laments may at times be wearisome to the modern 
reader, who does not see, and imperfectly imagines, the stately 
and pathetic spectacle; but to the ancient feeling they were as 
solemn and impressive as they were ceremonially indispensable.  
The solemnity is here heightened by the following lines sung 
by one of the chorus of Theban women (Sept. 854-860):-- 

    Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters, 
   Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars,
   The stroke that passes ever across Acheron,
   Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark,--
   The bark Apollo comes not near,
   The bark that is hidden from the sunlight--
   To the shore of darkness that welcomes all!
AUTHORITIES.---The chief authority for the text is a single 
MS. at Florence, of the early 11th century, known as the 
Medicean or M., written by a professional scribe and revised 
by a contemporary scholar, who corrected the copyist's 
mistakes, added the scholia, the arguments and the dramatis 
personae of three plays (Theb., Agam, Eum.), and at 
the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his 
dramas.  The MS. has also been further corrected by later 
hands.  In 1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction 
published the MS. in photographic facsimile, with an instructive 
preface by Signor Rostagno.  Besides M. there are some eight 
later MSS. (13th to 15th century), and numerous copies of the 
three select plays (Sept., Pers., Prom.) which were most 
read in the later Byzantine period, when Greek literature 
was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts.  These later 
MSS. are of little value or authority.  The editions, from 
the beginning of the 15th century to the present are very 
numerous, and the text has been further continuously improved 
by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars.  The three 
first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and Robortello, 
1552) give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from 
which MS. some leaves were lost; in 1557 the full text was 
restored by Vettori (Victorius) from later MSS. After these 
four, the chief editions of He seven plays were those of 
Schutz, Porson, Burler, Wellauer, Dindorf, Bothe, Ahrens, 
Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkel, Kirchhoff and 
Wecklein.  Besides these, over a hundred scholars have 
thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, 
by editions of separate plays, by emendations, by special 
studies of the poet's work, or in other ways.  Among recent 
writers who have made such contributions may be mentioned 
Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Enger, Conington, Blaydes, Cobet, 
Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Headlam, Davies, Tucker, Verrall and 
Haigh.  The Fragments have been edited by Nauck and also by 
Wecklein.  The Aeschylean staging is discussed in Albert 
Muller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalterhumer; in 
``Die Buhne des Aeschylos,'' by Wilamowitz (Hermes, xxi.); 
in Smith's Dict. of Antiquities, art. ``Theatrum'' (R. C. 
Jebb); in Dorpfeld and Reisch (Das griechische Theater), 
Haigh's Attic Theatre, and Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek 
Antiquities. English Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Milman 
and R. Browning; Oresteia, Suppliants, Persae, Seven against 
Thebes, Prometheus Vinctus, by E. D. A. Morshead; Prometheus, 
E. B. Browning; the whole seven plays, Lewis Campbell. (A. SI.) 

1 The Eumenides is quoted as a parallel, because there the 
establishment of this worship at Athens concludes the whole 
trilogy; but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is much 
besides--the pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, 
the acquittal, the conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while 
here the story would be finished before the last play began. 

AESCULAPIUS (Gr. `Asklepios), the legendary Greek god of 
medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis.  Tricca in 
Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis disputed the honour of his 
birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus.  
He was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the 
art of healing and hunting.  His skill in curing disease and 
restoring the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, 
being afraid that he might render all men immortal, slew him 
with a thunderbolt (Apollodorus iii. 10; Pindar, Phthia, 3; 
Diod.  Sic. iv. 71). Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, 
whose sons, Machaon and Podalirius, are the physicians in the 
Greek camp before Troy (Iliad, ii. 731).  Temples were erected 
to Aesculapius in many parts of Greece, near healing springs 
or on high mountains.  The practice of sleeping (incubatio) 
in these sanctuaries was very common, it being supposed that 
the god effected cures or prescribed remedies to the sick in 
dreams.  All who were healed offered sacrifice---especially a 
cock---and hung up votive tablets, on which were recorded their 
names, their diseases and the manner in which they had been 
cured.  Many of these votive tablets have been discovered 
in the course of excavations at Epidaurus.  Here was the 
god's most famous shrine, and games were celebrated in his 
honour every five years, accompanied by solemn processions.  
Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description of one of his 
temples, and of the offerings made to him.  His worship was 
introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books (293 
B.C.), to avert a pestilence.  The god was fetched from 
Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him 
on the island in the Tiber (Livy x. 47; Ovid, Metam. xv. 
622).  Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient 
artists.  He is commonly represented standing, dressed in a long 
cloak, with bare breast; his usual attribute is a club-like 
staff with a serpent (the symbol of renovation) coiled round 
it.  He is often accompanied by Telesphorus, the boy 
genius of healing, and his daughter Hygieia, the goddess of 
health.  Votive reliefs representing such groups have been 
found near the temple of Aesculapius at Athens.  The British 
Museum possesses a beautiful head of Aesculapius (or possibly 
Zeus) from Melos, and the Louvre a magnificent statue. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--L.  Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Jane E. 
Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903); 
R. Caton, Examples and Ritual of A. at Epidaurus and Athens 
(1900); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclopadie, 
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; T. Panofka, Asklepios und 
die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice Welton, ``The Cult of Asklepios,'' 
in Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, iii. (New York, 
1894); W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902). 

AESERNIA (mod. Isernia), a Samnite town on the road from 
Beneventum to Corfinium, 58 m. to the north-east of the former, 
at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via 
Latina.  These routes are all followed by modern railways---the 
lines to Campobasso, Sulmona and Caianello.  A Roman colony was 
established there in 263 B.C. It became the headquarters of 
the Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only 
recovered by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.C. Remains 
of its fortifications are still preserved---massive cyclopean 
walls, which serve as foundation to the walls of the modern 
town and of a Roman bridge, and the subterranean channel of 
an aqueduct, cut in the rock, and dating from Roman times. 

AESOP (Gr. Aisopos), famous for his Fables, is supposed 
to have lived from about 620 to 560 B.C. The place of 
his birth is uncertain---Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samos, 
Athens and Sardis all claiming the honour.  We possess little 
trustworthy information concerning his life, except that he 
was the slave of Iadmon of Samos and met with a violent death 
at the hands of the inhabitants of Delphi.  A pestilence that 
ensued being attributed to this crime, the Delphians declared 
their willingness to make compensation, which, in default of 
a nearer connexion, was claimed and received by Iadmon, the 
grandson of his old master.  Herodotus, who is our authority 
for this (ii. 134), does not state the cause of his death; 
various reasons are assigned by later writers--his insulting 
sarcasms, the embezzlement of money entrusted to him by 
Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft of a silver cup. 

Aesop must have received his freedom from Iadmon, or he could 
not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian 
demagogue (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to the 
story, he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where 
he met Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages 
of Greece with Periander at Corinth.  During the reign of 
Peisistratus he is said to have visited Athens, on which 
occasion he related the fable of The Frogs asking for a 
King, to dissuade the citizens from attempting to exchange 
Peisistratus for another ruler.  The popular stories current 
regarding him are derived from a life, or rather romance, 
prefixed to a book of fables, purporting to be his, collected 
by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century.  In this he 
is described as a monster of ugliness and deformity, as he is 
also represented in a well-known marble figure in the Villa 
Albani at Rome.  That this life, however, was in existence a 
century before Planudes, appears from a 13th-century MS. of 
it found at Florence.  In Plutarch's Symposium of the Seven 
Sages, at which Aesop is a guest, there are many jests on 
his original servile condition, but nothing derogatory is 
said about his personal appearance.  We are further told 
that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue 
by the famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong 
argument against the fiction of his deformity.  Lastly, 
the obscurity in which the history of Aesop is involved 
has induced some scholars to deny his existence altogether. 

It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to 
writing; Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as 
having learnt the ``absurdities'' of Aesop from conversation 
at banquets) and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by 
turning some of Aesop's fables ``which he knew'' into verse 
(Plato, Phaedo, 61 b).  Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283 
B.C.) made a collection in ten books, probably in prose 
(Lopson Aisopeion sunagogai) for the use of orators, 
which has been lost.  Next appeared an edition in elegiac 
verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's name is 
unknown.  Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and tutor 
to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into 
choliambics in the earlier part of the 3rd century A.D. 
The most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a 
freedman of Augustus.  Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps 
the 4th century) translated 42 of the fables into Latin 
elegiacs.  The collections which we possess under the name 
of Aesop's Fables are late renderings of Babrius's Version 
or Progumnasmata, rhetorical exercises of varying age and 
merit.  Syntipas translated Babrius into Syriac, and Andreopulos 
put the Syriac back again into Greek.  Ignatius Diaconus, in 
the 9th century, made a version of 55 fables in choliambic 
tetrameters.  Stories from Oriental sources were added, and from 
these collections Maximus Planudes made and edited the collection 
which has come down to us under the name of Aesop, and from 
which the popular fables of modern Europe have been derived. 

For further information see the article FABLE; Bentley, 
Dissertation on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies 
inedites du moyen age (1854); J. Jacobs, The Fables 
of Aesop (1889): i.  The history of the Aesopic fable; 
ii.  The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by William Caxton, 
1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Les Fabulistes 
Latins (1893-1899).  Before any Greek text appeared, a 
Latin translation of 100 Fabulae Aesopicae by an Italian 
scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius) was published at Rome, 
1476.  About 1480 the collection of Planudes was brought out 
at Milan by Buono Accorso (Accursius), together with Ranuzio's 
translation.  This edition, which contained 144 fables, was 
frequently reprinted and additions made from time to time 
from various MSS.--the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine, 
Vatican and Augsburg---by Stephanus (1547), Nevelet (1610), 
Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (1741), Furia (1810), Coray (1810), 
Schneider (1812) and others.  A critical edition of all the 
previously known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the 
collections of Furia, Coray and Schneider, was published in 
the Teubner series of Greek and Latin texts.  A Fabularum 
Aesopicarum sylloge (233 in number) from a Paris MS., with 
critical notes by Sternbach, appeared in a Cracow University 
publication, Rozprawy akademii umiejetinosci (1894). 

AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of 
Alexander the Great, a Latin translation of which, 
by Julius Valerius, was discovered by Mai in 1816. 

AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian, 
flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his 
birth and death are not known.  The name seems to show that 
he was a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens.  Cicero 
was on friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally 
distinguished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their 
instruction.  Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of 
Aesopus, that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he 
should revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself 
so far in the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck 
and killed one of the servants crossing the stage.  Aesopus 
made a last appearance in 55 B.C.---when Cicero tells us 
that he was advanced in years--on the occasion of the splendid 
games given by Pompey at the dedication of his theatre.  In 
spite of his somewhat extravagant living, he left an ample 
fortune to his spendthrift son, who did his best to squander 
it as soon as possible.  Horace (Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions 
his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of Caecilia Metella and 
dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have the satisfaction 
of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a draught. 

Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; 
Quint., Instit. xi. 3, iii; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14. 

AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously defined as the philosophy 
or science of the beautiful, of taste or of the fine arts. 

Preliminary definition. 

The name is something of an accident.  In its original Greek form 
(aisthetikos) it means what has to do with sense-perception 
as a source of knowledge; and this is still its meaning 
in Kant's philosophy (``Transcendental Aesthetic'').  Its 
limitation to that function of sensuous perception which we 
know as the contemplative enjoyment of beauty is due to A. G. 
Baumgarten.  Although the subject does not readily lend 
itself to precise definition at the outset, we may indicate 
itsscope and aim, as undeibtood by recent writers, by saying 
that it deals successively with one great department of 
human experience, viz. the pleasurable activities of pure 
contemplation.  By pure contemplation is here understood that 
manner of regarding objects of sense-perception, and more 
particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by 
the pleasure of the act itself.  The term ``object'' means 
whatever can be perceived through one of the senses, e.g. 
a flower, a landscape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of 
tones.  The contemplation may be immediate when (as mostly 
happens) the object is present to sense; or it may be mediate, 
when as in reading poetry we dwell on images of objects of 
sense.  Whenever we become interested in an object merely 
as presented for our contemplation our whole state of 
mind may be described as an aesthetic attitude, and our 
experience as an aesthetic experience.  Other expressions 
such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and appreciation 
of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will serve 
less precisely to mark off this department of experience. 

Differentiation of aesthetic experience.  Its characteristics as feeling. 

Aesthetic experience is differentiated from other kinds 
of experience by a number of characteristics.  We commonly 
speak of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of 
feeling.  The appreciation of beauty is pervaded and sustained 
by pleasurable feeling.  In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities 
of feeling attain their fullest and most perfect development.  
Yet, as its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation 
might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by a 
certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling.  Even 
when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is comparatively 
restrained.  A rare exhibition of beauty may thrill the soul 
for a moment, yet in general the enjoyment of it is far removed 
from the excitement of passion.  On the other hand, aesthetic 
pleasure is pure enjoyment.  Even when a disagreeable element 
is present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering 
of a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of 
enjoyment.  It is, moreover, free from the painful elements 
of craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, 
which are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as 
the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs.  To this 
purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement, 
which implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily 
needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving 
amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. 

Marked off from practical activity, 

As the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic 
experience is clearly marked off from practical life, 
with its urgent desires and the rest.  In aesthetic 
contemplation desire and will as a whole are almost dormant. 

also from intellectual activity. 

This detachment from the daily life of practical needs 
and aims is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic 
enjoyment must be disinterested (``ohne Interesse''), that 
when we regard an object aesthetically we are not in the 
least concerned with its practical significance and value: one 
cannot, for example, at the same moment aesthetically enjoy 
looking at a painting and desire to be its possessor.  In like 
manner, even if less aoparently, aesthetic contemplation is 
marked off from the arduous mental work which enters into 
the pursuit of knowledge.  In contemplating an aesthetic 
object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas 
all the more serious intellectual work of science involves 
the difficulties of the abstract. The contemplation is, 
moreover, free from those restraints which are imposed 
on our mental activity by the desire to obtain knowledge. 

Uniformity of aestetic experience. 

While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience 
appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of 
the soul, it is connected just as clearly, through the act of 
sense-perception, with the world of objects which is our common 
possession.  Being thus dependent on a contemplation of 
things in this common world it raises the question whether, 
like the perception of these objects, it is a uniform 
experience, the same for others as for myself.  We touch 
here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience 
which needs to he noted at this stage, its uniformity or 
subjection to law.  It is a common idea that men's judgments 
about matters of taste disagree to so large an extent 
that each individual is left very much to his subjective 
impressions.  With regard to many of the subtler matters of 
aesthetic appreciation, at any rate, there is undoubtedly 
on a first view the appearance of a want of agreement. 

The aesthetic judgment. 

Contrasted with logical judgments or even with ethical 
ones, aesthetic judgments may no doubt look uncertain and 
``subjective.'' The proposition ``this tree is a birch'' seems 
to lend itself much better to critical discussion and to general 
acceptance or rejection than the proposition ``this tree is 
beautiful.'' This circumstance, as Kant shrewdly suggests, 
helps to explain why we have come to employ the word ``taste'' 
in dealing with aesthetic matters; for the pronouncements of 
the sense of taste are recognized as among the most uncertain 
and ``subjective'' of our senseimpressions.  Yet viewed as a 
species of pleasurable feelings, aesthetic experiences will 
be found to exhibit a large amount of uniformity, of objective 
agreement as between different experiences of the same person 
and experiences of different persons.  This general agreement 
appears to be clearly implied in the ordinary form of our 
aesthetic judgments.  To say ``this rose is beautiful'' 
means more than to say ``the sight of this rose affects me 
agreeably.'' It means that the rose has a general power of 
so affecting me (at different times) and others as well. 

Logical judgment and judgment of value. 

The judgment is not the same as a logical one.  It does not say 
simply that as a matter of fact it always does please---even 
if we add the limitation those who for, as we know, our varying 
mood and state of receptivity make a profound difference in 
the fulness of the aesthetic enjoyment.  It is a ``judgment of 
value'' which claims for the rose aesthetic rank as an object 
properly qualified to please contemplative subjects.  This 
value, it is plain, is relative to conscious subjects; yet since 
it is relative to all competent ones, it may be regarded as 
``objective''---that is to say, as belonging to the object.1 

Late development of the science. 

This slight preliminary inspection of the subject will prepare 
one for the circumstance that the scientific treatment of 
it has begun late, and is even now far from being complete.  
This slowness of development is in part explained by the 
detachment of aesthetic experience from the urgent needs of 
life.  In a comparatively early stage of human progress some 
thought had to be bestowed on such pressing problems as to 
how to cope with the forces of nature and to turn them to 
useful account; how to secure in human communities obedience 
to custom and law.  But the problem of throwing light on our 
aesthetic pleasures had no such urgency.2 To this it must 
be added that aesthetic experience (in all but its simpler 
and cruder forms) has been, and still is confined to a small 
number of persons; so that the subject does not appeal to a 
wide popular interest; while, on the other hand, the subjects 
of this experience not infrequently have a strong sentimental 
dislike to the idea of introducing into the region of refined 
feeling the cold light of scientific investigation.  Lastly, 
there are special difficulties inherent in the subject.  One 
serious obstacle to a scientific theory of aesthetic experience 
is the illusive character of many of its finer elements---for 
example, the subtle differences of feeling-tone produced by 
the several colours as well as by their several tones and 
shades, by the several musical intervals, and so forth.  
Finally, there is the circumstance just touched on that much 
of this region of experience, instead of at once disclosing 
uniformity, seems to be rather the abode of caprice and 
uncertainty.  The variations in taste at different levels of 
culture, among different races and nations and among the 
individual members of the same community are numerous and 
striking, and might at first seem to bar the way to a scientific 
treatment of the subject.  These considerations suggest 
that an adequate theory of aesthetic experience could only 
be attempted after the requisite scientific skill had been 
developed in other and more pressing departments of inquiry. 

Inadequate theories of subject. 

If we glance at the modes of treating the subject up to a 
quite recent date we find that little of serious effort to 
apply to it a strictly scientific method of investigation.  
The whole extent of concrete experience has not been adequately 
recognized, still less adequately examined.  For the greater 
part thinkers have been in haste to reach some simple 
formula of beauty which might seem to cover the more obvious 
facts.  This has commonly been derived deductively from some 
more comprehensive idea of experience or human life as a 
whole.  Thus in German treatises on aesthetics which have 
been largely thought out under the influence of philosophic 
idealism the beautiful is subsumed under the idea, of which 
it is regarded as one special manifestation, and its place in 
human experience has been determined by defining its logical 
relations to the other great co-ordinate concepts, the good 
and the true.  These attempts to reach a general conception 
of beauty have often led to one-sidedness of view.  And this 
one-sidedness has sometimes characterized the theories of those 
who, like Alison, have made a wider survey of aesthetic facts. 

Aesthetics as a normative science. 

Aesthetics, like Ethics, is a Normative Science, that is to 
say, concerned with determining the nature of a species of the 
desirable or the good (in the large sense).  It seeks one or 
more regulative principles which may help us to distinguish a 
real from an apparent aesthetic value, and to set the higher and 
more perfect illustrations of beauty above the lower and less 
perfect.  As a science it will seek to realize its normative 
function by the aid of a patient, methodical investigation 
of facts, and by processes of observation, analysis and 
induction similar to those carried out in the natural sciences. 

Aestetics not a practical science. 

In speaking of aesthetics as a normative science we do not 
mean that it is a practical one in the sense that it supplies 
practical rules which may serve as definite guidance for the 
artist and the lover of beauty, in their particular problems 
of selecting and arranging elements of aesthetic value.  It 
is no more a practical science than logic.  The supposition 
that it is so is probably favoured by the idea that aesthetic 
theory has art for its special subject.  But this is to confuse 
a general aesthetic theory--what the Germans call ``General 
Aesthetics''---with a theory of art (Kunstwissenschaft).  The 
former, with which we are here concerned, has to examine 
aesthetic experience as a whole; which, as we shall presently 
see, includes more than the enjoyment and appreciation of art. 

Problems of the science. 

We may now indicate with more fulness the main problems of our 
science, seeking to give them as precise a form as possible. 

Is beauty a single quality in objects? 

At the outset we are confronted with an old and almost 
baffling question: ``Is beauty a single quality inherent in 
objects of perception like form or colour?'' Common language 
certainly suggests that it is.  Aesthetics, too, began its 
inquiry at the same point of view, and its history shows how 
much pains men have taken in trying to determine the nature 
of this attribute, as well as that of the faculty of the soul 
by which it is perceived.  Yet a little examination of the 
facts suffices to show that the theory is beset with serious 
difficulties.  Whatever beauty may be it is certainly not a 
quality of an object in the same way in which the colour or 
the form of it is a quality.  These are physical qualities, 
known to us by soecific modifications of our sensations. 

Beauty not a physical quality. 

The beauty of a rose or of a peach is clearly not a physical 
quality.  Nor do we in attributing beauty to some particular 
quality in an object, say colour, conceive of it as a 
phase of this quality, like depth or brilliance of colour, 
which, again, is known by a special modification of the 
sensations of colour.  Hence we must say that beauty, though 
undoubtedly referred to a physical object, is extraneous 
to the group of qualities which makes it a physical object. 

Beauty attributed to different qualities in objects. 

Beauty is frequently attributed to a concrete object as 
a whole---to a flower or shell, for example, as a visible 
whole.  Our everydav aesthetic judgments are wont to leave the 
attributes thus vaguely referred to the concrete object.  Yet 
it is equally certain that we not infrequently speak of the 
beauty of some definable aspect to, or quality of an object, as 
when we pronounce the contour of a mountain or of a vase to be 
beautiful.  And it may be asked whether, in thus localizing 
beauty, so to speak, in one of the constituent qualities of 
an object, we always place it in the same quality.  A mere 
glance at the facts will suffice to convince us that we do 
not.  We call the facade of a Greek temple beautiful with 
special reference to its admirable form; whereas in predicating 
beauty of the ruin of a Norman castle we refer rather to what the 
ruin means---to the effect of an imagination of its past proud 
strength and slow vanquishment by the unrelenting strokes of time. 

Formalists and expressionalists. 

This fact that beauty appertains now more to one quality, 
now more to another, helps us to understand why certain 
theorists, known as formalists, regarded beauty as formal 
or residing in form, whereas others, the idealists or 
expressionalists, view it as residing in ideal content or 
expression. These theories. however, like other attempts to 
find an adequate single principle of beauty, are unsatisfactory.  
Form and ideal content are each a great source of aesthetic 
enjoyment, and either can be found in a degree of supremacy 
which practically renders the co-operation of the other 
unimportant.  The two buildings cited above, two human faces, 
two musical compositions, may exhibit in an impressive and 
engrossing way the beauty of form and of expression respectively. 

Three ultimate modes of beauty. 

Nor is this all.  Beauty refuses to be confined even to these 
two.  There are the various beauties of colour, for example, 
as exhibited in such familiar phenomena of nature as sea 
and sky, autumn moors and woods.  A slight analysis of 
the constituents of objects to which we attribute beauty 
shows that there are at least three distinct modes of this 
attribute, namely (1) sensuous beauty, (2) beauty of form 
and (3) beauty of meaning or expression, nor do these 
appear to be reducible to any higher or more comprehensive 
principle.  It requires a certain boldness to attempt to effect 
a rapprochement between the formal and the expressional 
factor.3 An apparent unification of the three seems at 
present only possible by substituting for beauty another 
concept at least equally vague, such as perfection,4 which 
seems to imply the idea of purposiveness, and to apply clearly 
only to certain domains of beauty, e.g. organic form. 

Beauty and allied conceptions. 

We may now take another step and say that beauty appears to be 
a quality in objects which is not sharply differentiated from 
other and allied qualities.  If we look at the usages of speech 
we shall find that beauty has its kindred conceptions, such as 
gracefulness, prettiness and others.  Writers on aesthetics have 
spent much time on these ``Modifications of the Beautiful.'' The 
point emphasized here is the difficulty of drawing the line between 
them.  Even an expert may hesitate long before saying whether 
a human face, a flower or a cameo should be called beautiful or 
pretty.  Must we postulate as many allied qualities as there 
are names for these pleasing aspects of objects? Or must we 
do violence to usage and so stretch the word ``Beauty'' as 
to make it cover all qualities or aspects of objects which 
have aesthetic value, including those ``modifications of the 
beautiful'' which we know as the sublime, the comic and the 
rest? But the wider we try in this way to make the denotation 
of the term the vaguer grows the connotation.  We are thus 
left equally incapable of saying what the quality is, and 
in which aspect or attribute of the object it inheres.5 

Assumption of objective qualityt of beauty dispensed with. 

It seems to follow that in constructing a scientific theory we do 
well to dispense with the assumption of an objective quality of 
beauty.  Aesthetics will return to Kant and confine itself to 
the examination of objects called beautiful in their relation 
to, and in their manner of affecting our minds.6 The aesthetic 
value of such an object will be viewed as consisting in the 
possession of certain assignable characteristics by means of 
which it is fitted to affect us in a certain desirable way, 
to draw us into the enjoyable mood of aesthetic contemplation. 

Aesthetic qualities. 

These characteristics may conveniently be called aesthetic 
qualities.7 Objects which are found to possess one or more 
of these qualities in the required degree of fulness claim a 
certain aesthetic value, even though they fall short of being 
``beautiful,'' in the more exacting use of this word.  They 
are in the direction---``im Sinne,'' as Fechner says----of 
beauty, conceived as something fuller and richer, answering 
to a higher standard of aesthetic enjoyment and a severer 
demand on our part.  The word ``beauty'' may still be used 
occasionally, where no ambiguity arises, as a convenient 
expression for aesthetic value in all its degrees.  Yet 
it is better to keep the term applicable to the objects 
commonly denoted by it by making it represent the fuller 
aesthetic satisfactions which flow from a rare and commanding 
exhibition of one or more of these qualities, from what may be 
described as an appreciable excellence of aesthetic quality. 

By thus dispensing with the concept of beauty as some 
occult undefinable quality, we get rid of much of the 
contradiction which appears to inhere in our aesthetic 
experience.  For example, a bit of brilliant colour in a 
bonnet which pleases the wearer but offends her superior in 
aesthetic matters takes its place as something which per 
se has a certain degree of aesthetic value even though the 
particular relations into which it has now thrust itself, 
palpable to the trained eye, may practically rob it of its 
value.  In thus substituting the relative idea of aesthetic 
value for the absolute idea of beauty we may no doubt seem 
to be destroying the reality of the object of aesthetic 
perception.  This point may more conveniently be taken up later 
when we consider the whole question of aesthetic illusion. 

Problem of aesthetic effect. 

This new way of envisaging aesthetic objects requires us 
to make the study of their effect a prominent part of our 
investigation.  In all the valuable recent work on the 
subject, attention has been largely concentrated on this 
effect.  More particularly we have to investigate and illumine 
scientifically the pleasurable side of the experience. 

Aesthetics and laws of pleasure. 

In doing this we shall make use of all the light we can 
obtain from a study of known laws of Pleasure.  Thus 
we shall avail ourselves not only of the theory of the 
pleasure-tones of sensation but of that of the conditions 
of an agreeable exercise of the attention upon objects more 
particularly of the characteristics of objects which adequately 
stimulate the attention without confusing or burdening it. 

Problem of aesthetic enjoyment a special one. 

Yet this does not require that we should treat the aesthetic 
problem as a part of the more general science of pleasure, as 
has been attempted by some, e.g. Grant Allen (Physiological 
Aesthetics) and Rutgers Marshall (Pain, Pleasure and 
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles.) To do so would be 
to run the risk of considering only the more general aspects 
and conditions of aesthetic enjoyment, whereas what we need is 
a theory of it as a specific kind of pleasurable experience. 

The attitude of aesthetic contemplation. 

What is required at the present stage of development of the 
science is a deeper investigation of the aesthetic attitude 
of mind as a whole, of what we may call the aesthetic 
psychosis.  We need to probe the act of contemplation itself, 
the mode of activity of attention involved in this calm, 
half-dreamlike gazing on the mere look of things unconcerned 
with their ordinary and weightier imports.  We need further 
to determine the effect of this contemplative attitude upon 
the several mental processes involved, the act of perception 
itself, with its grasp of manifold relations, the flow of 
ideas, the partial resurgence and transformation of emotion.  
In examining these effects we must keep in view the double side 
of the contemplative attitude, the wide range of free movement 
which perception and imagination claim and enjoy, and the willing 
subjection of the contemplative mind to the spell of the object. 

Intellectual and aesthetic activity further differentiated. 

A deeper inspection of the contemplative mood may be expected 
to render clearer the difference between the mental activity 
employed in aesthetic perception and imagination and intellectual 
activity proper; between. say, the differencing of allied 
tints involved in the finer aesthetic enjoyment of colour 
and the sharper, clearer discrimination of tints required in 
scientific observation, and between such a grasp of relations 
as is required for a just appreciation of beautiful form 
and that severe analysis and measurement of formal elements 
and their relations which is insisted upon by science.  As 
a result of a finer distinction here we may probably be in a 
better position to determine the point---touched on more than 
once in recent works on aesthetics---how far intellectual 
pleasure proper, e.g. that of recognizing and classifying 
objects, enters as a subordinate element into aesthetic 
enjoyment. Is aesthetic enjoyment essentially social? 

One point in the characterization of aesthetic experience 
has been reserved, namely, the question whether it is 
essentially a form of social enjoyment.  No one doubts 
that a man often enjoys beauty, e.g. that of a landscape, 
when alone; yet at such a moment he not only recognizes that 
his pleasure is a possible one for others, but is probably 
aware of a sub-conscious wish that others were present to 
share his enjoyment.  Kant went so far as to say that on 
a desert island a man would adorn neither his hut nor his 
person.  However this be, it seems certain that as a rule 
we tend to indulge our aesthetic tastes in company with 
others.  This habit of making aesthetic enjoyment a social 
experience would in itself tend to develop the sympathies and 
the sympathetic intelligence and thus to promote exchanges 
of aesthetic experience.  The content, too, of our aesthetic 
experiences would be favourable to such conjoint acts of 
aesthetic contemplation, and to the mutual sharing of aesthetic 
experiences; for, as disinterested and universal modes of 
enjoyment detached from personal interests, they are clearly 
free from the egoistic exclusiveness which characterizes our 
private enjoyments which at best can only be participated 
in by one or two closely attached friends.  Our aesthetic 
enjoyments are thus eminently fitted to be social ones; and as 
such they become greatly amplified by sympathetic resonance. 

The aesthetic senses. 

We are now in a position to consider a point much discussed of 
late, namely, the special connexion of aesthetic enjoyment 
with the two senses, sight and hearing.  Two questions 
arise here: (1) Do the other and ``lower'' senses take any 
part in aesthetic experience? (2) What are the ``higher'' 
ones? With regard to the first it is coming to be recognized 
that aesthetic pleasure is not strictly confined to the 
two senses in question.  Common language suggests that we 
find in certain odours and even in certain flavours a value 
analogous to that implied in calling an object beautiful. 

Aesthetic claims of touch. 

Hegel excluded the other senses--even touch----on the ground 
that aesthetics had to do only with art, in which there was 
no place for perceptions of touch.  A closer examination has 
shown that this important sense plays a considerable part in 
art-effects.  And even if this were not so, Hegel's exclusion 
of touch from the rank of aesthetic senses would be a striking 
illustration of the narrowing effect on scientific theory of 
the identification of aesthetic objects with productions of 
art.  To say that the experience of exploring with the fingers 
a velvety petal or the smooth surface of a sea-rounded pebble 
has no aesthetic element savours of a perverse arbitrariness.  
Touch is no doubt wanting in a prerogative of hearing and 
sight which we shall presently see to be important, namely, 
that being acted on by objects at a distance they admit of 
a simultaneous perception by a number of persons--as indeed 
even the sense of smell does in a measure.  This is probably 
the chief reason why, according to certain testimony, the 
blind receive but little aesthetic enjoyment from tactual 
experience.8 Yet this drawback is compensated to some 
extent by the fact that agreeable tactual experience may be 
taken up as suggested meaning into our visual perceptions. 

Prerogatives of sight and hearing. 

The two privileged senses, sight and hearing, owe their 
superiority to a number of considerations.  They are the 
farthest removed from the necessary life functions, with 
the pressing needs and disturbing cravings which belong to 
these.  Even touch, though imoortant as a source of knowledge, 
has for its primary function to examine the things which 
approach our organisms in their relation to this as injurious or 
harmless.  The two higher senses present to us material objects 
in their least aggressive and menacing manner: visible forms and 
colours, tones and their combinations, appear when compared 
with objects felt to be in contact with our body, to be rather 
semblances or distant signs of material realities than these 
realities themselves; and this circumstance fits these senses 
to be in a special way the organs of aesthetic perception with 
its calm, dreamlike detachment and its enjoyable freedom of 
movement.  They are, moreover, the two senses by the use of 
which a number of persons may join most perfectly in a common 
act of aesthetic contemplation.  This distinction strengthens 
their claims to be in a special manner the aesthetic senses, 
and this for a double reason. (1) It makes them sense-avenues 
by which each of us obtains the most immediate and most 
impressive conviction that aesthetic experience is a common 
possession of the many, and is largely similar in the case of 
different individuals. (2) It marks them off as the senses by 
the exercise of which perceptual enjoyment may most readily 
and certainly be increased through the resonant effects of 
sympathy.  The experiences of the theatre and of the 
concert-hall sufficiently illustrate these distinguishing 
functions of the two senses.  Other distinguishing prerogatives 
of sight and hearing flow from the characteristics of their 
sensations and perceptions, a point to be touched on later.9 

Aesthetic activity and play. (a) Points of affinity between them. 

Our determination of the characteristics of the aesthetic 
attitude has now been carried far enough to enable us to 
consider another point much discussed in recent aesthetic 
literature, viz. the relation of this attitude to that of 
play.  The affinities of the two are striking and are disclosed 
in everyday language, as when we speak of the ``play'' of 
imagination or of ``playing'' on a musical instrument.  
Both play and aesthetic contemplation are activities which 
are controlled by no extraneous end, which run on freely 
directed only by the intrinsic delight of the activity.  Hence 
they both contrast with the serious work imposed on us and 
controlled by what we mark off as the necessities of life, 
such as providing for bodily wants, or rearing a family.  They 
each add a sort of luxurious fringe to life.  In aesthetic 
enjoyment our senses, our intelligence and our emotions are 
alike released from the constraint of these necessary ends, 
and may be said to refresh themselves in a kind of play.  
Finally, they are both characterized by a strong infusion of 
make-believe, a disposition to substitute productions of the 
imagination for everyday realities.  In this respect, again, 
they form a contrast to that serious concern with fact and 
practical truth which the necessary aims of life impose on 
us.  Little wonder, then, that Plato recognized in the contrast 
between the representative and the useful arts an analogy 
between play and earnest,10 and that since the time of Schiller 
so much use has been made of the analogy in aesthetic works. 

(b) Points of difference. 

Yet though similar. the two kinds of activity are distinguishable 
in important respects.  For one thing, aesthetic contemplation 
pure and simple is a comparatively tranquil and passive 
attitude, whereas play means doing something and commonly 
involves some amount of strenuous exertion, either of body or of 
mind.  A closer analogy might be drawn between play and artistic 
production.  Yet even when the parallel is thus narrowed, pretty 
obvious differences disclose themselves.  It is only in their 
more primitive phases that the two attitudes exhibit a close 
similarity.  As they develop, striking divergences begin to 
appear.  The play mood, instead of approaching the calm 
contemplative mood of the lover of beauty, involves feelings 
and impulses which lie at the roots of our practical interests, 
viz. ambition, rivalry and struggle.  It has, moreover, in 
all its stages a palpable utility---even though this is not 
realized by the player---serving for the exercise and development 
of body, intelligence and character.  Beauty and art rise 
high above play in purity of the disinterested attitude, in 
placid detachment from the serviceable and the necessary, 
and, still more, in range and variety of refined interest, 
comprehended in ``the love of beauty.'' Finally, aesthetic 
activities are directed by ideal conceptions and standards 
to which hardly anything corresponds in play save where games 
of skill take on something of the dignity of a fine art.11 

Methods of research in aesthetics. 

So far as to the preliminary delimiting work in aesthetic 
science.  Only a bare indication can be made as to the methods 
of research by which its advance can be furthered, and as 
to the several directions of inquiry which it will have to 
follow.  With regard to the former the method of investigation 
will consist in a careful inquiry into two orders of fact: (1) 
Objects which common testimony or the history of art show to be 
widely recognized objects of aesthetic value; (2) records of the 
aesthetic experience of individuals, whether artists or amateurs. 

Examination of aesthetic objects. 

Since aesthetic experience is brought about and its modes 
determined by objects possessing certain qualities, it seems 
evident that scientific aesthetics must make an examination and 
comparison of these a fundamental part of its problem.  These 
objects will, as already hinted, include both natural ones in the 
inorganic and organic worlds, and works of art which can be shown 
to be objects of general or widely recognized aesthetic value. 

Nature as supplying aesthetic objects. 

Without attempting here to discuss adequately the relation 
of natural beauty to that of art we may note one or two 
points.  Some contemplation and appreciation of the beautiful 
aspects of nature is not only prior in time to art, but is 
a condition of its genesis.  The enjoyment of the pleasing 
aspects of land and sea, of mountain and dale, of the 
innumerable organic forms, has steadily grown with the 
development of culture; and this growth, though undoubtedly 
aided by that of the feeling for art---especially painting 
and poetry---is to a large extent independent of it.12 
Some of the finest insight into the secrets of beauty has 
been gained by those who had only a limited acquaintance with 
art.  What is still more important in the present connexion 
is that the aesthetic experience gained by the direct 
contemplation of nature includes varieties which art cannot 
reproduce.  It is enough to recall what Helmholtz and others 
have told us about the limitations of the powers of pictorial 
art to represent the more brilliant degrees of light; the 
admissions of painters themselves as to the limits of their 
art when it seeks to render the finer gradations of light and 
colour in such common objects as a tree-trunk or a bit of old 
wall.  Nature, moreover, in spreading out her spaces of 
earth, sea and sky, and in exhibiting the action of her 
forces, does so on a scale which seems to make sublimity her 
prerogative in which art vainly endeavours to participate. 

Use of works of art by the theorist. 

On the other hand, it is coming to be seen that the construction 
of a theory of aesthetic values must be assisted by a much more 
precise examination than aestheticists are commonly content to 
make, of works of art.  The importance of including these is 
that they are well-defined objective expressions of what the 
aesthetic consciousness approves and prefers.  In inquiring, 
for example, into the pleasing relations of colour we might 
have to wait long for a theory if we were dependent on what 
even so gifted a writer as Ruskin can tell us about nature's 
juxtapositions: whereas if it can be shown that throughout the 
history of chromatic art or during its better period there has 
been a tendency to prefer certain combinations, this fact becomes 
a piece of convincing evidence as to their aesthetic value. 

Difficulties in using works of art as material. 

Even here, however, there are sources of uncertainty.  It 
is not true to say that a work of art is a pure outcome of 
the aesthetic feeling of the artist. even if we take this 
in a comprehensive sense.  It is subject to the influence 
of all the temporary feelings and tendencies of the time 
which produced it.  The aesthetic motive which is supposed 
to originate it is apt to be complicated and disguised 
by other motives, e.g. utility in architecture,13 an 
impulse to instruct if not to reform in modern fiction. 

Effects of custom on artistic preference. 

Again, if it is said that a certain degree of permanence 
assures us of the aesthetic value of a feature of art, we 
are met by the difficulty that custom plays an important 
part in art, the result of convention fixed by tradition 
often simulating the aspect of a deep-seated aesthetic 
preference.  In this connexion it is to be remarked that even 
so permanent an element as symmetry may owe its quasiaesthetic 
value to custom, by which is understood its wide and impressive 
display in the organic and even the inorganic world.14 
Yet the influence of custom taken in this larger sense need 
not greatly disturb us.  In aesthetics, as in ethics, the 
question of validity has to be kept distinct from that of 
origin.  If symmetry (in general) is appreciated as 
aesthetically pleasing, the question of its genesis becomes 
immaterial.  Another difficulty, not peculiar to aesthetic 
investigation, is that of reconstructing the modes of 
aesthetic consciousness represented by forms of art which 
differ widely from those of our own age and type of culture. 

Value of primitive art for aesthetics. 

In utilizing art material for aesthetic theory the theorist 
will need to note the work recently done by English and German 
writers on primitive art.  And this not merely because of the 
value of the early forms of art for a theory of the evolution 
of the aesthetic consciousness; but because the embryonic stages 
of art are likely to have a peculiar interest as illustrating 
in a comparatively isolated form some of the simpler modes of 
aesthetic appreciation, e.g. in the grouping of colours, in 
the mode of covering a surface with linear ornament.  Yet it 
is not necessary to give primitive art a considerable place 
in a general aesthetics.  As a normative science, it is to be 
remembered, this is much more immediately concerned with the 
higher stages of aesthetic culture.  In seeking to establish 
norms or regulative principles, we must, it is evident, make 
a special study of objects of art which belong to our own 
level of culture.  For these reasons it would appear necessary 
to include in a general aesthetic theory some reference to 
the evolution of art and of the aesthetic consciousness. 

Evolution as criterion of aesthetic height. 

A further reason for including it is that the evolution 
of art supplies a most valuable auxiliary criterion of 
degree or height of aesthetic value.  Provided that we 
distinguish what is a real process of evolution from one 
of mere change of fashion in taste, and that we confine 
ourselves to the larger features of the process, we may make 
the principle of evolution a serviceable one by regarding 
those forms and features of art as higher in respect of 
aesthetic value which grow distinct and relatively fixed 
in the later and better stages of the evolution of art.15 

Exact measurement of characteristics of art-work. 

This part of aesthetic investigation should be made as exact as 
possible.Thus in dealing with the triads of colour said to be 
most frequently employed in the best period of Italian painting 
the observer should note and record as far as this is possible 
not only the precise tints, but also the precise degrees of 
their several luminosities.  With regard to elements of form in 
art, the judicious use of photography and careful measurement 
would probably help us to understand the practices of art in 
its better periods.  This examination of art material by the 
aesthetic theorist should be supplemented by a study of what 
artists have written about their methods, of the rules laid 
down for students of art, and lastly of the generalizations 
reached by the more scientific kind of writer upon art.16 

Aesthetic inductions. 

A proper methodical inquiry into aesthetic objects aided by 
a knowledge of the practices of art would lead to inductions 
of such characteristics are aesthetically valuable.''17 

Germs of aesthetic preference in children, etc. 

This preliminary work of aesthetic science in collecting 
and analysing facts may be extended in two directions: by 
an examination (a) of the earlier and simpler forms of 
aesthetic experience, and (b) of the fuller and more complex 
experiences of those specially trained in the perception and 
enjoyment of beauty. (a) The former would be illustrated by 
a more methodical investigation into the rudimentary aesthetic 
likings of children and of the lower races.  Such inquiries 
may be expected to add to our knowledge of the simpler and 
more universal forms of aesthetic enjoyment.  Some attention 
has been paid by Darwin and others to germs of taste in birds 
and other animals.  Yet this line of inquiry, though of some 
value for a theory of the evolution of taste, seems to throw 
but little light on aesthetic preferences as found in man.18 

Aesthetic experiment. 

An important feature in this new investigation into simpler 
modes of aesthetic preference is that it proceeds by way of 
experiment, that is to say, a methodical testing of the aesthetic 
preferences of a number of individuals.  Fechner introduced the 
method of experiment into aesthetics in his researches on the 
preferability (according to Zeising) of the proportion known as 
the ``golden section.''19 Since his time other experimental 
inquiries have been made, both as to what forms (e.g. what 
variety of rectangle) and what combinations of colours are most 
pleasing.  The results of these experiments are distinctly 
promising, though they have not yet been carried far enough to 
be made the basis of perfectly trustworthy generalizations.20 

Experience and judgments of experts. 

A valuable portion of the data for a science of aesthetics 
lies in the recorded experiences of artists, art critics, 
and others who have specially developed their tastes; This 
source of information has certainly never been made use of 
in a complete and methodical manner by theorists, a quotation 
now and again from writers like Goethe and Ruskin having been 
deemed sufficient.  Yet it is safe to say that an adequate 
understanding of the finer effects of beauty, both in nature and 
in art, presupposes the assimilation of what is best in these 
records.  And this not only because they commonly supply us with 
new and valuable varieties of experience of the more refined 
kind, but because the aesthetic judgments on nature and art of 
men in whom the feeling of beauty has been specially cultivated 
have a greater value than those of others.21 It may be added 
that these records are wont to contain reflexions which, though 
wanting in scientific precision, can be utilized by science. 

Psychological analysis of material. 

We now come to the work of scientific construction proper.  
The finer analysis of the objects which please aesthetically 
as well as of the agreeable type of consciousness to which 
they minister belongs to the psychologist, and it is noteworthy 
that the best recent contributions to the science have been 
made by men who were either known as psychologists or at least 
had trained themselves in psychological analysis.  A word or 
two must suffice to indicate the more important directions 
of the theoretic interpretation.  We may in illustrating this 
set out from the convenient triple division of the factors in 
aesthetic experience: (A) the sensuous, (B) the perceptual or 
formal, (C) the imaginative, including all that is suggested 
by the aesthetic presentation, its meaning and expressiveness. 

The sensuous factor.  Physiological aesthetics. 

(A) In dealing with the sensuous factor the psychologist is 
materially aided by the physiologist.  It is sufficient to 
point to the contribution made to the analysis of musical 
sensations by the classical researches of Helmholtz (see 
below).  Yet the application of a knowledge of physiological 
conditions seems as yet to be of little service when we 
come to the finer aspects of this sensuous experience, 
to the subtle effects of colour combination, for example, 
and to the nuances of feeling-tone attaching to different 
tints.  In the finer analysis of the sensuous material of 
aesthetic enjoyment it is the psychologist who counts.22 

Psychological problems. 

Among the valuable contributions recently made in this domain 
one may instance the careful determination of the aesthetically 
important characteristics of the sensations of sight and hearing, 
such as the finely graduated variety of their qualities (colour 
and tone), their capability of entering into combinations 
in which they preserve their individuality, including the 
important combinations of time and space form.  With these 
are to be included the distinguishing characteristics of the 
concomitant feeling-tones, e.g. their comparative calmness 
and their clear separation from the sensations which they 
accompany.  These characteristics help us to understand 
the greater refinement of these senses and also the more 
prolonged as well as varying enjoyment which they contribute, 
as well as the extension of this enjoyment by imaginative 
reproduction.23 Next to this determination of important 
aesthetic characteristics of the two senses may be named a 
finer probing of the nuances of pleasurable tone exhibited by 
the several colours and tones.  A point still needing special 
investigation is extent of the sensuous factor in aesthetic 
enjoyment.  There has been a tendency in aesthetic theory 
to over-intellectualize aesthetic experience and to find 
the value even of the sensuous factor in some intellectual 
principle, as when it is said (by Plato and Hegel among 
others) that a smooth or level tone and a uniform mass of 
colour owe their value to the principle of unity.  But such 
prolongation (within obvious limits) in time or space is a 
condition of the full enjoyment of the distinctive quality 
of an individual tone or colour, and as such has a sensuous 
value.  Aesthetics has to prove the sensuous value, the 
pleasure which is due not only to the feeling-tones of the 
several sensations but to those of their variods combinations.  
Spite of a tendency of late to disparage the co-operation of 
the ``motor sensations'' connected with movements of the eye 
in the aesthetic appreciation of linear form, e.g. curves, 
evidence suggests that certain curves, like fine gradations 
of colour, may owe a considerable part of their value to 
a mode of varying the sensuous experience which is in a 
peculiar manner agreeable.  On the other hand, this theoretic 
investigation of sense-material will need to determine with 
care the added value due to the action of experience in giving 
something of meaning to particular colours and tones and 
their combinations, e.g. warmth of colour, height of tone. 

The perceptual factor. 

(B) Under the scientific treatment of the perceptual or 
formal factor in aesthetic experience we have many special 
problems, of which only a few can be touched on here.  Taking 
this factor to include all combinations of elements in which 
there is a more or less distinct perception of pleasing 
relations, we meet here with such work as that of C. Stumpf 
(Ton-psychologie) in determining the way in which tones 
combine and tend to fuse.  Later experiments have added to our 
knowledge of the obscure subject of colour harmony, enabhng 
us to distinguish pleasing contrasts of colour from the more 
restful combinations of nearly allied tints.  Our knowledge 
of pleasing form in the narrower sense, that is to say, 
space and time form, has been advanced by a number of recent 
inquiries.  The value of symmetry, the meaning of proportion 
and the aesthetic value to be set on certain proportions, 
the forms of these are some of the points dealt with in more 
central and in special works24.  In the case of forms, 
still more than in that of sensuous elements, it is needful to 
determine the extent to which the value of the formal aspect 
is modified by experience and the acquisition of meaning.  
This is pretty certainly the source of the aesthetic value 
claimed for certain proportions, whether in the human figure 
or other organic forms or in the freer constructions of form 
in art.25 Another problem is to determine the influence of 
the feeling-tones of the combining elements on the pleasing 
character of the whole.  It is probable that a particular 
combination of colours owes something of its pleasure value 
to a harmony of the feeling-tones of the elements.  This 
is pretty certainly the case where the feeling-tones of the 
elements are closely akin, as in the case of a number of low 
tones of colours, or of architectural or other forms where 
one formal element--say, a vertical line, a rectangle of a 
certain proportion or a particular variety of arch--repeats 
itself and becomes a dominating feature of the whole. 

The imaginative factor. 

(C) The imaginative factor---which corresponds with what 
Fechner calls the ``indirect''---includes all that imaginative 
activity adds to our enjoyment when we contemplate an aesthetic 
object.  It may consist first of all in recalling concrete 
experiences firmly associated with the object, as when the 
sight of wild-flowers in a London street calls up an image 
of fields and lanes.  In order that these images may add to 
the aesthetic value of the object they must correspond to 
our common associations, as distinguished from accidental 
individual ones.  A large increase of aesthetic enjoyment 
comes to us through such suggested images.  Although in 
general it is images of concrete objects which are called 
up, ideas of a more abstract character may take part though 
they tend in this case to assume a concrete aspect.  This is 
illustrated in the appreciation of ``typical beauty'' in which 
a concrete form represents in an exceptional way the common 
form of a species, and in that of symbolic representation.  
An important part of this work of association is to render 
objects expressive of mental states, as when we read off the 
particular shade of feeling expressed by a natural scene.26 

Freer play of imagination. 

In the poetic contemplation of nature, her forces, her gladness 
and other moods, this imaginative activity, though still deriving 
leading to an investment of natural objects with a new and more 
fanciful meaning, as when we ``apperceive'' a willow drooping 
over a pond or the front of an old cottage under a quasi-human 
form, endowing it with something akin to our own feelings and 
memories.  What, it may be asked, is the whole range of this 
freer play of a life-giving fancy in our aesthetic enjoyment? 
Some recent theorists have attempted to answer this question 
by saying that it constitutes a vital element in all aesthetic 
contemplation.  Th. Lipps and others who follow him seek to 
show that this vitalizing activity of the fancy, which produces 
a new and illusory object, is the essential ingredient in 
the aesthetic enjoyment of the forms of material objects.  
According to this theory, when in the aesthetic mood I enjoy 
the form of a tree, of a church steeple or of the front of 
a Greek temple, I am not only ascribing life and feeling to 
it, but am projecting myself in fancy into the object thus 
constructed, feeling for the moment that I am the tree or the 
steeple.  The process of vivification is carried out as 
follows.  Lines represent certain movements, and in the 
aesthetic mood we translate all lines and so all forms back 
into the corresponding movements, which may be merely imagined 
(as Lipps himself thinks, or may be realized in part by 
sensuous elements, viz. motor sensations; which again may 
be regarded either as concomitants of eye movements, or as 
arising from an organically connected impulse to move the hand 
along the lines followed by the eye.27 Thus the columns of 
a temple represent upward movement, and are apperceived as 
striving upwards so as to resist the downward pressure of the 
entablature.  Since movements are the great means of expression 
in man, this imaginative reading of movement into motionless 
and even massive and stable forms enables us to endow them 
with quasi-human feelings.  In looking, for example, at 
the weighty masses of a building we enter sympathetically 
into the successful strivings of the supporting structures 
to resist the downward thrust of gravity in the supported 
masses.  The theory here briefly indicated28 is interesting 
as illustrating an attempt from the psychological side to find a 
scientific support for philosophic idealism or expressionalism.  
It is already beginning to be recognized in Germany as an 
exaggeration.  It may be enough to say that as applied to forms 
generally, including those of sculpture and architecture, the 
theory is opposed by our ordinary way of speaking, which implies 
quite another point of view in the aesthetic contemplation 
of form, namely, that of a spectator external to the object 
contemplated.  When our eye glides over the beauties of a 
statue, our imaginative activity so far from transporting us 
within the object carries us as tactual feelers outside the 
surface.  Similarly, when we delight in the divided spaces 
of a Gothic roof, so far from being imaginatively engaged in 
taking part in the efforts and strains of pillar, arch and 
the rest, we move in fancy along the pathways defined by the 
designer, tactually feeling and appreciating each dimension, 
each detail of form.  The attempt to force a theory fitted 
for poetry on sculpture and architecture would rob these of 
their distinctive aesthetic values; in the one case, of the 
plastic beauty of finely moulded marble surfaces as realized 
by imaginative excursions of the hand; and in the other 
case, of the perfect stillness and stability which give 
to great structures their solemn and quieting aspect.29 

Aesthetic Illusion. 

The theory of a vitalizing play of imagination (Einfuhlung) 
running through all modes of aesthetic contemplation is an 
exaggeration of the element of illusion which certainly characterizes 
this contemplation.  As suggested above, by blotting out for 
the moment the perception of all save that which pleases it 
substitutes a new for the more solid reality of our practical 
mood.  Moreover, as a state of perceptual absorption in which 
one loses consciousness of the ordinary self and its world, it 
has a certain resemblance to the state of ecstasy and of the 
hypnotic trance.30 It is favourable to the play-like indulgence 
in a fanciful transformation of what is seen or heard, which 
may be described as a ``willing self-deception,'' more or less 
complete.  Yet as we have seen, something of the real everyday 
world survives even in our freer aesthetic contemplation of 
form.  Hence there is much to be said for the idea that 
we have in aesthetic illusion to do with a kind of double 
consciousness, a tendency to an illusory acceptance of the 
product of our fancy as the reality, restrained by a subconscious 
recognition of the everyday tangible reality behind.31 

Variations of imaginative activity. 

It is evident that both in the more confined and in the 
freer form the element of imaginative activity in aesthetic 
experience will vary greatly among individuals and among 
peoples.  Differences in past experience leading to diverse 
habits of association, as well as in those natural dispositions 
which prompt one person to prefer motor images, another visual, 
another audile, will modify the process in this enjoyable 
enlargement and transformation of what is presented to 
sense.  It is for aesthetics at once to recognize these 
variations of imaginative activity and to determine the 
more common and universal directions which it follows. 

Form and expression not absolutely distinct. 

The recent inquiry into our way of contemplating form 
is, in spite of exaggeration, valuable as showing that our 
distinctions of form and expression are not absolute.  Just 
as there is the rudiment of ideal significance in colour, not 
so form, even in its more abstract and elementary aspects, 
is not wholly expressionless, but may be be endowed with 
something of life by the imagination.  The recognition of 
this truth does not, however, affect the validity of our 
treating form and expression as two broadly distinguishable 
factors of aesthetic pleasure.  A line may be pleasing to 
sense-perception, and in addition illustrate expressional value 
by suggested ease of movement or pose.  Similarly, a concrete 
form, e.g. that of a sculptured human figure in repose, or 
of a graceful birch or fern, owes its aesthetic value to a 
happy combination of pleasing lines and of interesting ideas. 

Aesthetic emotion. 

In close connexion with the determination of the imaginative 
factor in aesthetic contemplation, the psychologist is 
called on to define the soecial characteristics of aesthetic 
emotion.  That our attitude when we watch a beautiful object, 
say the curl of a breaker as it falls, or some choice piece 
of sculpture, is an emotional one is certain, and ingenious 
attempts have been made by Home (Lord Kames) and others to 
equip the emotion with a full accompaniment of corporeal 
activity, such as heightened respiratory activity.32 Yet 
aesthetic emotion is to be contrasted with the more violent 
and passionate state of love and other emotions, and this 
difference calls for further investigation.  A closer inquiry 
into the features of that calm yet intense emotion which a 
rapt state of aesthetic contemplation induces is a necessary 
preliminary to a scientific demarcation of the sphere of 
beauty in the narrow or more exclusive sense, from that 
of the sublime, the tragic and the comic.  Each of these 
departments of aesthetic experience has well-marked emotional 
characteristics; and the definition of these ``modifications 
of the beautiful'' has in the main been reached through an 
analysis of the emotional states involved.  This chapter in 
the psychological treatment of aesthetic experience has to 
consider two points which have occupied a prominent place 
in aesthetic theory.  The first is the nature of ``revived'' 
or ``ideal'' emotion, such as is illustrated in the feeling 
excited sympathetically when we witness or hear of another's 
sorrow or joy.  The second point is the nature of those 
mixed emotional states which are illustrated in our aesthetic 
enjoyment of the sublime and the other ``modifications,'' 
in all of which we can recognize a kind of double emotional 
consciousness in which painful elements accompany and modify 
pleasurable ones, in such a manner that in the end the 
latter appear to be rather strengthened than weakened.33 

Limits of analysis in aesthetics. 

The psychological treatment of aesthetic data here sketched 
out cannot stop at an analysis of the aesthetic state or 
attitude into a number of recoenizable elements each of which 
contributes its own quantum of pleasurableness.  Our enjoyment 
in contemplating, say, a green alp set above dark crags, is an 
indivisible whole.  And it is a consciousness of this fact which 
makes men disposed to resent the dissection of their aesthetic 
enjoyment into a number of constituent pleasures.  Nor is this 
all.  Every aesthetic object is something unique, differing in 
individual characteristics from all others; and as the object, 
so the mood of the contemplator.  One may almost say that 
there are as many modes of musical delight as there are worthy 
compositions.  It would seem either that this feeling of a 
unique indivisible whole must be dismissed as an illusion, or 
that we have to admit an unexplained residue in our aesthetic 
experience, which may some day be explained by help of a 
larger and more exact conception of aesthetic harmony, of the 
laws of interaction and of fusion of psychical elements.34 

Construction of aesthetic norms. 

We may now glance at the ideal purpose of this scientific 
analysis and interpretation, namely, the construction of 
norms or regulative principles corresponding to the severally 
essential elements of aesthetic value ascertained.  The 
later psychological treatment of the subject has led up to 
the formulation of certain ideal requirements in beautiful 
objects.  The work of Fechner in this direction (Vorschule 
der Asthetik) was a noteworthy contribution to this kind of 
construction, at once scientific and directed to the construction 
of ideal demands, and is still a model for workers in the same 
field.  He has taught us how the attempt to formulate one 
all-comprehensive principle--e.g. unity in variety, has 
led to a barren abstractedness, and that we need in its 
place a number of more concrete principles.  In formulating 
these principles care must be taken to determine their 
respective scopes and their mutual relations---to decide, for 
example, whether expression, to which our modern feeling 
undoubtedly ascribes a high value, is a universal demand in 
the same sense as unity or harmony of parts is admitted to 
be.  A system of norms must further supply some comprehensive 
criterion by help of which degrees of aesthetic value may be 
determined, as determined by the degrees of completeness of 
the several pleasurable activities, --sensuous, perceptual 
and imaginative,--and justify the form of judgment ``this 
object is more beautiful (or of a higher kind of beauty) than 
that.'' Such regulative principles and standards of comparison 
will, it is clear, fail us just at the point where analysis 
stops.  Edmund Gurney urges that an aesthetic principle such 
as unity in variety is complied with equally well by musical 
compositions which are commonplace and leave us cold and by 
those which evoke the full thrill of aesthetic delight, and 
he concludes that the special beauty of form in the latter 
instance is appreciated by a kind of intuition which cannot 
be analysed (see The Power of sound, ix.).  The argument 
is hard to combat.  It would seem that after all our efforts 
to define aesthetic qualities and enumerate corresponding 
ideal requirements we are left with an unexplained remainder.  
This can only be tentatively defined as the concrete object 
itself in its wholeness, which is not only a perfectly 
harmonized combination of sensuous, formal and expressional 
values, but impresses us as something which has a fresh 
individuality and the distinction of aesthetic excellence. 

Connexion between aesthetic and other 
experience: (a) with intellectual interests. 

Aesthetics is wont to treat of a certain kind of experience 
as if it were a closed compartment.  Yet there is in reality 
no such perfect seclusion.  Our enjoyment of beauty, though 
to be distinguished from our intellectual and our practical 
interests, touches and interacts with these.  With regard 
to intellectual interests it is clear that much of the 
mental activity which enters into our aesthetic enjoyment 
is intellectual--e.g. in the perception of the relations 
of form. even though it stood short of the abstract analysis 
of scientific observation.  Again, in appreciating beauty 
of type which involves according to Taine a recognition of 
the most important characters of the species, we are, it is 
evident, close to the scientific point of view.  Similarly, 
when scientific knowledge enables us in the mood of aesthetic 
contemplation to retrace imaginatively the mode of formation 
of a cloud or a mountain form, or the mode in which a 
climbing plant finds its way upwards.  It is for aesthetics to 
recognize the fact, and to discriminate a legitimate aesthetic 
function of scientific ideas when they enlarge the scope of 
a pleasurable play of the imagination, and are freed from 
the control of a serious purpose of explaining what is seen. 

(b) with practical interests. 

A similar remark applies to the contacts of our aesthetic with 
our practical interests.  While as dominant factors the latter 
influence our feeling for beauty in an indirect and subordinate 
way.  This is recognized by those (e.g. Home) who insist 
on a particular kind of aesthetic value under the name of 
relative beauty, or the pleasing aspect of fitness for a 
purpose.  If a drinking-vessel please in part because of 
its perfect adaptation to its purpose, the aesthetic value 
ascribed to it seems to derive something from a feeling of 
respect for utility itself.  In another way beauty reasserts 
in modern aesthetics that kinship with utility on which it 
insisted in the days of Socrates.  The idea that typical 
beauty coincides with what is vigorous and conducive to 
the conservation of the species is as old as Hobbes.35 

Biological treatment of beauty. 

Darwin and his followers have developed the biological 
conception that sexual selection tends to develop aesthetic 
preferences along lines which correspond to what subserves 
the maintenance of the species or tribe.  Recent writers have 
shown how the rude germs of aesthetic activity in primitive 
types of community would subserve necessary tribal ends--e.g. 
musical rhythm by exercising members of the tribe in concerted 
war-like action.36 Yet these interesting speculations have 
to do rather with the earlier stages of the evolution of the 
aesthetic faculty than with its functions in the higher stages. 

Aesthetics and ethics. 

An idea of a social utility in aesthetic experience which does 
demand the attention of the theorist is that the culture of 
beauty and art has a socializing influence, helping to give 
to our emotional experience new forms of expression whereby 
our sympathies are deepened and enlarged.37 The further 
elucidation of this element of humanizing influence in aesthetic 
enjoyment may be expected to throw new light on the question, 
much discussed throughout the history of aesthetics, of the 
relation of the science to ethics, by showing that they have a 
common root in our sympathetic nature and interest in humanity. 

Aesthetic theory and problems of art. 

In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need 
to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special 
problems of Fine Art. It is evident that the definition of the 
aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in its several 
forms, involving as it does special technical knowledge, may 
with advantage be treated apart from a general theory. (See 
FINE ARTS.) At the same time the study of art raises larger 
problems which require to be dealt with to some extent by this 
theory.  We may instance the group of problems which have 
to do with the relation of art to ``beauty'' in its narrower 
sense, such as the function of the painful and of the ugly in 
art, the meaning of artistic imitation and truth to nature, 
of idealization, and the nature of artistic illusion; also 
the question of the didactic and of the moral function of 
art.  Even more special problems of art, such as the effect 
of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can only be 
adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic theory. 

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological 
theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of 
art-lore, inquiring into the nature of the artistic impulse and 
temperament, and into the processes of imaginative creation.  
These inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion 
with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art 
to the social environment.  Their importance for aesthetics 
lies in the circumstance that they are fitted to throw light 
upon the aesthetic consciousness as it is developed in those 
who are not only in a special sense cultivators of it, but 
represent in a peculiar manner the ideas and the aims of art.38 

HISTORY OF THEORIES In the following summary of the most 
important contributions to aesthetic doctrine, only such 
writings will be recognized as contribute to a general conception 
of aesthetic objects or experience.  These include the more 
systematic treatment of the subject in philosophic works as 
well as the more thoughtful kind of discussion of principles 
to be met with in writings on art by critics and others. 

Greek Speculations.---Ancient Greece supolies us with 
the first important contributions to aesthetic theory, 
though these are scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what 
one might nave expected from a people which had so high an 
appreciation of beauty and so strong a bent for philosophic 
speculation.  The first Greek thinker of whose views on the 
subject we really know something is Socrates.  We learn from 
Xenophon's account of him that he regarded the beautiful as 
coincident with the good, and both of them are resolvable 
into the useful.  Every beautiful object is so called because 
it serves came rational end, whether the security or the 
gratification of man.  Socrates appears to have attached 
little importance to the immediate gratification which a 
beauriful object affords to perception and contemplation, 
but to have emphasized rather its power of furthering the 
more necessary ends of life.  The really valuable point in 
his doctrine is the relativity of beauty.  Unlike Plato, 
he recognized no self-beauty (auto to kalon) existing 
absolutely and out of all relation to a percipient mind. 

Plato. 

Of the views of Plato on the subject, it is hardly less difficult 
to gain a clear conception from the Dialogues, than it is in 
the case of ethical good.  In some of these, various definitions 
of the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic 
Socrates.  At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind 
leaned decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, 
which took its place in his scheme of ideas or self-exisiing 
forms.  This true beauty is nothing discoverable as an 
attribute in another thing, for these nre only beautiful things, 
not the beautiful itself.  Love (Eros) produces aspiration 
towards this pure idea.  Elsewhere the soul's intuition of the 
self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its prenatal 
existence.  As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty 
reveals itself, Plato is not very decided.  His theory of an 
absolute beauty does not easily adjust itself to the notion 
of its contributing merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, 
to which he appears to lean in some dialogues.  He tends 
to identify the self-beautiful with the conceptions of the 
true and the good, and thus there arose the Platonic formula 
kalokagathia. So far as his writings embody the notion of 
any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, 
harmony or unity among their parts.  He emphasizes unity in 
its simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of 
colour.  He recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and 
seems to think that the highest beauty of proportion is to 
be found in the union of a beautiful mind with a beautiful 
body.  He had but a poor opinion of art, regarding it as a 
trick of imitation (mimesis) which takes us another step 
farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition into 
the shadowy region of the semblances of sense.  Accordingly, 
in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most 
inexorable censorship of poets, &c., so as to make art as far 
as possible an instrument of moral and political training. 

Aristotle. 

Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the 
aesthetic phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis 
certain principles of beauty and art.  In his treatises on 
poetry and rhetoric he gives us, along with a theory of these 
arts, certain general principles of beauty; and scattered among 
his other writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same 
subject.  He seeks (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the 
good and the beautiful by saying that the former is always in 
action (`en praxei) whereas the latter may exist in motionless 
things as well (`en akinetois.) At the same time he had 
as a Greek to allow that though essentially different things 
the good might under certain conditions be called beautiful.  
He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and in 
a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and 
necessary.  He helped to determine another characteristic 
of the beautiful, the absence of all lust or desire in the 
pleasure it bestows.  The universal elements of beauty, 
again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be order 
(taxis), symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (to 
orismenon).  In the Poetics he adds another essential, 
namely, a certain magnitude; it being desirable for a 
synoptic view of the whole that the object should not be too 
large, while clearness of perception requires that it should 
not be too small.  Aristotle's views on art are an immense 
advance on those of Plato.  He distinctly recognized (in the 
Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate pleasure, 
as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical 
arts.  He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, 
holding that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied 
knowledge and discovery, that its objects not only comprised 
particular things which happen to most, but contemplated 
what is probable and what necessarily exists.  The celebrated 
passage in the Poetics, where he declares poetry to be 
more philosophical and serious a matter (spoudaiteron) 
than philosophy, brings out the advance of Aristotle on his 
predecessor.  He gives us no complete classification of the fine 
arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his 
celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, 
are to be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. 

Plotinus. 

Of the later Greek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus 
deserves to be mentioned.  According to him, objective reason 
(nous) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence which 
reduces dead matter to form.  Matter when thus formed becomes 
a notion (logos), and its form is beauty.  Objects are 
ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and therefore 
formless.  The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is 
called the more than beautiful.  There are three degrees 
or stages of manifested beauty: that of human reason, which 
is the highest; of the human soul, which is less perfect 
through its connexion with a material body; and of real 
objects, which is the lowest manifestation of all.  As to 
the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in opposition to 
Aristotle, that a single thing not divisible into parts might 
be beautiful through its unity and simplicity.  He gives a 
high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness 
is overpowered by light and warmth.  In reference to artistic 
beauty he said that when the artist has notions as models for 
his creations, these may become more beautiful than natural 
objects.  This is clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine 
towards our modern conception of artistic idealization. 

German writers. (a) Systematic treatises; Baumgarten. 

2. German Writers.---We may pass by the few thoughts on the 
subject to be found among medieval writers and turn to modern 
theories, beginning with those of German writers as the most 
numerous and most elaborately set forth.  The best of the 
Germans who attempted to develop an aesthetic theory as part 
of a system of philosophy was Baumgarten (Aesthetica) . 
Adopting the Leibnitz-Wolffian theory of knowledge, he sought 
to complete it by setting over against the clear scientific 
or ``logical'' knowledge of the understanding, the confused 
knowledge of the senses, to which (as we have seen) he gave the 
name ``aesthetic.'' Beauty with him thus corresponds with perfect 
sense-knowledge.  Baumgarten is clearly an intellectualist in 
aesthetics, reducing taste to an intellectual act and ignoring 
the element of feeling.  The details of his aesthetics are mostly 
unimportant.  Arguing from Leibnitz's theory of the world 
as the best possible, Baumgarten concluded that nature is 
the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art must seek its 
supreme function in the strictest possible imitation of nature. 

Kant. 

The next important treatment of aesthetics by a philosopher 
is that of Kant.  He deals with the ``Judgment of Taste'' 
in the Critique of the Power of Judgment (J. H. Bernard's 
translation 1892), which treatise supplements the two 
better-known critiques (vide KANT), and by investigating 
the conditions of the validity of feeling mediates between 
then respective subjects, cognition and desire (volition).  
He takes an imoortant step in denying objective existence to 
beauty.  Aesthetic value for him is fitness to please as 
object of pure contemplation.  This aesthetic satisfaction is 
more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinterested 
and free--that is to say, from all concern about the 
real existence of the object, and about our dependence on 
it.  He appears to concede a certain formal objectivity to 
beauty in his doctrine of an appearance of purposiveness 
(Zweckmassigkeit) in the beautiful object, this being 
defined as its harmony with the cognative faculties involved 
in an aesthetic judgment (imagination and understanding); a 
harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic 
pleasure.  Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly 
developed.  While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have 
objective validity and remains valid only for the contemplator, 
he claims for it universal subjective validity, since the 
object we pronounce to be beautiful is fitted to please all 
men.  We know that this must be so from reflecting on the 
disinterestedness of our pleasure, on its entire independence 
of personal inclination.  Kant insists that the aesthetic 
judgment is always, in logical phrase, an ``individual'' i.e. 
a singular one, of the form ``This object (e.g. rose) is 
beautiful.'' He denies that we can reach a valid universal 
aesthetic judgment of the form ``All objects possessine such 
and such qualities are beautiful.'' (A judgment of this form 
would, he considers, be logical, not aesthetic.) in dealing 
with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a 
source of aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he 
shows something of contempt.  He seems to retreat from his 
doctrine of pure subiectivity when he says that the highest 
significance of beauty is to symbolize moral good; going 
further than Ruskin when he attaches ideals of modesty, 
frankness, courage, &c., to the seven primary colours of 
Newton's system.  He has made a solid contribution to the 
theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive and 
a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous.  But his main 
service to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical 
determination of its aim and its fundamental problems. 

Schelling. 

Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of 
Art. He develops this as the third part of his system of 
transcendental idealism following theoretic and practical 
philosophy. (See SCHELLING;--also Schelling's Werke, Bd. 
v., and J. Watson, Schelling's Transcendental Idealism, ch. 
vii., Chicago, 1882.) According to Schelling a new philosophical 
significance is given to art by the doctrine that the identity 
of subject and object--which is half disguised in ordinary 
perception and volition--is only clearly seen in artistic 
perception.  The perfect perception of its real self by 
intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling 
of infinite satisfaction.  Art in thus effecting a revelation 
of the absolute seems to attain a dignity not merely above 
that of nature but above that of philosophy itself.  Schelling 
throws but little light on the concrete forms of beauty.  His 
classification of the arts, based on his antithesis of object 
and subject, is a curiosity in intricate arrangement.  He 
applies his conception in a suggestive way to classical tragedy. 

Hegel. 

In Hegel's system of philosophy art is viewed as the first 
stage of the absolute spirit. (See HEGEL; also Werke, Bd. 
x., and Bosanquet's Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine 
Art.) In this stage the absolute is immediately present to 
sense-perception, an idea which shows the writer's complete 
rupture with Kant's doctrine of the ``subjectivity'' of beauty.  
The beautiful is defined as the ideal showing itself to sense 
or through a sensuous medium.  It is said to have its life in 
show or semblance (Schein) and so differs from the true, which 
is not really sensuous, but the universal idea contained in 
sense for thought.  The form of the beautiful is unity of the 
manifold.  The notion (Begriff gives necessity in mutual 
dependence of parts (unity), while the reality demands the 
semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts.  He discusses 
very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of notion 
and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of organic 
life.  But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds the 
highest revelation of the beautiful.  Art makes up for the 
deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into clearer 
light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual 
animation.  The several species of art in the ancient and 
modern worlds depend on the various combinations of matter 
and form.  He classifies the individual arts according to 
this same principle of the relative supremacy of form and 
matter, the lowest being architecture, the highest, poetry. 

Dialectic of the Hegelians. 

Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be 
found in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation 
to the ugly, the sublime, &c., by Hegel's disciples, e.g. 
C. H. Weisse and J. K. F. Rosenkranz.  The most important 
product of the Hegelian School is the elaborate system 
of aesthetics published by F. T. Vischer (Esthetik, 3 
Theile, 1846--1834).  It illustrates the difficulties 
of the Hegelian thought and terminology; yet in dealing 
with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive. 

Schopenhauer. 

The aesthetic prbolem is also treated by two other philosophers 
whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's 
system, viz.  Schopenhauer and Herbart.  Schopenhauer (see 
SCHOPENHAUER, also The World as Will and Idea, translated 
by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219-346), abandoning 
also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found 
in aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of 
intellect from will.  In this contemplation the mind is 
filled with pure intellectual forms, the ``Platonic Ideas'' 
as he calls them, which are objectifications of the will 
at a certain grade of completeness of representation.  He 
exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in 
which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of 
existence is surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy 
attained.  He holds that all things are in some degree beautiful, 
ugliness being viewed as merely imoerfect manifestation or 
objectification of will.  In this way the beauty of nature, 
somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel, is rehabilitated. 

Herbart. 

J. F. Herbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping 
from Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbach's 
edition of Werke, Bd. ii. pp. 339 et seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 
105 et seq., and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq..) He did, indeed, 
adopt Kant's view of the aesthetic Judgment as singular 
(``individual''); though he secures a certain degree of 
logical universality for it by emphasizing the point that the 
predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the same aesthetic 
object.  At the same time, by referring the beauty of concrete 
objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted 
the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra.) 
Since he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known 
as a formalist, and the founder of the formalistic school in 
aesthetics.  He sets out with the idea that only relations 
please--in the Kantian sense of producing pleasure devoid of 
desire; and his aim is to determine the ``aesthetic elementary 
relations'', or the simplest relations which produce this 
pleasure.  These include those of will, so that, as he aomits, 
ethical judgments are in a manner brought under an aesthetic 
form.  His typical example of aesthetic relations of objects 
of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones.  The 
science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music 
what should be done also for other departments of aesthetic 
experience.  This doctrine of elementary relations is brought 
into connexion with the author's psychological doctrine of 
presentarions with their tendencies to mutual inhibition and 
to fusion, and of the varying feeling-tones to which these 
processes give rise.  This mode of treating the problem of 
beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly developed 
and worked up into a comrlete system of aesthetics by one of 
Herbart's disciples, Robert Zimmermann (Asthetik, 1838). 

Lessing. 

Lessing, in his Laocoon and elsewhere, sought to deduce 
the special function of an art from a consideration of 
the means at its disposal.  He took pains to define the 
boundaries of poetry and upon the ends and appliances of 
art.  Among these his distinction between arts which 
employ the coexistent in space and those which employ the 
successive (as poetry and music) is of lasting value.  In 
his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop 
clear general principles on such points as poetic truth, 
improving upon Aristotle, on whose teachina he mainly relies. 

Goethe.  Schiller. 

Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many 
aphorisms.  He attempted to mediate between the claims of 
ideal beauty, as taught by J. J. Winckelmann, and the aims of 
dualization.  Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number of 
disconnected essays and letters some of the main questions 
in the philosophy of art.  He looks at art from the side 
of culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an 
aesthetically cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual 
and rational.  His letters on aesthetic education (Uber die 
asthetische Erzichung des Menschen, trans. by J. Weiss, 
Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing out among other points 
the connexion between aesthetic activity and the universal 
impulse to play (Spieltrieb.) Schiller's thoughts on aesthetic 
subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philosophy. 

Jean Paul. 

Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of 
art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorschule der 
Asthetik of Jean Paul Richter.  This is a rather ambitious 
discussion of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, 
contains much valuable matter on the nature of humour in 
romantic poetry.  Among other writers who reflect more or less 
philosophically on the problems to which modern poetry gives 
rise are Wilhelm von Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Gervinus. 

Contributions by German savants. 

A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German 
savants to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions 
to the investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic 
effect, as well as to introduce into the study of the simpler 
aesthetic forms the methods of natural science.  The classic 
work of Helmholtz on ``Sensations of Tone'' is a highly musical 
composition on physics and physiology.  The endeavour to 
determine with a like degree of precision the physiological 
conditions of the pleasurable effects of colours and their 
combinations by E. W. Brucke, Ewald Hering and more recent 
investigators, has so far failed to realize the desideratum 
laid down by Herbart, that there should be a theory of 
colour-relations equal in completeness and exactness to that 
of tone-relations.  The experimental inquiry into simple 
aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner in 
seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeising's hypothesis 
that the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the 
vertical part of a cross, is the ``golden section,'' where the 
smaller division is to the larger as the latter to the sum.  
He describes in his work on ``Experimental Aesthetics'' (Auf 
experimentalen Asthetik) a series of experiments carried out 
on a large number of persons, bearing on this point, the results 
of which he considers to be in favour of Zeising's hypothesis. 

Discussions of more concrete problems. 

3. French Writers.--In France aesthetic speculation grew 
out of the discussion by poets and critics on the relation of 
modern art, and Boileau in the 17th century, the development 
of the the dispute between the ``ancients'' and the `moderns'' 
at the end of the 17th century by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle 
and Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discussion 
as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the 18th 
century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only 
offer to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape 
of a record by experts of their aesthetic experience, but 
disclose glimpses of important aesthetic principles.  A more 
systematic examination of the several arts (corresponding 
to that of Lessing) is to be found in the Cours de belles 
lettres of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the meaning 
and value of the imitation of nature by art are further 
elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) 
according as they employ the forms of space or those of time. 

Theories of organic beauty.  Buffier. 

The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in 
general is connected with the name of Pere Buffier (see First 
Truths), form, and illustrates his theory by the human face.  A 
A beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare among 
members of the species.  This seems to be a clumsy way of saying 
that it is a clear expression of the typical form of the species. 

Taine. 

This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted by Reynolds) 
has been worked out more recently by H. Taine.  In his 
work, The Ideal in Art (trans. by i.  Durand), he 
proceeds in the manner of a botanist to determine a scale 
of characters in the physical and moral man.  The degree of 
the universality or importance of a character, and of its 
beneficence or adaptation to the ends of life, determine the 
measure of its aesthetic value, and render the work of art, 
which seeks to represent it in its purity, an ideal work. 

French systems of aesthetics: The spiritualistes. 

The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French literature 
are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosoohic 
writers who under the influence of German thinkers effected a 
reaction against the crude sensationalism of the 18th century 
they aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual element in 
aesthetic impressions, appearing to ignore any capability 
in the sensuous material of affording a true aesthetic 
delight.  J. Cousin and Jean Charles Leveque are the principal 
writers of this school.  The latter developed an elaborate 
system of the subject (La Science du beau.) All beauty is 
regarded as spiritual in its nature.  The several beautiful 
characters of an organic body--of which the principal are 
magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity of colour, 
grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment--may 
be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and 
order of the species.  These are perceived by reason to be 
the manifestations of an invisible vinal force.  Similarly 
the beauties of inorganic nature are to be viewed as 
the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial ohvsical 
force.  Thus all beauty is in its objective essence either 
spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in order. 

4. English Writers.--There is nothing answering to the German 
conception of a system of aesthetics in English literature.  
The inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for 
the most part to such modest problems as the psychological 
process by which we perceive the beautiful--discussions which 
are apt to be regarded by German historians as devoid of 
real philosophical value.  The writers may be conveniently 
arranged in two divisions, answering to the two opposed 
directions of English thought: (i) the Intuitionalists, those 
who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which is 
a simple unanalysable attribute or principle of things: and 
(2) the Analytical theorists, those who follow the analytical 
and psychological method, concerning themselves with the 
sentiment of beauty as a complex growth out of simpler elements. 

The Intuitionists.  Shaftesbury. 

Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on 
beauty.  In his Characteristics the beautiful and the good 
are combined in one ideal conception, much as with Plato.  
Matter in itself is ugly.  The order of the world, wherein all 
beauty really resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion 
and life being the product of spirit.  The principle of beauty 
is perceived not with the outer sense, but with an internal or 
moral sense which apprehends the good as well.  This perception 
yields the only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment. 

Hutcheson. 

Francis Hutchinson, in his System of Moral Philosophy, though 
he adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any 
independent self-existing beauty in objects. ``All beauty,'' 
he says, ``is relative to the sense of some mind perceiving 
it.'' One cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple 
sensation such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among 
the parts, or ``uniformity amidst variety.'' The faculty by 
which this principle indiscerned is an internal sense which is 
defined as ``a passive power of receiving ideas of beauty from 
all objects in which there is uniformity in variety.'' This 
inner sense resembles the external senses in the immediateness 
of the pleasure which its activity brings: and further in 
the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing being 
always, whether we will or no, beautiful.  He distinguishes 
two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or 
comparative.  The latter is discerned in an object which is 
regarded as an imitation or semblance of another.  He distinctly 
states that ``an exact imitation may still be beautiful though 
the original were entirely devoid of it.'' He seeks to prove 
the universality of this sense of beauty, by showing that all 
men, in proportion to the enlargement of their intellectual 
capacity, are more delighted with uniformity than the opposite. 

Reid. 

In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. ``Of 
Taste'') Thomas Reid applies his principle of common sense 
to the problem of beauty saying that objects of beauty agree 
not only in producing a certain agreeable emotion, but in 
the excitation along with this emotion of a belief that they 
possess some perfection or excellence, that beauty exists 
in the objects independently our minds.  His theory of 
beauty is severely spiritual.  All beauty resides primarily 
in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral.  The 
beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an 
emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because 
it symbolizes and expresses the latter.  Thus the beauty 
of a plant resides in its perfect adapration to its end, a 
perfection which is an expression of the wisdom of its Creator. 

Hamilton. 

In his Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a 
short account of the sentiments of taste, which (with a 
superficial resemblance to Kant) he regards as subserving 
both the subsidiary and the elaborative faculties in 
cognition, that is, the imagination and the understanding.  
The activity of the former corresponds to the element of 
variety in a beautiful object, that of the latter with its 
unity.  He explicitly excludes all other kinds of pleasure, 
such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification of beauty.  
He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness. 

Ruskin. 

John Ruskin's well-known speculations on the nature of 
beauty in Modern Painters (``Of ideas of beauty''), though 
sadly wanting in scientific precision, have a certain value 
in the history of divine attributes.  Its true nature is 
appreciated by the theoretic faculty which is concerned in 
the moral conception and appreciation of ideas of beauty, 
and must be distinguished from the imaginative or artistic 
faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain way 
and combining the ideas received from external nature.  He 
distinguishes between typical and vital beauty.  The former 
is the external quality of bodies which typifies some divine 
attribute.  The latter consists in ``the appearance of 
felicitous fulfilment of function in living things.'' The 
forms of typical beauty are:--(1) infinity, the type of 
the divine incomprehensibility; (2) unity, the type of the 
divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine 
permanence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) 
purity, the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the 
type of government by law.  Vital beauty, again, is regarded 
as relative when the degree of exaltation of the function 
is estimated, or generic if only the degree of conformity 
of an individual to the appointed functions of the species 
is taken into account.  Ruskin's writings illustrate the 
extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral perception. 

The analytical theorists.  Addison. 

Addison's ``Essays on the Imagination''' contributed to 
the Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, 
contain the germ of scientific analysis in the statement 
that the pleasures of imagination (which arise originally 
from sight) fall into two classes--(1) primary pleasures, 
which entirely proceed from objects before our eyes; and 
(2) secondary pleasures, flowing frm the ideas of visible 
objects.  The latter are greatly extended by the addition of 
the proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the basis of 
all mimicry and wit.  Addison recognizes, too, to some extent, 
the influence of association upon our aesthetic preferences. 

Home. 

In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Kames) another 
attempt is made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its 
elements.  Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and 
unappears to admit no general characreristic of beautiful 
objects beyond this power of yielding pleasure.  Like 
Hutcheson, he divides beauty into intrinsic and relative, 
but understands by the latter the appearance of fitness and 
utility, which is excluded from the beautiful by Hutcheson. 

Hogarth. 

Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of 
beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we come to the 
articulations of another artist and painter, William Hogarth.  
He discusses, in his Analysis of Beauty, all the elements of 
visual beauty.  He finds in this the following elements:---(1) 
fitness of the parts to some design; (2) variety in as many 
ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which 
is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of 
fitness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure 
not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy 
variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment 
for our active energies, leading the eye ``a wanton kind of 
chase''; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention 
and produces admiration and awe.  The beauty of proportion 
he resolves into the needs of fitness.  Hogarth applies these 
principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in 
lines, figures and groups of forms.  Among lines he singles 
out for special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line 
once round from the base to the apex of a long slender cone). 

Burke. 

Burke's speculations, in his Inquiry into the Origin of our 
Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency 
of English writers to treat the problem as a psychological 
one and to introduce physiological considerations.  He finds 
the elements of beauty to be:-- (1) smallness; (2) smoothness; 
(3) gradual variation of direction in gentle curves; (4) 
delicacy, or the appearance of fragility; (5) brightness, 
purity and softness of colour.  The sublime is rather crudely 
resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always retains 
an element of terror.  Thus ``infinity has a tendency to 
fill the mind with a delightful horror.'' Burke seeks what 
he calls ``efficient causes'' for these aesthetic impressions 
in certain affections of the the nerves of sight analogous 
to those of other senses, namely, the soothing effect of a 
relaxation of the nerve fibres.  The arbitrariness and narrowness 
of this theory cannot well escape the reader's attention. 

Alison. 

Alison, in his well-knwon Essays on the Nature and Principles 
of Taste, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that 
of Hogarth and Burke.  He seeks to analyse the mental process 
when finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the 
imagination, namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the 
mind, which ideas always correspond to some simple affection 
or emotion (e.g. cheerfulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the 
object.  He thus makes association the sole source of aesthetic 
delight, and denies the existence of a primary source in sensations 
themselves.  He illustrates the working of the principle of 
association at great length, and with much skill; yet his 
attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic pleasure fails 
completely.  Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in the Edinburgh 
Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are little 
more than a modification of Alison's theory. Philosophical 
Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted assumption 
lurking in the doctrine of a single quality running through 
all varieties of beautiful object.  He seeks to show how the 
successive changes in the meaning of the term ``beautiful'' have 
arisen.  He suggests that it originally connoted the pleasure of 
colour.  The value of his discussion resides more in the 
criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new 
ideas.  His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology 
of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects. 

Of the assoication psychologists James Mill did little 
more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty 
than re-state Alison's doctrine.  Alexander Bain, in his 
treatise, The Emotions and the Will (``Aesthetic 
Emotions''), carries this examination considerably further.  
He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other varieties 
of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics:--(1) their 
freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought 
for their own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable 
concomitants; (3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable 
nature.  He takes a comprehensive view of the constituents of 
aesthetic enjoyment, including the pleasures of sensation and 
of its revived or its ``ideal'' form; of revived emotional 
states; and lastly the satisfaction of those wide-ranging 
susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty, of contrast 
and of harmony.  The effect of sublimity is connected with 
the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees, 
which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the 
beholder.  The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on 
Aristotle and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing 
dignity in circumstances that excite no other strong emotion. 

Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of 
Psychology and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the 
psychology of aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of 
evolution.  Adopting Schiller's idea of a connexion between 
aesthetic activity and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point 
in tracing the evolution of aesthetic activity.  Play is 
defined as the outcome of the superfluous energies of the 
organism: as the activity of organs and faculties which, owing 
to a prolonged period of inactivity, have become specially 
ready to discharge their function, and as a consequence vent 
themselves in simulated actions.  Aesthetic activities 
supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the 
higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree 
with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive 
to life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake 
only.  Spencer seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic 
pleasures according to the degree of complexity of the 
faculty exercised: from those of sensation up to the revived 
emotional experiences which constitute the aesthetic sentiment 
proper.  Among the more vaguely revived emotions Spencer 
includes more permanent feelings of the race transmitted 
by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable 
emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones 
expressive of feeling built up during the past history of our 
species.  This biological treatment of aesthetic activity has 
had a wide influence, some e.g. Grant Allen) being content 
to develop his evolutional method.  Yet, as suggested above, 
his theory is now recognized as taking us only a little way 
towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic experience. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.39--.a) Works on General Aesthetics. which 
deal with the whole subject.  The following will be found 
helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt. 
viii. c. 9, ``Aesthetic Sentiments,'' and the papers on ``Use 
and Beauty,'' ``Origin and Function of Music'' and others 
in the Essays; A. Bain, Emotions and Will, ``Aesthetic 
Emotions''; J Sully, Human Mind, ii. ``Aesthetic 
Sentiment'': (Grant Allen, ``Physiological Aesthetics'' (Meth., 
Pl., Senses, Play); Rutgers Marshall, Pain, Pleasure and 
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., Pl., Play). 

French and Italian Works.--M.  Guyau, Les problemes 
de l'esthetique contemporaine (1884) (Pl., Play); E. 
Veron, L'Esthetique (1890) (slight Pl.); L. Bray, 
Du Beau (1902). (Pl., Play); P. Saurian, La Beaute 
rationnelle (1904) (Meth., Pl., Senses, Einf.); M. Pilo, 
Estetica (Pl., Senses): A. Rolla, Storia delle idee 
estetiche in Italia (1905) (full account of ideas of Dante 
and other medieval writers, as well as of modern systems). 

German Works.---K.  Kostlin, Prolegomena zur 
Asthetik (1889) (good introduction to subject); K. Groos, 
Der asthetische Genuss (1902) (Meth., Judg., Play, Senses, 
Einf. and Ill.); J. Volkelt, System der Asthetik (1905) 
(very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses, Einf.); J. 
Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K. 
Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., Ill., Play). 

(b) Works on History on. Schasler, Kritische Geschichte 
der Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Kritische 
Geschichte der Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with 
ancient and modern theories); E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche 
asthetik seit Kant (Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.); K. H. von 
Stein, Die Entstehung der neueren Asthetik (theories 
of French critics, &c.); F. Brunetiere, L'Evolution des 
genres (History of critical discussions in the 17th and 18th 
centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full, 
especially on ancient theories and German systems); W. Knight, 
Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. ``History'' (Univ.  
Extension Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.) 

1 See below for Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment, 
as having subjective universal validity.  On the meaning 
of judgments of value see J. Cohn, Allgem.  Asthetik, 
Einleitung, pp. 7 ff., and Teil i., Kap. 2 and 3. 

2 Cf. Larid, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 361. 

3 For example, that hinted at by Bosanquet in his 
definition of the beautiful, History of aesthetic, p. 5. 

4 Beauty is defined as perfection by P. Souriau, 
La Beaute rationnelle, 2eme partie. 

5 K. Groos argues well against this violent stretching of 
the word beautiful, Einleitung in die Asthetik, pp. 46 seq. 

6 Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective, 
was probably influenced by Hume, who wrote: ``Beauty 
is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in 
the mind which contemplates them'' (Essays, xxii.). 

7 On the nature of these qualities see S. 
Witasek, Grundzuge der Allgem. Asthetik, p. 11. 

8 See J. Cohn; Allgem. Esthetik, P. 96 

9 Originally, as pointed out by Home and others, sight was 
regarded as the sense by which we received impressions of 
beauty.  The recognition of the claims of hearing date back 
to Plato. (See Bosanquet, Hist. of Aesth. pp. 51-52).  For 
recent discussions of the claims of sight and hearing see 
article by J. Volkelt, ``Der Aesth.  Werth der niederen Sinne,'' 
in Zeitschrift fur Psych. u.  Phys. der Sinnesorgane, 
vol. xxix. pp. 402 ff.; see also below, Bibliography. 

10 Laws, 880 (see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). 

11 Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play 
(see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). Among modern writers the 
idea is specially connected with the names of Schiller and 
Herbert Spencer.  In recent works the subject is touched 
on by S. Wittasek, Grundzuge der allgem.  Asthetik, 
pp. 223 fl.; Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 ff., and by Rutgers 
Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography. 

12 Hence to say, as Bosanquet says (op. cit. pp. 3-4), 
that art is to nature as the scientific conception of the 
world to that of the ordinary observer, seems wide of the mark. 

13 K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical 
motive to features of architecture commonly supposed to 
have aesthetic value, e.g. a regular series of similar 
forms (Das Wesen der Kunst, Bd. i. pp. 277 ff.). 

14 K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably 
has a technical origin (op. cit. pp. 283-284). 

15 The question of the place of the historical development 
of art in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J. 
Volkelt, System der Asthetik, Bd. i. 5es Kap. 

16 See, for example, a little work, The 
Genesis of Art-From, by G. L. Raymond. 

17 Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a 
concrete object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of this 
universal form see below).  On the importance of these inductions 
see K. H. von Stein, Vorlesungen uber Asthetik (Einleitung). 

18 Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ 
of aesthetic taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch. 
v.  The aesthetic importance of the observations made on 
animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du Beau, pp. 233 ff. 

19 See below, and Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 382 ff. 

20 The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are 
indicated by W. Wundt in his Physiol.  Psychologie 
(5e Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 142 ff. and 147 ff. 

21 On the value of the judgments of experts 
see K. Groos, Der asth.  Genuss, p. 149. 

22 Examples of a forcina of the physiological method in 
aesthetics may be found in the Physiological Aesthetics of Grant 
Allen, and the Aufgabe der Kunstphysialogie, by Georg Hirsch. 

23 These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensations 
of hearing and sight have been well brought out 
in the article by J. Volkelt, already referred to. 

24 On the later investigations into musical consonance and 
harmony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial 
forms, see Wundt, op..cit. Bd. ii. pp. 419 ff., and iii. 
135 g., 140 ff., 147 ff. and 154 ff.  Time-form in music is 
specially discussed by E. Gurney, The Power of Sound, v. 

25 K. Lange, who recognizes the influence of nature 
and custom here denies that proportion is an aesthetic 
principle (Das Wesen der Kunst, 11es Kap.). 

26 Alison and other English Associationists have emphasized 
the aesthetic importance of the principle of association.  
Among more recent advocates of it is G. T. Fechner. Vorschule 
der Asthetik, and O. Kulpe, ``Uber den associativ 
Factor des asthet.  Eindrucks'', Fierteljahrsschrift 
fur wissensch.  Philosophie, xxiii. pp. 145 ff. 

27 This idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating 
form is supported by K. Groos, Der asth.  Genuss, pp. 49 ff. 

28 It is commonly spoken of as ``feeling oneself into'' 
Einfuhlen), or as``sympathetic feeling'' (Mitempfinden.) 

29 Lipps theory is developed in a number of works, the 
chief of which is Asthetik: Psychologie des Schonen und 
der Kunst, see esp. 1er Theil, 1er to 3er Abschnitt; 
cf.  Paul Stern, Einfuhlung und Association, in which 
is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and A. 
Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst. The play of 
imagination in the contemplation of form is discussed also 
by P. Souriau, L'Esthetique du mouvement, 3eme part., 
and La Suggestion dans l'art, pp. 300 ff.  Cf. works of 
Karl Groos and K. Lange named below (Bibliography.) . 

30 See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans l'art (1ere partie). 

31 Cf. K. Lange, op. cit. lfh. i. p. 208. 

32 See a curious passage in Home's Elements of Criticism, chap 
iv., in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects 
are said to express themselves externally by a special inflating 
inspiration, and by stretching upward and standing ``a-tiptoe'' 
respectively; also an article on ``Recent Aesthetics', by 
Vernon Lee in the Quarterly Review, 1904, part i. pp. 420-443. 

33 See Hume, Essays, ``Essay of Tragedy,'' and the 
important discussions on the meaning of Aristotle's 
doctrine of the emotions of tragedy and of emotional 
purification or ``alleviating discharge', (kathansis) 
touched on by Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 64 ff. and 234 ff. 

34 That beauty implies a peculiar blending of formal 
and spiritual (geistige) factors is recognized 
by H. Riegel, Die bildende Kunste; pp. 16 ff. 

35 Human Nature (first part of Tripos), ch. viii. 
sec.  5 (Molesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38). 

36 See among others R. Wallascheck, Primitve Music, pp. 
270 ff., and Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, pp. 9 ff.; cf.  W. 
Jerusalem, Einleitung in die Philosophie, pp. 116, 117. 

37 The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment 
is touched on by Kant, Criticue of Judgment (Bernard's 
trans.), p. 174; and is more fully worked out by Guyau, 
L'Art au point de vue sociologique, ch. ii. and iii.; 
cf.  Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, pp. 81-82. 

38 On the nature of the primitive art-culture, see Rutgers 
Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii.; M. Baldwin, 
Social and Ethical Interpretations, pp. 151 ff: Y. 
Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii.  On artistic genius 
and its creative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of 
Art, Part ii.; P. Souriau, L'Imagination de l'artiste; 
G. Seailles, Essai sur la genie dans l'art; E. Grosse, 
Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien iii.; Arreat, Psychologie 
du peintre; L. Dauriac, Essai sur l'esprit musical. 

39 Only recent works are included.  Important points 
in each are indicated by abbreviations, namely:-- 


 
 Einf., Einfuhlung (expressional element in form).
 Evol., for bearings of evolution.
 Ill., for aesthetic illusion.
 Judg., for aesthetic judgment.
 Meth., for method of aesthetics.
 Norm., for the normative function of aesthetics
 Pl., for theory of pleasure
 Play, for Play and aesthetic enjoyment
 Senses, for aesthetic value of higher senses.
 Val., for aesthetic value.
 

AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or 
summer; the word is sometimes spelled ``estivation''), literally 
``summer residence,'' a term used in zoology for the condition 
of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest 
season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar 
winter condition known as hibernation (q.v..) In botany the 
word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the 
petals in a flower before expansion in the summer, contrasted 
with ``vernation'' of leaves which unfold in the spring. 

AETHELBALD, king of Mercia, succeeded Ceolred A.D. 716. 
According to Felix, Life of St Guthlac, he visited the saint at 
Crowland, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries 
before his accession, and was cheered by predictions of his 
future greatness.  According to Bede, the whole of Britain as 
far north as the Humber was included within the sphere of his 
authority.  His energy in preserving his influence is shown 
by several entries in the Chronicle. He made an expedition 
against Wessex in 733, in which year he took the royal vill of 
Somerton.  In 740 he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht 
of Northumbria in a campaign against the Picts to invade his 
kingdom.  In 743 he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, 
against the Welsh, but the alliance did not last long, as in 
752 Cuthred took up arms against him.  In 757 AEthelbald was 
slain by his guards at Seckington (Warwickshire) and buried at 
Repton.  He seems to have been the most powerful and energetic 
king of Mercia between Penda and Offa.  A letter of St Boniface 
is preserved, in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities 
and encroachments on church property, while recognizing his 
merits as a monarch.  By a charter of 749 he freed ecclesiastical 
lands from all obligations except the trinoda necessitas. 

See Bede, Hist.  Ecc. (ed. Plummer), v. 23 and Continuatio 
s.a. 740, 750, 757; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), 
s.a. 716, 733, 737, 740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, 
Acta Sanctorum, ii. pp. 264, 273, 276, 4-9, W. de G. 
Birch, Cartul.  Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.) 

AETHELBALD, king of Wessex, was the son of AEthelwulf, with 
whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes 
at Aclea, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his 
father on the latter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived 
him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On 
his father's death in 818 he married his widow, Judith. 

See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 
1904), 12; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 851, 855, 860. 

AETHELBERHT, king of Kent, son of Eormenric, probably came 
to the throne in A.D. 560. The first recorded event of his 
reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of Wessex 
in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune. 
AEthelberht married Berhta, daughter of Charihert, king of 
Paris, who brought over Bishop Liudhard as her private 
confessor.  According to Bede, AEthelberht's supremacy in 
597 stretched over all the English kingdoms as far as the 
Humber.  The nature of this supremacy has been much disputed, 
but it was at any rate sufficient to guarantee the safety 
of Augustine in his conference with the British bishops. 
AEthelberht exercised a stricter sway over Essex, where his 
nephew Saberht was king.  In 597 the mission of Augustine 
landed in Thanet and was received at first with some 
hesitation by the king.  He seems to have acted with prudence 
and moderation during the conversion of his kingdom and did 
not countenance compulsory proselytism. AEthelberht gave 
Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and Christ Church 
was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to found the see 
of Rochester, of which Justus became first bishop in 604, 
and his influence established Mellitus at London in the same 
year.  A code of laws issued by him which is still extant 
is probably the oldest document in the English language, and 
contains a list of money fines for various crimes.  Towards 
the close of his reign his pre-eminence as Bretwalda was 
disturbed by the increasing power of Raedwald of East Anglia.  
He died probably in 616, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald. 

See Bede, Hist.  Ecc. (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon 
Chronicle Earle and Plummer), s.a. 568. (F. G. M. B.) 

AETHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the sub-kingdom 
of Kent during the lifetime of his father AEthelwulf, and 
retained it until the death of his elder brother AEthelbald in 
860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger 
brothers AEthelred and Alfred renouncing their claim.  He ruled 
these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. His reign was 
marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who 
destroyed Winchester in 860, in spite of the resistance of the 
ealdormen Osric and AEthelwulf with the levies of Hampshire 
and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent. 

Alfred's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartul.  Saxon. 553. 

AETHELFLAED (ETHELFLEDA), the ``Lady of the Mercians,'' 
the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with 
her brother Edward at her father's court.  As soon as she 
was of marriageable age (probably about A.D. 886), she 
was married to AEthelred, earl of Mercia to whom Alfred 
entrusted the control of Mercia.  On the accession of her 
brother Edward, AEthelflaed and her husband continued to hold 
Mercia.  In 907 they fortified Chester, and in 909 and 910 
either AEthelflaed or her husband must have led the Mercian 
host at the battles of Tettenhall and Wednesfield (or 
Tettenhall-Wednesfield, if these battles are one and the 
same).  It was probably about this time that AEthelred fell 
ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully 
besieged Chester. AEthelflaed won the support of the Danes 
against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into 
an alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans.  
In 911 AEthelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and 
Oxfordshire.  Except for this AEthelflaed's authority remained 
unimpaired.  In 912 she fortified ``Scergeat'' and Bridgenorth, 
Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddisbury and Warwick in 914, 
Cherbury, ``Weardbyrig'' and Runcorn in 915. In 916 she sent 
an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as 
Brecknock.  In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, 
and in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to 
her.  She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was 
buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester.  This noble queen, 
whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and 
brother, left one daughter, AElfwyn.  For some eighteen months 
AElfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and 
then, just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Mercia 
into his own hands, and AElfwyn was ``led away'' into Wessex. 

AEthelflaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and 
the royal title is often given them by the chroniclers.  See The 
Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especially the Mercian register in 
MSS. B, C and D); Florence of Worcester: Fragments of Irish 
Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) 

AETHELFRITH, king of Northumbria, is said to have come to 
the throne in A.D. 593, being the son of AEthelric (probably 
reigned 568-572).  He married Acha, daughter of Ella 
(AElle), king of Deira, whom he succeeded probably in 605, 
expelling his son Edwin.  In 603 he repelled the attack of 
Aidan, king of the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating 
him with great loss.  The appearance of Hering, son of 
Hussa, AEthelfrith's predecessor, On the side of the invaders 
seems to indicate family quarrels in the royal house of 
Bernicia.  Later in his reign, probably in 614, he defeated the 
Welsh in a great battle at Chester and massacred the monks of 
Bangor who were assembled to aid them by their prayers.  This 
war may have been due partly to AEthelfrith's persecution of 
Edwin, but it had a strategic importance in the separation 
of the North Welsh from the Strathclyde Britons.  In 617 
AEthelfrith was defeated and slain at the river Idle by Raedwald 
of East Anglia, whom Edwin had persuaded to take up his cause. 

See Bede, Chronica Mojora, sec.  531; Hist.  Ecc. (Plummer) i. 
34, ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist.  
Brittonum, sec. sec.  57, 63 Annales Cambriae, s.a. 613. (F. D. M. B.) 

AETHELING, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of aethele, or 
ethel, meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin 
to the modern German words Adel, nobility, and adelig, 
noble.  During the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in 
England the word was probably used to denote any person of noble 
birth.  Its use was, however, soon restricted to members of 
a royal family, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used 
almost exclusively for members of the royal house of Wessex.  
It was occasionally used after the Norman Conquest to designate 
members of the royal family.  The earlier part of the word 
formed part of the name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, e.g. 
AEthelbert, AEthelwulf, AEthelred, and was used obviously to 
indicate their noble birth.  According to a document which probably 
dates from the 10th century, the wergild of an aetheling was 
fixed at 15,000 thrymsas, or 11,250 shillings.  This wergild is 
equal to that of an archbishop and one-half of that of a king. 

AETHELNOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known 
also as EGELNODUS or EDNODUS, was a son of the ealdorman 
AEthelmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex.  He 
became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of 
Christ Church, Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and 
on the 13th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of 
Canterbury.  In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium, 
and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII.  
Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to 
be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents 
of silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of 
Coventry.  He appears to have exercised considerable influence 
over Canute, largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at 
Canterbury.  A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he 
refused to crown King Harold I., as he had promised Canute 
to crown none but a son of the king by his wife, Emma. 
AEthelnoth, who was called the ``Good,'' died on the 29th of 
October 1038, and his name appears in the lists of saints. 

AETHELRED, king of Mercia, succeeded his brother Wulfhere 
in A.D. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword, 
destroying the monasteries and churches and taking Rochester. 
AEthelred married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of 
Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose 
between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the 
province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close of 
the reign of Wulfhere.  In a battle on the banks of the Trent in 
679, the king of Mercia was victorious and regained the province. 
AElfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this occasion, 
but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, 
AEthelred agreed to pay a wergild for the Northumbrian prince 
and so prevented further hostilities.  Osthryth was murdered 
in 697 and AEthelred abdicated in 704, choosing Coenred as his 
successor.  He then became abbot of Bardney, and, according 
to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Coenred on his return from 
Rome. AEthelred died at Bardney in 716. (See WILFRID.) 

SOURCES.--Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23, 40, 43, 45-48, 
57; Bede, Hist.  Ecc. (ed. Plummer), iii. 11, iv. 12, 21; 
Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 676, 679, 704, 716. (F. G. M. B.) 

AETHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was the 
fourth son of AEthelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his father's 
will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest brother 
AEthelbald.  He seems, however, to have stood aside in favour of 
his brother AEthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint kingdoms 
he succeeded in 866. AEthelred's reign was one long struggle 
against the Danes.  In the year of his succession a large Danish 
force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 AEthelred and 
his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or Burhred, of Mercia, 
against this host, but the Mercians soon made peace with their 
foes.  In 871 the Danes encamped at Reading, where they 
defeated AEthelred and his brother, but later in the year 
the English won a great victory at ``AEscesdun.'' A fortnight 
later they were defeated at Basing, but partially retrieved 
their fortune by a victory at ``Maeretun'' (perhaps Marden in 
Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field.  In the Easter 
of this year AEthelred died, perhaps of wounds received in 
the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne.  He 
left a son, AEthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin 
Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom. 
AEthelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king. 

AUTHORITIES.--The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, 
Cartul. Saxon. vol. ii.  Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., 
s.v.; Eng. Hist.  Review, i. 218-234. (A. Mw.) 

AETHELRED II. (or ETHELRED) (c. 968--1016), king of 
the English (surnamed THE UNREADY, i.e. without rede or 
counsel), son of King Edgar by his second wife AElfthryth, was 
born in 968 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder 
of his step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was 
disastrous from the beginning.  The year after his accession 
the Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the 
Peaceful, recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder 
only, not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 
982 and 988. In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated 
and slew the East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon.  After 
this, peace was purchased by a payment of L. 10,000-a disastrous 
expedient.  The Danes were to desist from their ravages, but 
were allowed to stay in England.  Next year AEthelred himself 
broke the peace by an attack on the Danish ships.  Despite 
the treachery of AElfric, the English were victorious; and the 
Danes sailed off to ravage Lindsey and Northumbria.  In 994 
Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, 
united in a great invasion and attacked London.  Foiled by the 
valour of the citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast 
from Essex to Hampshire. AEthelred now resorted to the old 
experiment and bought them off for L. 16,000 and a promise of 
supplies.  Olaf also visited AEthelred at the latter's request 
and, receiving a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise 
that he would never again come to England with hostile intent, 
an engagement which he faithfully kept.  The Danish attacks 
were repeated in 997, 998, 999, and in 1000 AEthelred availed 
himself of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to 
invade Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold.  Next 
year, however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil 
than ever.  The national defence seemed to have broken down 
altogether.  In despair AEthelred again offered them money, 
which they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion 
being L. 24,000.  But soon afterwards the king, suspecting 
treachery, resolved to get rid of his enemies once and for 
all.  Orders were issued commanding the slaughter on St 
Brice's day (December 2) of ``all the Danish men who were 
in England.'' Such a decree could obviously not be carried 
out literally; but we cannot doubt that the slaughter was 
great.  This violence, however, only made matters worse.  Next 
year Sweyn returned, his hostility fanned by the desire for 
revenge.  For two years he ravaged and slew; in 1003 Exeter 
was destroyed; Norwich and Thetford in 1004.  No effectual 
resistance was offered, despite a gallant effort here and there; 
the disorganization of the country was complete.  In 1005 the 
Danes were absent in Denmark, but came back next year, and 
emboldened by the utter lack of resistance, they ranged far 
inland.  In 1007 AEthelred bought them off for a larger sum 
than ever (L. 36,000), and for two years the land enjoyed 
peace.  In 1009, however, in accordance with a resolution 
made by the witan in the preceding year, AEthelred collected 
such a fleet ``as never before had been in England in any 
king's day''; but owing to a miserable court quarrel the 
effort came to nothing.  The king then summoned a general 
levy of the nation, with no better result.  Just as he 
was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from 
doing so, and the opportunity was lost.  In 1010 the Danes 
returned, to find the kingdom more utterly disorganized than 
ever. ``There was not a chief man in the kingdom who could 
gather a force, but each fled as he best might; nor even at 
last would any there resist another.'' Incapable of offering 
resistance, the king again offered money, this time no less than 
L. 48,000.  While it was being collected, the Danes sacked 
Canterbury and barbarously slew the archbishop Alphege.  The 
tribute was paid soon afterwards; and about the same time the 
Danish leader Thurkill entered the English service.  From 1013 
an important change is discernible in the character of the 
Danish attacks, which now became definitely political in their 
aim.  In this year Sweyn sailed up the Trent and received the 
submission of northern England, and then marching south, he 
attacked London.  Failing to take it, he hastened west and 
at Bath received the submission of Wessex.  Then he returned 
northwards, and after that ``all the nation considered him as 
full king.'' London soon acknowledged him, and AEthelred, after 
taking refuge for a while with Thurkill's fleet, escaped to 
Normandy.  Sweyn died in February 1014, and AEthelred was 
recalled by the witan, on giving a promise to reign better in 
future.  At once he hastened north against Canute, Sweyn's son, 
who claimed to succeed his father, but Canute sailed away, only 
to return next year, when the traitor Edric joined him and Wessex 
submitted.  Together Canute and Edric harried Mercia, and 
were preparing to reduce London, when AEthelred died there on 
the 23rd of April 1016.  Weak, self-indulgent, improvident, 
he had pursued a policy of opportunism to a fatal conclusion. 

AEthelred's wife was Emma, or AElfgifu, daughter of Richard 
I. the Fearless, duke of the Nurmans, whom he married in 
1002.  After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute 
the Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to 
secure England for her son, Hardicanute.  In 1037, however, 
when Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she 
went to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 
1040.  In 1043, after Edward the Confessor had become king 
he seized the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the 
queen lived in retirement at Winchester until her death 
on the 6th of March 1052.  By AEthelred Emma had two sons, 
Edward the Confessor and the aetheling AElfred (d. 1036), 
and by Canute she was the mother of Hardicanute.  Emma's 
marriage with AEthelred was an important step in the history 
of the relations between England and Normandy, and J. R. 
Green says ``it suddenly opened for its rulers a distinct 
policy, a distinct course of action, which led to the Norman 
conquest of England.  From the moment of Emma's marriage 
Normandy became a chief factor in English politics.'' 

AUTHORITIES.---The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C. 
Plummer, 2 vols.  Oxford, 1892-1899); Florence of Worcester 
(ed. B. Thorpe, London, 1848-1849); Encomium Emmae (ed. by 
G. H. Pertz in the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Band xix., 
Hanover, 1866) for the latter part of the reign.  See also J. M. 
Kemble, Codex Diplomaticus acti Saxonici (London, 1839--1848); 
and B. Thorpe, Ancient Laws (London, 1840). (C. S. P.*) 

AETHELSTAN (c. 894-940), Saxon king, was the son (probably 
illegitimate) of Edward the elder.  He had been the favourite 
of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the household 
of his aunt AEthelflaed, the ``Lady of the Mercians.'' On the 
death of his father in 924, at some date after the 12th of 
November, AEthelstan succeeded him and was crowned at Kingston 
shortly after.  The succession did not, however, take place 
without opposition.  One AElfred, probably a descendant of 
AEthelred I., formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester; 
the plot was discovered and AElfred was sent to Rome to defend 
himself, but died shortly after.  The king's own legitimate 
brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he 
was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances; 
the later chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on 
the part of the king, but this seems more than doubtful. 

One of AEthelstan's first public acts was to hold a conference 
at Tamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria, 
and as a result Sihtric received AEthelstan's sister in 
marriage.  In the next year Sihtric died and AEthelstan took 
over the Northumbrian kingdom.  He now received, at Dacre in 
Cumberland, the submission of all the kings of the island, 
viz.  Howel Dda, king of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, 
Constantine, king of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and 
henceforth he calls himself ``rex totius Britanniae.'' About 
this time (the exact chronology is uncertain) AEthelstan expelled 
Sihtric's brother Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at 
York, received the submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing 
their boundary along the line of the Wye, and drove the Cornishmen 
west of the Tamar, fortifying Exeter as an English city. 

In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing to 
an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson.  The 
army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire, 
while the navy sailed to Caithness.  Simeon of Durham 
speaks of a submission of Scotland as a result; if it 
ever took place it was a mere form, for three years later 
we find a great confederacy formed in Scotland against 
AEthelstan.  This confederacy of 937 was joined by Constantine, 
king of Scotland, the Welsh of Strathclyde, and the 
Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson and Anlaf Godfredsson, 
who, though they came from Ireland, had powerful English 
connexions.  A great battle was fought at Brunanburh (perhaps 
Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E. Dumfriesshire), in 
which AEthelstan and his brother Edmund were completely 
victorious.  England had been freed from its greatest danger 
since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Cuthrum. 

AEthelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any 
real sense to be lord paramount of Britain.  In his charters 
he is continually called ``rex totius Britanniae,'' and he 
adopts for the first time the Greek title basileus. This 
was not merely an idle flourish, for some of his charters 
are signed by Welsh and Scottish kings as subreguli. 
Further, AEthelstan was the first king to bring England into 
close touch with continental Europe.  By the marriage of his 
half-sisters he was brought into connexion with the chief 
royal and princely houses of France and Germany.  His sister 
Eadgifu married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became the wife 
of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth was married to 
the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister AElfgifu to a 
petty German prince.  Embassies passed between AEthelstan and 
Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result 
that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is 
known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adalsteinsfostri. 

AEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmesbury, 
an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his lifetime.  
Apparently he was never married, and he certainly had no issue. 

A considerable body of law has come down to us in 
AEthelstan's name.  The chief collections are those issued 
at Grately in Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresfeld, and the 
Judicia civitatis Lundonie. In the last-named one personal 
touch is found when the king tells the archbishop how grievous 
it is to put to death persons of twelve winters for stealing.  
The king secured the raising of the age limit to fifteen. 

AUTHORITIES.---Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; 
William of Malmesbury, Gestal Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls 
Series, containing valuable original information (v. Stubbs' 
Introduction, II. lxvii.); Birch, Cartul.  Saxon. vol. 
ii.  Nos. 641-747; A.S. Laws. (ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; 
AEthelweard, Florence of Worcester.  Secondary: Saxon 
Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142 D.N.B., s.v. 

AETHELWEARD (ETHELWARD.) Anglo-Saxon historian, was 
the great-grandson of AEthelred, the brother of Alfred and 
ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably 
of the whole of Wessex).  He first signs as dux or ealdorman 
in 973, and continues to sign until 998, about which time 
his death must have taken place.  In the year 991 he was 
associated with archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a 
peace with the victorious Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he 
was sent with Bishop AElfheah (Alphege) of Winchester to make 
peace with Olaf at Andover. AEthelweard was the author of 
a Latin Chronicle extending to the year 975. Up to the year 
892 he is largely dependent on the Saxon Chronicle, with 
a few details of his own; later he is largely independent of 
it. AEthelweard gave himself the bombastic title ``Patricius 
Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus,'' and unfortunately this title 
is only too characteristic of the man.  His narrative is 
highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time attempts more 
than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often very obscure. 
AEthelweard was the friend and patron of AElfric the grammarian. 

AUTHORITIES.---Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch, 
Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224; 
Tabii Ethelwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist.  Brit. 449-454.  Secondary: 
Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci.; Napier and Stevenson, 
Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v. (A. law.) 

AETHELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father 
Ecgberht in A.D. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle 
for 825 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, 
and the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of 
Kent, which was successfully accomplished.  On the accession of 
AEthelwulf, AEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king 
of Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. AEthelwulf's reign was 
chiefly occupied with struggles against the Danes.  After the 
king's defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a 
victory at the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, 
with the men of Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and 
AEthelstan of Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of 
which they wintered in England that year for the first time.  
In 851 also AEthelwulf and AEthelbald won their great victory at 
Aclea, probably the modern Ockley.  In 853 AEthelwulf subdued 
the North Welsh, in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, 
and gave him his daughter AEthelswith in marriage. 855 is the 
year of the Donation of AEthelwulf and of his journey to Rome 
with Alfred.  On his way home he married Judith, daughter 
of Charles the Bald.  According to Asser he was compelled 
to give up Wessex to his son AEthelbald on his return, and 
content himself with the eastern sub-kingdom.  He died in 858. 

Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.) 

AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. aither, probably from aitho, 
burn, though Plato in his Cratylus (41O B) derives the 
name from its perpetual motion-- oti aei thei peri ton 
aera reon, aeitheer dikaios an kaloito), a material 
substance of a more subtle kind than visible bodies, supposed 
to exist in those parts of space which are apparently empty. 

``The hypothesis of an aether has been maintained by different 
speculators for very different reasons.  To those who maintained 
the existence of a plenum as a philosophical principle, nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient reason for imagining 
an all-surrounding aether, even though every other argument 
should be against it.  To Descartes, who made extension the 
sole essential property of matter, and matter a necessary 
condition of extension, the bare existence of bodies apparently 
at a distance was a proof of the existence of a continuous 
medium between them.  But besides these high metaphysical 
necessities for a medium, there were more mundane uses to be 
fulfilled by aethers.  Aethers were invented for the planets 
to swim in, to constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic 
effluvia, to convey sensations from one part of our bodies to 
another, and so on, till all space had been filled three or 
four times over with aethers.  It is only when we remember 
the extensive and mischievous influence on science which 
hypotheses about aethers used formerly to exercise, that 
we can appreciate the horror of aethers which sober-minded 
men had during the 18th century, and which, probably as a 
sort of hereditary prejudice, descended even to John Stuart 
Mill.  The disciples of Newton maintained that in the fact 
of the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies, according 
to Newton's law, they had a complete quantitative account of 
their motions; and they endeavoured to follow out the path 
which Newton had opened up by investigating and measuring 
the attractions and repulsions of electrified and magnetic 
bodies, and the cohesive forces in the interior of bodies, 
without attempting tdraccount for these forces.  Newton himself, 
however, endeavoured to account for gravitation by differences 
of pressure in an aether; but he did not publish his theory, 
`because he was not able from experiment and observation to 
give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the manner of 
its operation in producing the chief phenomena of nature.' On 
the other hand, those who imagined aethers in order to explain 
phenomena could not specify the nature of the motion of these 
media, and could not prove that the media, as imagined by 
them, would produce the effects they were meant to explain.  
The only aether which has survived is that which was invented 
by Huygens to explain the propagation of light.  The evidence 
for the existence of the luminiferous aether has accumulated 
as additional phenomena of light and other radiations have 
been discovered; and the properties of this medium, as deduced 
from the phenomena of light, have been found to be precisely 
those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena.'' 

This description, quoted from James Clerk Maxwell's article in 
the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, represents 
the historical position of the subject up till about 1860, when 
Maxwell began those constructive speculations in electrical 
theory, based on the influence of the physical views of Faraday 
and Lord Kelvin, which have in their subsequent development largely 
transformed theoretical physics into the science of the aether. 

In the remainder of the article referred to, Maxwell reviews 
the evidence for the necessity of an aether, from the fact 
that light takes time to travel, while it cannot travel as a 
substance, for if so two interfering lights could not mask 
each other in the dark fringes (see INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT.) 
Light is therefore an influence propagated as wave-motion, and 
moreover by transverse undulations, for the reasons brought 
out by Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel; so that the aether 
is a medium which possesses elasticity of a type analogous to 
rigidity.  It must be very different from ordinary matter as we 
know it, for waves travelling in matter constitute sound, which 
is propagated hundreds of thousands of times slower than light. 

If we suppose that the aether differs from ordinary matter in 
degree but not in kind, we can obtain some idea of its quality 
from a knowledge of the velocity of radiation and of its 
possible intensity near the sun, in a manner applied long ago 
by Lord Kelvin (Trans.  R. S. Edin. xxi. 1854).  According 
to modern measurements the solar radiation imparts almost 3 
gramme-calories of energy per minute per square centimetre 
at the distance of the earth, which is about 1.3X106 ergs 
per sec. per cm.2 The energy in sunlight per cubic cm. just 
outside the earth's atmosphere is therefore about 4X10-5 
ergs; applying the law of inverse squares the value near the 
sun's surface would be 1.8 ergs.  Let E be the effective 
elasticity of the aether; then E=rc2, where r is its 
density, and c the velocity of light which is 3X1010 
cm./sec.  If x=A cosn (t-x/c) is the linear vibration, 
the stress is E dx/dx; and the total energy, which is 
twice the kinetic energy  1/2r(dx/dt)2dx, is  1/2rn2
A2 per cm., which is thus equal to 1.8 ergs as above. law 
l=2pc/n, so that if A/l=k, we have  1/2r(2pck)2= 
1.8, giving r=10-22k-2 and E=10-1k-2.  Lord Kelvin 
assumed as a superior limit of k, the ratio of amplitude 
to wave-length, the value 10-2, which is a very safe 
limit.  It follows that the density of the aether must exceed 
10-18, and its elastic modulus must exceed 103, which 
is only about 10-8 of the modulus of rigidity of glass.  
It thus appears that if the amplitude of vibration could be 
as much as 10-2 of the wave-length, the aether would be an 
excessively rare medium with very slight elasticity; and yet 
it would be capable of transmitting the supply of solar energy 
on which all terrestrial activity depends.  But on the modern 
theory, which includes the play of electrical phenomena as a 
function of the aether, there are other considerations which 
show that this number 10-2 is really an enormous overestimate; 
and it is not impossible that the co-efficient of ultimate 
inertia of the aether is greater than the co-efficient of 
inertia (of different kind) of any existing material substance. 

The question of whether the aether is carried along by the 
earth's motion has been considered from the early days of 
the undulatory theory of light.  In reviving that theory at 
the beginning of the 19th century, Thomas Young stated his 
conviction that material media offered an open structure 
to the substance called aether, which passed through 
them without hindrance ``like the wind through a grove of 
trees.'' Any convection of that medium could be tested by 
the change of effective velocity of light, which would be 
revealed by a prism as was suggested by F. J. D. Arago.  
Before 1868 Maxwell conducted the experiment by sending light 
from the illuminated cross-wires of an observing telescope 
forward through the object-glass, and through a train of 
prisms, and then reflecting it back along the same path; 
any influence of convection would conspire in altering both 
refractions, but yet no displacement of the image depending 
on the earth's motion was detected.  As will be seen later, 
modern experiments have confirmed the entire absence of any 
effect, such as convection would produce, to very high 
precision.  It has further been verified by Sir Oliver Lodge 
that even in very narrow spaces the aether is not entrained 
by its surroundings when they are put into rapid motion. 

A train of ideas which strongly impressed itself on Clerk 
Maxwell's mind, in the early stages of his theoretical views, was 
put forward by Lord Kelvin in 1858; he showed that the special 
characteristics of the rotation of the plane of polarization, 
discovered by Faraday in light propagated along a magnetic 
field, viz. that it is doubled instead of being undone when 
the light retraces its path, requires the operation of some 
directed agency of a rotational kind, which must be related 
to the magnetic field.  Lord Kelvin was thereby induced to 
identify magnetic force with rotation, involving, therefore, 
angular momentum in the aether.  Modern theory accepts the 
deduction, but ascribes the momentum to the revolving ions 
in the molecules of matter traversed by the light; for the 
magneto-optic effect is present only in material media.  
Long previously Lord Kelvin himself came nearer this view, in 
offering the opinion that magnetism consisted, in some way, 
in the angular momentum of the material molecules, of which 
the energy of irregular translations constitutes heat; but the 
essential idea of moving electric ions of both kinds, positive 
and negative, in the molecules had still to be introduced. 

The question of the transparency of the celestial spaces presents 
itself in the presebt connexion.  Light from stars at unfathomable 
distances reaches us in such quantity as to suggest that space 
itself is absolutely transparent, leaving open the question 
as to whether there is enough matter scattered through it to 
absorb a sensible part of the light in its journey of years 
from the luminous body.  If the aether were itself constituted 
of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies, such 
transparency would not be conceivable.  We must be content 
to treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class 
by itself; and we can thus recognize that it may behave very 
differently from matter, though in some manner consistent with 
itself---a remark which is fundamental in the modern theory. 

Action across a Distance contrasted with Transmitted Action.--In 
the mechanical processes which we can experimentally modify at 
will, and which therefore we learn to apprehend with greatest 
fulness, whenever an effect on a body, B, is in causal connexion 
with a process instituted in another body, A, it is usually 
possible to discover a mechanical connexion between the two 
bodies which allows the influence of A to be traced all the 
way across the intervening region.  The question thus arises 
whether, in electric attractions across apparently empty space 
and in gravitational attraction across the celestial regions, 
we are invited or required to make search for some similar 
method of continuous transmission of the physical effect, 
or whether we should rest content with an exact knowledge 
of the laws according to which one body affects mechanically 
another body at a distance.  The view that our knowledge in 
such cases may be completely represented by means of laws of 
action at a distance, expressible in terms of the positions 
(and possibly motions) of the interacting bodies without 
taking any heed of the intervening space, belongs to modern 
times.  It could hardly have been thought of before Sir Isaac 
Newton's discovery of the actual facts regarding universal 
gravitation.  Although, however, gravitation has formed the 
most perfect instance of an influence completely expressible, 
up to the most extreme refinement of accuracy, in terms of 
laws of direct action across space, yet, as is well known, 
the author of this ideally simple and perfect theory held the 
view that it is not possible to conceive of direct mechanical 
action independent of means of transmission.  In this belief 
he differed from his pupil, Roger Cotes, and from most of 
the great mathematical astronomers of the 18th century, 
who worked out in detail the task sketched by the genius of 
Newton.  They were content with a knowledge of the truth of 
the principle of gravitation; instead of essaying to explain 
it further by the properties of a transmitting medium, they 
in fact modelled the whole of their natural philosophy on that 
principle, and tried to express all kinds of material interaction 
in terms of laws of direct mechanical attraction across 
space.  If material systems are constituted of discrete atoms, 
separated from each other by many times the diameter of any of 
them, this simple plan of exhibiting their interactions in terms 
of direct forces between them would indeed be exact enough to 
apply to a wide range of questions, provided we could be certain 
that the laws of the forces depended only on the positions 
and not also on the motions of the atoms.  The most important 
example of its successful application has been the theory of 
capillary action elaborated by P. S. Laplace; though even here 
it appeared, in the hands of Young, and in complete fulness 
afterwards in those of C. F. Gauss, that the definite results 
attainable by the hypothesis of mutual atomic attractions really 
reposed on much wider and less special principles---those, 
namely, connected with the modern doctrine of energy. 

Idea of an Aether.---The wider view, according to which 
the hypothesis of direct transmission of physical influences 
expresses only part of the facts, is that all space is 
filled with physical activity, and that while an influence 
is passing across from a body, A, to another body, B, there 
is some dynamical process in action in the intervening 
region, though it appears to the senses to be mere empty 
space.  The problem is whether we can represent the facts more 
simply by supposing the intervening space to be occupied by 
a medium which transmits physical actions, after the manner 
that a continuous material medium, solid or liquid, transmits 
mechanical disturbance.  Various analogies of this sort are 
open to us to follow up: for example, the way in which a 
fluid medium transmits pressure from one immersed solid to 
another--or from one vortex ring belonging to the fluid to 
another, which is a much wider and more suggestive case; 
or the way in which an elastic fluid like the atmosphere 
transmits sound; or the way in which an elastic solid transmits 
waves of transverse as well as longitudinal displacement.  
It is on our familiarity with modes of transmission such as 
these, and with the exact analyses of them which the science 
of mathematical physics has been able to make, that our 
predilection for filling space with an aethereal transmitting 
medium, constituting a universal connexion between material 
bodies, largely depends; perhaps ultimately it depends most 
of all, like all our physical conceptions, on the intimate 
knowledge that we can ourselves exert mechanical effect on 
outside bodies only through the agencies of our limbs and 
sinews.  The problem thus arises: Can we form a consistent 
notion of such a connecting medium? It must be a medium which 
can be effective for transmitting all the types of physical 
action known to us; it would be worse than no solution to 
have one medium to transmit gravitation, another to transmit 
electric effects, another to transmit light, and so on.  Thus 
the attempt to find out a constitution for the aether will 
involve a synthesis of intimate correlation of the various 
types of physical agencies, which appear so different to us 
mainly because we perceive them through different senses.  
The evidence for this view, that all these agencies are at 
bottom connected together and parts of the same scheme, was 
enormously strengthened during the latter half of the 19th 
century by the development of a relation of simple quantitative 
equivalence between them; it has been found that we can define 
quantities relating to them, under the names of mechanical 
energy, electric energy, thermal energy, and so on, so that 
when one of them disappears, it is replaced by the others to 
exactly equal amount.  This single principle of energy has 
transformed physical science by making possible the construction 
of a network of ramifying connexions between its various 
departments; it thus stimulates the belief that these constitute 
a single whole, and encourages the search for the complete 
scheme of interconnexion of which the principle of energy 
and the links which it suggests form only a single feature. 

In carrying out this scientific procedure false steps will 
from time to time be made, which will have to be retraced, or 
rather amended; but the combination of experimental science with 
theory has elevated our presumption of the rationality of all 
natural processes, so far as we can apprehend them at all, into 
practical certainty; so that, though the mode of presentation of 
the results may vary from age to age, it is hardly conceivable 
that the essentials of the method are not of permanent validity. 

Atomic Structure of Matter.---The greatest obstacle to such a 
search for the fundamental medium is the illimitable complexity 
of matter, as contrasted with the theoretical simplicity and 
uniformity of the physical agencies which connect together its 
different parts.  It has been maintained since the times of 
the early Greek philosophers, and possibly even more remote 
ages, that matter is constituted of independent indestructible 
units, which cannot ever become divided by means of any 
mutual actions they can exert.  Since the period, a century 
ago, when Dalton and his contemporaries constructed from this 
idea a scientific basis for chemistry, the progress of that 
subject has been wonderful beyond any conception that could 
previously have been entertained; and the atomic theory in 
some form appears to be an indispensable part of the framework 
of physical science.  Now this doctrine of material atoms is 
an almost necessary corollary to the doctrine of a universal 
aether.  For if we held that matter is continuous, one of two 
alternatives would be open.  We might consider that matter and 
aether can coexist in the same space; this would involve the 
co-existence and interaction of a double set of properties, 
introducing great complication, which would place any coherent 
scheme of physical action probably beyond the powers of human 
analysis.  Or we might consider that aether exists only 
where matter is not, thus making it a very rare and subtle 
and elastic kind of matter; then we should have to assign 
these very properties to the matter itself where it replaces 
aether, in addition to its more familiar properties, and the 
complication would remain.  The other course is to consider 
matter as formed of ultimate atoms, each the nucleus or core 
of an intrinsic modification impressed on the siurounding 
region of the aether; this might conceivably be of the 
nature of vortical motion of a liquid round a ring-core, 
thus giving a vortex atom, or of an intrinsic strain of some 
sort radiating from a core, which would give an electric 
atom.  We recognize an atom only through its physical 
activities, as manifested in its interactions with other atoms 
at a distance from it; this field of physical activity would 
be identical with the surrounding field of aethereal motion 
or strain that is inseparably associated with the nucleus, 
and is carried on along with it as it moves.  Here then we 
have the basis of a view in which there are not two media 
to be considered, but one medium, homogeneous in essence and 
differentiated as regards its parts only by the presence of 
nuclei of intrinsic strain or motion---in which the physical 
activities of matter are identified with those arising from 
the atmospheres of modified aether which thus belong to its 
atoms.  As regards laws of general physical interactions, 
the atom is fully represented by the constitution of this 
atmosphere, and its nucleus may be left out of our discussions; 
but in the problems of biology great tracts of invariable 
correlations have to be dealt with, which seem hopelessly 
more complex than any known or humanly possible physical 
scheme.  To make room for these we have to remember that the 
atomic nucleus has remained entirely undefined and beyond 
our problem; so that what may occur, say when two molecules 
come into close relations, is outside physical science---not, 
however, altogether outside, for we know that when the vital 
nexus in any portion of matter is dissolved, the atoms 
will remain, in their number, and their atmospheres, and all 
inorganic relations, as they were before vitality supervened. 

Nature of Properties of Material Bodies.---It thus appears 
that the doctrine of atomic material constitution and the 
doctrine of a universal aether stand to each other in a 
relation of mutual support; if the scheme of physical laws 
is to be as precise as observation and measurement appear to 
make it, both doctrines are required in our efforts towards 
synthesis.  Our direct knowledge of matter can, however, 
never be more than a rough knowledge of the general average 
behaviour of its molecules; for the smallest material speck 
that is sensible to our coarse perceptions contains myriads of 
atoms.  The properties of the most minute portion of matter 
which we can examine are thus of the nature of averages.  
We may gradually invent means of tracing more and more 
closely the average drifts of translation or orientation, 
or of changes of arrangement, of the atoms; but there will 
always remain an unaveraged residue devoid of any recognized 
regularity, which we can only estimate by its total amount.  
Thus, if we are treating of energy, we can separate out 
mechanical and electric and other constituents in it; and 
there will be a residue of which we know nothing except its 
quantity, and which we call thermal.  This merely thermal 
energy--which is gradually but very slowly being restricted 
in amount as new subsidiary organized types become recognized 
in it--though transmutable in equivalent quantities with the 
other kinds, yet is so only to a limited extent; the tracing 
out of the laws of this limitation belongs to the science of 
thermodynamics.  It is the business of that science to find 
out what is the greatest amount of thermal energy that can 
possibly be recoverable into organized kinds under given 
circumstances.  The discovery of definite laws in this 
region might at first sight seem hopeless; but the argument 
rests on an implied postulate of stability and continuity of 
constitution of material substances, so that after a cycle 
of transformations we expect to recover them again as they 
were originally---on the postulate, in fact, that we do 
not expect them to melt out of organized existence in our 
hands.  The laws of thermodynamics, including the fundamental 
principle that a physical property, called temperature, can be 
defined, which tends towards uniformity, are thus relations 
between the properties of types of material bodies that 
can exist permanently in presence of each other; why they 
so maintain themselves remains unknown, but the fact gives 
the point d'appui. The fundamental character of energy 
in material systems here comes into view; if there were any 
other independent scalar entity, besides mass and energy, 
that pervaded them with relations of equivalence, we should 
expect the existence of yet another set of pualities analogous 
to those connected with temperature. (See ENERGETICS.) 

Returning now to the aether, on our present point of view 
no such complications there arise; it must be regarded as a 
continuous uniform medium free from any complexities of atomic 
aggregation, whose function is confined to the transmission of 
the various types of physical effect between the portions of 
matter.  The problem of its constitution is thus one which 
can be attacked and continually approximated to, and which 
may possibly be definitely resolved.  It has to be competent 
to transmit the transverse waves of light and electricity, 
and the other known radiant and electric actions; the way 
in which this is done is now in the main known, though 
there are still questions as to the mode of expression and 
formulation of our knowledge, and also as regards points of 
detail.  This great advance, which is the result of the gradual 
focussing of a century's work in the minute exploration of 
the exact laws of optical and electric phenomena, clearly 
carries with it deeper insight into the physical nature 
of matter itself and its modes of inanimate interaction. 

If we rest on the synthesis here described, the energy of the 
matter, even the thermal part, appears largely as potential 
energy of strain in the aether which interacts with the kinetic 
energy associated with disturbances involving finite velocity of 
matter.  It may, however, be maintained that an ultimate 
analysis would go deeper, and resolve all phenomena of elastic 
resilience into consequences of the kinetic stability of steady 
motional states, so that only motions, but not strains, would 
remain.  On such a view the aether might conceivably be a 
perfect fluid, its fundamental property of elastic reaction 
arising (as at one time suggested by Kelvin and G. F. 
Fitzgerald) from a structure of tangled or interlaced vortex 
filaments pervading its substance, which might conceivably 
arrange themselves into a stable configuration and so resist 
deformation.  This raises the further question as to whether 
the transmission of gravitation can be definitely recognized 
among the properties of an ultimate medium; if so, we know 
that it must be associated with some feature, perhaps very 
deep-seated, or on the other hand perhaps depending simply on 
incompressibility, which is not sensibly implicated in the 
electric and optical activities.  With reference to all such 
further refinements of theory, it is to be borne in mind that 
the perfect fluid of hydrodynamic analysis is not a merely 
passive inert plenum; it is also a continuum with the 
property that no finite internal slip or discontinuity of 
motion can ever arise in it through any kind of disturbance; 
and this property must be postulated, as it cannot be explained. 

Motion of Material Atoms through the Aether.--An important 
question arises whether, when a material body is moved through 
the aether, the nucleus of each atom carries some of the 
surrounding aether along with it; or whether it practically 
only carries on its strain-form or physical atmosphere, which 
is transferred from one portion of aether to another after 
the manner of a shadow, or rather like a loose knot which can 
slip along a rope without the rope being required to go with 
it.  We can obtain a pertinent illustration from the motion 
of a vortex ring in a fluid; if the circular core of the ring 
is thin compared with its diameter, and the vorticity is not 
very great, it is the vortical state of motion that travels 
across the fluid without transporting the latter bodily with 
it except to a slight extent very close to the core.  We might 
thus examine a structure formed of an aggregation of very 
thin vortex rings, which would move across the fluid without 
sensibly disturbing it; on the other hand, if formed of stronger 
vortices, it may transport the portion of the fluid that is 
within, or adjacent to, its own structure along with it as 
if it were a solid mass, and therefore also push aside the 
surrounding fluid as it passes.  The motion of the well-known 
steady spherical vortex is an example of the latter case. 

Convection of Optical Waves.--The nature of the motion, 
if any, that is produced in the surrounding regions of 
the aether by the translation of matter through it can be 
investigated by optical experiment.  The obvious body to take 
in the first instance is the earth itself, which on account 
of its annual orbital motion is travelling through space at 
the rate of about 18 miles per second.  If the surrounding 
aether is thereby disturbed, the waves of light arriving 
from the stars will partake of its movement; the ascertained 
phenomena of the astronomical aberration of light show that 
the rays travel to the observer, across this disturbed aether 
near the earth, in straight lines.  Again, we may split a 
narrow beam of light by partial reflexion from a transparent 
plate, and recombine the constituent beams after they have 
traversed different circuits of nearly equivalent lengths, 
so as to obtain interference fringes.  The position of these 
fringes will depend on the total retardation in time of the 
one beam with respect to the other; and thus it might be 
expected to vary with the direction of the earth's motion 
relative to the apparatus.  But it is found not to vary at 
all, even up to the second order of the ratio of the earth's 
velocity to that of light.  It has in fact been found, with 
the very great precision of which optical experiment is 
capable, that all terrestrial optical phenomena--reflexion, 
refraction, polarization linear and circular, diffraction 
--are entirely unaffected by the direction of the earth's 
motion, while the same result has recently been extended to 
electrostatic forces; and this is our main experimental clue. 

We pass on now to the theory.  We shall make the natural 
supposition that motion of the aether, say with velocity 
(u,v,w) at the point (x,y,z), is simply superposed on the 
velocity V of the optical undulations through that medium, 
the latter not being intrinsically altered.  Now the direction 
and phase of the light are those of the ray which reaches the 
eye; and by Fermat's principle, established by Huygens for 
undulatory motion, the path of a ray is that track along which 
the disturbance travels in least time, in the restricted sense 
that any alteration of any short reach of the path will 
increase the time.  Thus the path of the ray when the aether is 
at rest is the curve which makes Integralds/V least; but when it is 
in motion it is the curve which makes Integralds/(V+lu+my+nw) least, 
where (l,m,n) is the direction vector of ds.  
The latter integral becomes, on expanding in a series, 

 Integralds/V - Integral(udx + vdy + wdz)/V2 + Integral(udx + vdy + wdz)2/V3 + ..., 

since lds=dx. If the path is to be unaltered by the motion 
of the aether, as the law of astronomical aberration suggests, 
this must differ from Integralds/V by terms not depending on the 
path--that is, by terms involving only the beginning and end of 
it.  In the case of the free aether V is constant; thus, if 
we neglect squares like (u/V)2, the condition is that udx 
+ vdy + wdz be the exact differential of some function f. 
If this relation is true along all paths, the velocity of the 
aether must be of irrotational type, like that of frictionless 
fluid.  Moreover, this is precisely the condition for the 
absence of interference between the component of a split 
beam; because, the time of passage being to the first order 

Integralds/V - Integral(udx + vdy + wdz)/V2 

the second term will then be independent of the path (f 
being a single valued function) and therefore the same for the 
paths of both the interfering beams.  If therefore the aether 
can be pnt into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such 
motion, in free space, must be of strictly irrotational type. 

But our experimental data are not confined to free space. if 
c is the velocity of radiation in free space and m the 
refractis'e index of a transparent body, V=C/m; thus it 
is the expression c-2Integralm2(u'dx + v'dy + w'dz) that 
is to be integrable explicitly, where now (u',v',w') is 
what is added to V owing to the velocity (u,v,w) of the 
medium.  As, however, our terrestrial optical apparatus is 
now all in motion along with the matter, we must deal with 
the rays relative to the moving system, and to these also 
Fermat's principle clearly applies; thus V + (lu' + mv' + 
nw') is here the velocity of radiation in the direction of 
the ray, but relative to the moving material system.  Now the 
expression above given cannot be integrable exactly, under 
all circumstances and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, 
unless (m2u',m2v',m2w') is the gradient of a continuous 
function.  In the simplest case, that of uniform translation, 
these components of the gradient will each be constant 
throughout the region; at a distant place in free aether where 
there is no motion, they must thus be equal to -u,-v,
-w, as they refer to axes moving with the matter.  Hence 
the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the 
material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the 
system, provided the velocity of radiation relative to the 
system, in material of index m, is diminished by m-2 
times the velocity of the system in the direction of the 
radiation, that is, provided the absolute velocity of radiation 
is increased by 1 - m-2 times the velocity of the material 
system; this involves that the free aether for which m is 
unity shall remain at rest.  This statement constitutes the 
famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures that all 
phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those depending 
on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection of the 
material medium, in accordance with the results of experiment. 

Is the Aether Stationary or mobile?---This theory secures 
that the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of 
the motion of the system, only up to the first order of the 
ratio of its velocity to that of radiation.  But a classical 
experiment of A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was 
wholly in air, showed that the independence extends to higher 
orders.  This result is inconsistent with the aether remaining at 
rest, unless we assume that the dimensions of the moving system 
depend, though to an extent so small as to be not otherwise 
detectable, on its orientation with regard to the aether that 
is streaming through it.  It is, however, in complete accordance 
with a view that would make the aether near the earth fully 
partake in its orbital motion---a view which the null effect of 
convection on all terrestrial optical and electrical phenomena 
also strongly suggests.  But the aether at a great distance 
must in any case be at rest; while the facts of astronomical 
aberration require that the motion of that medium must be 
irrotational.  These conditions cannot be consistent with 
sensible convection of the aether near the earth without 
involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate 
distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory. 

Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be 
stationary is afforded by the character of the equations of 
electrodynamics; they are all of linear type, and superposition 
of effects is possible.  Now the kinetics of a medium in 
which the parts can have finite relative motions will lead 
to equations which are not linear---as, for example, those of 
hydrodynamics---and the phenomena will be far more complexly 
involved.  It is true that the theory of vortex rings in 
hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric currents 
cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because their 
circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness 
on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed. 

Dynamical Theories of the Aether.---The analytical equations 
which represent the propagation of light in free aether, 
and also in aether modified by the presence of matter, were 
originally developed on the analogy of the equations of 
propagation of elastic effects in solid media.  Various types 
of elastic solid medium have thus been invented to represent 
the aether, without complete success in any case.  In T. 
Maccullagh's hands the correct equations were derived from a 
single energy formula by the principle of least action; and 
while the validity of this dynamical method was maintained, 
it was frankly admitted that no mechanical analogy was 
forthcoming.  When Clerk Maxwell pointed out the way to the 
common origin of optical and electrical phenomena, these 
equations naturally came to repose on an electric basis, the 
connexion having been first definitely exhibited by Fitzgerald 
in 1878; and according as the independent variable was one or 
other of the vectors which represent electric force, magnetic 
force or electric polarity, they took the form appropriate 
to one or other of the elastic theories above mentioned. 

In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the 
more recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which 
involve the dynamical verification of Fresnel's hypothesis 
regarding optical convection and the other relations above 
described.  The aether is taken to be at rest; and the 
strain-forms belonging to the atoms are the electric fields 
of the intrinsic charges, or electrones, involved in their 
constitution.  When the atoms are in motion these strain-forms 
produce straining and unstraining in the aether as they pass 
across it, which in its motional or kinetic aspect constitutes 
the resulting magnetic field; as the strains are slight 
the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved must be 
great.  True electric current arises solely from convection 
of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is therefore 
not restricted as to form in any way.  But when the rate of 
change of aethereal strain----that is, of (f,g,h) specified 
as Maxwell's electric displacement in free aether---is 
added to it, an analytically convenient vector (u,v,w) 
is obtained which possesses the characteristic property of 
being circuital like the flow of an incompressible fluid, 
and has therefore been made fundamental in the theory 
by Maxwell under the name of the total electric current. 

As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical 
propagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid 
medium have failed; and though the idea of regions of 
intrinsic strain, as for example in unannealed glass, 
is familiar in physics, yet on account of the absence of 
mobility of the strain no attempt had been made to employ 
them to illustrate the electric fields of atomic charges.  
The idea of Maccullagh's aether, and its property of purely 
rotational elasticity which had been expounded objectively 
by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much vivified by Lord 
Kelvin's specification (Comptes Rendus, 1889) of a material 
gyrostatically constituted medium which would possess this 
character.  More recently a way has been pointed out in which 
a mobile permanent field of electric force could exist in such 
a medium so as to travel freely in company with its nucleus or 
intrinsic charge---the nature of the mobility of the latter, 
as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown. 

A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field 
of electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the 
displaced positive and negative intrinsic charges in the 
atom: the polarization per unit volume (f',g',h') may be 
defined on the analogy of magnetism, and d/dt(f', g', h') 
thus constitutes truo electric current of polarization, 
i.e. of electric separation in the molecules, specified 
per unit volume.  The convection of a medium thus polarized 
involves electric disturbance, and therefore must contribute 
to the true electric current; the determination of this 
constituent of the current is the most delicate point in the 
investigation.  The usual definition of the component current 
in any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses, 
towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in 
space at right angles to that direction, per unit area per 
unit time, here gives no definite result.  The establishment 
and convection of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a 
quasi-magnetization, in addition to the polarization current 
as above defined, the negative poles completing the current 
circuits of the positive ones.  But in the transition from 
molecular theory to the electrodynamics of extended media, 
all magnetism has to be replaced by a distribution of current; 
the latter being now specified by volume as well as by flow 
so that (u,v,w) dt is the current in the element of volume 
dt. In the present case the total dielectric contribution 
to this current works out to be the change per unit time in 
the electric separation in the molecules of the element of 
volume, as it moves uniformly with the matter, all other 
effects being compensated molecularly without affecting the 
propagation.1 On subtracting from this total the current of 
establishment of polarization d/dt/(f,g',h') as formulated 
above, there remains vd/dx(f',g',h') as the current of 
convection of polarization when the convection is taken 
for simplicity to be in the direction of the axis of x 
with velocity v.  The polarization itself is determined 
from the electric force (P,Q,R) by the usual statical 
formula of linear type which becomes tor an isotropic medium 

                (f',g',h') = ((K-1)/4pc2)(P,Q,R), 

because any change of the dielectric constant K arising 
from the convection of the material through the aether 
must be independent of the sign of v and therefore be of 
the second order.  Now the electric force (P,Q,R) is the 
force acting on the electrons of the medium moving with 
velocity v; consequently by Faraday's electrodynamic law 

                (P,Q,R) = (P',Q' - vc, R'- vb) 

where (P', Q', R') is the force that would act on electrons 
at rest, and (a,b,c) is the magnetic induction.  The 
latter force is, by Maxwell's hypothesis or by the dynamical 
theory of an aether pervaded by electrons, the same as 
that which strains the aether, and may be called the 
aethereal force; it thereby produces an aethereal electric 
displacement, say (y,g,h), according to the relation 

                (f,g,h) = (4pc2) - (P', Q', R'), 

in which c is a constant belonging to the aether, which turns 
out to be the velocity of light.  The current of aethereal 
displacement d/dt(f,g,h) is what adds on to the true electric 
current to produce the total circuital current of Maxwell. 

We have now to substitute these data in the universally 
valid circuital relations---namely, (i) line integral of 
magnetic force round a circuit is equal to 4p times the 
current through its aperture, which may be regarded as a 
definition of the constitution of the aether and its relation 
to the electrons involved in it; and (ii) line integral 
of the electric force belonging to any material circuit 
(i.e. acting on the electrons situated on it which move 
with the velocity of the matter) is equal to minus the 
time-rate of change of the magnetic induction through that 
circuit as it moves with the matter, this being a dynamical 
consequence of the aethereal constitution assigned in (i). 

We may now, as is somewhat the more natural course in the 
terrestrial application, take axes (x,y,z) which move with the 
matter; but the current must be invariably defined by the flux 
across surfaces fixed in space, so that we may say that relation 
(i) refers to a circuit fixed in space, while (ii) refers to 
one moving with the matter.  These circuital relations, when 
expressed analytically, are then for a dielectric medium of types 

                dg/dy - db/dz = 4pu,...,..., where 
       (u,v,w) = (d/dt + v(d/dx))(f',g',h') + (d/dt)(f,g,h)
and
               dR/dy - dQ/dz = -da/dt',...,...,.
where, when magnetic quality is inoperative, the magnetic 
induction (a,b,c) is identical with the magnetic force (a,b,g.) 

These equations determine all the phenomena.  They take this simple 
form, however, only when the movement of the matter is one of 
translation.  If v varies with respect to locality, or if there 
is a velocity of convection (p,q,r) variable with respect to 
direction and position, and analytical expression of the relation 
(ii) assumes a more complex form; we thus derive the most general 
equations of electrodynamic propagation for matter treated 
as continuous, anyhow distributed and moving in any manner. 

For the simplest case of polarized waves travelling parallel 
to the axis of x, with the magnetic oscillation g along z 
and the electric oscillation Q along y, all the quantities 
are functions of x and t alone; the total current is 
along y and given with respect to our moving axes by 

        v = (d/dt - v(d/dx))(Q+vg)/4pc2 + (d/dt)((K-1)/4pc2)Th; 

also the circuital relations here reduce to 

            -dg/dx = 4pv, dQ/dx = -dg/dt; 

thus


                d2Q/dx2 = 4pdv/dt 

giving, on substitution for v, 

        (c2-v2)d2Q/dx2 = Kd2Q/dt2 - 2vd2Q/dxdt. 

For a simple wave-train, Q varies as sin m(x-Vt), leading 
on substitution to the velocity of propagation V relative 
to the moving material, by means of the equation KV2 + 2
vV = c2-v2; this gives, to the first order of v/c, 
V = c/sqrt. K - v/K, which is in accordance with Fresnel's 
law.  Trains of waves nearly but not quite homogeneous as 
regards wave-length will as usual be propagated as wave-groups 
travelling with the slightly different velocity d(Vl-1)/
dl-1, the value of K occurring in V being a function of 
l determined by the law of optical dispersion of the medium. 

For purposes of theoretical discussions relating to moving radiators 
and reflectors, it is important to remember that the dynamics 
of all this theory of electrons involves the neglect of terms of 
the order (v/c)2, not merely in the value of K but throughout. 

Recent Experimental Developments.---The modification of 
the spectrum of a radiating gas by a magnetic field, such 
as would result from the hypothesis that the radiators are 
the system of revolving or oscillating electrons in the 
molecule, was detected by P. Zeeman in 1896, and worked 
up, in conjunction with H. A. Lorentz, on the general lines 
suggested by the electron-theory of molecular constitution.  
While it cannot be said that the full significance of this 
very definite phenomenon, consisting of the splitting of 
the spectral line into a number of polarized components, has 
yet been made out, a wide field of correlation with optical 
theory, especially in the neighbourhood of absorption bands, 
has been developed by Zeeman himself, by A. H. Becquerel, 
by D. Macaluso and O. M. Corbino, and by other workers. 

The most fundamental experimental confirmation that the theory 
of the aether has received on the optical side in recent 
years has been the verification of Maxwell's proposition that 
radiation exerts mechanical force on a material system, on 
which it falls, which may be represented in all cases as the 
resultant of pressures operating along the rays, and of intensity 
equal at each point of free space to the density of radiant 
energy.  A high vacuum is needed for the detection of the 
minute forces here concerned; but just in that case the indirect 
radiometer-effect of the heating of the residual gas masks the 
effect.  P. N. Lebedew in 1900 succeeded, by operating on 
metallic vanes so thin that the exposed and averted faces 
were practically at the same temperature, in satisfactorily 
verifying the relation for metals; and very soon after, E. 
F. Nichols and G. F. Hull published accounts of an exact 
and extensive research, in which the principle had been 
fully and precisely confirmed as regards both transparent 
and opaque bodies.  The experiment of J. H. Poynting may 
also be mentioned, in which the tangential component of 
the thrust of obliquely incident radiation is separately 
put in evidence, by the torsion produced in an arrangement 
which is not sensitive to the normal component or to the 
radiometer-pressure of the residual gas. (See RADIOMETER.) 

Next to these researches on the pressure of radiation, which, 
by forming the mechanical link between radiation and matter, 
are fundamental for the thermodynamics of radiant energy, 
the most striking recent result has been the discovery of H. 
Rubens and E. Hagen that for dark heat rays of only about ten 
times the wave-length of luminous radiation, the properties 
of metals are determined by their electric resistance alone, 
which then masks all resonance due to periods of free vibration 
of the molecules; and, moreover, that the resistance for such 
alternations is practically the same as the ohmic resistance 
for ordinary steady currents.  They found that the absorbing 
powers of the metals, and therefore, by the principle of 
exchanges, their radiating powers also, are proportional to 
the square roots of their electric conductivities.  Maxwell had 
himself, at an early stage of his theory, tested the absorbing 
power of gold-leaf for light, and found that the effective 
conductivity for luminous vibrations must be very much greater 
than its steady ohmic value; it is, in fact, there a case of 
incipient conductivity, which is continually being undone on 
account of the rapid alternation of force before it is fully 
established.  That, however, complete conduction should 
arrive with alternations only ten times slower than light 
was an unexpected and remarkable fact, which verifies the 
presumption that the process of conduction is one in which 
the dynamic activities of the molecules do not come into 
play.  The corollary, that the electric resistance of a 
metal can be determined in absolute units by experiments on 
the reflexion of heat-rays from its surface, is a striking 
illustration of the unification of the various branches 
of physical science, which has come in the train of the 
development of the theory of the aether. (See RADIATION.) 

Finally, reference should be made to the phenomena of 
radioactivity, whether excited by the electric discharge 
in vacuum tubes, foreshadowed in part by Sir Wm. Crookes 
and G. G. Stokes, and later by A. Schuster and others, but 
first fully developed with astonishing results including 
the experimental discovery of the free electron by J. J. 
Thomson, or the correlated phenomena occurring spontaneously 
in radio-active bodies as discovered by H. Becquerel and 
by M. and Mme Curie, and investigated by them and by E. 
Rutherford and others.  These results constitute a far-reaching 
development of the modern or electrodynamic theory of the 
aether, of which the issue can hardly yet be foreseen. 

REFERENCES.--Maxwell, Collected Papers H. A. Lorentz, 
Archives Neerlandaises, xxi. 1887, and xxv. 1892, and a 
tract, Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen 
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern (Leyden, 1895); also 
recent articles ``Elektrodynamik'' and ``Elektronentheorie'' 
in the Encyk. der Math.  Wissenschaften, Band v. 13, 14; 
O. Lodge, ``On Aberration Problems,'' Phil.  Trans. 1893 
and 1897; J. Larmor, Phil.  Trans. 1894--95--97, and a 
treatise, Aether and Motter (1900), where full references are 
given.  Of recent years most treatises on physical optics, 
e.g. those of P. K. L. Drude, A. Schuster, R. W. Wood, have 
been written largely on the basis of the general physics of 
the aether; while the Collected Papers of Lord Rayleigh 
should be accessible to all who desire a first-hand knowledge 
of the development of the optical side of the subject.  See 
also MOLECULE, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT and RADIATION. (J. L.*) 

1 See H. A. Lorentz, loc. cit. infra.; J. 
Larmor, Aether and Matter, p. 262 and passim. 

AETHICUS (=ETHICUS) ISTER, ``the philosopher of 
Istria,'' the supposed but unknown author of a description 
of the world written in Greek.  An abridgment, under the 
title of Cosmographia Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, 
and wrongly described as the work of St Jerome, probably 
belongs to the 7th century.  After a discussion of the 
creation of the world and a description of the earth, an 
account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus is given, with 
digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander the Great 
and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous details. 

The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical 
treatise probably dating from the 6th century, a reproduction, 
with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography--little 
else than a dry list of names--of Julius Honorius. 

Editions.--D'Avezac (1852); Pertz (1853); Wuttke 
(1854); Riese's Lexicographi Latini Minores (1878); 
see also Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography. 

AETIOLOGY, or ETIOLOGY (from Gr. aitia. cause, and 
logia, discourse), strictly, the science or philosophy of 
causation, but generally used to denote the part of any special 
science (and especially of that of medicine and disease) 
which investigates the causes and origin of its phenomena.  
An aetiological myth is one which is regarded as having 
been invented ex post facto to explain some fact, name or 
coincidence, the true account or origin of which has been 
forgotten.  Such myths were often based on grotesque philological 
analogies, according to which an existing connexion between 
two personalities (cities, &c.) was traced back to a common 
mythical origin.  For a good example of the evolution of 
such myths, see the argument under AEGINA, History. 

AETION, or EETION, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero, 
Pliny and Lucian.  His most noted work, described in detail by 
Lucian (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing 
the marriage of Alexander and Roxana.  He is said to have 
exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won 
the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in 
marriage.  Through a misunderstanding of the words of Lucian, 
Aetion has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines; 
but there can be little doubt that he was a contemporary of 
Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen 
Kunstler, ii. p. 243).  Pliny gives his date as 350 B.C. 

AETIUS (fl. 350), surnamed ``the Atheist,'' founder of an 
extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Cocle-Syria.  After 
working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a 
travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations 
on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found 
a wider field for its exercise in the great theological 
question of the time.  He studied successively under the 
Arians, Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of 
Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus.  In 350 he 
was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly 
afterwards forced by the orthodox party to leave that town.  
At the first synod of Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over 
the homoiousian bishops, hasilius and Eustathius, who sought 
in consequence to stir up against him the enmity of Caesar 
Gallus.  In 356 he went to Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) 
in order to advocate Arianism, but he was banished by 
Constantius.  Julian recalled him from exile, bestowed upon 
him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him for a time at his 
court in Constantinople.  Being consecrated a bishop, he used 
his office in the interests of Arianism by creating other 
bishops of that party.  At the accession of Valens (364) 
he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to 
Constantinople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of 
the Arians, of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called 
after him Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved 
in connexion with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. 
lxxvi. 10). Its main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. 
the doctrine that the Son (therefore the Begotten) is 
essentially God, is self-contradictory, since the idea of 
unbegottenness is just that which constitutes the nature of God. 

See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim. 

AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, 
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century A.D. He studied 
at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and 
comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial 
household.  He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, 
founded on Oribasius and compiled from various sources, 
especially Galen [Galenos].  Superstition and mysticism 
play a great part in his remedies.  Eight books of the 
Greek original were printed at Venice, 1534, and a complete 
Latin translation by Cornarius appeared at Basel, 1542. 

See Weigel, Aetianarum exercitationum specimen (1791); 
Danelius, Beitrag zur Augenheilkunde des Aetius (1889); Zernos, 
Aetii sermo sextidecimus et ultimus, editio princeps (1901). 

AETIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the closing period of 
the Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in 
the 4th century.  He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although 
possibly of barbarian family, rose in the service of the 
Western empire to be master of the horse, and later count of 
Africa.  Aetius passed some years as hostage, first with Alaric 
and the Goths, and later in the camp of Rhuas, king of the 
Huns, acquiring in this way the knowledge which enabled him 
afterwards to defeat them.  In 424 he led into Italy an army 
of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns, which he employed first to 
support the primicerius Joannes, who had proclaimed himself 
emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter, to enforce his claim 
to the supreme command of the army in Gaul upon Placidia, the 
empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III. His calumnies 
against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at first believed 
by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the Vandals to 
Africa.  Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface, although 
defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valentinian; 
but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic wars, 
like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed 
wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin.  From 433 
to 450 Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western 
empire.  In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding 
for nearly twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the 
falling fortunes of the empire.  His greatest victory was that 
of Chalons-sur-Marne (September 20, 451), in which he led 
the Gallic forces against Attila and the Huns.  This was the 
last triumph of the empire.  Three years later (454) Aetius 
presented himself at court to claim the emperor's daughter in 
marriage for his son Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting 
him of designs upon the crown, slew him with his own hand. 

See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (1880). 

AETOLIA, a district of northern Greece, bounded on the S. 
by the Corinthian Gulf, on the W. by the river Achelous, on 
the N. and E. by the western spurs of Parnassus and Oeta.  The 
land naturally falls into two divisions.  The basins of the 
lower Achelous (mod. Aspropotamo) and Euenus (Phidharis) 
form a series of alluvial valleys intersected by detached 
ridges which mostly run parallel to the coast.  This district 
of ``Old Aetolia'' lacks a suitable sea-board, but the inland, 
and especially the plain of central Aetolia lying to the north 
of Lakes Hyria and Trichonis and Mount Aracynthus, forms a 
rich agricultural country.  The northern and eastern regions 
are broken by an extensive complex of chains and peaks, whose 
rugged limestone flanks are clad at most with stunted shrubs 
and barely leave room for a few precarious mule-tracks.  These 
heights often rise in the frontierranges of Tymphrestus, Oxia 
and Corax to more than 7000 ft.; the snow-capped pinnacle 
of Krona attains to 8240 ft.  A few defiles pass through 
this barrier to the other side of the north Greek watershed. 

In early legend Old Aetolia, with its cities of Pleuron and 
Calydon, figures prominently.  During the great migrations 
(see DORIANS) the population was largely displaced, and the 
old inhabitants long remainedin a backward condition.  In the 
5th century some tribes were still living in open villages 
under petty kings, addicted to plunder and piracy, and hardly 
recogniged as Hellenes at all.  Yet their military strength 
was not to be despised: in 426 their archers and slingers 
easily repelled an Athenian invasion under Demosthenes.  In 
the 4th century the Aetolians began to take a greater part 
in Greek politics, and, in return for helping Epaminondas 
(367) and Philip of Macedon (338), recovered control of their 
sea-board, to which they annexed the Acarnanian coast and the 
Oeniadae.  Aetolia's prosperity dates from the period of 
Macedonian supremacy.  It may be ascribed partly to the wealth 
and influence acquired by Aetolian mercenaries in Hellenistic 
courts, but chiefly to the formation of a national Aetolian 
league, the first effective institution of this kind in 
Greece.  Created originally to meet the peril of an invasion 
by the Macedonian regents Antipater and Craterus, who had 
undertaken a punitive expedition against Aetolia after the 
Lamian War (322), and by Cassander (314-311), the confederacy 
grew rapidly during the subsequent period of Macedonian 
weakness.  Since 290 it had extended its power over all the 
uplands of central Greece, where its command over Heracleia 
(280) provided it with an important defensive position against 
northern invaders, its control of Delphi and the Amphictyonic 
council with a useful political instrument.  The valour of the 
Aetolians was conspicuously displayed in 279, when they broke the 
strength of the Celtic irruption by slaughtering great hordes of 
marauders.  The commemorative festival of the Soteria, which 
the league established at Delphi, obtained recognition from 
many leading Greek states.  After annexing Boeotia (by 245) 
the Aetolians controlled all central Greece.  Endeavouring 
next to expand into Peloponnesus, they allied themselves with 
Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia against the Achaean league 
(q.v.), and besides becoming protectors of Elis and Messenia 
won several Arcadian cities.  Their naval power extended to 
Cephalonia, to the Aegaean islands and even to the Hellespont.  
The league at its zenith had thus a truly imperial status. 

Later in the century its power began to he sapped by Macedonia.  
To check King Demetrius (239-229) the Aetolians joined arms 
with the Achaeans.  In 224 they held Heracleia Trachis against 
Antigonus Doson, but lost control of Boeotia and Phocis.  
Since 228 their Arcadian possessions had been abandoned to 
Sparta.  At the same time a new enemy arose in the Illyrian 
pirate fleets, which outdid them in unscrupulousness and 
violence.  The raids of two Aetolian chiefs in Achaean 
territory (220) led to a coalition between Achaea and Philip 
V. of Macedon, who assailed the invaders with great energy, 
driving them out of Peloponnesus and marching into Aetolia 
itself, where he surprised and sacked the federal capital 
Thermon.  After buying peace by the cession of Acarnania 
(217) the league concluded a compact with Rome, in which 
both states agreed to plunder ruthlessly their common enemies 
(211).  In the great war of their Roman allies against Philip 
the federal troops took a prominent part, their cavalry being 
largely responsible for the victory of Cynoscephalae (197).  The 
Romans in return restored central Greece to the league, but by 
withholding its former Thessalian possessions excited its deep 
resentment.  The Aetolians now invited Antiochus III. of 
Syria to European Greece, and so precipitated a conflict with 
Rome.  But in the war they threw away their chances.  In 192 
they wasted themselves in an unsuccessful attempt to secure 
Sparta.  In 191 they supported Antiochus badly, and by their 
slackness in the defence of Thermopylae made his position 
in Greece untenable.  Having thus isolated themselves the 
Aetolians stood at bay behind their walls against the Romans, 
who refused all compromises, and, after the general surrender 
in 189, restricted the league to Aetolia proper and assumed 
control over its foreign relations.  In 167 the country suffered 
severely from the intrigues of a philo-Roman party, which 
caused a series of judicial murders and the deportation of 
many patriots to Italy.  By the time of Sulla, when the league 
is mentioned for the last time, its functions were purely 
nominal.  The federal constitution closely resembled that of 
the Achaean league (q.v.), for which it doubtless served as a 
model.  The general assembly, convoked every autumn at Thermon 
to elect officials, and at other places in special emergencies, 
shaped the league's general policy; it was nominally open 
to all freemen, though no doubt the Aetolian chieftains 
really controlled it.  The council of deputies from the 
confederate cities undertook the routine of administration and 
jurisdiction.  The strategus (general), aided by 30 apocleti 
(ministers), had complete control in the field and presided 
over the assembly, though with restricted advisory powers.  The 
Aetolians also used the Amphictyonic synod for passing solemn 
enactments.  The league's relation to outlying dependencies 
is obscure; many of these were probably mere protectorates or 
``allied states'' and secured no representation.  The federal 
executive was certainly much more efficient than that of the 
Achaeans, and its councils suffered less from disunion; but 
its generals and admirals, official or otherwise, enjoyed undue 
licence; hence the league deservedly gained an evil name for 
the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which its troops 
committed.  But as a champion of republican Greece against 
foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal 
services.  After the first overthrow of the Byzantine 
empire Aetolia passed to a branch of the old imperial house 
(1205).  In the 15th century it was held by Scanderbeg 
(q.v.) and by the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it 
definitely under Turkish rule.  In the War of Independence 
the Aetolians by their stubborn defence, culminating in the 
sieges of Missolonghi (q.v.), formed the backbone of the 
rebellion.  Northern Aetolia remains a desolate region, 
inhabited mainly by Vlach shepherds.  The south-western plain, 
though rendered unhealthy by lagoons, and central Aetolia 
yield good crops of currants, vine, maize and tobacco, which 
are conveyed by railway from Agrinion and Anatolikon to the 
coast.  The country, which forms part of the modern department 
of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains numerous fragments of ancient 
fortifications.  It has contributed a notable Droportion of 
distinguished men to modern Greece.  Diodorus xviii. 24. 5; 
Pausanias x. 20 sq.; Polybius and Livy passim; W. J. Woodhouse, 
Aetolia (Oxford, 1897); M. Dubois, Les Lieues acheenne et 
etolienne (Paris, 1885); E. A. Freeman, Federal Government 
(ed. 1893, London), ch. vi.; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum 
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in Bulletin de 
Correspondance Hellenique (1905, pp. 362-372l; G. Sotiriades 
in `Efemeris `Arxaiologike, (1900) pp. 163-212, (1903) 
pp. 73-94, and in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique 
(1907), pp. 139-184: C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia 
Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), pp. 270-320. (M. O. B. C.) 

AFARS (DANAHIL), a tribe of African ``Arabs'' of Hamitic 
stock.  They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia 
and the sea.  They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to 
the Galla and Somali.  The tribe is roughly divisible into 
a pastoral and a coast-dwelling group.  Their religion is 
chiefly fetish and tree-worship; many, nominally, profess 
Mahommedanism.  They are distinguished by narrow straight 
noses, thin lips and small pointed chins; their cheekbones 
are not prominent.  They are more scantily clothed than 
the Abyssinians or Galla, wearing, generally, nothing but a 
waist-cloth.  Their women, when quite young, are pretty and 
graceful.  Their huts are often tastefully decorated, the floors 
being spread with yellow mats, embroidered with red and violet 
designs.  The Afars are divided into many sub-tribes, each 
having an hereditary sultan, whose power is, however, limited.  
They are desperate fighters and in 1875 successfully resisted 
an attempt to bring them under Egyptian rule.  In 1883-1888, 
however, their most important sultan concluded treaties placing 
his country under Italian protection.  The Afar region is now 
partly under Abyssinian and partly under Italian authority.  
The Afars are also found in considerable numbers in French 
Somaliland.  They have a saying ``Guns are only useful to 
frighten cowards.'' They were formerly redoubtable pirates, 
but the descendants of these corsairs are now fishermen, 
and are the only sailors in the Red Sea who hunt the dugong. 

P. Paulitschke, Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., 
Berlin, 1893-1896); and Die geographische Erforschung der 
A dal-Lander und Harars in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884). 

AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, born at 
Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in 
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero.  His 
pupil Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever 
known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public 
informer against some of the most distinguished personages in 
Rome.  He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia 
Pulcra, the widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of 
magic arts against the emperor.  Judicious flattery secured 
him the consulship under Caligula (39); and under Nero he 
was superintendent of the water supply.  He died A.D. 60, 
according to Jerome, of over-eating.  Quintilian quotes some 
of his witty sayings (dicta), collections of which were 
published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses. 

Quintilian, Instit. vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. 1. 118, &c.; Tac. 
Ann iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18. 

AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, 
sc. a person), literally, a mental state resulting generally 
from an external influence.  It is popularly used of a 
relation between persons amounting to more than goodwill or 
friendship.  By ethical writers the word has been used generally 
of distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; 
some contrast it with ``passion'' as being free from the 
distinctively sensual element.  More specifically the word has 
been restricted to emotional states which are in relation to 
persons.  In the former sense, it is the Gr. pathos, and as 
such it appears in Descartes and most of the early British ethical 
writers.  On various grounds, however---e.g. that it does 
not involve anxiety or excitement, that it is comparatively 
inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous 
element--At is generally and usefully distingmshed from 
passion.  In this narrower sense the word has played a great part 
in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental 
``affections'' as in some sense a part of moral obligation.  
For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend 
ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as 
voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349. 

In psychology the terms ``affection'' and ``affective'' are 
of great importance.  As all intellectual phenomena have by 
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion 
has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental 
affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations 
are ultimately composed.  The nature of this element is a 
problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively, 
solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily 
experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly 
difficult.  The solutions proposed are two.  In the first, 
all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those 
which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse.  The 
main objections to this are that it does not explain the 
infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the 
distinction which most philosophers admit between higher 
and lower pleasures.  The second solution is that every 
sensation has its specific affective quality, though by 
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no 
name.  W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans.  C. H. 
Judd, Leipzig, 1897), maintains that we may group under three 
main affective directions, each with its negative, all the 
infinite varieties in question; these are (a) pleasure, 
or rather pleasantness, and the reverse, (b) tension and 
relaxation, (c) excitement and depression.  These two 
views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered. 

Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried.  The first, 
introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists in 
recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany 
modifications of the affective consciousness.  Thus it is found 
that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, and 
retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and 
volume are found to accompany modifications of affection--and so 
on.  Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation 
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment 
are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered 
highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific 
results can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with 
a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject 
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. 

The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the 
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in 
contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated 
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in 
groups.  The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. 

Mention should also be made of a third method which has 
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to 
isolate one of the three ``directions'' by the method 
of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations. 

For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of 
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O. 
Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans.  
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experimental 
Psychology (1905); art. PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted. 

AFFIDAVIT (Med.  Lat. for ``he has declared upon oath,'' 
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn 
or affirmed to before some person who has authority to 
administer an oath or affirmation.  Evidence is chiefly 
taken by means of affidavits in the Chancery Division of the 
High Court of Justice in England on a petition, summons or 
motion.  Interlocutory proceedings before trial are conducted 
by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of documents, hence 
called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are sometimes 
necessary as certificates that certain formalities have been 
duly and legally performed (such as service of proceedings, 
&c.).  They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice, in the 
administration of the revenue and in the inferior and county 
courts.  In testamentary causes, all documents of any kind, 
such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must 
be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of 
scripts.) In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit 
is almost unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as 
prima facie evidence.  In the rules of the Supreme Court 
(R.S.C.  Ord. XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid 
down for all affidavits and affirmations in causes or matters 
depending in the High Court.  An affidavit must consist of 
title, body or statement and jurat.  It must be written or 
printed on foolscap, bookwise, in the first person; give 
correctly the names of the parties to the action; and the 
description and true place of abode of the deponent.  An 
affidavit is confined, except on interlocutory motions, to 
such facts as the witness is able of his own knowledge to 
prove.  The signature of the deponent must be written opposite 
to the jurat, which must contain the place, date and time of 
swearing, and this signed by the officer or magistrate before 
whom the affidavit is sworn.  An affidavit sworn on a Sunday 
is not invalid.  Quakers, Moravians and Separatists were first 
privileged to make a solemn declaration or affirmation, and 
by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 and other statutes all 
persons prevented by religious belief from taking an oath 
were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths Act 1888, 
every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to affirm in 
all places and for all purposes where an oath is required by 
law.  By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take 
affidavits in any matter by declaration, and a person making 
a false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment.  The 
same act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths 
in any matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, 
except when an oath was specially authorized by statute, 
as in the bankruptcy law, and excepting criminal inquiries, 
parliamentary proceedings and instances where oaths are required 
to give validity to documents abroad.  Scottish justices can 
act in England and vice versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and 
the Commissioner of Oaths Act 1889 consolidated all previous 
enactments relating to oaths and gave the lord chancellor power 
to appoint commissioners for oaths to take affidavits for all 
purposes (see OATH.) Under the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff 
may file an affidavit for the arrest of a debtor (affidavit 
to hold to bail) when the debt amounts to L. 50 or upwards, 
where it can be shown that the debtor's absence from the kingdom 
would materially prejudice the prosecution of the action. 

Affidavits may be made abroad before any British 
ambassador, envoy, minister, charge d'affaires, 
secretary of embassy or legation, consul or consular agent. 

In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in 
England and its general uses are the same, but it is not 
substituted for oral evidence in court to anything like 
the extent to which that is done in the English courts of 
chancery.  The statutes of each state designate the persons 
before whom affidavits may be made outside the state, and 
special commissioners are appointed for that purpose by each 
state.  Affidavits made abroad must be made before such 
commissioners or persons so designated, who are usually 
diplomatic and consular officials, justices, notaries public 
or mayors. ``Affidavit of documents'' is not generally 
used in the United States; discovery is procured by motion. 

AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son), in 
law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child 
is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its 
support enforced.  In England a number of statutes on the 
subject hnve been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act 
of 1845, and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 
1873.  The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father 
to petty sessions within twelve months of the birth (or at 
any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the 
child's support within twelve months after the birth), and 
the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, 
if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material 
particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of 
the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five 
shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for 
expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, 
if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the 
proceedings.  An order ceases to be valid after the child 
reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the 
order direct the payments to be continued until the child 
is sixteen years of age.  An appeal to quarter sessions is 
open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions 
of law to the King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. 
Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, 
the sum due by the father may be received by the parish 
officer.  When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained 
an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians 
may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.  
Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living 
apart from her husband, may make an application for a 
summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, 
provided it is born in England.  An application for a summons 
may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case 
the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn 
deposition.  The defendant must be over fourteen years of 
age.  No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum 
down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to 
the making of an affiliation order.  In the case of twins it 
is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate 
summonses.  The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due 
provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation.  In 
the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced 
in the usual way, but by the Army Act 1881, if an order has 
been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy 
of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a 
portion of the soldier's pay to be retained.  There is no such 
special legislation with regard to sailors in the royal navy. 

In the British colonies, and in the states of the United 
States (with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, 
Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually 
termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means 
of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support 
of her illegitimate child from the putative father.  The 
amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or 
diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).  On the continent of 
Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries 
differs rather widely.  France, Belgium, Holland, Italy, 
Russia, Servia and the canton of Geneva provide no means 
of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and 
consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; 
on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark 
and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry 
into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law 
casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father. 

Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of 
adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with 
other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property 
of the deceased. (See ADOPTION. Also BASTARD; POOR LAWS.) 

AUTHORITIES.---Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders 
of Affiliation; Lushington, Law of Affiliation 
and Bastardy; Little, Poor Law Statutes. (T. A. I.) 

AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from 
affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), 
in law, as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the 
term applied to the relation which each party to a marriage, 
the husband and wife, bears to the kindred of the other.  
Affinity is usually described as of three kinds. (1) Direct: 
that relationship which subsists between the husband and his 
wife's relations by blood or between the wife and the husband's 
relations by blood.  The marriage having made them one person, 
the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in 
the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to the 
other.  But the relation is only with the married parties 
themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them in 
affinity with each other; so a wife's sister has no affinity 
to her husband's brother.  This is (2) Secondary affinity. 
(3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting 
between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations. 

The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibitions 
by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity.  
Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited 
on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to 
affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would 
be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will 
be the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. 

Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage.  This rule 
has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth 
chapter of Leviticus.  Formerly by law in England, marriages 
within the degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but 
they were liable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during 
the lives of both parties; in other words, the incapacity was 
only a canonical, not a civil, disability.  By the Marriage 
Act 1835 all marriages of this kind not disputed before the 
passing of the act were declared absolutely valid, while all 
subsequent to it were declared null.  This rendered null in 
England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a deceased 
wife's sister or niece. (See CONSANGUINITY; MARRIAGE.) 

AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which 
dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemical combination 
with each other. (See CHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL ACTION; VALENCY.) 

AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declaration 
that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, 
the union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; 
particularly, in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those 
who conscientiously object to taking an oath. (See OATH.) 

AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons 
in a public place to the terror (a l' effroi ) of the 
lieges.  The offence is a misdemeanour at English common 
law, punishable by fine and imprisonment.  A fight in private 
is an assault and battery, not an affray.  As those engaged 
in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution 
for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see ASSEMBLY, 
UNLAWFUL), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these offences 
that they are usually charged.  Any private person may, and 
constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an 
affray.  In the United States the English common law as to 
affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes 
of particular states (Bishop, Amer.  Crim.  Law, 8th ed., 
1892, vol. i. sec.  535).  The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) 
adopts the English definition of affray, with the substitution 
of ``actual disturbance of the peace'' for ``causing terror to 
the lieges.'' The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) 
defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway 
or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the 
public in any other place to which the public have access.  This 
definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill 
of 1880, cl. 96. Under the Roman Dutch law in force in South 
Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica. 

AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE (1793--1848), archbishop of Paris, 
was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th 
of September 1793.  He was educated for the priesthood at 
St Sulpice, where in 1818 he became professor of dogmatic 
theology.  After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, 
he was elevated to the archbishopric of Paris in 1840.  Though 
opposed to the government of Louis Philippe, he took no part 
in politics, but devoted himself to his pastoral work.  His 
episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic 
close.  During the insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop 
was led to believe that by his personal interference peace 
might be restored between the soldiery and the insurgents.  
Accordingly, in spite of the warning of General Cavaignac, 
he mounted the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg St 
Antoine, bearing a green branch as sign of peace.  He had spoken 
only a few words, however, when the insurgents, hearing some 
shots, and fancying they were betrayed, opened fire upon the 
national guard, and the archbishop fell, struck by a stray 
bullet.  He was removed to his palace, where he died on the 
27th of June 1848.  Next day the National Assembly issued a 
decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his death; 
and the public funeral on the 7th of July was one of the most 
striking spectacles of its kind.  The archbishop wrote several 
treatises of considerable value, including an Essai sur les 
hieroglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834), in which he showed that 
Champollion's system was insufficient to explain the hieroglyphics. 

See Ricard, Les grands eveques de l'eglise de 
France au XIXe siecle (Lille, 1893); L. Alazard, 
Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de Paris (Paris, 1905). 

AFFREIGHTMENT (from ``freight,'' q.v.).  Contract of 
Affreightment is the expression usually employed to describe 
the contract between a shipowner and some other person called 
the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods 
of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the 
use of the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the 
ship for the carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or 
voyages or for a specified time; the freighter on his part 
agreeing to pay a specified price, called ``freight,'' for 
the carriage of the goods or the use of the ship.  A ship may 
be let like a house to some person who takes possession and 
control of it for a specified term.  The person who hires a 
ship in this way occupies during the currency of his term the 
position of shipowner.  The contract by which a ship is so 
let may be called a charter-party; but it is not, properly 
speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is mentioned here 
only because it is necessary to remember the distinction 
between a charter-party of this kind, which is sometimes 
called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a 
form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. 

Rules of law. 

The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, 
of course, a branch of the general law of contract.  The 
rights and obligations of the shipowner and the freighter 
depend, as in the case of all parties to contracts, upon the 
terms of the agreement entered into between them.  The law, 
however, interferes to some extent in regulating the effect 
to be given to contracts.  Certain contracts are forbidden 
by the law, and being illegal are, therefore, incapable of 
enforcement.  The most important example of illegality in 
the case of contracts of affreightment is when the contract 
involves trading with an enemy.  The law interferes again with 
regard to the interpretation of the contract.  The meaning 
to be given to the words of the contract, or, in other words, 
its construction, when a dispute arises about it, must be 
determined by the judge or court.  The result is, that certain 
more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment have 
come before the courts for construction, and the decisions in 
these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite 
logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put 
upon certain forms of expression in common use in shipping 
contracts.  A third way in which the law interferes is 
by laying down certain rules by which the rights of the 
parties are to be regulated in the absence of any express 
stipulation with regard to the matter dealt with by such 
rules.  This is done either by statutory enactment, as by 
that part (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping Act 1804 which 
deals with the liability of shipowners; or by established 
rules of the unwritten law, the ``common law'' as it is 
called, as, for instance, the rule that the common carrier 
is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of the goods 
carried, unless it is prevented by the act of God or the king's 
enemies.  These rules of law, whether common law or statute 
law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods by 
sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon 
though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an 
affreightment without any written agreement of any kind.  It 
will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this 
kind where there is no express agreement, oral or written, 
except as to the freight and destination of the goods, and 
where, consequently, the rights and obligations of the parties 
as to all other terms of carriage depend wholly upon the 
rules of law, remembering always that these same rules apply 
when there is a written contract, except in so far as they 
are qualified or negatived by the terms of such contract. 

In defaults of express contract. 

The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England 
with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first 
considered by the courts and established with regard to the 
carriage of goods by common carriers on land.  These rules were 
applied to common carriers by water, and it may now be taken 
to be the general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea 
are by the English law subject to the liabilities of common 
carriers. (See, as to the grounds and precise extent of this 
doctrine, the judgments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson 
(1874), L.R., 9 Ex. 338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) 1 
C.P.D. 423.) In practice goods are not often shipped without 
a written contract or acknowledgment of the terms upon which 
they are to be carried.  For each separate consignment or 
parcel of goods shipped a bill of lading is almost invariably 
given, and when a whole cargo is agreed to be carried the 
terms are set out in a document called a charter-party, 
signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the one part, 
and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the other 
part.  But at present we are considering the relations of 
shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract, 
as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be 
carried to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain 
freight, but without any further agreement as to the terms of 
carriage.  In such a case the rights of the parties depend 
on the rules of law, or, which is much the same thing, 
upon the warranties or promises which though not expressed 
must, as the courts have held, be implied as arising from 
the relation between the parties as shipper and carrier.  
The obligations on the one side and the other may be defined 
shortly to be as follows:--The shipper must not ship goods 
of a nature or in a condition which he knows, or ought, 
if he used reasonable care, to know to be dangerous to the 
ship, or to other goods, unless the shipowner has notice 
of or has sufficient opportunity to observe their dangerous 
character.  The shipper must be prepared, without notice from 
the shipowner, to take delivery of his goods with reasonable 
despatch on the arrival of the ship at the place of destination, 
being ready there to discharge in some usual discharging 
place.  The shipper must pay the agreed freight, and will 
not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight has been 
paid.  In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the 
goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the 
carriage.  On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner 
is first and foremost to deliver safely at their destination 
the goods shipped, and this obligation is, by the common 
law, subject to this exception only that the shipowner is 
not liable for loss or damage caused by the act of God or 
the king's enemies; but by statute (Merchant Shipping Act 
1894, Part VIII.) it is further qualified to this extent 
that the shipowner is not liable for loss, happening without 
his actual fault or privity, by fire on board the ship, or 
by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away with gold 
or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of which 
have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment; 
and, further, the shipowner is not laable for damage to or 
loss of goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not 
exceeding eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's 
tonnage.  The shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, 
or, in other words, is made responsible by the law as if 
he had entered into an express undertaking: (1) that the 
ship is seaworthy; (2) that she shall proceed upon the 
voyage with reasonable despatch, and shall not deviate 
without necessity from the usual course of the voyage. 

It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or 
doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations 
of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have 
been agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the 
goods, are such as have been described above.  The importance 
of appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper 
and shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules 
apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of 
lading, charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they 
are modified or negatived by the express terms of the contract. 

Bills of Lading. The document signed by the master or agent 
for the shipowner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a 
parcel of goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, 
is called a Bill of Lading.  Very many different forms of 
bills of lading are used.  For the purpose of illustration the 
following form (from Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties 
and Bills of Lading) has been selected as a sample:-- 


 
 Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by        in
 and upon the good Vessel called the       now lying in the port of
        and bound for      , with liberty to call at any ports in
 any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in
 distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property;
 and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the
 aforesaid port of     unto      or to his or their assigns, freight
 and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils
 of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates,
 and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people,
 collisions, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted,
 even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment
 of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servanis of the Shipowners.
 
 Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of
 boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or
 hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the
 Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager.
 
 General Average payable according to York-Antwerp Rules.
 
 In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath
 affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn
 as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the
 others to stand void.
 
 Dated in        this          day of          188 .
 

The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of 
goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination 
on terms set forth in the document.  It is usually signed 
by the master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents 
of the shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the 
vessel.  A vessel may be employed by its owners to earn 
freight in various ways: (1) It may be placed, as it is said, 
on the berth as a general ship, to receive cargo from any 
shippers who may desire to send goods to the port, or one of 
the ports, to which the vessel is bound.  The mate or chief 
officer usually superintends the loading, and, as goods are 
shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an acknowledgment of the 
shipment.  The mate's receipt is afterwards exchanged for 
the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment by a general 
ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memorandum of the 
contract between the shipowner and the shipper. (2) A shipper 
may, however, require the whole cargo space of the vessel to 
carry, for example, a full cargo of grain.  In such a case the 
vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper. and 
the contract will be the charter-party.  Even in such a case 
a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the 
shipper to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or 
otherwise.  By the ancient custom of merchants recognized and 
incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of 
title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of 
which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made.  But when 
a cargo is shipped under a charter party, although bills of 
lading may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, 
and not the bills of lading, which constitutes the record 
of the contract between the parties---of charter-parties 
we shall treat below. (3) There is a third class of case 
which is a combination of the two with which we have dealt 
above.  A vessel is very commonly chartered by her owner to 
a charterer who has no intention to ship and does not ship 
any cargo on his own account, but places the vessel on the 
berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship under bills of 
lading.  The charterer receives the bill of lading freight 
and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of 
course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess 
of the chartered freight, and so make a profit.  The master, 
although he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during 
the term of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the 
directions and on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of 
lading.  The legal effect of this situation is that shippers 
who ship goods under bills of lading without knowledge of 
the terms of the charter-party are entitled to look to the 
shipowner as the person responsible to them for the safe 
carriage of their goods.  This right depends essentially 
on the fact that the master who signs the bills of lading, 
although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains 
nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not 
allowed to deny as against third persons, who do not know the 
relations between the charterer and the shipowner, that his 
servant, the master of the ship, has the ordinary authority 
of a master to bind his owner by signing bills of lading. 

The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses have 
been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a vast 
number of reported cases.  The essential particulars, or at all 
events those common to all bihs of lading, may be stated as follows: 

 1. The name of the shipper. 
2. The name of the ship.
3. The place of loading and destination of the ship.
4. A description of the goods shipped.
5. The place of delivery.
6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made.
7. The freight to be paid.'
8. The excepted perils.
9. The shipowner's lien.
The description of (1) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no 
remark.  The (3) description of the voyage is important, 
because there is, as we have already explained, an implied 
undertaking by the shipowner in every contract of carriage 
not unnecessarily to deviate from the ordinary route of the 
voyage upon which the goods are received to be carried.  
The consequences of a deviation are serious, inasmuch as 
the shipowner is liable, not only for any loss or damage 
which the shipper suffers in consequence of the deviation, 
but for any loss of goods which occurs after the deviation, 
even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted 
perils.  The only exception to this rule is that a deviation 
may be made to save life, but not to save property.  It is, 
however, very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied 
undertaking by introducing in the bill of lading certain 
``liberties'' to deviate, as, for example, in the form given 
above, ``liberty to call at any ports in any order, to tow and 
assist vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of 
saving life and property.'' The nature and extent of the liberty 
will depend on the words of the contract.  The inclination 
of English courts has been to construe clauses giving a 
liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the shipowner. 

The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped 
and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver 
them as described and in the like good condition, subject, of 
course, to the exceptions.  It must, moreover, be noted that, 
as against the master or person who has himself signed the 
bill of lading, the statement therein of the goods shipped 
is absolutely conclusive.  But as against the shipowner, 
unless he has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement 
of the goods shipped is not conclusive.  It is evidence as 
against him that the goods described were shipped, but he is 
allowed to rebut this evidence by proving, if he can, that the 
goods mentioned, or some of them, were not in fact shipped. 

As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions 
frequently arise.  Primarily, of course, the shipowner is 
bound to deliver at the place named.  Should he be prevented 
by some obstacle or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, 
the vessel must wait, and delivery must be made as soon as 
possible.  Where, however, the obstacle is permanent, or 
at all events such as must cause unreasonable delay, having 
regard to the nature of the adventure, the shipowner is 
excused from delivery at the place named in the bill of 
lading, provided the difficulty arises from an excepted 
peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place named being 
forbidden by the law of England, as may happen, for example, 
in the case of a declaration of war between Great Britain and 
the state in which the port named in the bill of lading is 
situate.  A party to a contract cannot be held liable for 
breaking his contract if its performance has become illegal.  
There may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of 
the voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties 
intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on 
the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of 
things, the non-existence of which would render performance 
impossible.  For instance, if the port named in the bill of 
lading became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping 
in consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that 
the continued existence of the place named as a port was an 
implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was 
excused.  Where, however, the performance of the contract 
remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of 
the contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner 
is liable for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by 
reason of his goods not being delivered at the named place, 
even though such delivery has become impossible.  There is 
another reason why the precise description of the place of 
delivery often becomes important.  It is only on the arrival of 
the ship at the place described as the place of delivery that 
the obligation of the consignee of the goods to take delivery 
commences.  Delay involves considerable loss and expense to the 
shipowner.  The shipper or consignee is not responsible 
for any delay which occurs before the ship has arrived 
at the place of delivery described in the bill of lading. 

(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill 
of lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more 
usually they are made deliverable to the ``order or assigns'' 
of the named consignee or of the shipper.  If the goods are 
made deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a 
negotiable instrument, or, in other words, the right to the 
goods, and the rights and liabilities under the contract 
contained in the bill of lading, may be transferred by indorsement 
and delivery of the document.  When an indorsement has once 
been made by the shipper or consignee writing his name and 
nothing more on the back of the bill of lading, the rights 
in and under it may be transferred from hand to hand by mere 
delivery.  A bill of lading so indorsed is said to be indorsed 
``in blank.'' But the shipper or consignee may restrict the 
negotiability of the bill of lading by indorsing it not ``in 
blank,'' but with a direction requiring delivery to be made 
to a particular person or indorsee, or to his order.  This 
is called an indorsement ``in full.'' When an indorsement 
has been made ``in full'' to a named indorsee or order, such 
indorsee must again indorse ``in blank'' or ``in full'' to 
effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading. 

(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the 
bill of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when 
the freight under the bill of lading is the same as under the 
charter-party, by reference to the charter-party.  A common 
form of such reference is ``freight and other conditions, as 
per charter-party.'' It may here be mentioned that this form 
of words does not incorporate in the contract under the bill 
of lading all the terms and conditions of the charter-party, 
but only those which apply to the person who is to take 
delivery, and relate to matters ejusdem generis, or similar 
to the payment of freight, such as demurrage and the like.  
The conditions of the charter-party thus incorporated do not 
include, for instance, the exceptions in the charter-party 
so as to add them to the exceptions in the bill of 
lading.  Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the 
contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their 
destination.  If the voyage is interrupted and its completion 
becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment 
of freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight 
altogether.  This is so even when the completion of the 
voyage is prevented by causes for which the shipowner is not 
responsible, such as the act of God or the king's enemies, or 
perils which are within the express exceptions in the bill of 
lading.  When the voyage is interrupted by accident, and indeed 
in any case, the goods may, by agreement between the shipowner 
and the consignee, be delivered at some place short of their 
destination upon payment of a freight pro rata; that is to 
say, proportional to the length of voyage accomplished, and 
such an agreement may be implied in certain circumstances from 
the conduct of the consignee in taking delivery before they 
arrive at their destination.  In all such cases it will be 
a question of fact whether the goods were in fact delivered 
upon the terms, express or implied, that freight pro rata 
should be paid.  As a rule such an agreement would not be 
implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward 
the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods, 
therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered. 

When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is 
prevented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of 
delivery named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is 
unwilling or unable to forward the goods by another ship, 
even though he may be excused for his failure to carry the 
goods to their destination, he is not entitled to be paid 
any part of the freight; and the consignee is entitled to 
have the goods delivered to him either at the place where 
the vessel has taken refuge in her disabled condition, or, if 
the obstacle arises without disablement of the vessel, at the 
place which is nearest and most reasonably convenient at the 
time and in the circumstances when the further prosecution of 
the voyage has to be abandoned.  On the other hand, after the 
goods have been shipped, so long as the shipowner is ready 
and willing to carry the goods to their destination, or, if 
the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destination by 
some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner of the 
goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at any 
place short of their destination without payment of the full 
freight.  Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, 
is made payable in advance. If freight payable in advance 
has become due, even though the ship is lost before it is 
paid, it must, in the absence of some special provision to the 
contrary, still be paid, and freight already paid in advance 
does not become repayable because the goods do not reach their 
destination.  If, however, goods upon which freight has been 
paid in advance are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their 
loss, the amount of freight paid in advance must be taken into 
account in assessing the damage recoverable from the shipowner. 

(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of 
greater practical importance or which demands more careful 
consideration by shipowner and shipper alike than that which 
sets forth the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words 
causes of loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from 
liability.  By the common law, as we have seen, the exemption 
of the carrier, apart from express contract, extended only to 
loss by the act of God or the king's enemies.  The expression 
``act of God'' requires a word of explanation.  It will be 
sufficient to say that it is not synonymous with force majeure; 
but it includes every loss by force majeure in which human 
agency, by act or negligence, has had no part.  The list of 
excepted perils varies much in different forms of bills of 
lading.  In the older forms it usually included perils of the 
seas, robbers and pirates, restraint of princes and rulers, 
fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrongdoing) of the master and 
crew.  The list, however, has grown in modern times, and is 
still growing; the tendency being to exempt the shipowner 
from liability for all loss which does not arise from his own 
personal default, or from the negligence of his managers or 
agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy and fit for 
the voyage at its commencement.  It is important to point 
out in this connexion that there are two duties which the 
shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are 
assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions, 
unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the 
terms of the contract.  In the first place, he undertakes 
absolutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is 
fit at the commencement of the voyage for the service to be 
performed.  If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers 
of the seas or other excepted peril which would not have 
occurred if the vessel had been seaworthy and fit for the 
voyage at its commencement, the shipowner is not protected 
by the exceptions, and is liable for the loss.  In the second 
place, there is an implied undertaking by the shipowner that 
all reasonable care will be taken by himself, his servants and 
agents, safely to carry and deliver at their destination the 
goods received by him for carriage.  Should loss or damage 
occur during the voyage, though the direct cause of such loss 
or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted peril, still 
the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the exceptions, 
if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage would not 
have occurred but for the negligence of the master or crew, 
or other servants of the shipowner.  The shipowner, in other 
words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable care 
to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause. 

Express stipulations. 

It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations, 
which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not 
by express terms of the contract.  It has now become common 
form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not be liable for 
any loss arising from the negligence of his servants, or that 
he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils even 
when brought about by the negligence of his servants.  And with 
regard to seaworthiness, it is not uncommon for the shipowner 
to stipulate that he shall not be responsible for loss arising 
even from the unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided 
that due care has Been taken by the owner and his agents and 
servants to make the ship seaworthy at the commencement of the 
voyage.  There is indeed no rule of English law which prevents 
a shipowner from exempting himself by the terms of the bill 
of lading from liability for damage and loss of every kind, 
whether arising from unseaworthiness or any other cause 
whatsoever.  In such a case the goods are carried at their 
owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it by 
insurance.  In this respect the law of England permits greater 
freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other 
states.  The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading 
in the United States of America are forbidden by an act of 
Congress, commonly called the Harter Act, passed in the 
year 1893, to insert in their contracts of affreightment 
any clause exempting the shipowner from liability for the 
negligence of his servants; but it is at the rame time 
enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has 
been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy 
and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner 
shall not be liable for any loss caused by the negligence 
of ihe master or crew in the navigation of the vessel, or by 
perils of the sea or certain other causes set forth in the 
act.  It is now very usual to insert in the bills of lading 
of British vessels loading in the United States a reference 
to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as 
to make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading. 

The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading 
with regard to the excepted perils, often expressed in 
obscure and inexact language, has given rise to much 
litigation, the results of which are recorded in the law 
reports.  Where such difficulties arise the question must 
be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language used 
by the parties? This question is not governed by the general 
rules which we have endeavouted to explain: but the words of 
the contract must always be considered with reference to these 
rules, which are founded upon the well-established customs 
of merchants recognized and formulated by the courts of law. 

(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to 
the shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it 
the shipowner has by the common law a lien for freight.  If 
it is desired to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage 
(see below) or other charges, it must be expressly provided 
for.  The lien is the right of the shipowner to retain 
the goods carried until payment has been made of the freight 
or the demurrage, or other charge for which a lien has been 
given.  The lien may be waived, and is lost by delivery of the 
goods, or by any dealing with the consignee which is inconsistent 
with a right of the shipowner to retain possession of the 
goods until payment has been made.  The shipowner may preserve 
his lien by landing the goods and retaining them in his own 
warehouse, or by storing them in a public warehouse, subject 
to the conditions required by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. 

                        Charter-parties. 

Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either 
for a voyage or for a period of time. (1) A charter-party 
for a voyage is a formal agreement made between the owner 
of the vessel and the charterers by which it is agreed that 
the vessel ``being tight, staunch and strong, and every way 
fitted for the voyage,'' shall load at a certain named place 
a full cargo either of goods of a specified description or 
of general merchandise, and being so loaded shall proceed 
with all possible despatch either to a specified place or 
to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and 
there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns.  
There are clauses which provide for the amount of freight 
to be paid and the manner and time of payment; for the time, 
usually described as lay days, to be allowed for loading 
and discharging, and for the demurrage to be paid if the 
vessel is detained beyond the lay days; usually also a clause 
requiring ``the cargo to be brought to and taken from alongside 
at merchant's risk and expense''; a clause that the master 
shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped either at the 
same rate of freight as is payable under the charter-party or 
very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case with 
a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is 
less than the total freight payable under the charter-party, 
the difference is to be paid by the charterers to the master 
before the sailing of the vessel); and there is usually 
vhat is called the cesser clause, by which the charterer's 
liability under the charter-party is to cease on shipment 
of the cargo, the shipowner taking a lien on the cargo for 
freight, dead freight and demurrage.  The charter-party is 
made subject to exceptions similar to those which are found 
in bills of lading.  There are also usually clauses providing 
for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing the 
charter-party, the ``address'' commission to be paid to the 
agents for the Vessel at the port of discharge, and other 
matters of detail.  The clauses in charter-parties vary, of 
course, indefinitely, but the above is probably a sufficient 
outline of the ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage. 

What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the 
voyage, the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted 
perils, and the liability of the shioowner and his lien applies 
equally to charter-parties. lt may be desirable to add a few 
words on demurrage, dead Freight, and on the cesser clause. 

Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or 
per hour agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time 
during which the vessel is detained in loading or discharging 
over and above the time allowed, which is, as we have said, 
usually described as the lay days. Sometimes the number of 
days during which the vessel may be kept on demurrage at the 
agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party.  If no demurrage 
is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is not 
loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner 
is entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which 
he has suffered by the detention of his ship; or, if the 
vessel is detained beyond the fixed number of demurrage 
days, damages for detention will be recoverable.  Sometimes 
there is no time fixed by the charter-party for loading or 
discharging.  The obligation in such cases is to load or 
discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable 
in the circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is 
not done with such reasonable despatch, the shipowner will 
be entitled to claim damages for detention of his ship.  The 
rate of demurrage (if any) will generally be accepted as the 
measure of the damages for detention, but is not necessarily 
the true measure.  When the claim is for detention and 
not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which may be 
more or may be less than the agreed rate of demurrage.  The 
contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall 
be excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly 
stipulated this exception does not apply to the computation 
of the period of detention after the lay days have expired. 

Dead freight is the name gaven to the amount of freight 
lost, and therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the 
charterer as damages if a full and complete cargo is not 
loaded in accordance with the terms of the charter-party. 

The cesser clause has come into common use because very 
frequently the charterers are not personally interested in 
the cargo shipped.  They may be agents merely, or they may 
have chartered the vessel as a speculation to make a profit 
upon the bill of lading freight.  The effect of the clause is 
that when the charterers have shipped a full cargo they have 
fulfilled all their obligations, the shipowner discharging them 
from all further liability and taking instead a lien on the 
cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead freight 
that may be payable to him.  It has become an established 
rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if 
the language used will permit it, the cesser of liability is 
assumed to be co-extensive only with the lien given to the 
shipowner; or, in other words, the charterers are released 
from those liabilities only for which a lien is given to the 
shipowner.  The shipowner is further secured by the stipulation 
already referred to, that if the total freight payable under 
the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight 
the difference shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel 
sails.  A difficulty which sometimes arises, notwithstanding 
these precautions, is that although an ample lien is given 
by the charter-party, the terms of the bills of lading may be 
insufficient to preserve the same extensive lien as against 
the holder of the bills of lading.  The shippers under the 
bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not 
liable for the chartered freight, but only for the bill 
of lading freight; and unless the bill of lading expressly 
reserves it, they are not subject to a lien for the chartered 
freight.  The master may guard against this difficulty by 
refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve the 
shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight.  But he is 
often put into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause 
in the charter-party requiring him to sign bills of lading 
as presented. See Kruger v. Moel Tryvan, 1907 A. C. 272. 

(2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner 
and charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and 
the charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for 
employment, either generally in any lawful trade or upon 
voyages within certain limits.  A place is usually named 
at which the vessel is to be re-delivered to the owners at 
the end of the term, and the freight is payable until such 
re-delivery; the owner almost always pays the wages of the 
master and crew, and the charterers provide coals and pay 
port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain rate 
per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly 
in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in 
certain cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he 
usually is and remains the servant of the owner, is required 
to obey the orders of the charterers as regards the employment 
of the vessel, they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all 
liability to which they may be exposed by the master signing 
bills of lading or otherwise complying with the orders of the 
charterers; and the contract is made subject to exceptions 
similar to those in bills of lading and voyage charter-parties.  
This is the general outline of the ordinary form of a time 
charter-party, but the forms and their clauses vary, of 
course, very much, according to the circumstances of each case. 

It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner 
to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which 
is employed within certain limits according to the wish and 
directions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers.  
But, as we have already explained at the beginning of this 
article, the shipowner continues in possession of his vessel 
by his servant the master, who remains responsible to his 
owner for the safety and proper navigation of the ship.  The 
result of this, as has been already pointed out, is that the 
holder of a bill of lading signed by the master, if he has 
taken the bill of lading without knowledge of the terms of 
the time charter-party, may hold the owner responsible for 
the due performance of the contract signed by the master in 
the ordinary course of his duties, and within his ostensible 
authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact in 
signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent 
for and at the direction of the time charterer, and not the 
shipowner.  In the language of the ordinary time charter-party 
the ship is let to the charterers; but there is no true 
demise, because, as we have pointed out, the vessel remains 
in the possession of the shipowner, the charterer enjoying 
the advantages and control of its employment.  Where the 
possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, who appoints 
his own master and crew, different considerations apply; but 
though the instrument by which the ship is let may be called a 
charter-party, it is not truly a contract of affreightment. 

Customary rights. 

There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the 
relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances 
of extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage, 
which, though not strictly contractual, are well established 
by the customs of merchants and recognized by the law.  It is 
obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in the course 
of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the owners 
of both ship and cargo.  In cases of emergency it may be 
necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority 
or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent 
not only of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the 
cargo-owner.  Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may 
be necessary for the safety of both to put into a port of 
refuge.  There it may be necessary to repair the ship, and to 
land and warehouse, and afterwards re-ship the cargo.  For these 
purposes the master will be obliged to incur expense, of which 
some part, such as the cost of repairing the ship, will be for 
the benefit of the shipowner; part, such as the warehousing 
expenses, will be for the benefit of the cargo-owner; and part, 
such as the port charges incurred in order to enter the port 
of refuge, are for the common benefit and safety of ship and 
cargo.  Again, in a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the 
safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison, 
that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo.  In such 
a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, 
as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or 
part of the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving 
ship and cargo from a danger common to both.  Voluntary 
sacrifices so made and extraordinary expenses incurred for 
the common safety are called general average (see AVERAGE) 
sacrifices and expenses, and are made good to the person who 
has made the sacrifice or incurred the expense by a general 
average contribution, which is recoverable from the owners of 
the property saved in proportion to its value, or, in other 
words, each contributes rateably according to the benefit 
received.  The law regulating the rights of the parties with 
regard to such contribution is called the law of General 
Average.  It must, however, be remembered that the owner of the 
cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment to the 
ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage of 
the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay 
all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage.  
He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by 
accidents.  But when extraordinary expense has been incurred by 
the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such 
expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on 
cargo; or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a 
voluntary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and 
cargo from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of 
cargo to contribute in general average to make good the loss. 

See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905); Scrutton, 
Charter-parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.) 

AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia.  Estimated area 
245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan).  Pop. about 
5,000,000.  It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan, 
on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the 
independent tribes of the North-West Frontier of India and 
Baluchistan.  The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern 
days is due to its position as a ``buffer state'' intervening 
between the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British 
India.  During the last quarter of the 19th century our 
knowledge of the country was greatly increased, and its 
boundaries on the N., E. and S. were strictly delimited.  
The second Afghan war of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for 
the extension of wide geographical surveys on a scientific 
basis.  The Russian-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 
resulted in the delimitation and mapping of the northern 
frontier.  The Durand agreement of 1893 led to the partition of 
the Pathan tribes on the southern and eastern frontiers.  The Pamir 
Commission of 1895 settled its north-eastern border.  Finally the 
Perso-Baluch Commission of 1904-1905 defined its western face. 

Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari Rud 
river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows 
a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, 
and about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the 
Kushk river in Jamshidi territory at a point which was 
once known as Chahil Dukteran, but is now the Russian post 
Kushkinski, and the terminus of a branch railway from Merv.  
Kushkinski is about 20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement 
of Kushk, which is the capital of Badghis.  The settlement 
and the post originally called Kushk must not be confused 
together.  From Kushkinski the boundary runs north-east, 
crossing the Murghab river near Maruchak (which is an Afghan 
fortress), and thence passes north-east through the hills of 
the Chul, and the undulating deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, 
to the Oxus, leaving the valleys of Charshamba and of Andkhui 
(to which it runs approximately parallel) within Afghan 
limits.  These valleys denote the limits of cultivation in 
this direction.  Throughout all this region the boundary is 
generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars, but 
it is here and there indicated by natural features forming 
local lines of water-parting or water-course.  The boundary 
meets the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the 
cultivated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to 
the eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel 
of the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. 
(See OXUS.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier 
line was determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 
1895.  A part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan 
territory, but the boundary crosses this Pamir before the great 
bend northwards of the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a 
series of crags and untraversable mountain ridges, is lost on 
the Chinese frontier in the snowfields of Sarikol.  Bending 
back westwards upon itself, the line of Afghan frontier now 
follows the water-parting of the Hindu Kush; and as the Hindu 
Kush absolutely overhangs the Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, 
it follows that, at this point, Afghanistan is about 10 m. 
wide.  Thus a small and highly elevated portion of the state 
extends eastwards from its extreme north-eastern corner, and 
is attached to the great Afghan quadrilateral by the thin 
link of the Panja valley.  These narrow limits (called Wakhan) 
include the lofty spurs of the northern flank of the Hindu 
Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where the glacial 
passes reach 19,000 ft. in altitude, and the enclosing peaks 
24,000 ft.  The backbone or main water-divide of the Hindu 
Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghanistan and 
those semi-independent native states which fringe Kashmir 
in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan.  From 
near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral with 
the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-clad spur 
reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of 
Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote 
the eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the 
Chitral river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45 m. south of 
Chitral.  Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the 
boundary passes to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, 
after crossing it by a spur which leaves the insignificant 
Arnawai valley to the north; along this water-divide it extends 
to a point nearly opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in 
the Kunar valley (the Chitral river has become the Kunar in 
its course southwards), and then stretches away in an uneven 
and undefined line, dividing certain sections of the Mohmands 
from each other by hypothetical landmarks, till it strikes 
the Kabul river near Palosi.  Thence following a course nearly 
due south, it reaches Landi Kotal.  From the abutment of 
the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol in the Pamir regions to Landi 
Kotal, and throughout its eastern and southern limits, the 
boundary of Alghanistan touches districts which were brought 
under British political control with the formation of the 
North-West Frontier Provinces of India in 1901.  From the 
neighbourhood of Laudi Kotal the boundary is carried to the 
Safed Roh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and then, rounding 
off the cultivated portidins of the Kurram valley below the 
Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper reaches 
of the Tochi.  Crossing these again, it is continued on 
the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at 
Domandi.  South of the Gomal it separates the interests of 
Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the 
North-West Frontier Province.  From Domandi (the junction of 
the Kundar river with the Gomal) the Afghan boundary marches 
with that of Baluchistan. (See BALUCHISTAN.) It is carried 
to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by the 
channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond 
the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of 
the Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and 
Nushki.  From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching 
the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great 
part of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it 
strikes nearly west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on 
the Koh-i-Malik Siah mountain, south of Seistan.  Two points 
of this part of the Afghan boundary are notable.  It leaves 
some of the most fanatical of the Durani Afghan people on the 
Baluch side of the frontier in the Toba district, north of 
the Quetta-Chaman line of railway; and it passes 50 m. south 
of the Helmund riven enclosing within Afghanistan the only 
approach to Seistan from India which is available during the 
seasons of Helmund overflow.  Between Afghanistan and Persia 
the boundary was defined by Sir F. Goldsmid's Commission 
in 1872 from the Mahk-Siah-Koh to the Helmund Lagoons, and 
rectified by the Commission under Sir Henry Macmahon in 
1903-1905.  Beyond these lagoons to Hashtadan it is still 
indefinite.  The eastern limits of Hashtadan had been previously 
fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river at Toman Agha.  From 
this point to Zulfikar the Hari Rud is itself the boundary. 

Afghan provinces. 

Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises 
four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern 
Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Turkestan, together 
with the minor dependencies of the Ghilzai and Hazara 
Highlands, Ghazni, Jalalabad and Kafiristan.  All these are 
described in separate articles.  The kingdom of Kabul is the 
historic Afghanistan; the link which unites it to Kandahar, 
Herat and the other outlying provinces having been frequently 
broken and again restored by amirs of sufficient strength and 
capability.  The Herat province is largely Persian, while 
Afghan Turkestan is chiefly Usbeg; and in neither is 
the sentiment of loyalty to the central government very 
strong.  The bond is geographical and political rather than 
racial.  The geographical divisions of the country are created 
by the basins of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund, 
the Hari Rud and the Oxus.  The Kabul river drains Northern 
Afghanistan, the Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus 
that of Afghan Turkestan.  Afghanistan is largely a country 
of mountains and deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly 
irrigated and most productive country where fruit is grown in 
such abundance as to become an important item in the export 
trade.  The Afghans are expert agriculturists and make profitable 
use of all the natural sources of water-supply.  As practical 
irrigation engineers they are only rivalled by the Chinese. 

Mountain systems. 

The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu 
Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which 
reindicated by the Koh-i-Baba to the north-west of Kabul, 
and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan), which merges still 
farther to the west by gentle gradients into the Paropamisus, 
and which may be traced across the Hari Rud to Mashad. 

The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources 
of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kunduz and the Kabul very 
nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, 
is 16,870), and from them to the south-west long spurs divide 
the upper tributaries of the Helmund, and separate its basin 
from that of the Farah Rud. These spurs retain a considerable 
altitude, for they are marked by peaks exceeding 11,000 
ft.  They sweep in a broad band of roughly parallel ranges to 
the south-west, preserving their general direction till they 
abut on the Great Registan desert to the west of Kandahar, 
where they terminate in a series of detached and broken 
anticlinals whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching 
sand.  The long, straight, level-backed ridges which divide 
the Argandab, the Tarnak and Arghastan valleys, and flank the 
route from Kandaharto Ghazni. determining the direction of 
that route, are outliers of this system, which geographically 
includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Amran, range in Baluchistan. 

North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad synclinal 
plateau into which the Hindu Kush is merged is traversed by 
the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of the 
Kunduz, and farther to the west by the Band-i-Amir or Balkh 
river.  Between the debouchment of the Upper Murghab from 
the Firozkhoi uplands into the comparatively low level of 
the valley above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a 
nearly straight line to the upper sources of the Shibarghan 
stream, the Band-i-Turkestan range forms the northern ridge 
between the plateau and the sand formations of the Chul. lt 
is a level, straight-backed line of sombre mountain ridge, 
from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extraordinary 
configuration of that immense loess deposit called the Chul 
can be seen stretching away northwards to the Oxus--ridge 
upon ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yellow-grey sea of 
storm-twisted billows.  The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may 
be traced eastwards of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within 
the folds of the Kara Koh to the Kunduz, and beyond; but 
the Kara Koh does not mark the northern wall of the great 
plateau nor overlook the sands of the Oxus plain, as does the 
Band-i-Turkestan.  Here there intervenes a second wide synclinal 
plateau, of which the northern edge is defined n1y the 
fiat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Mazar-itsharif, 
and immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial 
plains of Mazar and Tashkurghan.  Opposite Tashkurghan the 
Oxus plain narrows to a short 25 m.  On the south this great 
band of roughly undulatine central plateau is bounded by the 
Koh-i-Baba, to the west of Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush to 
the north and north-east of that city.  Thus the main routes 
from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must cross either one or 
other of these ranges, and must traverse one or other of the 
terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by the 
upoer tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the 
Oxus.  Probably in no country in the world are there gathered 
together within comparatively narrow limits so many clean-cut 
waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording 
such a stupendous system of narrow roadways through the hills. 

After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range 
which divides Ningrahar (or the valley of ialalabad) from 
Kurram and the Afridi Tirah, and is called Safed Koh (also 
the name of the range south of the Hari Rud), is the most 
important, as it is the most impressive, in Afghanistan. 

The highest peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram, is 15,600 ft. above 
sea-level.  From this central dominating peak it falls gently 
towards the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, 
reaching to within a few miles of Kabul and barring the road 
from Kabul to Ghazni.  At a point which is not far east of 
the Kabul meridian an offshoot is directed southwards, which 
becomes the water-parting between the Kurram and the Logar at 
Shutargardan, and can be traced to a connexion with the great 
watershed of the frontier dividing the Indus basin from that 
of the Helmund.  This main watershed retains its high altitude 
far to the south.  There are peaks measuring over 12,000 
ft. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghazni plains. 

So far as we know at present the geological history of Afghanistan 
differs widely from that of India.  When, somewhere at the 
commencement of the Cretaceous period, the peninsula of India 
was connected by land with Madagascar and Southern Africa, all 
Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Persia formed part of an area 
which was not continuously below sea-level, but exhibited 
alternations of land and sea.  The end of the Cretaceous 
period saw the beginning of a series of great earth movements 
ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale such as the earth 
has never since witnessed, which resulted in the upheaval 
of the Himalayas by a process of crushing and folding of the 
sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were forced to an altitude 
of 20,000 ft. above the sea.  It was not till the Tertiary 
age, and even late in that age, that much of the land area of 
Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level.  Then the ocean 
gradually retired into the great Central Asian depressions. 

Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of 
level since that period, and the process of flexure and the 
formation of anticlinals traversing the northern districts of 
Afghanistan is a process which is still in action.  So rapid 
has been the land elevation of Central Afghanistan that the 
erosive action of rivers has not been nble to keep pace with 
that of upheaval; and the result all through Afghanistan (but 
specially marked in the great central highlands between Kabul 
and Herat) is the formation of those immensely deep gorges 
and defiles which are locally known as daras. One of these, 
in the Astarab, to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. 
wide, and is enclosed between perpendicular limestone cliffs 
1500 ft. high.  C. L. Griesbach considers that the general 
outline of the land configuration has remained much the same 
since Pliocene times, and that the force which brought about 
the wrinkling of the older deposits still continues to add 
fold on fold.  The highlands which shut off the Turkestan 
provinces from Southern Afghanistan have afforded the best 
opportunities for geological investigation, and as might 
be expected from their geographical position, the general 
result of the examination of exposed sections leads to 
the identification of geoloeical affinity with Himalayan, 
Indian and Persian regions.  The general configuration 
of the Turkestan highlands has been already indicated. 

Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain 
area northwards are ranged the Tertiaries and recent 
deposits.  North of Maimana they form low undulating loess 
hills, in which most of the Band-i-Turkestan drainage is 
lost.  This wide-spreading loess area, formed partly of 
wind-blown sand and partly of detritus from the mountains, is 
known as Chul, and merges into the great plains south of the 
Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with modern aerial 
deposits.  Beneath this Chul formation the older beds of 
the outer and Turkestan ranges dip and pass to an irregular 
outcrop near the banks of the Oxus.  Between the Oxus and the 
hills there has already been formed a rise or flexure in the 
ground, which extends more or less parallel to the northern 
edge of the hills, and, shuttinr in the cultivated area of the 
plains, arrests all tributaries seeking to effect a junction 
with the Oxus from the south, and leads to the formation 
of marshes and swamps.  This appears to be the beginning of 
a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the Balkh 
plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which 
may have been effective within historic times in changing 
the climate and the agricultural prospects of this part 
of Central Asia.  The Oxus itself is steadily encroaching 
on its right banks and depositing detritus on the left. 

No fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of hich 
economic value to Afghanistan have been made of late 
years.  Such as are known and worked at present have been 
worked from very ancient times, and their capacity is not 
likely to develop greatly under the Kabul government.  The 
most important feature in this connexion which was noted 
by the geologist of the Russo-Afghan Commission is the 
existence of vast coal beds in northern Afghanistan.  In 1903 
some coal mines were discovered in the Jagdalak districts. 

There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan; but 
evidences of their recent existence are abundant.  The great 
boulder bed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern 
slopes of the Ferozkhoi plateau are probably of glacial 
origin.  In the mountains west of Kabul glaciers have 
retired, leaving the moraines perfectly undisturbed.  They 
are probably contemporary with the older alluvia. (T. H. H.*) 

Rocks. 

The oldest rocks which have yet been identified 1 in Afghanistan 
occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been 
referred to the Carboniferous.  At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for 
example, there is a dark Productus limestone which seems 
to be identical with the Productus limestone of the Central 
Himalayas.  These beds are conformably succeeded, along the 
Central Asian watershed, by a continuous series of strata 
which apparently represent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of 
Europe.  They consist of marine beds alternating with 
freshwater and littoral deposits, together with plant beds 
and coal-scarns of considerable thickness.  The lowest beds 
of this series, which from their position may belong either 
to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous, 
have yielded no recognizable fossils; but they include a 
conglomerate which closely resembles the boulder bed near the 
base of the Talchir series in India.  The Upper Trias has been 
definitely identified by the occurrence of Halobia and other 
fossils; while in the higher beds of the series marine forms 
belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic have been found. 

The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the 
remains which have been found in them are several forms 
which occur also in the Gondwana beds of India.  There can 
be no doubt that the series as a whole is the equivalent 
of the Gondwana system, and when the country has been 
more closely examined the association of marine fossils 
with Gondwana plants will be of the greatest value in 
determining the precise homotaxis of the Indian deposits. 

The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect 
conformity, by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of 
Afghan Turkestan and probably forms the greater part of the 
ranges which run south and south-west from the principal 
watershed.  The lowest beds consist of red grits which contain 
Neocomian fossils, while the middle and upper Cretaceous 
consist chiefly of limestone and chalk.  The entire system 
may be represented in the west, but in the Herat province 
and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to be 
absent, and it is probable that, as in other regions, the 
upper Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lower 
beds.  Tertiary and recent deposits are widely spread, filling 
most of the valleys and covering the plains of the Helmund.  
Eocene beds have not yet been proved to exist; but this is 
probably owing to the imperfect knowledge of the country, for 
the formation is known in Persia, Baluchistan and the Suliman 
Hills.  The lower part of the Miocene is marine in Herat 
and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Miocene is usually of 
freshwater or estuarine origin. in Afghanistan, as in other 
regions near the great Eurasian system of folds, the Miocene 
includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt.  It was during 
this period that the forces which finally raised the country 
above the level of the sea began to take effect.  The Pliocene 
consists entirely of freshwater and terrestrial deposits, which 
were probably laid down at the foot of the rising hills and 
on the floors of the intervening valleys.  As the elevation 
continued, they were sometimes involved in the folding to 
which the mountains owe their origin.  During this period the 
gradual desiccation of the country continued, and wind-blown 
deposits, such as the loess, began to make their appearance. 

Although volcanic cones are known both in Persia and in 
Baluchistan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan 
itself.  There is, however, ample evidence that at several 
distinct geological periods the region has been the seat 
of great volcanic activity.  According to C. L. Griesbach, 
basic volcanic rocks are interbedded with the lowest part of 
the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place 
during the Neocomian period.  But the most important igneous 
masses are the great intrusions of syenitic granite and of 
basic rock which penetrate the Cretaceous beds.  These are 
probably of Eocene or of late Cretaceous age. (P. LA.) 

Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central 
Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan through 
the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see HINDU KUSH), 
the highways of Afghanistan may be classed under two heads: 
(1) Foreign trade routes, and (2) Internal communications. 

The most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus 
regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those 
which lead from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar to the plains of India. 

Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three 
main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu 
Kush.  One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its 
head from Tahshkurghan, and then, preserving a high general 
level of 8600 to 9000 ft., it passes over the water-divides 
separating the upper tributaries of the Kunduz river, 
and drops into the valley formed by another tributary at 
Bamian.  From Bamian it passes over the central mountain chain 
to Kabul either by the well-known Dasses of Irak (marking 
the water-divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking the 
summit of the Sanglakh, a branch of the Hindu Kush), or else, 
turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the 
Shibar, a pass which is considerably lower than the Irak and 
is very seldom snowbound.  From the foot of the Unai pass it 
follows the Kabul river, and from the foot of the Shibar it 
follows the circuitous route which is offered by the drainage 
of the Ghorband valley to Charikar, and thence southwards to 
Kabul.  The main points on this route are Haibak, Bajgah and 
Bamian.  It is full of awkward grades and minor passes, but 
it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass (if the 
Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft.  That this 
has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward 
from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear 
silent witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's 
talent for roadmaking has not opened out better alternative 
lines.  One of his roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband 
valley by the Chahardar pass across the Hindu Kush.  The pass 
is high (nearly 14,000 ft.), but the road is excellently well 
laid out, and the route, which, south of Haibak, traverses a 
corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of Badakshan, is more 
direct.  A third route also passes through Badakshan, and 
connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawak pass and Panjshir 
river.  The latter joins the Ghorband close to Charikar.  The 
Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades are easy 
and the snowfall usually light.  This high road is stated (on 
Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the 
year round by the employment of forced labour for clearing 
snow.  It is a recently developed route and one of great 
imoortance to Kabul, both strategically and commercially. 

Routes that pass between the mountain barriers of the frontier 
between Peshawar and the Gomal occur at intervals along the 
western border, and in the northern section of the Indian 
frontier they are all well marked.  The Khyber, Kurram and 
Tochi are the best known, inasmuch as all these lines of 
advance into Afghanistan are held by British troops or Indian 
levies.  But the Bara valley route into the heart of the Afridi 
Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked, although it is not 
a trade route of any importance.  Between Kabul and Jalalabad 
there are two roads, one by the Uataband pass, and the other 
and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Iagdalak passes, the 
latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade in 
1842.  Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass 
(q.v..) The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route 
of advance from Kabul to Peshawar.  From Kabul the old route 
followed the Kabul river through the valley of Laghman (or 
Lamghan, as the Afghans call it) over a gentle water-parting 
into the Kunar valley, leaving Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the 
south.  From the Kunar it crossed into Bajour by one of 
several open and comparatively easy passes, and from Bajour 
descended into India either by the Malakand or some other 
contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar. 8600 
and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of 
the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, 
however suitable as an alternative military line of advance. 

Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India 
by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley 
and the districts at its head, yet this is the shortest and 
most direct route between Ghazni and the frontier, and in 
the palmy days of Ghazni miding was the road by which the 
great robber Mahmud occasionally descended on to the Indus 
plains.  Traces of his raiding and roadmakina are still 
visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more direct 
route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the 
Tochi.  The exact nature of the connexion between the head 
of the Tochi and the Ghazni plain is still unknown to us. 

The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afvhanistan 
and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at 
Wana, will do much to ensure its continued popularity.  The 
Gomal involves no passes of any great difficulty, although 
it is impossible to follow the actual course of the river 
on account of the narrow defiles which have been cut through 
the recent conglomerate beds which flank the plains of the 
Indus.  It has been carefully surveyed for a possible railway 
alignment; and an excellent road now connects Tank (at 
its foot) with the Zhob line of communications to Quetta, 
and with Wana on the southern flank of Waziristan.  The 
Gomal route is of immense importance, both as a commercial 
and strategic line, and in both particulars is of far 
greater significance than either the Kurram or the Tochi. 

(2) Of the interior lines of communication, those which 
connect the great cities of Afghanistan, Herat, Kabul and 
Kandahar, are obviously the most important.  Between Kabul 
and Herat there is no ``royal'' road, the existing route 
passing over the frequently snow-bound wastes that lie below 
the southern flank of the great Koh-i-Baba into the upper 
valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. lt is a waste, elevated, 
desolate region that the route traverses, and the road itself 
is only open at certain seasons of the year.  Between Kabul 
and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route by 
Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai.  There is but one insignificant 
water-parting--or kotal--a little to the north of Ghazni; 
and the road, although unmade, may be considered equal to any 
road of its length in Europe for military purposes.  Berween 
Kandahar and Herat there is the recognized trade route which 
crosses the Helmund at Girishk and passes through Farahand 
Sabzawar.  It includes about 360 miles of easy road, with 
spaces where water is scarce.  There is not a pass of any 
great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty, to be 
encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the 
north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, 
containing the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the 
Southern Afghan tribes.  Little need be said of the 65 m. of 
route between Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New 
Chaman.  It is on the whole a route across open plains and 
hard, stony ``dasht''---a route which would offer no great 
difficulties to that railway extension from1 Olhaman which 
has so long been contemplated.  A very considerable trade 
now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost 
prohibitive imposts; but the trade does not follow the railway 
from New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak.  Long 
strings of camels may still be seen from the train windows 
patiently treading their slow way over the Khoiak pass 
to Kila Abdullah, whilst the train alongside them rapidly 
twists through the mountain tunnel into the Peshin valley. 

Climate. 

The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected.  
Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no 
great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan 
and that of the lower Himalayas.  Each may be placed at a point 
between 50 deg.  and 60 deg.  F. But the remarkable feature of Afghan 
climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is its extreme range 
of temperature within limited periods.  The least daily range 
in the north is during the cold weather, the greatest in the 
hot.  For seven months of the year (from May to November) 
this range exceeds 30 deg.  F. daily.  Waves of intense cold 
occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure 
a cold of 12 deg.  below zero, rising to a maximum of 17 deg.  below 
freezing-point.  On the other hand the summer temperature is 
exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade 
maximum of 110 deg.  to 120 deg.  is not uncommon.  At Kabul, and over 
all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak, 
winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian 
plateau.  In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; 
the people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to 
stoves.  At Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond 
the vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10 deg.  and 15 deg.  
below zero (Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction 
of the population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once. 

At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an 
Indian character.  The summer heat is great everywhere in 
Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the 
Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan.  
All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and 
the simoon is not unknown.  The hot season throughout this 
part of the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust 
storms and fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that 
traverse the country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it 
by night, render the summer nights most oppressive.  At Kabul 
the summer sun has great power, though the heat is tempered 
occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the 
nights are usually cool.  At Kandahar snow seldom falls on 
the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once. 

At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer climate 
is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether is 
far from disagreeable.  From May to September the wind blows 
from the N.W. with great violence, and this extends across 
the country to Kandahar.  The winter is tolerably mild; snow 
melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie 
long.  Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze 
hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very 
far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher 
level (at Rafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's 
army, retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 
men from cold in a single night.  In the northern Herat 
districts, too, records of the coldest month (February) show 
the mean minimum as 17 deg.  F., and the maximum 38 deg. .  The eastern 
reaches of the Hari Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, 
rapids and all, and the people travel on it as on a road. 

The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in India, 
beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, travel 
up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more 
clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs 
of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed 
Koh. Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram 
valley.  South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as 
the western limit of the monsoon's action.  It is quite unfelt 
in the rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of 
Asia, the winter rains are the most considerable.  The spring 
rain, though less copious, is more important to agriculture than 
the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of 
snow.  In the absence of monsoon influences there are steadier 
weather indications than in India.  The north-west blizzards 
which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable 
feature, and their influence is clearly felt on the Indian 
frontier.  The cold is then intense and the force of the wind 
cyclonic.  Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry 
one.  The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the 
year, and the nights are even more clear than the days.  Marked 
characteristics are the great differences of summer and winter 
temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent 
to which change of climate can be attained by slight change of 
place.  As the emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey 
from it you may find a place where snow never falls, and at 
two hours' journey a place where snow almost never melts! 

The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local 
climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, 
and of some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh. 

The people have by no means that immunity from disease 
which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine 
physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead 
us to expect.  Intermittent and remittent fevers are very 
prevalent; bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the 
autumn.  The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top 
in summer promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; 
and in the Koh Daman of Dabul, which the natives regard 
as having the finest of climates, the mortality from fever 
and bowel complaint, between July and October, is great, 
the immoderate use of fruit predisposing to such ailments. 

Population. 

The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the 
mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people 
of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known as the 
Durani.  The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful as the Durani) 
claims to be of Turkish origin; the Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, 
Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others are more or less subject 
races.  Popularly any inhabitant of Afghanistan is known 
as Afghan on the Indian frontier without distinction of 
origin or language; but the language division between the 
Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the Pathan is 
a very distinct one.  The predominance of the Afghan in 
Afghanistan dates from the middle of the 18th century, 
when Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous 
conquests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire. 

The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist 
on their descent from the tribes who were carried away 
captive from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar.  Yet 
they also claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all 
other Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be 
Afghan.  The bond of affinity between the various peoples who 
compose the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common 
language.  All of them recognize a common code or unwritten 
law called Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general 
character to the old Hebraic law, though modified by Mahommedan 
ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to 
Rajput custom.  Besides their division into clans and tribes, 
the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents 
and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not 
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great 
clans at least a part is nomad and a part settled.  Such, 
e.g., is the (use with the Durani and with the Ghilzai. 

The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in 
part the population of the few towns.  Their chief occupation 
is with the soil.  They form the core of the nation and the 
main part of the army.  Nearly all own the land on which 
they live, and which they cultivate with their own hands 
or by hired labour.  Roundly speaking, agriculture and 
soldiering are their sole occupations.  No Afghan will pursue 
a handicraft or keep a shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs 
engage largely in travelling trade and transport of goods.  
As a race the Afghans are very handsome and athletic, often 
with fair complexion and flowing beard, generally black or 
brown, sometimes, though rarely, red; the features highly 
aquiline.  The hair is shaved off from the forehead to the 
top of the head, the remainder at the sides being allowed 
to fall in large curls over the shoulders.  Their step is 
full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to be rough. 

The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the 
last trait often true also of the men); fair complexions, 
sometimes rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided 
and plaited behind in two long tresses terminating in silken 
tassels.  They are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent. 

The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar 
with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged 
by failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or 
discipline; apparently frank and affable in manner, especially 
when they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest 
brutality when that hope ceases.  They are unscrupulous in 
perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in 
vindictiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their 
own lives and in the most cruel manner.  Nowhere is crime 
committed on such trifling grounds, or with such general 
impunity, though when it is punished the punishment is 
atrocious.  Among themselves the Afghans are quarrelsome, 
intriguing and distrustful; estrangements and affrays are of 
constant occurrence; the traveller conceals and misrepresents 
the time and direction of his journey.  The Afghan is by breed 
and nature a bird of prey.  If from habit and tradition he 
respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet considers it 
legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is afoot, or 
even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has quitted his 
roof.  The repression of crime and the demand of taxation 
he regards alike as tyranny.  The Afghans are eternally 
boasting of their lineage, their independence and their 
prowess.  They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, 
and each man looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan. 

They are capable of enduring great privation, and make 
excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there 
are but few in the Indian army.  Sobriety and hardiness 
characterize the bulk of the people, though the higher classes 
are too often stained with deep and degrading debauchery.  
The first impression made by the Afghan is favourable.  The 
European, especially if he come from India, is charmed by 
their apparently frank, open-hearted, hospitable and manly 
manners; but the charm is not of long duration, and he finds 
that the Afghan is as cruel and crafty as he is independent.  
No trustworthy statistics exist showing either present numbers 
or fluctuations in the population of Afghanistan.  Within the 
amir's dominions there are probably from four to five millions 
of people, and of these the vast majority are agriculturists. 

The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers 
and slaves, represent the working population of the country, 
and as industrious and successful agriculturists they are 
unsurpassed in Asia.  They have carried the art of irrigation 
to great perfection, and they utilize every acre of profitable 
soil.  Certain Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill 
in the construction of the karez or underground water-channel. 

Religion. 

The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan.  Next to 
Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan kingdom in 
existence.  The vast majority of Afghans are of the Sunni sect; 
but there are, in their midst, such powerful communities of 
Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central districts, the Kizilbashes 
of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram border, nor is there 
between them that bitterness of sectarian animosity which is 
so marked a feature in India.  The Kafirs of the mountainous 
region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahommedan.  They are sunk 
in a paganism which seems to embrace some faint reflexion 
of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles and the tenets of 
Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from the varied 
elements of their mixed extraction.  Those contiguous Afghan 
tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the faith of 
Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most virulent 
upholders of the faith around them.  In and about the centre of 
civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are comparatively 
rare.  In the western provinces about Kandahar (amongst the 
Durani Afghans---the people who claim to be Beni-Israel), 
and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism runs 
high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi---a man 
who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds. 

Language and literature. 

Persian is the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan 
population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it 
is the language of the court and of literature.  Pushtu, 
however, is the prevailing language, though it does not seem 
to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west of the 
Helmund.  Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan.  There is a 
respectable amount of Afghan literature.  The oldest work in 
Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh Mali, 
a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (A.D. 
1413-24).  In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same 
clan; during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely 
conquered, and he wrote a history of the events.  In the 
reign of Akbar, Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, ``the 
Saint of Light,'' the founder of an heretical sect, wrote 
in Pushtu; as did his chief antagonist, a famous Afghan 
saint called Akhund Darweza.  The literature is richest in 
poetry.  Abdur Rahman (17th century) is the best known poet.  
Another very popular poet is Khushal Khan, the warlike chief 
of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb.  Many other members 
of his family were poets also.  Ahmad Shah, the founder of 
the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry.  Ballads are numerous. 

Education. 

Education is confined to most elementary principles in 
Afghanistan.  Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a 
higher education befitted to the sons of noblemen and the 
more wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but the 
village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle 
to the passer-by.  Here the younger boys are collected and 
instructed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious 
creed by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires 
an early influence over the Afghan mind.  The method of 
teaching is confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced 
repetition which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; 
and the Koran is, of course, the text-book in all forms of 
education.  Every Afghan gentleman can read and speak 
Persian, but beyond this acquirement education seems to 
be limited to the physical development of the youth by 
instruction in horsemanship and feats of skill.  Such 
advanced education as exists in Afghanistan is centred in the 
priests and physicians; but the ignorance of both is extreme. 

Constitution and laws. 

The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under the 
amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary.  There are 
five chief political divisions in the country---namely, Kabul, 
Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan, each of which is ruled 
by a ``naib'' or governor, whom is directly responsible to the 
amir.  Under the governors of provinces the nobles and kazis 
(or district judges) dispense justice much in the feudal 
fashion.  There are three classes of chiefs who form the council 
or durbar of the king.  These are the sirdars, the khans and the 
mullahs.  The sirdars are hereditary nobles, the khans are 
representatives of the people, and the mullahs of Mahommedan 
religion.  The khan is elected by the clan or tribe.  The 
clannish attachment of the Afghans is rather to the community 
than to the chief.  These three classes of representatives 
are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi or royal 
assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or commons.  The mullahs 
take their place in one or the other according to their 
individual rank.  The executive officials of the amir have 
a selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet 
council, but no member can give advice to the crown without 
being asked to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own 
department.  The amir, in addition to being chief executive 
officer, is chief judge and supreme court of appeal.  Any one 
has the right to appeal to the amir for trial, and the great 
amirs, Dost Mahommed and Abdurrahman,were accessible at all 
times to the petitions of their subjects.  Next to the amir 
comes the court of the kazi, the chief centre of justice, 
and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who performs, as in 
India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate.  In large 
provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the trial 
of commercial cases.  There are government departments for 
the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military 
affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts 
of Afghanistan is that of Islam and of the customs of the 
country, with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman. 

Defence. 

The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed 
between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, 
Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at 
frontier outposts on the side of India.  Abdur Rahman claimed 
that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a week 
for the defence of Herat.  In 1896 he introduced a system of 
semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between 
the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at military 
training.  In this way he calculated that he could have raised 
1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief difficulty 
would be money and transport.  The pay of the army is apt to be 
irregular.  The amir's factories at Kabul for arms and ammunition 
are said to turn out about 20,000 cartridges and 15 rifles 
daily, with 2 guns per week; but the arms thus produced are 
very heterogeneous, and the different varieties of cartridge 
used would cause endless complications.  The two chief 
fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat and Dehdadi near 
Balkh.  The latter fort took twelve years to build, and 
commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into Afghan 
Turkestan.  It is armed with naval quick-firing guns, Krupp, 
Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim.  The chief cantonment for 
the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, 12 m. from Balkh. 

Finance. 

Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a 
kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public 
works and army.  There appears to be no inherent reason why 
this should be so.  Whilst it can never (in the absence of 
any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy country, 
it can at least support its own population; and it would, 
but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman, 
certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency.  
Its revenues (about which no trustworthy information is 
available) are subject to great fluctuations, and probably 
never exceed the value of one million sterling per annum.  
They fell in Shere Ali's time to L. 700,000.  The original 
subsidy to the amir from the Indian government was fixed 
at 12 lakhs of rupees (L. 80,000) per annum, but in 1893, in 
connexion with the boundary settlement, it was increased to 

Minerals. 

Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur Rahman 
claims in his autobiography that the country is rich in 
mines.  Some small quantity of gold is taken from the streams in 
Laghman and the adjoining districts.  Famous silver mines were 
formerly worked near the head of the Panjshir valley in Hindu 
Kush.  Kabul is chiefly supplied with iron from the Permuli 
(or Farmuli) district, between the Upper Kurram and Gomal, 
where it is said to be abundant.  Iron ore is most abundant 
near the passes leading to Bamian, and in other parts of Hindu 
Kush.  Copper ore from various parts of Afghanistan has been 
seen, but it is nowhere worked.  Lead is found in Upper 
Bangash (Kurram district), and in the Shinwari country (also 
among the branches of Safed Koh), and in the Kakar country.  
There are reported to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely 
worked.  Lead, with antimony, is found near the Arghand-ab, 32 
m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the Ghorband valley, north of 
Kabul.  Most of the lead used, however, comes from the Hazara 
country, where the ore is described as being gathered on the 
surface.  An ancient mine of great extent and elaborate 
character exists at Feringal, in the Ghorband valley.  Antimony 
is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah-Maksud, about 
30 m. north of Kandahar.  Sulphur is said to be found at 
Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments, but the chief 
supply comes from the Hazara country and from Pirkisri, 
on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem to be a 
crater, or fumarole.  Sal-ammoniac is brought from the same 
place.  Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of 
Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near the 
surface.  Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat 
(between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni.  Nitre 
abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan, and 
often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals. 

Vegetation. 

The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains 
of Afghanistan is worthy of attention.  The great mass of it 
is confined to the main ranges and their immediate off-shoots, 
whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is 
almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone. 

Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself 
and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 
ft., we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among 
which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as 
Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, Pinus longifolia, P. 
Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch.  We 
have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and 
almond.  Growing under the shade of these are several 
varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, 
rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the 
ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of 
genera.  The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, 
but are more common on the northern mountains.  The walnut 
and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the 
secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, 
khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astragalus, 
&c. Here also are Indigoferae rind dwarf laburnum. 

Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species 
of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and 
Zizyphus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, 
Chamaerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful 
purposes), Bignonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora 
persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae. 

The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, 
as has been said, naked in aspect.  Their scanty vegetation is 
almost wholly herbal; shrubs are only occasional; trees almost 
non-existent.  Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most 
common.  Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges. 

In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary 
plains of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous 
thorny plants of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as 
camel-thorn (Hedysarum Alhagi), Astragalus in several 
varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis spinosa), the 
fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants 
of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa; a 
plant of the rue family, called by the natives lipad the 
common wormwood; also certain orchids, and several species 
of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as 
domestic medicines---the former for rheumatism and neuralgia; 
the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a 
vermifuge.  The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, 
is believed to keep off evil soirits.  In some places, 
occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the 
rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, 
or ass-bane, the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae. 

In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, poplar, 
ash, and occasionally the plane; but these are due to man's planting. 

Uncultivated products of value. 

One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex 
asafetida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry 
plains of eastern Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and 
Herat.  The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its way to 
India, where it is much used as a condiment.  It is not so used 
in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat the green stalks of 
the plant preserved in brine.  The collection of the gum-resin 
is almost entirely in the hands of the Kakar clan of Afghans. 

In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local 
luxury.  The plants grow wild in the mountains.  The bleached 
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering 
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose 
stones or an empty jar.  The leaf-stalks are gathered by the 
neighbouring hill people, and carried down for sale.  Bleached and 
unbleached rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked. 

The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are exported. 

The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of 
water-courses, furnishes an edible fruit.  An orchis found in 
the mountain yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious 
mucilage called salep: a good deal of this goes to India. 

Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic.  The fruit, mixed with 
its resin, is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern 
Afghanistan.The true pistachio is found only on the northern 
frontier; the nuts are imported from Badakshan and Kunduz by the 
Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for meat. 

Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars.  
One, called turanjbin, apoears to exude, in small round 
tears, from the camelthorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; 
the other, sir-kasht, in large grains and irregular 
masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded, is obtained 
from a tree which the natives call sian chob (black 
wood), thought by Bellow to be a Fraxinus or Ornus. 

Agriculture. 

In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as generally 
in India.  One of these, called by the Afghans baharak, or 
the sprine crop. is sown in the end of autumn and reaped in 
summer.  It consists of wheat, barley and a variety of 
lentils.  The other, called paizah or tirmai, the 
autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in 
autumn.  It consists of rice, varieties of millet and 
sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, 
turnips, &c. The loftier regions have but one harvest. 

Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the 
country.  Rice is not largely distributed.  In much of the 
eastern mountainous country bajra (Holcus spicatus) is 
the chief grain.  Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are 
cultivated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food. 

The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous 
plants is reckoned very important, especially near 
towns; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest. 

Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though cotton is 
grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is imported. 

Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni 
and Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and 
supplies the Indian demand.  It is said to be very profitable, 
though it takes three years to mature.  Saffron is grown and 
exported.  The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and 
furnishes most of the oil of the country.  Tobacco is grown 
very generally; that of Kandahar has much repute, and is 
exported to India and Bokhara.  Two crops of leaves are taken. 

Lucerne and a trefoil called shaftal form important fodder 
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated. 
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season.  The 
komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of 
Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to 
Herat.  It is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent 
fodder.  Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and 
from two kinds of panick.  It is common to cut down the green 
wheat and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the 
repetition of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure 
the grain crop.  Bellow gives the following statement of the 
manner in which the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar 
district:---Barley is sown in November; in March and April 
it is twice cut for fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the 
ground is ploughed and manured and sown with tobacco, which 
yields two cuttings.  The ground is then prepared for carrots 
and turnips, which are gathered in November or December. 

Of great moment are the fruit crops.  All European fruits are 
produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent quality.  
Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a large class of 
the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported.  In the valleys 
of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in skins for winter 
use.  This mulberry cake is often reduced to flour, and used 
as such, forming in some valleys the main food of the people. 

Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very 
numerous.  The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, 
but most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. 
high.  The principal part of the garden lands in villages 
round Kandahar is vineyard, and the produce must be enormous. 

Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern 
Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the 
country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean 
aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting 
their combined volume to the surface at a lower level. 

Fauna. 

As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the 
frontier of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the 
Ethiopian (to which region Baluchistan seems to belong) 
and the Indo-Halayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat 
of the forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian. 

Felidae.--F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal 
(Eur., Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated 
to be found almost all over the country, perhaps rather the 
cheetah F. jubatus, Ind, and Eth.); F. pardus, the common 
leopard (Eth. and Ind.).  The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan. 

Canidae.--The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds 
on the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere.  Wolves 
(C. Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, 
and assemble in troops on the snow, destroying cattle and 
sometimes attacking single horsemen.  The hyena (H. striata, 
Africa to India) is common.  These do not hunt in packs, but 
will sometimes singly attack a bullock; they and the wolves 
make havoc among sheep.  A favourite feat of the boldest of 
the young men of southern Afghanistan is to enter the hyena's 
den, single-handed, muffle and tie him.  There are wild dogs, 
according to Elphinstone and Conolly.  The small Indian fox 
(Vulpes Bengalensis) is found; also V. flavescens, common 
to India and Persia, the skin of which is much used as a fur. 

Mustelidae.--Species of the Mungoose (Herpestes), 
species of otter, Mustela erminea, and two ferrets, one 
of them with tortoise-shell marks, tamed by the Afghans 
to keep down vermin; a marten (M. flavigula, Indian). 

Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; 
and one of a dirty yellow, U. Isabellinus, both Himalayan 
species. Ruminants.--Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros; 
a wild sheep Ovis cycloceros or Vignei); Gazella 
subgutturosa--these are often netted in batches when 
they descend to drink at a stream; G. dorcas perhaps; 
Cervus Wallichii, the Indian barasingha, and probably 
some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains. 

The wild hog (Sus scrofa) is found on the lower 
Helmund.  The wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus 
onager), is frequent on the sandy tracts in the south-west. 

The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant in Kafiristan. 

Talpidae.--A mole, probably Talpa Europaea; Sorex Indicus; 
Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian). 

Bats believed to be Phyllorhinus cineraceus (Punjab 
species), Scotophilus Bellii (W. India), Vesp. auritus 
and V. barbastellus, both found from England to India. 

Rodentia.--A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacus?); Mus Indicus 
and M. Gerbellinus; a jerboa (Dipus telum?); Alactaga 
Bactriana; Gerbillus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian 
and Indian); Lagomys Nepalensis, a Central Asian species.  
A hare, probably L. ruacaudatus. by Captain Hutton in 
the J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 775 seq.; but it is 
confessedly far from complete. (Of 124 species in that list, 
95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian 
and Indian, 1 (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and 1 
only, Carpodacus (Bucanetes) crassirostris, peculiar to the 
country.  Afghanistan appears to be, during the breeding season, 
the retreat of a variety of Indian and some African (desert) forms, 
whilst in winter the avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian. 

REPTILES.--The following particulars are from Gray:--Lizards 
Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horipeldii, Salea 
Horsfieldii, Calotes Moria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. 
Emma, Phrynocephalus Idchelii--all Indian forms.  A tortoise 
(Testudo Horsfieldii) appears to be peculiar to Kabul.  
There are apparently no salamanders or tailed Amphibia.  The 
frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian; and the same may be 
said of the fish, but they are as yet most imperfectly known. 

The camel is of a more robust and compact breed than the 
tall beabt used in India, and is more carefully tended.  
The two-humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus 
regions, but is seldom seen near the Indian frontier. 

Horses form a staple export to India.  The best of these, 
however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry.  Those exported 
to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan 
Turkestan.  The indigenous horse is the yabu, a stout, 
heavy-shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly 
for burden, but also for riding.  It gets over incredible 
distances at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work 
and cannot stand excessive heat.  The breed of horses was much 
improved under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest 
in it.  Generally, colts are sold and worked too young. 

The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities of 
milk.  They seem to be of the humped variety, but with 
the hump evanescent.  Dairy produce is important in Afghan 
diet, especially the pressed and dried curd called krut 
(an article and name perhaps introduced by the Mongols). 

There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat 
tail.  One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black 
one.  Much of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now 
largely to Europe by Bombay.  Flocks of sheep are the main 
wealth of the nomad population, and mutton is the chief 
animal food of the nation.  In autumn large numbers are 
slaughtered, their carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried 
in the sun.  The same is done with beef and camel's flesh. 

The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, 
seem to be a degenerate variety of the shawlgoat. 

The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding.  Pointers 
are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalalabad--large, 
heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch; very like 
the old double-nosed Spanish pointer.  There are greyhounds 
also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs. 

Trade and commerce. 

The manufactures of the country have not developed much 
during recent years.  Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the 
many varieties of camel and goat's hair-cloth which, under 
the name of ``barak,'' ``karak,'' &c., are manufactured in 
the northern districts, are still the chief local products 
of that part of Afghanistan.  Herat and Kandahar are 
famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the 
manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many 
of the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from 
the Central Asian khanates.  The district of Herat produces 
many of the smaller sorts of carpets (``galichas'' or 
prayer-carpets), of excellent design and colour, the little 
town of Adraskand being especially famous for this industry; 
but they are not to be compared with the best products of 
eastern Persia or of the Turkman districts about Panjdeh. 

The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly 
pastoral, and the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar 
provinces is famous for its quality.  In this direction, 
the late boundary settlements have undoubtedly led to 
a considerable development of local resources.  A large 
quantity of wool, together with silk, dried fruit, madder and 
asafetida, finds its way to India by the Kandahar route. 

It is impossible to give accurate trade statistics, there 
being no trustworthy system of registration.  The value of 
the imports from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated 
at 221,000 Rx (or tens of rupees).  In 1809 it was little 
over 217,000 Rx, the period of lowest intermediate depression 
being in 1897.  These imports include horses, cattle, fruits, 
grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco, drugs and provisions (ghi, 
&c.).  All this trade emanates from Kabul, there being no 
transit trade with Bokhara owing to the heavy dues levied by the 
amir.  The value of the exports from India to Kabul also shows 
great fluctuation.  In the year 1892-1893 it was registered at 
nearly 611,000 Rx. In 1894-1895 it had sunk to 274,000 Rx, and 
in 1899 it figured at 294,600 Rx. The chief items are cotton 
goods, sugar and tea.  In 1898-1899 the imports irom Kandahar 
to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the exports from India 
to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three-fourths of the exports 
consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths of the imports were raw 
wool.  The balance of the imports was chiefly made up of dried 
fruits.  Comparison with trade statistics of previous years on 
this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing to the inclusion of 
a large section of Baluchistan and Persia within the official 
``Kandahar'' returns; but it does not appear that the value 
of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the increase.  The 
opening up of the route between Quetta and Seistan has doubtless 
affected a trade which was already seriously hampered by 
restrictions.  In the year after the mission of Sir Louis Dane 
to Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that the trade 
between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in value. 

Antiquities. 

The basin of the Kabul river especially abounds in remains 
of the period when Buddhism flourished.  Bamian is famous 
for its wall-cut firures, and at Haibak (on the route between 
Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most interesting Buddhist 
remains.  In the Koh-Daman, north of Kabul, are the sites of 
several ancient cities, the greatest of which, called Beghram, 
has furnished coins in scores of thousands, and has been supposed 
to represent Alexander's Nicaea.  Nearer Kabul, and especially on 
the hills some miles south of the city, are numerous topes.  In 
the valley of Jalalabad are many remains of the same character. 

In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city 
(Ulan Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia.  About 
Girishk, on the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces 
of buildings; and the remains of several great cities exist in 
the plain of Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics 
of ancient Drangiana.  An ancient stone vessel preserved in 
a mosque at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was 
treasured at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of 
Sakya-Muni.  In architectural relics of a later date than the 
Graeco-Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient.  Of 
the city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, no 
substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two 
remarkable brick minarets.  A vast and fruitful harvest of coins 
has been gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---Rawlinson, England and Russia in the 
East (1873); H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879); 
Wyllie's Essays on the External Policy of India (1875); 
Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809); 
Parliamentary Papers, ``Afghanistan''; Curzon, Problems in 
the Far East; Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); India 
(1903); Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission 
(1886); Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). (T. H. H.*) 

HISTORY The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-Israil 
(Arab. for Children of Israel), and claim descent from King 
Saul (whom they call by the Mahommedan corruption Talut) 
through a son whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, 
who again had a son called Afghana.  The numerous stock 
of Afghana were removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their 
way to the mountains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of 
Herat).  Only nine years after Mahommed's announcement of his 
mission they heard of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a 
deputation headed by a wise and holy man called Kais, to make 
inquiry.  The deputation became zealous converts, and on 
their return converted their countrymen.  From Kais and his 
three sons the whole of the genuine Afghans claim descent. 

This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry 
books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the 
16th century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend 
is found of older date.  In the version given by Major 
Raverty (Introd. to Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled 
by King Solomon himself in the Sulimani mountains; there 
is nothing about Nebuchadrezzar or Ghor.  The historian 
Ferishta says he had read that the Afghans were descended 
from Copts of the race of Pharaoh.  And one of the Afghan 
histories, quoted by Mr Bellow, relates ``a current tradition'' 
that, previous to the time of Kais, Bilo the father of the 
Biluchis, Uzbak (evidently the father of the Usbegs) and 
Afghana were considered as brethren.  As Mahommed Usbeg 
Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes called 
Usbegs, reigned in the 14th century A.D., this gives some 
possible light on the value of these so-called traditions. 

We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all 
nations that derive their religion or their civilization from 
a foreign source.  To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a 
considerable number of persons have been found to propagate 
the doctrine that the English people are descended from the 
tribes of Israel.  But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans 
is more worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable 
number of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the 
Afghans, have been strong in their belief of it; and though 
the customs alleged in proof will not bear the stress laid on 
them, undoubtedly a prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy 
has a character strongly Jewish.  This characteristic is 
certainly a remarkable one; but it is shared, to a considerable 
extent, by the Kashmiris (a circumstance which led Bernier 
to speculate on the Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of 
Israel), and, we believe, by the Tajik people of Badakshan. 

Relations with the Greeks.---In the time of Darius Hystaspes 
(500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan 
embraced in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts 
of it occupied by Sarangians (in Seistan), Arians (in 
Herat), Sattagydians (supposed in highlands of upper 
Helmund and the plateau of Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested 
to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountaineers, perhaps of Safed 
Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy), Gandarii (in 
Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyes, on or near the Indus.  
In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that we 
have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their 
name.  Indeed, Pusht, Pasht or Pakht would seem to be the 
oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions. 

The Ariania of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing 
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and south. 

About 310 B.C. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to 
the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a 
marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus 
occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a 
part of the Kabul basin.  Some sixty years later occurred 
the establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria. 
(See BACTRIA, MEDIA, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER of India, 
EUTHYDEMUS, and PERSIA, Ancient History.) Of the details 
of their history and extent of their dominion in different 
reigns we know almost nothing, and conjecture is often 
dependent on such vague data as are afforded by the collation 
of the localities in which the coins of independent princes 
have been found.  But their power extended certainly over 
the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, over the whole of 
Afghanistan.  The ancient architecture of Kashmir, the tope 
of Manikyala in the Punjab, and many sculptures found in the 
Peshawar valley, show unmistakable Greek influence.  Demetrius 
(c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have reigned in Arachosia 
after being expelled from Bactria, much as, at a later date, 
Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion from Samarkand.  
Eucratides (181 B.C.) is alleged by Justin to have warred in 
India.  With his coins, found abundantly in the Kabul basin, 
commences the use of an Arianian inscription, in addition to the 
Greek, sulnosed to imply the transfer of rule to the south of 
the mountains, over a people whom the Greek dynasty sought to 
conciliate.  Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?), the Parthians, who 
had already encroached on Ariana, pressed their conquests into 
India.  Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India at least to the 
Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta.  Tbe coinage of 
a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric irruption.  
There is a general correspondence between classical and Chinese 
accounts of the time when Bactria was overrun by Scythian 
invaders.  The chief nation among these, called by the 
Chinese Yue-Chi, about 126 B.C. established themselves 
in Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes.  Near the 
Christian era the chief of one of these, which was called 
Kushan, subdued the rest, and extended his conquests over the 
countries south of the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as 
Afghanistan, thus establishing a great dominion, of which 
we hear from Greek writers as Indo-Scythia. (See YUE-CHI.) 

Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of the 
Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted that 
system.  Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains 
of Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul. 

Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other.  A notable 
monarch was Kanishka (see INDIA, History) or Kanerkes, 
whose date is variously fixed at from 58 B.C. to A.D. 
125, and whose power extended over the upper Oxus basin, 
Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir and probably far into India.  His 
name and legends still filled the land, or at least the 
Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when tho Chinese 
pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, travelled in India; they had even 
reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and 
geographer, Abu-r-Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni (see 
BIRUNI), in the 11th century; and they are still celebrated 
in the Mongol versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story. 

Turkoman Dynasties.---In the time of Hsuan Tsang (A.D. 
630-645) there were both Indian and Turk princes in the Kabul 
valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem 
to have predominated in succession.  The first Mahommedan 
attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though 
Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early 
date.  It was not till the end of the 10th century that a Hindu 
prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands 
of the Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at 
Ghazni.  There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a 
series of descendants, till the middle of the 12th century, 
rendering the city one of the most splendid in Asia.  We 
then have a powerful dynasty, commonly believed to have been 
of Afghan race; and if so, the first.  But the historians 
give them a legendary descent from Zohak, which is no Afghan 
genealogy.  The founder of the dynasty was Alauddin, 
chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for the cruel death of his 
brother at the hands of Bahram the Ghaznevide was wreaked 
in devastating the great city.  His nephew, Shahabuddin 
Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India, conquering as far as 
Benares.  His empire in India indeed--ruled by his freedmen 
who after his death became independent --may be regarded as 
the origin of that great Mahommedan monarchy which endured 
nominally till 1857.  For abrief period the Afghan countries 
were subject to the king of Khwarizm, and it was here 
chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of Jalaluddin 
of Khwarizm to withstand the progress of Jenghiz Khan. 

A passage in Ferishta seems to imply that the Afghans in the 
Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the first 
century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may 
be built on.  The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned 
in `Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about A.D. 
1030, coupled with that of the Khifjis. It also appears 
frequently in connexion with the history of India in the 
13th and 14th centuries.  The successive dynasties of Delhi 
are generally called Pathan, but were really so only in 
part.  Of the Khifjis (1288-1321) we have already spoken.  
The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were originally Tatars of the Karauna 
tribe.  The Lodis (1450-1526) were pure Pathans.  For a 
century and more after the Mongol invasion the whole of the 
Afghan countries were under Mongol rule; but in the middle 
of the 14th century a native dynasty sprang up in western 
Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which extended its rule 
over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar.  The history of the Afghan 
countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that regime 
must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge from 
the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and 
even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language. 

The Mogul Dyniasty.---All these countries were included 
in Timur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in 
the possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only 
three years before it fell into the hands of another and 
more illustrious one, Sultan Baber.  It was not till 1522 
that Baber succeeded in permanently wresting Kandahar from 
the Arghuns, a family of Mongol descent, who had long held 
it.  From the time of his conquest of Hindustan (victory at 
Panipat, April 21, 1526), Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded 
as part of the empire of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul 
dynasty which Baber founded.  Kabul so continued till the 
invasion of Nadir Shah (1738).  Kandahar often changed hands 
between the Moguls and the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of 
Persia.  Under the latter it had remained from 1642 till 1708, 
when in the reign of Husain, the last of them, the Ghilzais, 
provoked by the oppressive Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan 
(a Georgian prince of the Bagratid house), revolted under Mir 
Wais, and expelled the Persians.  Mir Wais was acknowledged 
sovereign of Kandahar, and eventually defeated the Persian 
armies sent against him. but did not long survive (d. 1715). 

Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and 
energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest 
of Persia itself.  After a long siege, Shah Husain came 
forth from Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered 
the sword and diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the 
Ghilzai (October 1722).  Two years later Mahmud died mad, 
and a few years saw the end of Ghilzai rule in Persia. 

The Durani Dynasty.---In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered 
Kandahar and took Kabul.  But he gained the goodwill of the 
Afghans, and enrolled many in his army.  Among these was a 
noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of 
the Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) 
was chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their 
leader, and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part 
of Nadir's empire, with the style of Dur-i-Duran, ``Pearl 
of the Age,'' bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the 
Abdalis.  With Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took 
a place among the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani 
dynasty, which he founded, still occupies its throne.  During 
the twenty-six years of his reign he carried his warlike 
expeditions far and wide.  Westward they extended nearly to 
the shores of the Caspian; eastward he repeatedly entered 
India as a conqueror.  At his great battle of Panipat (January 
6, 1761), with vastly inferior numbers, he inflicted on the 
Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their power, a tremendous 
defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; but the success 
had for him no important result.  Having long suffered from a 
terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeathing to his son Timur 
a dominion which embraced not only Afghanistan to its utmost 
limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and Turkestan to the Oxus, 
with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan as tributary governments. 

Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul, and 
continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the 
anarchy which followed close on his death.  He left twenty-three 
sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah 
Khan, head of the Barakzai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in 
grasping the royal power.  For many years barbarous wars raged 
between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul-Mulk 
and Mahmud successively held the throne.  The last owed 
success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the ``Afghan 
Warwick''), a man of masterly ability in war and politics, the 
eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable intelligence 
and force of character, and many of these he placed over the 
provinces.  Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's jealously 
by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity of the 
king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai family.  
He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards murdered with 
prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking the first blow. 

The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan.  The 
Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and 
with difficulty reached Herat (1818).  Herat remained thus 
till Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his 
able and wicked minister Yar Mahommed.  The rest of the 
country was divided among the Barakzais---Dost Mahommed, the 
ablest, getting Kabul.  Peshawar and the right bank of the 
Indus fell to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 
1823.  The last Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost 
long before.--Kashmir in 1819; Sind had cast off all 
allegiance since 1808; the Turkestan provinces had been 
practically independent since the death of Timur Shah. 

The First Afghan War, 1838-42.---In 1809, in consequence 
of the intrigues Of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart 
Elphinstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in 
power, and had been well received by him at Peshawar.  This 
was the first time the Afghans made any acquaintance with 
Englishmen.  Lieut.  Alex.  Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex.  
Burnes) visited Kabul on his way to Bokhara in 1832.  In 1837 
the Persian siege of Herat and the proceedings of Russia created 
uneasiness, and Burnes was sent by the governor-general as 
resident to the amir's court at Kabul.  But the terms which 
the Dost sought were not conceded by the government, and 
the rash resolution was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, 
long a refugee in British territory.  Ranjit Singh, king 
of the Punjab, bound himself to co-operate, but eventually 
declined to let the expedition cross his territories. 

The war began in March 1838, when the ``Army of the Indus,'' 
amounting to 21,000 men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced 
through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane.  
There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition.  Kohandil 
Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia.  That city was occupied in 
April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather's 
mosque.  Ghazni was reached 21st July; a gate of the city was 
blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut., 
afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by 
storm.  Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed 
the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 
7). The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a 
peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force, 
leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir 
W. Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague. 

During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies remained 
in possession of Kabul and Kandahar.  The British outposts 
extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah Khan, 
in the plain of Seistan.  Dost Mahommed surrendered (November 
5, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honourably 
treated.  From the beginning, insurrection against the new 
government had been rife.  The political authorities were 
overconfident, and neglected warnings.  On the 2nd of November 
1841 the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre 
of Burnes and other officers.  The position of the British 
camp, its communications with the citadel and the location 
of the stores were the worst possible; and the general 
(Elphinstone) was shattered in constitution.  Disaster after 
disaster occurred, not without misconduct.  At a conference 
(December 23) with the Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken 
the lead of the Afghans, Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by 
that chief's own hand.  On the 6th of January 1842, after a 
convention to evacuate the country had been signed, the British 
garrison, still numbering 4500 soldiers (of whom 690 were 
Europeans), with some 12,000 followers, marched out of the 
camp.  The winter was severe, the troops demoralised, the march 
a mass of confusion and massacre, and the force was finally 
overwhelmed in the Jagdalak pass between Kabul and Jalalabad. 

On the 13th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only twenty 
muskets.  Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon reached 
Jalalabad, wounded and half dead.  Ninety-five prisoners 
were afterwards recovered.  The garrison of Ghazni had 
already been forced to surrender (December 10). But General 
Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General Sale, 
who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of 
the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly. 

To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners 
preparations were made in India on a fitting scale; but 
it was the 16th of April 1842 before General Pollock could 
relieve Jalalabad, after forcing the Khyber Pass.  After a 
long halt there he advanced (August 20), and gaining rapid 
successes, occupied Kabul (September 15), where Nott, 
after retaking and dismantling Ghazni, joined him two days 
later.  The prisoners were happily recovered from Bamian.  
The citadel and central bazaar of Kabul were destroyed, 
and the army finally evacuated Afghanistan, December 1842. 

This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with the 
elements of inevitable failute.  A ruler imposed upon a free 
people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to 
stand alone; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves 
obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or 
retiring with the probability that it will fall after their 
departure.  The leading chiefs of Afghanistan perceived that the 
maintenance of Shah Shuja's rule by British troops would soon 
be fatal to their own power and position in the country, and 
probably to their national independence.  They were insatiable 
in their demands for office and emolument, and when they 
discovered that the shah, acting by the advice of the British 
envoy, was levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be 
directly under his control, they took care that the plan should 
fail.  Without a regular revenue no effective administration 
could be organized; but the attempt to raise taxes showed that 
it might raise the people, so that for both men and money the 
shah's government was still obliged to rely principally upon 
British aid.  All these circumstances combined to render the 
new regime weak and unpopular, since there was no force at 
the ruler's command except foreign troops to put down disorder 
or to protect those who submitted, while the discontented 
nobles fomented disaffection and the inbred hatred of strangers 
in race and religion among the general Afghan population. 

British and Russian Relalions.--It has been said that 
the declared object of this policy had been to maintain 
the independence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure 
the friendly alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a 
great barrier of mountainous country between the expanding 
power of Russia in Central Asia and the British dominion in 
India.  After 1849, when the annexation of the Punjab had 
carried the Indian northwestern frontier up to the skirts 
of the Afghan highlands, the corresponding advance of 
the Russians south-eastward along the Oxus river became 
of closer interest to the British, particularly when, in 
1856, the Persians again attempted to take possession of 
Herat.  Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on his 
death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civil war, until his 
son, Shere Ali, had won his way to undisputed rulership in 
1868.  In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia.  
To the British government an attitude of non-intervention 
in Afghan affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer 
possible.  The meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the 
viceroy of India (Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the 
relations between the two governments; the amir consolidated 
and began to centralize his power; and the establishment of a 
strong, friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote 
of British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India. 

When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the Russians, 
and their gradual approach towards the amir's northern border, 
had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for support to 
the British; and his disappointment at his failure to obtain 
distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great Britain's 
refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia 
over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion 
that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian 
authorities at Tashkend.  In 1869 the Russian government 
had assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as 
completely outside the sphere of their influence; and in 1872 the 
boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled 
between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria. 

Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tashkend 
continued, and as the Russians were now extending their dominion 
over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north-west, the 
British government determined, in 1876, once more to undertake 
active measures for securing their political ascendancy in that 
country.  But the amir, whose feelings of resentment had by no 
means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though he mainly 
desired to hold the balance between two equally formidable 
rivals.  The result of overtures made to him from India was 
that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct instructions 
from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere Ali a treaty of 
alliance, Shere Ali showed himself very little disposed to 
welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit a British 
agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke down. 

Second Afghan War, 1878-80.--In the course of the following 
year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the 
interference of England with their advance upon Constantinople, 
sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the 
amir.  It was immediately notified to him from India that a 
British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred 
to receiving it; and when the British envoy was turned back 
on the Afchan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the 
viceroy in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began.  
Sir Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by 
the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance; 
while another army passed through the Khyber Pass and took up 
positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road to 
Kabul.  Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched up 
to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior of 
Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal, 
and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct route 
to Kabul through the Logar valley.  The amir Shere Ali fled 
from his capital into the northern province, where he died at 
Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879.  In the course of the next 
six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the 
tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts 
to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up; but 
the sphere of British military operations was not materially 
extended.  It was seen that the farther they advanced the 
more difficult would become their eventual retirement; 
and the problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who 
could and would make terms with the British government. 

In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had announced 
to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the headquarters 
of the British army, that he had succeeded his father at 
Kabul.  The negotiations that followed ended in the conclusion 
of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Takub Khan 
was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghanistan 
were transferred to the British government; the amir placed 
in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations, 
receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; 
and the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last 
conceded.  By this convention the complete success of the 
British political and military operations seemed to have been 
attained; for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance 
with, and had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now 
made an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had 
agreed that a British envoy should reside permanently at his 
court.  Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and 
original object of British policy, that proved speedily fatal 
to the whole settlement.  For in September the envoy, Sir 
Louis Cavagnari, with his staff and escort, was massacred at 
Kabul, and the entire fabric of a friendly alliance went to 
pieces.  A fresh expedition was instantly despatched across 
the Shutargardan Pass under Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated 
the Afghans at Charasia near Kabul, and entered the city in 
October.  Yakub Khan, who had surrendered, was sent to India; 
and the British army remained in military occupation of the 
district round Kabul until in December (1879) its communications 
with India were interrupted, and its position at the capital 
placed in serious jeopardy, by a general rising of the 
tribes.  After they had been repulsed and put down, not without 
some hard fighting, Sir Donald Stewart, who had not quitted 
Kandahar, brought a force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming 
some resistance on his way, and assumed the supreme command.  
Nevertheless the political situation was still embarrassing, 
for as the whole country beyond the range of British effective 
military control was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw 
the troops before a government could be reconstructed which 
could stand without foreign support, and with which diplomatic 
relations of some kind might be arranged.  The general 
position and prospect of political affairs in Afghanistan 
bore, indeed, an instructive resemblance to the situation just 
forty years earlier, in 1840, with the important differences 
that the Punjab and Sind had since become British, and that 
communications between Kabul and India were this time secure. 

Reign of Abdur Rahman.---Abdur Rahman, the son of the late 
amir Shere Ali's elder drother, had fought against Shere Ali 
in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven 
beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the 
Russians.  In March 1880 he came back across the river, 
and began to establish himself in the northern province of 
Afghanistan.  The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing 
of his reappearance, instructed the political authorities 
at Kabul to communicate with him.  By skilful negotiations 
a meeting was arranged, and after pressing in vain for 
a treaty he was induced to assume charge of the country 
upon his necognition by the British as amir, with the 
understanding that he should have no relations with other 
foreign powers, and with a formal assurance from the viceroy 
of protection from foreign aggression, so long as he should 
unreservedly follow the advice of the British government in 
regard to his external affairs.  The province of Kandahar 
was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere 
Ali Khan, a member of the Barakzai family, was installed 
by the British representative as its independent ruler. 

For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive 
settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained; 
and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved.  In July 
1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman as amir 
at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's younger son, who 
had been holding Herat since his father's death, had marched upon 
Kandahar, had utterly defeated at Maiwand a British force that 
went out from Kandahar to oppose him, and was besieging that 
city.  Sir Frederick Roberts at once set out from Kabul with 
10,000 men to its relief, reached Kandahar after a rapid march 
of 313 miles, attacked and routed Ayub Khan's army on the 
1st of September, and restored British authority in southern 
Afghanistan.  As the British ministry had resolved to evacuate 
Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan, who saw that he could 
not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to India, and the 
amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take possession of the 
province.  But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile retreated to 
Herat, heard that the British forces had retired, early in 
1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again approached 
Kandahar.  In June the fort of Girishk, on the Helmund, was 
seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were defeated some 
days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan took possession 
of Kandahar at the end of July.  The amir Abdur Rahman, whose 
movements had hitherto been slow and uncertain, now acted 
with vigour and decision.  He marched rapidly from Kabul 
at the head of a force, with which he encountered Ayub Khan 
under the walls of Kandahar, and routed his army on 22nd 
September, taking all his guns and equipage.  Ayub Khan fled 
toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile been occupied 
by one of the amir's generals he took refuge in Persia.  
By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was established. 

In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a 
joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the 
northern boundary of Afghanistan.  The work went on with 
much difficulty and contention, until in March 1885, when 
the amir was at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy 
of India, Lord Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, 
a disputed place on the boundary held by the Afghans, the 
Russians had attacked and driven out with some loss the amir's 
troops.  For the moment the consequences seemed likely to 
be serious; but the affair was arranged diplomatically, and 
the demarcation proceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, 
beyond which the commission were unable to settle an agreement. 

During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur 
Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his 
dominion over the whole country.  Some local revolts among the 
tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to upset 
his rulership--the first by Ayub Khan, who entered Afghanistan 
from Persia, the second and more dangerous one by Ishak 
Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him in Afghan 
Turkestan---were defeated.  By 1891 the amir had enforced his 
supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more completely than 
any of his predecessors, In 1895 the amir's troops entered 
Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the north-east, 
inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto defied all 
efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually reduced to 
submission.  Meanwhile the delimitation of the northern 
frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory 
on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between 
the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern 
border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped 
out and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention 
between the two governments.  The amir not only received a 
large annual subsidy of money from the British government, but 
he also obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, 
moreover, availed himself very freely of facilities that were 
given him for the importation at his own cost of arms through 
India.  With these resources, and with the advantage of an 
assurance from the British government that he would be aided 
against foreign aggression, he was able to establish an 
absolute military despotism inside his kingdom, by breaking 
down the power of the warlike tribes which held in check, up 
to his time, the personal autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and 
by organizing a regular army well furnished with European 
rifies and artillery.  Taxation of all kinds was heavily 
increased, and systematically collected.  The result was 
that whereas in former times the forces of an Afghan ruler 
consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs of 
tribes who held land on condition of military service, and 
who stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for 
money payment, the amir had at his command a large standing 
army, and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his 
treasury.  Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose 
political influence he saw reason to fear, or of whose 
disaffection he had the slightest suspicion; his administration 
was severe and his punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he 
put down disorder, stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs 
and brought violent crime under some effective control in the 
districts.  Travelling by the high roads during his reign was 
comparatively safe; although it must be added that the excessive 
exactions of dues and customs very seriously damaged the external 
trade.  In short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important 
political revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which 
rose from the condition of a country distracted by chronic 
civil wars, under rulers whose authority depended upon their 
power to hold down or conciliate fierce and semi-independent 
tribes in the outlying parts of the dominion, to the rank 
of a formidable military state governed autocratically.  He 
established, for the first time in the history of the Afghan 
kingdom, a powerfully centralized administration strong enough 
to maintain order and to enforce obedience over all the country 
which he had united under his dominion, supported by a force 
sufficiently armed and disciplined to put down attempts at 
resistance or revolt.  His policy, consistently maintained, 
was to permit no kind of foreign interference, on any pretext, 
with the interior concerns or the economical conditions of his 
country.  From the British government he accepted supplies of 
arms and subsidies of money; but he would make no concessions 
in return, and all projects of a strategical or commercial 
nature, such as railways and telegraphs, proposed either 
for the defence or the development of his possessions, seem 
to have been regarded by the amir with extreme distrust, 
as methods of what has been called pacific penetration --so 
that on these points he was immovable.  It was probably due 
to the strength and solidity of the executive administration 
organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for 
the first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad 
Shah in the latter part of the 18th century, his death was 
not followed by disputes over the succession or by civil war. 

Succession of Habibullah.--The amir Abdur Rahman died 
on the 1st of October 1901; and two days later his eldest 
son, Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the 
rulership.  He was recognized with acclamation by the army, 
by the religious bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and 
by all classes of the people as their lawful sovereign; while 
a deputation of Indian Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul 
from India to convey the condolences and congratulations 
of the viceroy.  The amir's first measures were designed 
to enhance his popularity and to improve his internal 
administration, particularly with regard to the relations of 
his government with the tribes, and to the system introduced 
by the late amir of compulsory military service, whereby 
each tribe was required to supply a proportionate number of 
recruits.  With this object a council of state for tribal 
affairs was established; and it was arranged that a 
representative of each tribe should be associated with the 
provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases. 

In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah showed 
a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to whom 
the British government had given an assurance of aid to repel 
foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should 
follow the advice of that government in regard to external 
affairs.  This condition was loyally observed by the new 
amir, who referred to India all communications of an official 
kind received from the Russian authorities in the provinces 
bordering on Afghanistan.  But toward the various questions 
left pending between the governments of India and Afghanistan 
the new amir maintained also his fatber's attitude.  He gave 
no indications of a disposition to continue the discussion of 
them, or to entertain proposals for extending or altering 
his relations with the Indian government.  An invitation 
from the viceroy to meet him in India, with the hope that 
these points might be settled in conference, was put aside 
by dilatory excuses, until at last the project was abandoned, 
and finally the amir agreed to receive at Kabul a diplomatic 
mission.  The mission, whose chief was Sir Louis Dane, foreign 
secretary to the Indian government, reached Kabul early in 
December 1904, and remained there four months in negotiation 
with the amir personally and with his representatives.  It 
was found impossible, after many interviews, to obtain from 
Habibullah his consent to any addition to or variation of 
the terms of the assurance given by the British government in 
1880, with which he professed himself entirely satisfied, so 
that the treaty finally settled in March 1905 went no further 
than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously 
concluded with the amir's predecessor.  It was felt in British 
circles at the time that a very considerable concession to 
Habibullah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact 
that he was styled in the treaty ``His Majesty''; but, in the 
circumstances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to 
accede to the amir's determination to insist on this matter of 
style.  But the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the 
interests both of the British government and of Afghanistan 
that an opportunity should be made for enabling the amir 
to have personal acquaintance with the highest Indian 
authorities.  A further step, calculated to strengthen the 
relations of amity between the two governments, was taken 
when it was arranged that the amir should pay a visit to 
the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in January 1907; and 
this visit took place with great cordiality and success. 

The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed on the 31st of August 1907, 
contained the following important declarations with regard to 
Afghanistan.  Great Britain disclaimed any intention of altering 
the political status or (subject to the observance of the treaty 
of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing any 
territory of Afghanistan, and engaged to use her influence 
there in no manner threatening to Russia.  Russia, on her part, 
recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence. 

AUTHORITIES. ---MacGregor, Gazetteer or Afghanistan 
(1871); Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom of Kabul 
(1809); Ferrier, History of the Afghanis (1858); Bellow, 
Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879); Baber's Memoirs 
(1844); Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan (1878); 
Malleson, History of Afghanistan (1879); Heusman, The 
Afghan War (1881); Sir H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War 
(1879); Forbes, The Afghan Wars (1892); Rawlinson, England 
and Russia in the East (1875); Wyllie, Essays on the 
External Policy of India (1875).  A. C. Yate, Northern 
Afghanistan (1888); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (1894); 
Robertson, The Kafir of the Hindu Kush (1896); Holdich, 
Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn, Asiatic Neighbours 
(1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1898); Lady 
Betty Balfour, Lord Litton's Indian Administration (1899); 
Hanna, Second Afghani War (1899); Gray, At the Court of 
the Amir (1895); Sultan Mohammad Khan, Constitution and 
Laws of Afghanistan (1900): Life of Abdur Rahinani (1900); 
Angus Hamilton, Afghanistan (1906). (H. Y.; A. C. L.) 

1 We owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost 
entirely to the observations of C. U. Grierbach, and a summary 
of his researches will be found in Records of the Geological 
Survey of India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map. 

AFGHAN TURKESTAN, the most northern province of Afghanistan.  
It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N. by the 
Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari Rud 
river, and on the S. by the Hindu Lush, the Koh-i-Baba and 
the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin.  Its northern 
frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873; 
and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of 
1883, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident.  The whole 
territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the 
Oxus on the north-east to the province of Herat on the 
south-west, is some 500 m. in length, with an average width 
from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m.  It thus 
comprises about 57,000 sq. m. or roughly' two-ninths of the 
kingdom of Afghanistan.  Except in the river valleys it is a 
poor territory, rough and mountainous towards the south, but 
subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards 
the Turkman desert, and the Oxus riverain which is highly 
cultivated.  The population, which is mostly agricultural, 
settled in and around its towns and villages, is estimated at 
750,000.  The province includes the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, 
Balkh with Akcha; the western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, 
Andkhui and Maimana, sometimes classed together as the Chahar 
Vidayet, or ``Four Domains''; and such parts of the Hazara 
tribes as lie north of the Hindu Kush and its prolongation.  
The principal town is Mazar-i-Sharif, which in modern times 
has supplanted the ancient city of Balkh; and Takhtapul, near 
Mazar, is the chief Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush. 

Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more 
connected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government 
it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost 
Mahommed.  The bulk of the people of the cities are of 
Persian and Uzbeg stock, but interspersed with them are 
Mongol Hazaras and Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus 
plains.  Over these races the Afghans rule as conquerors and 
there is no bond of racial unity between them.  Ancient Balkh 
or Bactriana was a province of the Achaemenian empire, and 
probably was occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian 
blood.  About 250 B.C. Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of 
Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and 
commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which 
succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. 
After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in 
the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of 
Haibak.  The district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and 
has never since fully recovered its prosperity.  For about 
a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell 
into Uzbeg hands.  In the 18th century it formed part of the 
dominion of Ahmad Khan Durani, and so remained under his son 
Timur.  But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the 
separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of 
various Uzbeg chiefs.  At the beginning of the 19th century 
they belonged to Bokhara; but under the great amir Dost 
Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, 
Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 
1859.  The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and 
Maimana was in dispute between Bokhara and Kabul until settled 
by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan 
claim.  Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying 
territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the 
accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. Ut.v) 

AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of 
Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet 
of Brusa, nearly 200 m.  E. of Smyrna, and 50 m.  S.S.E. of 
Kutaiah.  Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000).  
Called Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the 
Arabs in 740, its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to 
Kara-hissar.  It stands partly on level ground, partly on a 
declivity, and above it rises a precipitous trachytic rock 
(400 ft.) on the summit of which are the ruins of an ancient 
castle.  From its situation on the route of the caravans 
between Smyrna and western Asia on the one hand, and Armenia, 
Georgia, &c., on the other, the city became a place of 
extensive trade, and its bazaars are well stocked with the 
merchandise of both Europe and the East.  Opium in large 
quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms the staple 
article of its commerce; and there are, besides, manufactures 
of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery.  Afium contains 
several mosques (one of them a very handsome building), and 
is the seat of an Armenian bishop.  The town is connected 
by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople. 

See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv. 

A FORTIORI (Lat. ``from a stronger [reason]''), a term 
used of an argument which justifies a statement not itself 
specifically demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion 
which includes it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and 
is known to be greater than C, it follows a fortiori that 
C is less than B without further proof.  The argument is 
frequently based merely on a comparison of probabilities (cf. 
Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal to common sense. 

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of 
the Sertorian (79-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil 
Wars.  Of humble origin (Cic. ad Att. i. 16. 20), from 
his early years he was a devoted adherent of Pompey.  In 60, 
chiefly by Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, 
but in performing the duties of that office he showed an 
utter incapacity to manage civil affairs.  In the following 
year, while governor of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour 
of a triumph, and on the allotment of Spain to Pompey (55), 
Afranius and Marcus Petreius were sent to take charge of the 
government.  On the rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were 
compelled, after a short campaign in which they were at first 
successful, to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were 
dismissed on promising not to serve again in the war.  Afranius, 
regardless of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, 
and at the battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's 
camp.  On the defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon 
from Caesar, went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous 
battle of Thapsus (46).  Escaping from the field with a strong 
body of cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with 
Faustus Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to 
Caesar, whose veterans rose in tumult and put them to death. 

See Hirtius, Bell.  Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius 
xxxvii., xli.-xliii.; Caesar, B.C i. 57-87; Appian, B.C ii.; 
for the history of the period, articles on CAESAR and POMPEY. 

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about 94 
B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects 
from Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that 
he borrowed freely from Menander and others.  His style was 
vigorous and correct; his moral tone that of the period. 

Horace, Epp. ii. 1. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. 
i. 3; Quitilian x 1. 100; fragments, about 400 lines, in 
Ribbeck, Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898). 

AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of 
the three great southward projections from the main mass of 
the earth's surface.  It includes within its remarkably regular 
outline an area, according to the most recent computations, 
of 11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands.1 Separated from 
Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its 
N.E. extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide.  From the 
most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape 
Blanc, in 37 deg.  21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape 
Agulhas, 34 deg.  51' 15'' S., is a distance approximately of 
5000 m.; from Cape Verde, 17 deg.  33' 22'' W., the westernmost 
point, to Ras Hafun, 51 deg.  27' 52'' E., the most easterly 
projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 4600 m.  
The length of coast-line is 16,100 m. and the absence of deep 
indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, 
which covers only 3,760,000 sq. m., has a coast-line of 19,800 m. 

                        I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The main structural lines of the continent show both the 
east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern 
hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the 
north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas.  Africa 
is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern 
running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the 
subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions. 

Main Geographical Features.--The mean elevation of the 
continent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly 
the elevation of both North and South America, but is 
considerably less than that of Asia (3117 ft.).  In contrast 
with the other continents it is marked by the comparatively 
small area both of very high and of very low ground, lands 
under 600 ft. occupying an unusually small part of the surface; 
while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those 
of Asia and South America, but the area of land over 10,000 
ft. is also quite insignificant, being represented almost 
entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges.  Moderately 
elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the 
continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher 
peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and 
ridges that a special term [Inselberg-landschaft] has been 
adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, which 
is thought to be in great part the result of wind action.) 
As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and 
south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the 
west and north is observable.  Apart from the lowlands and 
the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into two regions 
of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat 
concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the 
Red Sea to about 6 deg.  S. on the west coast.  We thus obtain 
the following four main divisions of the continent:---(1) The 
coast plains---often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps--never 
stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses of 
streams.  Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta 
of the more important rivers.  Elsewhere the coast lowlands 
merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which 
constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (2) The Atlas 
range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of 
the continent, being unconnected with any other area of high 
ground, and separated from the rest of the continent on the south 
by a depressed and desert area (the Sahara), in places below 
sea-level. (3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely 
falling below 2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 
3500 ft. (4) The north and west African plains, bordered and 
traversed by bands of higher ground, but generally below 2000 
ft.  This division includes the great desert of the Sahara. 

The third and fourth divisions may be again subdivided.  
Thus the high plateaus include:--(a) The South African 
plateau as far as about 12 deg.  S., bounded east, west and 
south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the 
coasts.  On this account South Africa has a general resemblance 
to an inverted saucer.  Due south the plateau rim is formed 
by three parallel steps with level ground between them.  The 
largest of these level areas, the Great Karroo, is a dry, 
barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is 
of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari 
Desert.  The South African plateau is connected towards the 
north-east with (b) the East African plateau, with probably a 
slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct 
features.  It is formed by a widening out of the eastern 
axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number 
of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of 
ranges, tablelands and depressions.  The most striking feature 
is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely 
to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust, the 
lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes.  Towards 
the south the two lines converge and give place to one great 
valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which 
is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the 
rest of the system.  Farther north the western depression, 
sometimes known as the Central African trough or Albertine 
rift-valley, is occupied for more than half its length by 
water, forming the four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert 
Edward and Albert, the first-named over 400 m. long and the 
longest freshwater lake in the world.  Associated with these 
great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest 
of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern 
trough.  The eastern depression, known as the East African 
trough or rift-valley, contains much smaller lakes, many of 
them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable 
to those of the western trough being Lake Rudolf or Basso 
Norok.  At no great distance east of this rift-valley are 
Kilimanjaro--with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the former 
19,321 ft., and the culminating point of the whole continent--and 
Kenya (17,007 ft.).  Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori 
range (over 16,600 ft.), which lies east of the western 
trough.  Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the 
valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake 
Kivu, being still partially active. (c) The third division 
of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abyssinian 
highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest 
continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little 
of its surface falling below 5000 ft., while the summits 
reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft.  This block of country 
lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, 
the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern 
escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, 
however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana. 

Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering 
highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the 
coast, the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards 
along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in 
places a height of 7000 ft.  In the west the zone of high 
land is broader but somewhat lower.  The most mountainous 
districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea 
(Adamawa, &c.), where heights of 6000 to 8000 ft. are 
reached.  Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak 
of the Cameroon, on a line of Volcanic action continued 
by the islands to the south-west, has a height of 13,370 
ft., while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the 
line of islands, rises to over 9000.  Towards the extreme 
west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging 
point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas 
chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. 

The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north 
of 17 deg.  N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by 
other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally 
through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the 
curved axis of the continent as a whole.  The best marked of 
the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area 
bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland 
sea.  The arid region, the Sahara--the largest desert in the 
world, covering 3,500,000 sq. m.--extends from the Atlantic to 
the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains 
mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft.  Bordered N.W. 
by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it 
from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme 
east to the delta of the Nile.  That river (see below) pierces 
the desert without modifying its character.  The Atlas range, 
the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward 
and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m. 
broad.  From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis 
take a direction towards the Sahara.  The greater part of that 
now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. 

The following table gives the approximate altitudes 
of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent:-- 


 
  Mountains.             Ft.        Lakes.            Ft.
  Rungwe (Nyasa)    .    10,400     Chad  .  .  .  .  8502
  Drakensberg  .    .    10,7002 Leopold II  .  .  1100
  Lereko or Sattima .    13,2143 Rudolf   .  .  .  1250
      (Aberdare Range)              Nyasa    .  .  .  16453
  Cameroon     .    .    13,370     Albert Nyanza  .  20282
  Elgon   .    .    .    14,1523 Tanganyika  .  .  26243
  Karissimbi   .    .               Ngami .  .  .  .  2950
      (Mfumbiro)    .    14,6833 Mweru .  .  .  .  3000
  Meru    .    .    .    14,9553 Albert Edward  .  30043
  Taggharat (Atlas) .    15,0002 Bangweulu.  .  .  3700
  Simen Mountains,  .    15,1602 Victoria Nyanza.  37203
      Abyssinia                     Abai  .  .  .  .  4200
  Ruwenzori    .    .    16,6193 Kivu  .  .  .  .  48293
  Kenya   .    .    .    17,0073 Tsana .  .  .  .  5690
  Kilimanjaro  .    .    19,3213 Naivasha .  .  .  61353
 

The Hydrographic Systems.---From the outer margin of the 
African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea 
with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow 
for long distances on the interior highlands before breaking 
through the outer ranges.  The main drainage of the continent 
is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic 
Ocean.  The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the 
head-waters of the Nile and Congo: the former the longest, 
the latter the largest river of the continent.  The upper 
Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region 
adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood 
of the equator.  Thence streams pour east to the Victoria 
Nyanza, the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 sq. 
m.), and west and north to the Albert Edward and Albert 
Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents of the other 
two lakes add their waters.  Issuing from it the Nile flows 
north, and between 7 deg.  and 10 deg.  N. traverses a vast marshy 
level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating 
vegetation.  After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the 
west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian 
highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), 
it crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by 
a vast delta.  The most remote head-stream of the Congo is 
the Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake 
Bangweulu.  From this lake issues the Congo, known in its 
upper course by various names.  Flowing first south, it 
afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the 
forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa.  Traversing this 
in a majestic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of 
water from many great tributaries, it finally turns south-west 
and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western 
highlands.  North of the Congo basin and separated from it 
by a broad undulation of the surface is the basin of Lake 
Chad---a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the 
Shad coming from the south-east.  West of this is the basin 
of the Niger, the third river of Africa, which, though flowing 
to the Atlantic, has its principal source in the far west, 
and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and 
Congo.  An important branch, however--the Benue--comes from the 
south-east.  These four river-basins occupy the greater part 
of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa, the remainder 
consisting of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams 
which do not reach the sea.  Of the remaining rivers of the 
Atlantic basin the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the 
drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the 
continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain 
the west corst highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, 
Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western 
limb.  North of the Senegal for over 1000 m. of coast the 
arid region reaches to the Atlantic.  Farther north are the 
streams, with comparatively short courses, which reach 
the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains. 

Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining 
any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, 
whose western branches rise in the west coast highlands.  
The main stream has its rise in 11 deg.  21' 3'' S. 24 deg.  22' E. 
at an elevation of 5000 ft.  It flows west and south for a 
considerable distance before turning to the east.  All the 
largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake 
Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground 
which stretches across the conbnent in 10 deg.  to 12 deg.  S. In 
the south-west the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the 
Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus 
water.  The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its 
middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps 
and saltpans which formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried 
up.  Farther south the Limpopo drains a portion of the 
interior plateau but breaks through the bounding highlands 
on the side of the continent nearest its source.  The Rovuma, 
Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli principally drain the 
outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last named 
losing itself in the sands in close proximity to the sea.  
Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Abyssinian 
mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of 
Aden.  Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian 
Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the centre 
of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes 
in the great rift-valley.  The largest river is the Omo, 
which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries 
down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf.  The rivers 
of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their 
mouths or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream.  
But when these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and 
lakes afford a network of navigable waters of vast extent. 

The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, 
made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 
1897, pp. 184-186) gives the following general results:-- 


 
  Basin of the Atlantic  .  .  .  .  .  4,070,000 sq. m.
  ''      ''   Mediterranean   .  .  .  1,680,000   ''
  ''      ''   Indian Ocean .  .  .  .  2,086,000   ''
  Inland drainage area   .  .  .  .  .  3,452,000   ''
 

The areas of individual river-basins are:-- 


 
  Congo    (length over 3000 m.)  .  .  1,425,000 sq. m.
  Nile     (  ''  fully 4000 m.)  .  .  1,082,0004 ''
  Niger    (  ''  about 2600 m.)  .  .  808,0005   ''
  Zambezi  (  ''   ''   2000 m.)  .  .  513,500     ''
  Lake Chad  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  394,000     ''
  Orange  (length about 1300 m.)  .  .  370,505  ''
    ''    (actual drainage area)  .  .  172,500     ''
 

The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any 
other river except the Amazon, while the African inland 
drainage area is greater than that of any continent but 
Asia, in which the corresponding area is 4,000,000 sq. m. 

The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description 
of the East African plateau, but some of the phenomena connected 
with them may be spoken of more particularly here.  As a rule 
the lakes which occupy portions of the great rift-valleys have 
steep sides and are very deep.  This is the case with the two 
largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter of which 
has depths of 430 fathoms.  Others, however, are shallow, 
and hardly, reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry 
season.  Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north 
of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern 
rift-valley.  Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, 
the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under 50 
fathoms.  Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most 
of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive 
desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, 
tending to the ultimate disappearance of the lakes.  Such a 
drying up has been in progress during long geologic ages, but 
doubt exists as to its practical importance at the present 
time.  The periodic fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika 
are such that its outllow is intermittent.  Besides the East 
African lakes the principal are:---Lake Chad, in the northern 
area of inland drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the 
head-stream of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba), 
within the great bend of that river.  All, exceot possibly 
Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying 
up.  The altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. 

Divergent opinions have been beld as to the mode of origin 
of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some 
geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the 
sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin 
was under water; others holding that the lake water has 
accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence.  The former 
view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms 
of a decidedly marine type.  They include a jelly-fish, 
molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c., and were at first considered 
to form an isolated group found in no other of the African 
lakes; but this supposition has been proved to be erroneous. 

Islands.--With one exception---Madagascar--the African islands 
are small.  Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m., is, 
after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the world. 

It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which 
it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. 
wide at its narrowest point.  Madagascar in its general 
structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link 
between Africa and southern Asia.  East of Madagascar are 
the small islands of Mauritius and Reunion.  Sokotra lies 
E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui.  Off the north-west coast are 
the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes. which, like some 
small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. 

Climate and Health.---Lying almost entirely within the 
tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, 
Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.  
Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert 
regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the 
continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, 
the contrast between day and night, and between summer and 
winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great 
radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara 
to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther south, the 
heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from 
the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of 
the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of 
temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea 
coast.  In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm 
temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole 
hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south 
of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence 
of the surrounding ocean is more felt.  The most important 
climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of 
rainfall.  The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a 
lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the 
south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which 
blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture 
as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly 
drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the 
interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more 
central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation.  In 
the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall 
is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after.  It is 
therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is 
twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.  
The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a 
due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions 
extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the 
south northwards along the west.  Within the equatorial zone 
certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea 
and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, 
but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the 
world.  The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of 
coastland west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean 
annual rainfall of about 390 in. as compared with a mean of 
458 in. at Cherrapunji, in Assam.  The two distinct rainy 
seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at 
half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in 
the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but 
once.  Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on 
the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.  The countries 
bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full 
of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the 
sea.  Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the 
sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan.  This 
wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much 
evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result.  Similar 
dry winds blow from the Kalahari in the south.  On the eastern 
coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, 
and on the south-east hurricanes are occasionally experienced. 

While the climate of the north and south, especially the south, 
is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara is 
salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a 
whole is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion of the 
world.  This is especially the case in the lower and moister 
regions, such as the west coast, where malarial fever is 
very prevalent and deadly; the most unfavourable factors 
being humidity with absence of climatic variation (daily or 
seasonal).  The higher plateaus, where not only is the average 
temperature lower, but such variations are more extensive, 
are more healthy; and in certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia 
and parts of British East Africa) Europeans find the climate 
suitable for permanent residence.  On tablelands over 6500 
ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon at night, even in 
places directly under the equator.  The acclimatization of 
white men in tropical Africa generally is dependent largely 
on the successful treatment of tropical diseases.  Districts 
which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans were rendered 
comparatively healthy after the discovery, in 1899, of the species 
of mosquito which propagates malarial fever, and the measures 
thereafter taken for its destruction and the filling up of 
swamps.  The rate of mortality among the natives from tropical 
diseases is also high, one of the most fatal being that known 
as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this disease, which 
also attacks Europeans, reached alarming proportions between 
1893 and 1907, and in the last-named year an international 
conference was held in London to consider measures to 
combat it.) When removed to colder regions natives of the 
equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints.  
Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population. 

Flora.--The vegetation of Africa follows very closely 
the distribution of heat and moisture.  The northern and 
southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that 
of the continent generally, which is tropical.  In the 
countries bordering the Mediterranean are groves of oranges 
and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, 
intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant 
tree-heaths.  South of the Atlas range the conditions 
alter.  The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty 
flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great 
dryness.  Characteristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, 
which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain 
existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia (whence 
is obtained gum-arabic) is abundant.  The more humid regions 
have a richer vegetation --dense forest where the rainfall 
is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions 
found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African 
equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; 
and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the 
plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a 
scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, &c. Forests also 
occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain 
elevation.  In the coast regions the typical tree is the 
mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp 
character.  The dense forests of West Africa contain, in 
addition to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two 
palms, the Elaeis guincensis (oil-palm) and Raphia 
vinifera (bamboo-palm), not found, generally speaking, in 
the savanna regions.  The bombax or silk-cotton tree attains 
gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of 
the indiarubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds 
of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora excelsa), 
ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), African teak or 
oak (Oldfieldia africana) and camwood (Baphia nitida.) 
The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly 
luxuriant and the undergrowth or ``bush'' is extremely 
dense.  In the savannas the most characteristic trees are 
the monkey bread tree or baobab (Adanisonia digitata), doom 
palm (Hyphaene) and euphorbias.  The coffee plant grows 
wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern 
Abyssinia.  The higher mountains have a special flora 
showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as 
well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern 
Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo-China (cf. A. Engler, 
Uber die Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Afrika, 1892). 

In the swamp regions of north-east Africa the papyrus and 
associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish 
in immense quantities---and little else is found in the way of 
vegetation.  South Africa is largely destitute of forest 
save in the lower valleys and coast regions.  Tropical flora 
disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, 
contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and 
other succulent plants make their appearance.  There are, too, 
valuable timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus 
elongatus), stinkwood (Ocotea), sneezewood or Cape ebony 
(Pteroxylon utile) and ironwood.  Extensive miniature woods 
of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered 
throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable 
blossoms in which red is very prevalent.  Of the grasses of 
Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range. 

Fauna.--The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics 
of the vegetation.  The open savannas are the home of large 
ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to 
Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of 
rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, 
hyaena, &c. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is 
found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin.  Bears 
are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North 
Africa.  The elephant (though its range has become restricted 
through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas 
and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large 
game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla.  
Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to 
Africa.  The single-humped camel--as a domestic animal--is 
especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes. 

The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and 
crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa.  The vast 
herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, 
have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the 
interior.  Game reserves have, however, been established in South 
Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somahland, 
&c., while measures for the protection of wild animals were 
laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900. 

The ornithology of northern Affica presents a close resemblance 
to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found 
which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the 
Mediterranean.  Among the birds most characteristic of Africa 
are the ostrich and the secretary-bird.  The ostrich is widely 
dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe 
regions.  The secretary-bird is common in the south.  The weaver 
birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, 
are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and 
guinea-fowl.  Nany of the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, 
bee-eaters, the parrots and halcyons, as well as the larger 
plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their 
plumage.  Of reptiles the lizard and chameleon are common, and 
there are a number of venomous serpents, though these are not 
so numerous as in other tropical countries.  The scorpion is 
abundant.  Of insects Africa has many thousand different 
kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the 
continent, and the ravages of the termites or white ants 
are almost incredible.  The spread of malaria by means of 
mosquitoes has already been mentioned.  The tsetse fly, 
whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common 
in many districts of South and East Africa.  Fortunately 
it is found nowhere outside Africa. (E. HE.; F. R. C.) 

1 With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m. 

2 Estimated. 

3 See the calculations of Capt.  T. T. 
Behrens, Geog.  Journal, vol. xxix. (1907). 

4 The estimate of Capt.  H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. mi. 

5 including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin. 

                        II. GEOLOGY 

In shape and general geological structure Africa bears 
a close resemblance to India.  Both possess a meridional 
extension with a broad east and west folded region in the 
north.  In both a successive series of continental deposits, 
ranging from the Carboniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an 
older base of crystalline rocks.  In the words of Professor 
Suess, ``India and Africa are true plateau countries.'' 

Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain.  Both on 
the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rochs extends 
parallel with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated 
plateau of the interior.  Occasionally the crystalline belt 
comes to the coast, but it is usually reached by two steps known 
as the coastal belt and foot-plateau.  On the flanks of the 
primitive western axis certain ancient sedimentary strata are 
thrown into folds which were completed before the commencement 
of the mesozoic period.  In the south, the later palaeozoic 
rocks are also thrown into acute folds by a movement acting 
from the south, and which ceased towards the close of the 
mesozoic period.  In northern Africa the folded region of the 
Atlas belongs to the comparatively recent date of the Alpine 
system.  None of these earth movements affected the interior, 
for here the continental mesozoic deposits rest, undisturbed by 
folding, on the primary sedimentary and crystalline rocks.  The 
crystalline massif, therefore, presents a solid block which 
has remained elevated since early palaeozoic times, and against 
which earth waves of several geological periods have broken. 

The formations older than the mesozoic are remarkably 
unfossiliferous, so that the determination of their age is 
frequently a matter of speculation, and in the following table 
the European equivalents of the pre-Karroo formations in many 
regions must be regarded as subject to considerable revision. 

Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in 
West and East Africa and across the Sahara.  Along the coastal 
margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the 
deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them 
bare.  The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and 
schists.  In the central regions the predominant strike of the 
fohae is north and south.  The rocks, for convenience classed as 
pre-Cambrian, occur as several unconformable groups, chiefly 
developed in the south where alone their stratigraphy has been 
determined.  They are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of 
undoubted Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa 
they may be regarded as of older date than any of these 
formations.  The general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks 
is of interest, as these are always present in the ancient 
pressure-altered sedimentary formations of America and 
Europe.  Some unfossiliferous conglomerates, sandstones 
and dolomites in South Africa and on the west coast are 
considered to belong to the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian 
formations, but merely from their occurrence beneath strata 
yielding Devonian fossils.  In Cape Colony the Silurian age 
of the Table Mountain Sandstone is based on such evidence. 

The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well 
represented in the north and south and in northern Angola. 

Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions 
of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but the 
absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central 
Africa points to there being land in this direction.  In late 
Carboniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to 
form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land.  In each 
country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both 
the same specialized orders of reptiles roamed and were entombed. 

The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land 
was occupied by several large lakes in which an immense 
thickness--amounting to over 18,000 ft. in South Africa---of 
sandstones and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid 
down.  This is par excellence the African formation, 
and covers immense areas in South Africa and the Congo 
basin, with detached portions in East Africa.  During the 
whole of the time---Carboniferous to Rhaetic--that this 
great accumulation of freshwater beds was taking place, 
the interior of the continent must have been undergoing 
depression.  The commencement of the period was marked by one 
of the most wonderful episodes in the geological history of 
Africa.  Preserved in the formation known as the Dwyka 
Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the greater 
portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glaciation, 
while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India 

                        TABLE OF FORMATIONS 


 
                            Sedimentary.           Igneous.
  Recent         Alluvium; travertine;
                       coral; sand dunes; continental } Some volcanic islands;
                       dunes. Generally distributed   }   rift-valley volcanoes.
  Pleistocene.   Ancient alluviums and            }
                       gravels; travertine.           }
                       Generally distributed.         } A long-continued
  Pliocene.      N. Africa; Madagascar.           }   succession in the
                                                      }   central and northern
  Miocene.       N. Africa.                       }   regions and among
                                                      }   the island groups.
  Oligocene.     N. Africa.                       }   Doubtfully represented
                                                      }   south of the Zambezi.
  Eocene.        N. Africa, along east and        }
                       west coasts; Madagascar.       }
  Cretaceous     Extensively developed in         } Diamond pipes of S.
                       N. Africa; along coast         }   Africa; Kaptian
                       and foot-plateaus in east      }   fissure eruptions;
                       and west; Madagascar.          }   Ashangi traps of
                                                      }   Abyssinia
   {Jurassic     N. Africa; E. Africa;
  K{                   Madagascar; Stormberg          } Chief volcanic period
  a{                   period (Rhaeric) in S.         }   in S. Africa
  r{                   Africa                         }
  r{Trias.       Beaufort Series in S.            }
  o{                   Africa; Congo basin;           }
  o{                   Central Africa; Algeria;       }
   {                   Tunis.                         }
   {Permian.     Ecca Series in S. Africa.        } Feebly, if anywhere
                                                      } developed.
  Carboniferous. N. Africa; Sabaki Shales         }
                       in E. Africa; Dwyka            }
                       and Wittebery Series in        }
                       South Africa                   }
  Devonian.      N. Africa; Angola; Bokkeveld     } Not recorded.
                       Series in S. Africa            }
  Silurian.     {Table Mountain Sandstone         }
                    {  in S. Africa, Silurian(?).     }
  Ordovician.   {  Doubtfully represented         } Klipriversberg and
                    {  in N. Africa, French           }   and Ventersdorp Series
  Cambrian      {  Congo, Angola. and by          }   of the Transvaal (?).
                    {  Vaal River and Waterberg       }
                    {  Series in S. Africa            }
  Pre-Cambrian.    Quartzites, conglomerates      }
                         phyllites, jasper-bearing    } S. Africa and generally.
                         rocks and schists.           }
                         Generally distributed.       }
 Archeaan.         Gneisses and schists of the    } Igneous complex of
                         continental platform.        }   sheared igneous
                                                      }   rocks;granites.
 

and Australia.  At the close of the Karroo period there 
was a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which 
again has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India. 

How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present 
confines has not been determined.  To the east it reached 
India.  In the south all that can be said is that it extended 
to the south of Worcester in Cape Colony.  The Crystal 
Mountains of Angola may represent its western boundary; while 
the absence of mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks 
of the mid-Sahara indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland 
had here reached its most northerly extension.  Towards the 
close of the Karroo period, possibly about the middle, the 
southern rim of the great central depression became ridged 
up to form the folded regions of the Zwaarteberg, Cedarberg 
and Langeberg mountains in Cape Colony.  This folded belt 
gives Africa its abrupt southern termination, and may be 
regarded as an embryonic indication of its present outline.  
The exact date of the maximum development of this folding is 
unknown, but it had done its work and some 10,000 ft. of strata 
had been removed before the commencement of the Cretaceous 
period.  It appears to approximate in time to the similar earth 
movement and denudation at the close of the palaeozoic period in 
Europe.  It was doubtless connected with the disruption of 
Gondwana Land, since it is known that this great alteration 
of geographical outline commenced in Jurassic times. 

The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered to have 
been caused by a series of blocks of country being let down by 
faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian Ocean.  Other 
blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the island of Madagascar 
affording a striking example.  In the African portion Ruwenzori 
is regarded by some geologists to be a block mountain or horst. 

In Jurassic times 1he sea gained access to East Africa 
north of Mozambique, but does not appear to have 
reached far beyond the foot-plateau except in Abyssinia. 

The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central 
Saharan regions, for fossils of this age have been discovered 
in the interior.  On the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend 
continuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco.  From here they are 
absent up to the Gabun river, where they commence to form a 
narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain 
by recent deposits.  They are again absent up to the Sunday 
river in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long 
considered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met 
with.  Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and 
Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show an 
intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having European 
affinities.  In Mozambique and in German East Africa, Cretaceous 
rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of over 100 m. 

Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only 
occur in a few isolated patches on the east and west 
coasts.  In northern Africa they are well developed and of much 
interest.  They contain the well-known nummulitic limestone 
of Eocene age, which has been traced from Egypt across Asia to 
China.  The Upper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded 
primeval types of the Proboscidea and other mammalia.  
Evidences for the greater extension of the Eocene seas than 
was formerly considered to be the case have been discovered 
around Sokoto.  During Miocene times Passarge considers that 
the region of the Zambezi underwent extreme desiccation. 

The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern 
Africa by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider 
extension of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, 
and by the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara. 

The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be found 
in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape 
peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses 
and schists of Central Africa.  The Ventersdorp boulder beds 
of the Transvaal may be of early palaeozoic age; but as a 
whole the palaeozoic period in Africa was remarkably free from 
volcanic and igneous disturbances.  The close of the Stormberg 
period (Rhaetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South 
Africa.  Whilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations 
were being laid down in North Africa and around the margins 
of the rest of the continent, Africa received its last great 
accumulation of strata and at the same time underwent a 
consecutive series of earth-movements.  The additional strata 
consist of the immense quantities of volcanic material on 
the plateau of East Africa, the basalt flows of West Africa 
and possibly those of the Zambezi basin.  The exact period 
of the commencement of volcanic activity is unknown.  In 
Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are certainly post-Oolitic.  In 
East Africa the fissure eruptions are considered to belong 
to the Cretaceous.  These early eruptions were followed by 
those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani, and these 
by the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and the Kyulu 
Mountains.  The last phase of vulcanicity took place along 
the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though feebly 
manifested has not entirely passed away.  In northern Africa 
a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place from 
Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is 
doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous. 

During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements 
were in progress.  In the north the chief movements gave 
rise to the system of latitudinal folding and faulting of the 
Moroccan and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented 
by the formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline 
and the sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of 
Gibraltar.  Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East 
African plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal 
rifts extending from Nyasaland to Egypt.  The depressed areas 
contain the long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East 
Africa.  The Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough. 

Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal 
regions, the Barbary coast and along the east coast. (W. G.*) 

III. ETHNOLOGY In attempting a review of the races and 
tribes which inhabit Africa, their distribution, movements 
and culture, it is advisable that three points be borne in 
mind.  The first of these is the comparative absence of natural 
barriers in the interior, owing to which intercommunication 
between tribes, the dissemination of culture and tribal 
migration have been considerably facilitated.  Hence the 
student must be prepared to find that, for the most part, 
there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the 
various races composing the population, but that the number 
of what may be termed ``transitional'' peoples is unusually 
large.  The second point is that Africa, with the exception 
of the lower Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa 
(see AFRICA, ROMAN), is, so far as its native inhabitants 
are concerned, a continent practically without a history, 
and possessing no records from which such a history might be 
reconstructed.  The early movements of tribes, the routes by 
which they reached their present abodes, and the origin of such 
forms of culture as may be distinguished in the general mass of 
customs, beliefs, &c., are largely matters of conjecture.  The 
negro is essentially the child of the moment; and his memory, 
both tribal and individual, is very short.  The third point 
is that many theories which have been formulated with respect 
to such matters are unsatisfactory owing to the small amount 
of information concerning many of the tribes in the interior. 

The chief African races. 

Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various 
parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of 
India introduced by them (see section History below), the 
population of Africa consists of the following elements: 
--the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, the Libyan 
and the Semite, from the intermingling of which in various 
proportions a vast number of ``transitional'' tribes has 
arisen.  The Bushmen (q.v.), a race of short yellowish-brown 
nomad hunters, inhabited, in the earliest times of which 
there is historic knowledge, the land adjoining the southern 
and eastern borders of the Kalahari desert, into which 
they were gradually being forced by the encroachment of 
the Hottentots and Bantu tribes.  But signs of their former 
presence are not wanting as far north as Lake Tanganyika, and 
even, it is rumoured, still farther north.  With them may be 
classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral people of 
medium stature and yellowish-brown complexion. who in early 
times shared with the Bushmen the whole of what is now Cape 
Colony.  Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have 
been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is 
that they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic 
elements.  Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern 
fringe of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to 
the Cape, with the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and 
Somali-lands, is peopled by Negroes and the ``transitional'' 
tribes to which their admixture with Libyans on the north, 
and Semites (Arabs) and Hamites on the north-east and east, 
has given rise.  A slight qualification of the last statement 
is necessary, in so far as, among the Fula in the western 
Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, &c., of the Victoria Nyanza, Libyan 
and Hamitic elements are respectively stronger than the 
Negroid.  Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is inhabited mainly 
by Semito-Hamites (though a fairly strong negroid element can 
be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by Hamites.  North of 
the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the Libyans (Berbers, 
q.v.), a distinctively white people, who have in certain 
respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence.  In 
the north-east the brown-skinned Hamite and the Semite mingle 
in varied proportions.  The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the 
vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by 
Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to 
the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from 
the Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the 
bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to 
Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the 
coast.  North of this line are the Negroes proper, south are the 
Bantu.  The division is primarily philological.  Among the 
true Negroes the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for 
instance, in certain parts of Nigeria it is possible to 
find half-a-dozen villages within a comparatively small area 
speaking, not different dialects, but different languages, 
a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of political 
administration.  To the south of the line the condition of 
affairs is entirely different; here the entire population 
speaks one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v..) 
As said before, the division is primarily linguistic and, 
especially upon the border line, does not always correspond 
with the variations of physical type.  At the same time it 
is extremely convenient and to a certain extent justifiable 
on physical and psychological grounds; and it may be said 
roughly that while the linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is 
accompanied by great variation of physical type, the converse 
is in the main true of the Negro proper, especially where least 
affected by Libyan and Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea 
coast.  The variation of type among the Bantu is due probably 
to a varying admixture of alien blood, which is more apparent 
as the east coast is approached.  This foreign element cannot 
be identified with certainty, but since the Bantu seem to 
approach the Hamites in those points where they differ from 
the Negro proper, and since the physical characteristics 
of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems probable 
that the last two races have entered into the composition 
of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic 
influence should have permeated any distance from the east 
coast.  An extremely interesting section of the population 
not hitherto mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes 
inhabiting the densely forested regions along the equator 
from Uganda to the Gabun and living the life of nomadic 
hunters.  The affinities of this little people are undecided, 
owing to the small amount of knowledge concerning them.  The 
theories which connected them with the Bushmen do not seem to be 
correct.  It is more probable that they are to be classed among 
the Negroids, with whom they appear to have intermingled to 
a certain extent in the upper basin of the Ituri, and perhaps 
elsewhere.  As far as is known they speak no language peculiar 
to themselves but adopt that of the nearest agricultural 
tribe.  They are of a dark brown complexion, with very broad 
noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but usually 
sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated owing 
to insufficiency of food.  Another peculiar tribe, also 
of short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region 
of the north Transvaal.  Practically nothing is known of 
them except that they are said to be very dark in colour 
and live in holes in the ground, and under rock shelters. 

Principal ethnological zones. 

Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees of 
purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed, it 
remains to consider them in greater detail, particularly from 
the cultural standpoint.  This is hardly possible without drawing 
attention to the main physical characters of the continent, 
as far as they affect the inhabitants.  For ethnological 
purposes three principal zones may be distinguished; the first 
two are respectively a large region of steppes and desert in 
the north, and a smaller region of steppes and desert in the 
south.  These two zones are connected by a vertical strip of 
grassy highland lying mainly to the east of the chain of great 
lakes.  The third zone is a vast region of forest and rivers 
in the west centre, comprising the greater part of the basin 
of the Congo and the Guinea coast.  The rainfall, which also 
has an important bearing upon the culture of peoples, will 
be found on the whole to be greatest in the third zone and 
also in the eastern highlands, and of course least in the 
desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway between the 
two.  As might be expected these variations are accompanied by 
certain variations in culture.  In the best-watered districts 
agriculture is naturally of the greatest importance, except 
where the density of the forest renders the work of clearing 
too arduous.  The main portion therefore of the inhabitants 
of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the nomad 
Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest and 
support themselves by hunting the game with which it abounds.  
Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands, and 
throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna region 
of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter.  In 
fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the 
Ova-Herero of German South-West Africa, whose purely pastoral 
habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they 
inhabit.  But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding 
the forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, 
and there are few tribes who do not take advantage of the 
fact.  At the same time a natural check is imposed upon the 
desire for cattle, which is so characteristic of the Bantu 
peoples.  This is constituted by the tsetse fly, which renders 
a pastoral life absolutely impossible throughout large tracts 
in central and southern Africa.  In the northern zone this 
check is absent, and the number of more essentially pastoral 
peoples, such as the eastern Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, 
&c., correspondingly greater.  The desert regions yield 
support only to nomadic peoples, such as the Tuareg, Tibbu, 
Bedouins and Bushmen, though the presence of numerous oases 
in the north renders the condition of life easier for the 
inhabitants.  Upon geographical conditions likewise depend to 
a large extent the political conditions prevailing among the 
various tribes.  Thus among the wandering tribes of the desert 
and of the heart of the forests, where large communities are 
impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with the family as the 
unit.  Where the forest is less dense and small agricultural 
communities begin to make their appearance, the unit expands 
to the village with its headman.  Where the forest thins to 
the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier, are found 
the larger kingdoms and ``empires'' such as, in the north those 
established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi, Ba-Hima, &c., 
and in the south the states of Lunda, Kazembe, the Ba-Rotse, &c. 

But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of 
large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies 
it, it is, nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture 
which, at first, it fostered, in so far as the absence of 
natural boundaries renders invasion easy.  A good example 
of this is furnished by the history of the western Sudan 
and particularly of East and South-East Africa.  From its 
geographical position Africa looks naturally to the east, 
and it is on this side that it has been most affected by 
external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic peninsula) 
and by sea.  Though a certain amount of Indonesian and 
even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African 
ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious 
ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the 
Arabs.  This is particularly the case in East Africa, where 
the systematic slave raids organized by them and carried 
out with the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced 
vast regions to a state of desolation.  In the north and 
west of Africa, however, the Arab has had a less destructive 
but more extensive and permanent influence in spreading 
the Mahommedan religion throughout the whole of the Sudan. 

The characteristic African culture. 

The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer 
natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed 
to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture 
most characteristically African must be sought on the other 
side.  It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among 
the lagoons and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this 
earlier culture will most probably be found.  That there is a 
culture distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic 
line dividing the Bantu from the Negro proper, has now been 
recognized.  Its main features may be summed as follows:---a 
purely agricultural life, with the plantain, yam and manioc (the 
last two of American origin) as the staple food; cannibalism 
common; rectangular houses with ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; 
clothing of bark-cloth or palm-fibre; occasional chipping 
or extraction of upper incisors; bows with strings of cane, 
as the, principal weapons, shields of wood or wickerwork; 
religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the belief 
that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies, 
the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden 
gongs.  With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu 
peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in 
addition, where possible, great cattle-breeders, whose 
staple food is millet and milk.  These are distinguished 
by circular huts with domed or conical roofs; clothing of 
skin or leather; occasional chipping or extraction of lower 
incisors; spears as the principal weapons, bows, where found, 
with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather; religion, 
ancestor-worship with belief in the power of the magicians as 
rain-makers.  Though this difference in culture may well 
be explained on the supposition that the first is the older 
and more representative of Africa, this theory must not be 
pushed too far.  Many of the distinguishing characteristics 
of the two regions are doubtless due simply to environment, 
even the difference in religion.  Ancestor-worship occurs 
most naturally among a people where tribal organization 
has reached a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural 
outcome of patriotic reverence for a successful chief and his 
councillors.  Rain-making, too, is of little importance in 
a well-watered region, but a matter of vital interest to an 
agricultural people where the rainfall is slight and irregular. 

Within the eastern and southern Bantu area certain cultural 
variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu-Xosa 
and Herero, giving place among the Bechuana to the cylindrical 
variety with conical roof, a type which, with few exceptions, 
extends north to Abyssinia.  The tanged spearhead characteristic 
of the south is replaced by the socketed variety towards the 
north.  Circumcision, characteristic of the Zulu-Xosa and 
Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther north; 
tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, is absent among the 
more southern tribes.  The lip-plug is found in the eastern 
area, especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the 
south.  The head-rest common in the south-east and the 
southern fringe of the forest area is not found far 
north of Tanganyika until the Horn of Africa is reached. 

In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro 
proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of 
culture outweigh the differences.  Here the cylindrical type 
of hut prevails; clothing is of skin or leather but is very 
scanty; iron ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not 
feathered; shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are 
found and also fighting bracelets.  Certain small differences 
appear between the eastern and western portions, the dividing 
line being formed by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland.  
Characteristic of the east are the harp and the throwing-club 
and throwing-knife, the last of which has penetrated into 
the forest area.  Typical of the west are the bow and the 
dagger with the ring hilt.  The tribes of the upper Nile 
are somewhat specialized, though here, too, are found the 
cylindrical hut, iron ornaments, fighting bracelets, &c., 
characteristic of the Sudanese tribes.  Here the removal of 
the lower incisors is common, and circumcision entirely absent. 

Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Semitic culture 
introduced by the Arabized Libyan.  Circumcision, as is usual 
among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation 
absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has 
penetrated to the northern portion of the forest area.  The 
culture prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly 
Hamito-Semitic; here are found both cyhnddcal and bee-hive 
huts, the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the 
south), the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic 
tribes) and the head-rest.  Circumcision is practically universal. 

As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back 
but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower 
Nile valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records 
exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very 
recent events.  Even archaeology, which can often sketch 
the main outlines of a people's history, is here practically 
powerless, owing to the insufficiency of data.  It is true 
that stone imple. ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types 
are found sporadically in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the 
Zambezi, in Cape Colony and the northern portions of the 
Congo Free State, as well as in Algeria and Tunisia; but the 
localities are far too few and too widely separated to warrant 
the inference that they are to be in any way connected.  
Moreover, where stone implements are found they are, as a rule, 
very near, even actually on, the surface of the earth; nothing 
occurs resembling the regular stratification of Europe, and 
consequently no argument based on geological grounds is possible. 

The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint 
implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes. 
not only on the surface of the ground, which for several 
thousand years has been desert owing to the contraction of 
the river-bed, but also in stratified gravel of an older 
date.  References to a number of papers bearing on the 
discussion to which then discovery has given rise may be 
found in an article by Mr H. R. Hall in Man, 1905, No. 19. 
The Egyptian and also the Somali land finds appear to be true 
palaeoliths in type and remarkably similar to those found in 
Europe.  But evidence bearing on the Stone age in Africa, 
if the latter existed apart from the localities mentioned, 
is so slight that little can be said save that from the 
available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone 
can with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote 
period of antiquity, and that the chips scattered over 
Mashonaland and the regions occupied within historic times 
by Bushmen are the most recent; since it has been shown 
that the stone flakes were used by the medieval Makalanga to 
engrave their hard pottery and the Bushmen were still using 
stone implements in the 19th century.  Other early remains, 
but of equally uncertain date, are the stone circles of 
Algeria, the Cross river and the Gambia.  The large system of 
ruined forts and ``cities'' in Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and 
elsewhere, concerning which so many ingenious theories have 
been woven, have been proved to date from medieval times. 

Origin and spread of the racial stocks. 

Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age. divided into 
periods according to various types of implement disposed 
in geological strata, and followed in orderly succession by 
the ages of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true 
Stone age and practically no Bronze at all.  The reason is 
not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is found 
distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so rich 
that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble 
and by the simplest methods.  Iron has been worked from 
time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes are 
found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging of the 
metal.  Under such conditions, questions relating to the 
origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the 
population of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; 
at best only a certain amount of probability can be attained. 

Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman, 
Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related 
through some common ancestor.  Of these the honour of being 
considered the most truly African belongs to the two first.  
It is true that people of Negroid type are found elsewhere, 
principally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion 
with the African Negro is little more than theoretical, 
and for the present purposes it need not be considered. 

The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be 
conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion 
of the continent.  The original home of the Negro, at first an 
agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood 
of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe 
of the Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands 
southward.  Northerly expansion was prevented by the early 
occupation of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the 
Mediterranean, but there seems no doubt that the population 
of ancient Egypt contained a distinct Negroid element.  The 
question as to the ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians 
is still unsolved; but they may be regarded as, in the main, 
Hamitic, though it is a question how far it is just to apply 
a name which implies a definite specialization in what may 
be comparatively modern times to a people of such antiquity. 

The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from 
which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have 
applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of 
expansion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the 
latter.  These emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic 
pastoral culture, and with a strain of Hamitic blood in 
their veins, passed rapidly down the open tract in the 
east, doubtless exterminating their predecessors, except 
such few as took refuge in the mountains and swamps.  The 
advance-guard of this wave of pastoral Negroids, in fact 
primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen and produced the 
Hottentots.  The penetration of the forest area must certainly 
have taken longer and was probably accomplished as much from 
the south-east, up the Zambezi valley, as from any other 
quarter.  It was a more peaceful process, since natural 
obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of large bodies 
of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent the spread 
of language and culture.  A modern parallel to the spread 
of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language, 
which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the 
western and central Sudan.  Thus those qualities, physical and 
otherwise, in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually 
fade as we proceed westward through the Congo basin, while 
in the east, among the tribes to the west of Tanganyika and 
on the upper Zambezi, ``transitional'' forms of culture are 
found.  In later times this gradual pressure from the 
south-east became greater, and resulted, at a comparatively 
recent date, in the irruption of the Fang into the Gabun. 

The earlier stages of the southern movement must have 
been accompanied by a similar movement westward between 
the Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same 
time, or even earlier, the Libyans crossing the desert had 
begun to press upon the primitive Negroes from the north.  
In this way were produced the Fula, who mingled further 
with the Negro to give birth to the Mandingo, Wolof and 
Tukulor.  It would appear that either Libyan (Fula) or, less 
probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the composition of the 
Zandeh peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed.  These Libyans or 
Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his ``Mediterranean Race,'' 
were active on the north coast of Africa in very early times, 
and had relations with the Egyptians from a prehistoric 
period.  For long these movements continued, always in the 
same direction, from north to south and from east to west; 
though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the open 
country, especially in the great eastern highway from north to 
south, than in the forest area.  Large states arose in the 
western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the 7th century A.D., 
Melle in the 11th, Songhai in the 14th, and Bornu in the 16th. 

Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the 
Bechuana, which was probably,spread over a considerable 
period.  Later than they, hut proceeding faster, came the 
Zulu-Xosa (``Kaffir'') peoples, who followed a line nearer 
the coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the 
south.  Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion 
in South Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up 
and disappeared; but ere this the culture represented by 
the ruins in Rhodesia had waxed and waned.  It is uncertain 
who were the builders of the forts and ``cities,'' but it 
is not improbable that they may be found to have been early 
Bechuana.  The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana and Herero together form 
a group which may conveniently be termed ``Southern Bantu.', 

Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the 
history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu 
blood began to press north, spreading destruction in their 
wake.  Of these the principal were the Matabele and 
Angoni.  The movement continued as far as the Victoria 
Nyanza.  Here, on the border-line of Negro, Bantu and 
Hamite, important changes had taken place.  Certain of the 
Negro tribes had retired to the swamps of the Nile, and had 
become somewhat specialized, both physically and culturally 
(Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi, &c.).  These had blended with 
the Hamites to produce such races as the Masai and kindred 
tribes.  The old Kitwara empire, which comprised the plateau 
land between the Ruwenzori range and Kavirondo, had broken 
up into small states, usually governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) 
aristocracy.  The more extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which. 
the name Zanzibar (Zanguebar) is a lasting memorial, extending 
along the sea-board from Somaliland to the Zambezi, was also 
extinct.  The Arabs had established themselves firmly on the 
coast, and thence made continual slave-raids into the interior, 
penetrating later to the Congo.  The Swahili, inhabiting the 
coast-line from the equator to about 16 deg.  S., are a somewhat 
heterogeneous mixture of Bantu with a tinge of Arab blood. 

In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite, Bantu, 
Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact, the ethnic 
relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not under 
a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann into 
the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara, Waseguha, 
Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later Immigration 
(Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita, Wachaga, &c.), who are 
more strongly Hamitized and in many cases have adopted Masai 
customs.  These peoples, from the Victoria Nyanza to the 
Zambezi, may conveniently be termed the ``Eastern Bantu.'' 

Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba 
and Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the 
continent, the latter, from at any rate the end of the 16th 
century until the close of the 19th century, more or less 
united under a single ruler, styled Muata Yanvo.  These seem 
to have been the most recent immigrants from the south-east, 
and to exhibit certain affinities with the Barotse on the 
upper Zambezi.  Among the western Baluba, or Bashilange, 
a remarkable politico-religious revolution took place at 
a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret society 
termed Bena Riamba or ``Sons of Hemp,'' and resulted in 
the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in 
accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves 
brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c., is 
acknowledged.  North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, 
are the Balolo, &c., the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; 
and westward, on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number 
of tribes as yet imperfectly known.  Farther west are the 
tribes of Angola, many of whom were included within the 
old ``Congo empire,'' of which the kingdom of Loango was an 
offshoot.  North of the latter lies the Gabun, with a large 
number of small tribes dominated by the Fang who are recent 
arrivals from the Congo.  Farther to the north are the Bali 
and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom many primitive 
Negroid elements begin to appear.  Eastward are the Zandeh 
peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids with a 
Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain), with whom the 
Dor trine of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain 
affinities; while to the west along the coast are the Guinea 
Negroes of primitive type.  Here, amidst great linguistic 
confusion, may be distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech 
in the Niger delta and the east portion of the Slave Coast; 
those of Ewe speech, in the western portion of the latter; 
and those of Ga and Tshi speech, on the Gold Coast.  Among the 
last two groups respectively may be mentioned the Dahomi and 
Ashanti.  Similar tribes are found along the coast to the 
Bissagos Islands, though the introduction in Sierra Leone and 
Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves from the American 
plantations has in those places modified the original ethnic 
distribution.  Leaving the forest zone and entering the more 
open country there are, on the north from the Niger to the 
Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan blood and 
professing the Mahommedan religion.  Such are the Mandingo, the 
Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagirmi, Kanembu, and the 
peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few aborigines who persist, on 
the southern fringe of the Chad basin, are imperfectly known. 

Peculiar conditions in Madagascar. 

The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent, 
still remains for discussion.  Here the ethnological conditions 
are people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people who 
must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the adjacent 
islands.  The date of their immigration has been line subject 
of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that their 
arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy 
speech, which is the language of the island, is principally 
Malayo-Polynesian in origin, and contains no traces of 
Sanskrit.  Such traces, introduced with Hinduism, are 
present in all the cultivated languages of Malaysia at 
the present day.The Hova occupy the table-land of Imerina 
and form the first of the three main groups into which the 
population of Madagascar may be divided.  They are short, of 
an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or faintly wavy 
hair.  On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in physical 
characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the 
Sakalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the 
island and displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics. 

Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to 
seafaring, the contrary is the case respecting the Negroid 
population, and the presence of the latter in the island has 
been explained by the supposition that they were imported 
by the Hova.  Other authorities assign less antiquity 
to the Hova immigration and believe that they found 
the Negroid tribes already in occupation of the island. 

As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar 
contains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian.  
The first of these two shows certain affinities with the 
culture characteristic of the western area of Africa, such as 
rectangular huts, clothing of bark and palm-fibre, fetishism, 
&c., but cattle-breeding is found as well as agriculture.  
However, the Negroid tribes are more and more adopting the 
customs and mode of life of the Hova, among whom are found 
pile-houses, the sarong, yadi or tabu applied to food, a 
non-African form of bellows, &c., all characteristic of their 
original home.  The Hova, during the 19th century, embraced 
Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old 
animistic beliefs; their original social organization in 
three classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and 
andevo or slaves, has been modified by the French, who have 
abolished kingship and slavery.  An Arab infusion is also to be 
noticed, especially on the north-east and south-east coasts. 

It is impossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting 
Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored.  
Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic 
relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities. 

The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tentative, 
and liable to correction in the light of fuller information:- 


 
                     AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION
 
                             LIBYANS
 
                     (North Africa, excluding Egypt)
 
                           Berbers, including--
                               Kabyles
                               Mzab
                               Shawia
                               Tuareg
 
                     LIBYO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
 
                           Fula (West Sudan)
                           Tibbu (Central Sudan)
 
                             HAMITES
                     (East Sudan and Horn of Africa)
 
                           Beja, including--
                               Ababda
                               Hadendoa
                               Bisharin
                               Beni-Amer
                               Hamran
                               Galla
                               Somali
                               Danakil (Afar)
                           Ba-Hima, including--
                               Wa-Tussi
                               Wa-Hha
                               Wa-Rundi
                               Wa-Ruanda
 
                          HAMITO-SEMITES
                    Fellahin (Egypt)
                    Abyssinians (with Negroid admixture)
 
                   HAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
                               Masai
                               Wa-Kuafi
 
                        NEGROID TRIBES
     West Sudan       Central Sudan                 Eastern
 
  Tukulor                  Songhai                      Fur       Kargo
  Wolof                    Hausa                        Dago      Kulfan
  Serer                    Bagirmi                      Kunjara   Kolaji
  Leybu                    Kanembu                      Tegele    Tumali
  Mandingo, including--    Kanuri                       Nuba
      Kassonke          Tama
      Yallonke          Maba                             Zandeh Tribes
      Soninke           Birkit                        (Akin to Nilotics, but
      Bambara              Massalit                       probably with Fula
      Vei                  Korunga                        element)
      Susu                 Kabbaga                       Azandeh (Niam Niam)
      Solima                  &c.                        Makaraka
      Malinke                                         Mundu
                                                         Mangbettu
  Probably also--                                        Ababwa
      Mossi                                              Mege
      Borgu                                              Abisanga
  Tombo    }                                             Mabode{ probably
  Gurma    }                                             Momfu { with Pygmy
  Gurunga  }                                                   { element
  Dagomba  } Probably with Mandingan element                Allied are--
  Mampursi }                                            Banziri  Languassi
  Gonja    }                                            Ndris    Wia-Wia
  &c.      }                                            Togbo    Awaka
                                                               &c.
                                 NEGROES
 
                            West African Tribes
                            Tribes of Tshi and Ga    Tribes of Yeruba
                            speech, including---     speech, including--
  Khabunke
  Balanta                         Ashanti                      Yoruba
  Bagnori                         Safwi                        Ibadan
  Bagnum                          Denkera                      Ketu
  Felup, including--              Bekwai                       Egba
      Ayamat                      Nkoranza                     Jebu
      Jola                        Adansi                       Remo
      Jigush                      Assin                        Ode
      Vaca                        Wassaw                       Illorin
      Joat                        Ahanta                       Ijesa
      Karon                       Fanti                        Ondo
      Banyum                      Angona                       Mahin
      Banjar                      Akwapim                      Bini
      Fulum                       Akim                         Kakanda
      Bayot                       Akwamu                       Wari
        &c.                       Kwao                         Ibo
  Bujagos                         Ga                           Efik
  Biafare                                                      Andoni
  Landuman              Tribes of Ewe speech,           Kwa
  Nalu                        including--                  Ibibio
  Baga                                                         Ekoi
  Sape                         Dahomi                       Inokun
  Bulam                           Eweawo                       Akunakuim
  Mendi                           Agotine                      Munshi
  Limba                           Krepi                        Ikwe
  Gallina                         Avenor
  Timni                           Awuna
  Pessi                           Agbosomi
  Gola                            Aflao
  Kondo                           Ataklu
  Bassa                           Krikor
  Kru                             Geng
  Grebo                           Attaldoami
  Awekwom                         Aja
  Agni                            Ewemi
  Oshiu                           Appa
     Central Negroes                           Eastern Negroes
  Bolo                                               Pure Nilotics
  Yako                                               Shilluk
  Tangala                                            Nuer
  Kali                                               Dinka
  Mishi                                              Jur (Diur)
  Doma                                               Mittu
  Mosgu, including--                                 Jibbeh
      Mandara                                        Madi
      Margi                                          Lendu
      Logon                                          Alur (Lur)
      Gamergu                                        Acholi
      Keribina                                       Abaka
      Kuri                                           Golo
        &c.
 
                                                  Nilotics with affinity
  Nilotics with Affinity                            with Masai
   with Zandeh tribes                            Latuka
   Dor (Bongo)                                       Bari
 
   NEGRO-BANTU                                 NILOTIC-BANTU
   TRANSITIONAL                                TRANSITIONAL
  Bali        Ba-Kwiri                                   Ja-Luo
  Ba-Kossi    Abo
  Ba-Ngwa     Dualla
  Ba-Nyang    Bassa                                PYGMY TRIBES
  Ngolo       Ba-Noko                              Central Arica
  Ba-Fo       Ba-Puko                                    Akka
  Ba-Kundu    Ba-Koko                                    Ja-Mbute
  Isubu                                                  Ba-Bongo
                                                         Ashango
                                                           &c.
 
                         BANTU NEGROIDS
 
     Western             Central                   Eastern
 
  Ogowe              Luba-Lunda Group              Lacustrians
  Ashira                 Ba-Luba, including--            Ba-Nyoro
  Ishogo                   Ba-Songe                      Ba-Toro
  Ashango                  Wa-Rua                        Wa-Siba
  Bakalai                  Wa-Guha                       Wa-Sinja
  Nkomi                    Katanga                       Wa-Kerewe
  Orungu                   Ba-Shilange (with             Wa-Shashi   
  Mpongwe                    Ba-Kete element)            Wa-Rundi
  Oshekiani                                              Ba-Iro
  Benga                    Ba-Lunda                      Ba-Ganda
  Ininga                     Probably connected          Ba-Soga
  Galao                        are--                     Ba-Kavirondo,
  Apingi                   Manyema                             including--
  Okanda                   Ba-Kumu                         Awaware
  Osaka                    Wa-Regga                        Awarimi
  Aduma                    Ba-Rotse, including--           Awakisii
  Mbamba                     Ma-Mbunda                        &c.
  Umbete                     Ma-Supia
  Bule                       Ma-Shukulumbwe
  Bane                       Ba-Tonga                     Bantu of Recent
  Yaunde                       and probably                  Immigration
  Maka                       Va-Lovale
  Bomone                                                 Wa-Kikuyu
  Kunabembe                  Tribes of the Congo     Wa-Kamba
  Fang (recent immigrants          bend              Wa-Pokomo
     from the Congo group)   Ba-Kessu                    Wa-Duruma
                             Ba-Tetela                   Wa-Digo
                             Ba-Songo Mino               Wa-Giriama
                             Ba-Kuba                     Wa-Taita
  Ba-Kongo,                  Ba-Lolo                     Wa-Nyatura
      including--            Ba-Kuti                     Wa-Iramba
    Mushi-Kongo              Ba-Mbala                    Wa-Mbugwe
    Mussorongo               Ba-Huana                    Wa-Kaguru
    Kabinda                  Ba-Yaka                     Wa-Gogo  { possible
    Ka-Kongo                 Ba-Pindi                    Wa-Chaga { Masai
    Ba-Vili                  Ba-Kwese                             { element
    Ma-Yumbe                    &c.
    Ba-Lumbo                                                Older Bantu
    Ba-Sundi                 Tribes of the Congo     Wa-Nyamwezi,
    Ba-Bwende                        bank                 including--
    Ba-Lali                  Wa-Genia                      Wa-Sukuma    }Trans-
    Ba-Kunya                 Ba-Soko                       Wa-Sumbwa    }itional
                             Ba-Poto                       Wa-Nyanyembe }to
                             Mobali                        Wa-Jui       }Bantu
                             Mogwandi                      Wa-Kimbu     }of
                             Na-Ngala{ Connected           Wa-Kanongo   }recent
                             Ba-Bangi{ with Zandeh         Wa-Wende     }immi-
                                     { group                            }gration
                             Wa-Buma
                             Ba-Nunu                       Wa-Gunda
                             Ba-Loi                        Wa-Guru
                             Ba-Teke                       Wa-Galla
                             Wa-Pfuru                    Wa-Sambara
                             Wa-Mbundu                   Wa-Seguha
                             Wa-Mfumu                    Wa-Nguru
                             Ba-Nsinik                   Wa-Sagara
                             Ma-Wumba                    Wa-Doe
                             Ma-Yakalia                  Wa-Khutu
                                &c                       Wa-Sarmo
                                                         Wa-Hehe
  TRANSITIONAL                                       Wa-Bena
  FROM CENTRAL                                       Wa-Sanga
  TO SOUTHERN                                        Wa-Swahili (with Arab
     BANTU                                               elements)
  Amoela                                                   Connected are--
  Ganguela                                               Wa-Kisi
  Kioko                                                  Wa-Mpoto     }
  Minungo                                                Ba-Tonga     }
  Imbangala                                              Ba-Tumbuka   }
  Ba-Achinji                                             Wa-Nyika     }
  Golo                                                   Wa-Nyamwanga } Akin to
  Hollo                                                  A-Mambwe     } Luba-
      &c.                                                Wa-Fipa      } Lunda
  Mbunda peoples,                                        Wa-Rungu     } group
      including--                                        A-Wemba      }
    Bihe                                              A-Chewa      }
    Dembo                                                A-Maravi     }
    Mbaka                                                Ba-Senga     }
    Ngola                                                Ba-Bisa      }
    Bondo                                                A-Jawa (Yaos)
    Ba-Ngala                                             Wa-Mwera
    Songo                                                Wa-Gindo
    Haku                                                 Ma-Konde
    Lubolo                                               Ma-Wia
    Kisama                                               Ma-Nganja
      &c.                                                Ma-Kua
 
                          SOUTHERN BANTU
 
                   (South and South-East Africa)
 
  Ba-Nyai       }                             Ama-Zulu, including--
  Ma-Kalanga,   } Affinity                         Ama-Swazi
      including } with                             Ama-Tonga
    Mashona     } Bechuana                         Matabele
  Ba-Ronga      }                                  Angoni
  Ba-Chuana,                                       Ma-Gwangwara
      including--                                  Ma-Huhu
    Ba-Tlapin                                      Ma-Viti
    Ba-Rolong                                      Ma-Situ
    Ba-Ratlou                                      Ma-Henge
    Ba-Taung                                          &c.
    Ba-Rapulana                               Ama-Xosa, including--
    Ba-Seleka                                      Ama-Gcaleka
    Ba-Hurutsi                                     Ama-Hahebe
    Ba-Tlaru                                       Ama-Ngqika
    Ba-Mangwato                                    Ama-Tembu
    Ba-Tauana                                      Ama-Pondo
    Ba-Ngwaketse                                       &c.
    Ba-Kuena                                       Ova-Herero
       &c.                                         Ova-Mpo
 
  HAMITO-BANTU                                   BUSHMEN
     BUSHMEN
  TRANSITIONAL
 
  Hottentots,     }
      including-- } S. W.
    Namaqua       } Africa
    Koranna       }
 
                      TRIBES IN MADAGASCAR
 
  MALAYO-INDONESIANS                      BANTU-NEGROIDS
  Hova                                        Sakalava, including--
  Betsileo (slight Bantu admixture)                Menabe
                                                   Milaka
            HOVA-BANTU                         Ronandra
            TRANSITIONAL                       Mahafali
                                                      &c.
  Malagasy, including--
    Bestimisaraka         Antanosi
    Antambahoaka          Antsihanaka
    Antaimoro             Antanala
    Antaifasina           Antaisara
    Antaisaka                 &c.
 

IV. HISTORY 

The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are 
discussed elsewhere (see AFRICA, ROMAN.) The word Africa 
was applied originally to the country in the immediate 
neighbourhood of Carthage, that part of the continent 
first known to the Romans, and it was subsequently extended 
with their increasing knowledge, till it came at last to 
include all that they knew of the continent.  The Arabs 
still confine the name Ifrikia to the territory of Tunisia. 

Phoenician and Greek colonization. 

The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest 
antiquity of a civilized race.  Egyptian culture had, 
however, remarkably little direct influence on the rest of 
the continent, a result due in large measure to the fact 
that Egypt is shut off landwards by immense deserts.  If 
ancient Egypt and Ethiopia (q.v.) be excluded, the story 
of Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic 
and European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the 
only state which throughout historic times has maintained its 
independence.  The countries bordering the Mediterranean 
were first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest 
settlements were made before 1000 B.C. Carthage, founded 
about 800 B.C., speedily grew into a city without rival in 
the Mediterranean, and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber 
tribes, who then as now formed the bulk of the population, 
became masters of all the habitable region of North Africa 
west of the Great Syrtis, and found in commerce a source of 
immense prosperity.  Both Egyptians and Carthaginians made 
attempts to reach the unknown parts of the continent by 
sea.  Herodotus relates that an expedition under Phoenician 
navigators, employed by Necho, king of Egypt, c. 600 
B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red Sea to the 
Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accomplished in 
three years.  Apart from the reported circumnavigation of the 
continent, the west coast was well known to the Phoenicians 
as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Carthaginian, 
explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin, 
certainly as far as Sierra Leone.  A vague knowledge of 
the Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians. 

Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves in 
Africa.  At the point where the continent approaches nearest 
the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 631 
B.C..) Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being 
hemmed in on all sides by absolute desert it had little or 
no influence on inner Africa.  The Greeks, however, exerted 
a powerful influence in Egypt.  To Alexander the Great the 
city of Alexandria owes its foundation (332 B.C.), and 
under the Hellenistic dynasty of the Ptolemies attempts were 
made to penetrate southward, and in this way was obtained 
some knowledge of Abyssinia.  Neither Cyrenaica nor Egypt was 
a serious rival to the Carthaginians, but all three powers 
were eventually supplanted by the Romans.  After centuries of 
rivalry for supremacy1 the struggle was ended by the fall of 
Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more than a century from 
that date Egypt and Cyrene had become incorporated in the Roman 
empire.  Under Rome the settled portions of the country were 
very prosperous, and a Latin strain was introduced into the 
land.  Though Fezzan was occupied by them, the Romans 
elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable barrier.  Nubia 
and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition sent by the 
emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile ended in 
failure.  The utmost extent of geographical knowledge of the 
continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century 
A.D.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great 
lake reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river 
Niger.  Still Africa for the civilized world remained simply 
the countries bordering the Mediterranean.  The continual 
struggle between Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction 
of Christianity and the glories and sufferings of the 
Egyptian and African Churches; the invasion and conquest of 
the African provinces by the Vandals in the 5th century; the 
passing of the supreme power in the following century to the 
Byzantine empire--all these events are told fully elsewhere. 

In the 7th century of the Christian era occurred an event 
destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent. 

North Africa conquered by the Arabs. 

Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers in 
the new faith of Mahomet, conquered the whole country from the 
Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried the Crescent into Spain.  
Throughout North Africa Christianity well-nigh disappeared, 
save in Egypt (where the Coptic Church was suffered to exist), 
and Upper Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the 
Moslems.  In the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries the Arabs in 
Africa were numerically weak; they held the countries they had 
conquered by the sword only, but in the 11th century there was 
a great Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of 
Berber blood.  Even before this the Berbers had very generally 
adopted the speech and religion of their conquerors.  Arab 
influence and the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly 
stamped on northern Africa.  Together they spread southward 
across the Sahara.  They also became firmly established along 
the eastern sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians 
planted flourishing colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and 
Sofala, playing a role, maritime and commercial, analogous 
to that filled in earlier centuries by the Carthaginians on 
the northern sea-board.  Of these eastern cities and states 
both Europe and the Arabs of North Africa were long ignorant. 

The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the 
caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty--founded by Aghlab, 
one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the 8th 
century--ruled as vassals of the caliphate.  However, early in 
the 10th century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in Egypt, 
where Cairo had been founded A.D. 968, and from there ruled 
as far west as the Atlantic.  Later still arose other dynasties 

Appearance of the Turks. 

such as the Almoravides and Almohades.  Eventually the 
Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, and had 
seized Egypt in 1517, established the regencies of Algeria, 
Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1519 and 1551), Morocco remaining 
an independent Arabized Berber state under the Sharifan 
dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end of the 13th 
century.  Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or Moorish culture 
had attained a high degree of excellence, while the spirit 
of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers of 
Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the 
continent.  This was rendered more easy by their use of the 
camel (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors 
of Egypt), which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert.  
In this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions fell under 
the influence of the Arabs and Berbers, but it was not until 
1591 that Timbuktu--a city founded in the 11th century--became 
Moslem.  That city had been reached in 1352 by the great 
Arab traveller Ibn Batuta, to whose journey to Mombasa and 
Quiloa (Kilwa) was due the first accurate knowledge of those 
flourishing Moslem cities on the east African sea-boards.  
Except along this sea-board, which was colonized directly 
from Asia, Arab progress southward was stopped by the broad 
belt of dense forest which, stretching almost across the 
continent somewhat south of 10 deg.  N., barred their advance 
as effectually as had the Sahara that of their predecessors, 
and cut them off from knowledge of the Guinea coast and of 
all Africa beyond.  One of the regions which came latest 
under Arab control was that of Nubia, where a Christian 
civilization and state existed up to the 14th century. 

For a time the Moslem conquests in South Europe had virtually 
made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion 
in the 11th century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern 
Italy by the Normans was followed by descents of the conquerors 
on Tunisia and Tripoli.  Somewhat later a busy trade with 
the African coast-lands, and especially with Egypt, was 
developed by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North 
Italy.  By the end of the 15th century Spain had completely 
thrown off the Moslem yoke, but even while the Moors were still 
in Granada, Portugal was strong enough to carry the war into 
Africa.  In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta 
on the Moorish coast.  From that time onward Portugal repeatedly 

Spain and Portugal invade the Barbary States. 

interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain acquired many 
ports in Algeria and Tunisia.  Portugal, however, suffered a 
crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr al Kebir, the Moors being 
led by Abd el Malek I. of the then recently established Sharifan 
dynasty.  By that time the Spaniards had lost almost all their 
African possessions.  The Barbary states, primarily from the 
example of the Moors expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere 
communities of pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization 
and commerce declined.  The story of these states from the 
beginning of the 16th century to the third decade of the 19th 
century is largely made up of piratical exploits on the one 
hand and of ineffectual reprisals on the other.  In Algiers, 
Tunis and other cities were thousands of Christian slaves. 

But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely 
to the Mediterranean world.  Among those who fought there was 

Discovery of the Guinea coast--Rise of the slave trade. 

one.  Prince Henry ``the Navigator,'' son of King John 
I., who was fired with the ambition to acquire for Portugal 
the unknown parts of Africa.  Under his inspiration and 
direction was begun that series of voyages of exploration 
which resulted in the circumnavigation of Africa and the 
establishment of Portuguese sovereignty over large areas 
of the coast-lands.  Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, 
Cape Verde in 1445, and by 1480 the whole Guinea coast was 
known.  In 1482 Diogo Cam or Cao discovered the mouth of the 
Congo, the Cape of Good Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz 
in 1488, and in 1498 Vasco da Gama, after having rounded 
the Cape, sailed up the east coast, touched at Sofala and 
Malindi, and went thence to India.  Over all the countries 
discovered by their navigators Portugal claimed sovereign 
rights, but these were not exercised in the extreme south of the 
continent.  The Guinea coast, as the first discovered and the 
nearest to Europe, was first exploited.  Numerous forts and 
trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao 
Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482.  The chief commodities 
dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices.  The discovery 
of America (1492) was followed by a great development of 
the slave trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been 
an overland trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan 
Africa.  The lucrative nature of this trade and the large 
quantities of alluvial gold obtained by the Portuguese drew 
other nations to the Guinea coast.  English mariners went 
thither as early as 1553, and they were followed by Spaniards, 
Dutch, French, Danish and other adventurers.  Much of Senegambia 
was made known as a result of quests during the 16th century 
for the ``hills of gold'' in Bambuk and the fabled wealth of 
Timbuktu, but the middle Niger was not reached.  The supremacy 
along the coast passed in the 17th century from Portugal to 
Holland and from Holland in the 18th and 19th centuries to 
France and England.  The whole coast from Senegal to Lagos 
was dotted with forts and ``factories'' of rival powers, 
and this international patchwork persists though all the 
hinterland has become either French or British territory. 

Southward from the mouth of the Congo2 to the inhospitable 
region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, acquired 
influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the early 
part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity was 
largely adopted in the native kingtom of Congo.  An irruption 
of cannibals from the interior later in the same century 
broke the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese 
activity was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao 
Paulo de Loanda being founded in 1576.  The sovereignty of 
Portugal over this coast region, except for the mouth of the 
Congo, has been once only challenged by a European power, 
and that was in 1640-1648, when the Dutch held the seaports. 

Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited regions 
of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered than 
they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples 
between Sofala and Cape Guardafui.  By 1520 all these Moslem 

The Portuguese in East Africa and Abyssinia. 

sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique being 
chosen as the chief city of her East African possessions.  
Nor was Portuguese activity confined to the coast-lands.  The 
lower and middle Zambezi valley was explored (16th and 17th 
centuries), and here the Portuguese found semi-civilized 
Bantu-Negro tribes, who had been for many years in contact 
with the coast Arabs.  Strenuous efforts were made to obtain 
possession of the country (modern Rhodesia) known to them 
as the kingdom or empire of Monomotapa, where gold had been 
worked by the natives from about the 12th century A.D., 
and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese dispossessed, 
were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century.  Several 
expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward and 
considerable quantities of gold were obtained.  Portugal's 
hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during 
the 17th century, and in the middle of the 18th century ceased 
with the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district. 

At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a strong 
influence in Abyssinia also.  In the ruler of Abyssinia (to 
whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before 
Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined they 
had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and when 
the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the Christian 
religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan invaders, 
the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christopher da 
Gama during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favour of Abyssinia 
and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-East 
Africa.  After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted to 
Abyssinia.  While they failed in their efforts to convert the 
Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive 
knowledge of the country.  Pedro Paez in 1615, and, ten years 
later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue 
Nile.  In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, 
were expelled from the Abyssinian dominions.  At this time 
Portuguese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before 
the power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1730 no point on 
the east coast north of Cape Delgado was held by Portugal. 

It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the 
southern part of the continent.  To the Portuguese the Cape of 

English and Dutch at Table Bay--Cape Colony founded. 

Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to India, and mariners 
of other nations who followed in their wake used Table Bay only 
as a convenient spot wherein to refit on their voyage to the 
East.  By the beginning of the 17th century the bay was much 
resorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch 
vessels.  In 1620, with the object of forestalling the 
Dutch, two officers of the East India Company, on their own 
initiative, took possession of Table Bay in the name of King 
James, fearing otherwise that English ships would be ``frustrated 
of watering but by license.'' Their action was not approved 
in London and the proclamation they issued remained without 
effect.  The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the 
English.  On the advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked 
in Table Bay the Netherlands East India Company, in 1651, 
sent out a fleet of three small vessels under Jan van Riebeek 
which reached Table Bay on the 6th of April 1652, when, 
164 years after its discovery, the first permanent white 
settlement was made in South Africa.  The Portuguese, whose 
power in Africa was already waning, were not in a position 
to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was content 
to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to the 
East3.  In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not 
intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the 
most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies.  Nevertheless, 
despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable 
rivers, the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of 
European trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and 
Holland, and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually spread 
northward, stamping their language, law and religion indelibly 
upon South Africa.  This process, however, was exceedingly slow. 

During the 18th century there is little to record in the history of 
Africa.  The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the 

Waning and revival of interest in Africa. 

century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for 
supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent lost 
their interest in the continent.  Only on the west coast 
was there keen rivalry, and here the motive was securance 
of trade rather than territorial acquisitions.  In this 
century the slave trade reached its highest development, 
the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small in 
comparison.  In the interior of the continent--Portugal's 
energy being expended--no interest was shown, the nations with 
establishments on the coast ``taking no further notice of the 
inhabitants or their land than to obtain at the easiest rate 
what they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to 
carry them off for slaves to their plantations in America'' 
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 3rd ed., 1797).  Even the scanty 
knowledge acquired by the ancients and the Arabs was in the 
main forgotten or disbelieved.  It was the period when-- 

Geographers, in Afric maps, With savage pictures filled their gaps, 
And o'er unhabitable downs Placed elephants for want of towns. 

(Poetry, a Rhapsody. By Jonathan Swift.) 

The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in 
the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that ``the 
Gambia and Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger.'' 
But the closing years of the 18th century, which witnessed 
the partial awakening of the public conscience of Europe 
to the iniquities of the slave trade, were also notable for 
the revival of interest in inner Africa.  A society, the 
African Association,4 was formed in London in 1788 for the 
exploration of the interior of the continent.  The era of 
great discoveries had begun a little earlier in the famous 
journey (1770-1772) of James Bruce through Abyssinia and 
Sennar, during which he determined the course of the Blue 
Nile.  But it was through the agents of the African Association 
that knowledge was gained of the Niger regions.  The Niger 
itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled by way 
of the Gambia, in 1795.  Park, on a second journey in 1805, 
passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where he 
lost his life, having just failed to solve the question as to 
where the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately 
solved by Richard Lander and his brother in 1830.) The first 
scientific explorer of South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de 
Lacerda, a Portuguese, also lost his life in that country.  
Lacerda travelled up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards 
Lake Mweru, near which he died in 1798.  The first recorded 
crossing of Africa was accomplished between the years 1802 
and 1811 by two half-caste Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptista 
and A. Jose, who passed from Angola eastward to the Zambezi. 

Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of 
Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless 

Effects of the Napoleonic wars--Britain seizes the Cape. 

exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both 
in Egypt and South Africa.  The occupation of Egypt (1798-1803) 
first by France and then by Great Britain resulted in an 
effort by Turkey to regain direct control over that country,5 
followed in 1811 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of 
an almost independent state, and the extension of Egyptian 
rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward).  In South 
Africa the struggle with Napoleon caused Great Britain to take 
possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 
Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British 
troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. 

The close of the European conflicts with the battle of 
Waterloo was followed by vigorous efforts on the part of 
the British government to become better acquainted with 
Africa, and to substitute colonization and legitimate trade 
for the slave traffic, declared illegal for British subjects 
in 1807 and abolished by all other European powers by 
1836.  To West Africa Britain devoted much attention.  The 
slave trade abolitionists had already, in 1788, formed a 
settlement at Sierra Leone, on the Guinea coast, for freed 
slaves, and from this establishment grew the colony of Sierra 
Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly climate, as 
``The White Man's Grave.''6 Farther east the establishments 
on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the politics 
of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi, 
despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate 
over the maritime tribes heretofore governed by the Ashanti. 

An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its 
mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar 
the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better 
results were obtained.  In 1823 three English travellers, 
Walter Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached 
Lake Chad from Tripoli--the first white men to reach that 
lake.  The partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states 
by Clapperton, which followed, revealed the existence of 
large and flourishing cities and a semi-civilized people 
in a region hitherto unknown.  The discovery in 1830 of the 
mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's servant Lander, already 
mentioned, had been preceded by the journeys of Major A. 
G. Laing (1826) and Rene Caillie (1827) to Timbuktu, and 
was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of the Benue 
affluent of the Niger by Macgregor Laird.  In 1841 a disastrous 
attempt was made to plant a white colony on the lower Niger, 
an expedition (largely philanthropic and antislavery in its 
inception) which ended in utter failure.  Nevertheless from 
that time British traders remained on the lower Niger, their 
continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisition of 
political rights over the delta and the Hausa states by Great 
Britain.7 Another endeavour by the British government to open 
up commercial relations with the Niger countries resulted in 
the addition of a vast amount of information concerning the 
countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours 
of Heinrich Barth (1850-1855), originally a subordinate, 
but the only surviving member of the expedition sent out. 

Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts 
of the continent, the most notable being--the occupation of 
Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the 
piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued 
expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent 
additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment 
of independent states ((Orange Free State and the Transvaal) 
by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape 
Colony.  Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made a 
British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to acquire 
it being frustrated.  The city of Zanzibar, on the island 
of that name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, 
rapidly attained importance, and Arabs began to penetrate 
to the great lakes of East Africa,8 concerning which little 
more was known (and less believed) than in the time of 
Ptolemy.  Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery 
in 1848-1840, by the missionaries Ludwig Krapf and J. 
Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kilimanjaro and 
Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further knowledge. 

At this period, the middle of the 19th century, Protestant 
missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea 

The era of great explorers. 

coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions.  Their 
work, largely beneficent, was being conducted in regions 
and among peoples little known, and in many instances 
missionaries turned explorers and became pioneers of trade and 
empire.  One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining 
blank spaces in the map was David Livings tone, who had 
been engaged since 1840 in missionary work north of the 
Orange.  In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert 
from south to north and reached Lake Ngami, and between 
1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from west to east, 
making known the great waterways of the upper Zambezi.  
During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, November 
1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the queen of 
England.  In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire and Lake 
Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having been first 
reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva Porto, a 
Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who crossed 
Africa during 1853-1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the 
Rovuma.  While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the more 
northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by Richard 
Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted Victoria 
Nyanza.  Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant, Speke 
reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria 
Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the 
distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the 
Nile.  In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered 
the Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the 
river.  In 1866 Livingstone began his last great journey, in 
which he made known Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered 
the Lualaba (the upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) 
before he had been able to demonstrate its ultimate course, 
believing indeed that the Lualaba belonged to the Nile 
system.  Livingstone's lonely death in the heart of Africa 
evoked a keener desire than ever to complete the work he left 
undone.  H. M. Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding 
and succouring Livingstone, started again for Zanzibar in 
1874, and in the most memorable of all exploring expeditions 
in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika, and, 
striking farther inland to the Lualaba, followed that river 
down to the Atlantic Ocean--reached in August 1877--and proved 
it to be the Congo.  Stanley had been preceded, in 1874, at 
Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on the Lualaba, by Lovett 
Cameron, who was, however, unable farther to explore its course, 
making his way to the west coast by a route south of the Congo. 

While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved 
explorers were also active in other parts of the continent.  
Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed 
in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs, 
Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal.  These travellers 
not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, 
but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, 
languages and natural history of the countries in which they 
sojourned.9 Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one 
that confirmed the Greek legends of the existence beyond 
Egypt of a pygmy race.  But the first discoverer of the 
dwarf races of Central Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found 
them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five 
years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with the Pygmies; 
du Chaillu having previously, as the result of journeys in 
the Gabun country between 1855 and 1859, made popular in 
Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, perhaps 
the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Carthaginian, and whose 
existence, up to the middle of the 19th century, was thought 
to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle. 

In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded 
apace.  The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in 
the valley of the Vaal river, near its confluence with the 
Orange, caused a rush of emigrants to that district, and 
led to conflicts between the Dutch and British authorities 
and the extension of British authority northward.  In 
1871 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe in Mashonaland, the 
chief fortress and distributing centre of the race which 
in medieval times worked the goldfields of South-East 
Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch.  In the following year 
F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa, 
which continued for more than twenty years and extended 
over every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.) 

V. PARTITION AMONG EUROPEAN POWERS 

In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was 
transformed.  After the discovery of the Congo the story 
of exploration takes second place; the continent becomes 
the theatre of European expansion.  Lines of partition, 
drawn often through trackless wildernesses, marked out the 
possessions of Germany, France, Great Britain and other 
powers.  Railways penetrated the interior, vast areas were 
opened up to civilized occupation, and from ancient Egypt 
to the Zambezi the continent was startled into new life. 

Before 1875 the only powers with any considerable interest 
in Africa were Britain, Portugal and France.  Between 1815 
and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government 
devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, 
to western and southern Africa.  In both directions Great 
Britain had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, 
disease, death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with 
savage foes had been the normal experience; in the south 
recalcitrant Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless 
trouble.  The visions once entertained of vigorous negro 
communities at once civilized and Christian faded away; 
to the hot fit of philanthropy succeeded the cold fit of 
indifference and a disinclination to bear the burden of 
empire.  The low-water mark of British interest in South 
Africa was reached in 1854 when independence was forced 
on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind of the 
nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution of 
a representative House of Commons committee:10 ``that all 
further extension of territory or assumption of government, 
or new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would 
be inexpedient.'' For nearly twenty years the spirit of that 
resolution paralysed British action in Africa, although many 
circumstances--the absence of any serious European rival, the 
inevitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the 
activity of missionary and trader--conspired to make British 
influence dominant in large areas of the continent over 
which the government exercised no definite authority.  The 
freedom with which blood and treasure were spent to enforce 
respect for the British flag or to succour British subjects in 
distress, as in the Abyssinian campaign of 1867-68 and the 
Ashanti war of 1873, tended further to enhance the reputation 
of Great Britain among African races, while, as an inevitable 
result of the possession of India, British officials exercised 
considerable power at the court of Zanzibar, which indeed 
owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord Canning, the 
governor-general of India, in 1861 recognizing the division 
of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of Muscat. 

It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival.  
On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and 
acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in 
Sumatra.  But Portugal still held, both in the east and west of 
Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and 
it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration 
of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa 
Bay, to the southern part of which England also laid claim by 
virtue of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 
1823.  The only other European power which at the period 
under consideration had considerable possessions in Africa was 
France.  Besides Algeria, France had settlements on the 
Senegal, where in 1854 the appointment of General Faidherbe 
as governor marked the beginning of a policy of expansion; she 
had also various posts on the upper Guinea coast, had taken 
the estuary of the Gabun as a station for her navy, and had 
acquired (1862) Obok at the southern entrance to the Red Sea. 

In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct control of 
Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay though 
retaining its independence.  The most remarkable change was 
in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced a somewhat 
fantastic imitation of European civilization.  In addition 
Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the Somali 
ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power southward 
to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reaching the 
Indian Ocean.  The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a great 
influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt 
the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route. 

Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European 
nations in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly 

The division of the continent in 1875. 

as the compiler of statistics rejects or accepts the vague claims 
of Portugal to sovereignty over the hinterland of her coast 
possessions.  At that period other European nations--with 
the occasional exception of Great Britain--were indifferent 
to Portugal's pretensions, and her estimate of her African 
empire as covering over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged.11 
But the area under effective control of Portugal at that time 
did not exceed 40,000 sq. m.  Great Britain then held some 
250,000 sq. m., France about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. 
m.  The area of the independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal 
and Orange Free State) was some 150,000 sq. m., so that the 
total area of Africa ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 
sq. m.; roughly one-tenth of the continent.  This estimate, 
as it admits the full extent of Portuguese claims and does not 
include Madagascar, in reality considerably overstates the case. 

Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were 
subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan 
of Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of 
organized governments, the three principal independent states, 
Morocco, Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of 
Liberia.  There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one 
half of Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited 
by a multitude of tribes and peoples living under various 
forms of government and subject to frequent changes in respect 
of political organization.  In this region were the negro 
states of Ashanti, Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the 
Mahommedan sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number 
of negro kingdoms in the east central and south central 
regions.  Of these Uganda on the north-west shores of 
Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be 
mentioned.  The two last-named kingdoms occupied respectively 
the south-eastern and south-western parts of the Congo 
basin.  In all this vast region the Negro and Negro-Bantu races 
predominated, for the most part untouched by Mahommedanism 
or Christian influences.  They lacked political cohesion, 
and possessed neither the means nor the inclination to extend 
their influence beyond their own borders.  The exploitation 
of Africa continued to be entirely the work of alien races. 

The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be 
considered.  They are to be found in the economic and political 

Causes which led to partition. 

state of western Europe at the time.  Germany, strong and 
united as the result of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, 
was seeking new outlets for her energies --new markets for 
her growing industries, and with the markets, colonies.  
Yet the idea of colonial expansion was of slow growth in 
Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at length acted Africa was 
the only field left to exploit, South America being protected 
from interference by the known determination of the United 
States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while Great Britain, 
France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain already held 
most of the other regions of the world where colonization was 
possible.  For different reasons the war of 1870 was also the 
starting-point for France in the building up of a new colonial 
empire.  In her endeavour to regain the position lost in 
that war France had to look beyond Europe.  To the two causes 
mentioned must be added others.  Great Britain and Portugal, 
when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, 
while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African 
power.  Great Britain awoke to the need for action too late to 
secure predominance in all the regions where formerly hers was 
the only European influence.  She had to contend not only with 
the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, but had 
also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every European 
nation to the further growth of British power.  Italy alone 
acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Great Britain. 

It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers 
of Europe which precipitated the struggle.  This was brought 
about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II, king of the 
Belgians.  The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others 
had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in western 
Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, which saw in 
Central Africa possibilities of commercial development, the 
other the philanthropic and missionary class, which beheld in the 
newly discovered lands millions of savages to Christianize and 
civilize.  The possibility of utilizing both these classes in 
the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the chief, 
formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley 
had navigated the Congo.  The king's action was immediate; it 
proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project 
understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France 
and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun. 

Conflicting ambitions of the European powers. 

At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent 
events, to set forth the designs then entertained by the 
European powers that participated in the struggle for 
Africa.  Portugal was striving to retain as large a share 
as possible of her shadowy empire, and particularly to 
establish her claims to the Zambezi region, so as to 
secure a belt of territory across Africa from Mozambique to 
Angola.  Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of 
danger, put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the 
Niger, but her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an 
unbroken line of British possessions and spheres of influence 
from south to north of the continent, from Cape Colony to 
Egypt.  Germany's ambition can be easily described.  It was 
to secure as much as possible, so as to make up for lost 
opportunities.  Italy coveted Tripoli, but that province 
could not be seized without risking war.  For the rest 
Italy's territorial ambitions were confined to North-East 
Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating, influence 
over Abyssinia.  French ambitions, apart from Madagascar, 
were confined to the northern and central portions of the 
continent.  To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean 
littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa, 
the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her 
influence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first 
ambition.  But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and 
the impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley 
of the upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to 
the French government--none other than the establishment of 
French influence over a broad belt of territory stretching 
across the continent from west to east, from Senegal on the 
Atlantic coast to the Gulf of Aden.  The fact that France 
possessed a small part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this 
design.  But these conflicting ambitions could not all be 
realized and Germany succeeded in preventing Great Britain 
obtaining a continuous band of British territory from south 
to north,while Great Britain, by excluding France from 
the upper Nile valley, dispelled the French dream of an 
empire from west to east.  King Leopold's ambitions have 
already been indicated.  The part of the continent to which 
from the first he directed his energies was the equatorial 
region.  In September 1876 he took what may be described 
as the first definite step in the modern partition of the 
continent.  He summoned to a conference at Brussels 
representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, 
Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate on the best 
methods to be adopted for the exploration and civilization of 
Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the continent 
to commerce and industry.  The conference was entirely 
unofficial.  The delegates who attended neither represented 
nor pledged their respective governments.  Their deliberations 
lasted three days and resulted in the foundation of ``The 
International African Association,'' with its headquarters at 
Brussels.  It was further resolved to establish national 
committees in the various countries represented, which should 
collect funds and appoint delegates to the International 
Association.  The central idea appears to have been to put the 
exploration and development of Africa upon an international 
footing.  But it quickly became apparent that this was an 
unattainable ideal.  The national committees were soon working 
independently of the International Association, and the 
Association itself passed through a succession of stages until 
it became purely Belgian in character, and at last developed 
into the Congo Free State, under the personal sovereignty 
of King Leopold.  At first the Association devoted itself 
to sending expeditions to the great central lakes from the 
east coast; but failure, more or less complete attended its 
efforts in this direction, and it was not until the return of 
Stanley, in January 1878, from his great journey down the 
Congo, that its ruling spirit, King Leopold, definitely 
turned his thoughts towards the Congo.  In June of that year, 
Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in the following 
November a private conference was held, and a committee 
was appointed for the investigation of the upper Congo. 

Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other 
capitals than Brussels.  France had always taken a keen interest 

The struggle for the Congo. 

in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan 
de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of the 
Ogowe river to the south of the Gabun.  De Brazza determined 
that the Ogowe did not offer that great waterway into the 
interior of which he was in search, and he returned to Europe 
without having heard of the discoveries of Stanley farther 
south.  Naturally, however, Stanley's discoveries were keenly 
followed in France.  In Portugal, too, the discovery of the 
Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway of more than a 
thousand miles into the heart of the continent served to revive 
the languid energies of the Portuguese, who promptly began 
to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse ratio to their 
validity.  Claims, annexations and occupations were in the 
air, and when in January 1879 Stanley left Europe as the 
accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo committee, 
the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and 
intentions.  The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding 
up the Congo to assist the Belgian expedition which had 
entered from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to 
Zanzibar.  But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at 
Banana Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has 
written, ``the novel mission of sowing along its banks civilized 
settlements to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould 
it in harmony with modern ideas into national states, within 
whose limits the European merchant shall go hand in hand with 
the dark African trader, and justice and law and order shall 
prevail, and murder and lawlessness and the cruel barter of 
slaves shall be overcome.'' The irony of human aspirations was 
never perhaps more plainly demonstrated than in the contrast 
between the ideal thus set before themselves by those who 
employed Stanley, and the actual results of their intervention in 
Africa.  Stanley founded his first station at Vivi, between 
the mouth of the Congo and the rapids that obstruct its course 
where it breaks over the western edge of the central continental 
plateau.  Above the rapids he established a station on Stanley 
Pool and named it Leopoldville, founding other stations on the 
main stream in the direction of the falls that bear his name. 

Meanwhile de Brazza was far from idle.  He had returned to 
Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King 
Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the 
southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents 
were equally busy on the northern bank.  De Brazza was sent 
out to Africa by the French committee of the International 
African Association, which provided him with the funds for the 
expedition.  His avowed object was to explore the region 
between the Gabun and Lake Chad.  But his real object was to 
anticipate Stanley on the Congo.  The international character 
of the association founded by King Leopold was never more 
than a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and 
the Belgians on the Congo was soon open, if not avowed.  In 
October 1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on 
the north bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority 
extended over a large area, including territory on the southern 
bank of the river.  As soon as this chief had accepted French 
protection, de Brazza crossed over to the south of the 
river, and founded a station close to the present site of 
Leopoldville.  The discovery by Stanley of the French station 
annoyed King Leopold's agent, and he promptly challenged 
the rights of the chief who purported to have placed the 
country under French protection, and himself founded a Belgian 
station close to the site selected by de Brazza.  In the 
result, the French station was withdrawn to the northern 
side of Stanley Pool, where it is now known as Brazzaville. 

The activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had 
not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government 
saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never 
ceased to put forward on the west coast were not to go by 
default.  At varying periods during the 19th century 
Portugal had put forward claims to the whole of the West 
African coast, between 5 deg.  12' and 8 deg.  south.  North of 
the Congo mouth she claimed the territories of Kabinda and 
Molemba, alleging that they had been in her possession since 
1484.  Great Britain had never, however, admitted this 
claim, and south of the Congo had declined to recognize 
Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz.  In 
1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by 
force any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that 
place.  But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their 
claims, and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the 
British government for recognition of Portuguese rights over 
both banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance 
inland.  Into the details of the negotiations, which were 
conducted for Great Britain by the 2nd Earl Granville, who was 
then secretary for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; 
they resulted in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a 
treaty, by which Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of 
the king of Portugal ``over that part of the west coast of 
Africa, situated between 8 deg.  and 5 deg.  12' south latitude,'' and 
inland as far as Noki, on the south bank of the Congo, below 
Vivi.  The navigation of the Congo was to be controlled by 
an Anglo-Portuguese commission.  The publication of this 
treaty evoked immediate protests, not only on the continent 
but in Great Britain.  In face of the disapproval aroused 
by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself unable to ratify 
it.  The protests had not been confined to France and 
the king of the Belgians.  Germany had not yet acquired 
formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the 
spring prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince 
Bismarck had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections 
entertained by Germany to the Anglo-Portuguese treaty. 

For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a 
general conviction that it would be desirable for the powers 
who were interesting themselves in Africa to come to some 
agreement as to ``the rules of the game,'' and to define 
their respective interests so far as that was practicable.  
Lord Granville's ill-fated treaty brought this sentiment 
to a head, and it was agreed to hold an international 
conference on African affairs.  But before discussing the 
Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be well to see what 
was the position, on the eve of the conference, in other 
parts of the African continent.  In the southern section of 
Africa, south of the Zambezi, important events had been 
happening.  In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement 

British influence consolidated in South Africa. 

with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of frontiers, the 
result of which was to leave the Kimberley diamond fields in 
British territory, in exchange for a payment of L. 90,000 to the 
Orange Free State.  On the 12th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus 
Shepstone had issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal-- 
the South African Republic, as it was officially designated--to 
be British territory (see TRANSVAAL.) In December 1880 war 
broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace was 
signed.  This treaty of peace was followed by a convention, 
signed in August of the same year, under which complete 
self-government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the 
Transvaal, subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon 
certain terms and conditions and subject to certain reservations 
and limitations.  No sooner was the convention signed than 
it became the object of the Boers to obtain a modification of 
the conditions and limitations imposed, and in February 1884 
a fresh convention was signed, amending the convention of 
1881.  Article IV. of the new convention provided that ``The 
South African Republic will conclude no treaty or engagement 
with any state or nation other than the Orange Free State, 
nor with any native tribe to the eastward or westward of the 
Republic, until the same has been approved by Her Majesty the 
Queen.'' The precise effect of the two conventions has been 
the occasion for interminable discussions, but as the subject 
is now one of merely academic interest, it is sufficient to 
say that when the Berlin conference held its first meeting 
in 1884 the Transvaal was practically independent, so far 
as its internal administration was concerned, while its 
foreign relations were subject to the control just quoted. 

But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 1875 
and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British 
influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi 
had been steadily extended.  To the west of the Orange Free 
State, Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, 
while to the east the territories beyond the Kei river were 
included in Cape Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the 
latter year, with the exception of Pondoland, the whole of 
South-East Africa was in one form or another under British 
control.  North of Natal, Zululand was not actually annexed 
until 1887, although since 1879, when the military power of 
the Zulus was broken up, British influence had been admittedly 
supreme.  In December 1884 St Lucia Bay--upon which Germany was 
casting covetous eyes--had been taken possession of in virtue 
of its cession to Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, and 
three years later an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers 
made by Great Britain with the regent and paramount chief of 
Tongaland completed the chain of British possessions on the 
coast of South Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river 
on the west to Kosi Bay and the Portuguese frontier on the 
east.  In the interior of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed 
the beginning of that final stage of the British advance 
towards the north which was to extend British influence from the 
Cape to the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika.  The activity 
of the Germans on the west, and of the Boer republic on the 
east, had brought home to both the imperial and colonial 
authorities the impossibility of relying on vague traditional 
claims.  In May 1884 treaties were made with native chiefs 
by which the whole of the country north of Cape Colony, 
west of the Transvaal, south of 22 deg.  S. and east of 20 deg.  E., 
was placed under British protection, though a protectorate 
was not formally declared until the following January. 

Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place 
or: the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the 
Portuguese province of Mossamaede.  It must be sufficient here 
to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation 
of the colony of German South-West Africa.  For many years 
before 1884 German missionaries had settled among the Damaras 
(Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading operations 
with their missionary work.  From time to time trouble arose 
between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals 

Germany enters the field. 

were made to the German government for protection.  The 
German government in its turn begged the British government 
to say whether it assumed responsibility for the protection of 
Europeans in Damaraland and Namaqualand.  The position of the 
British government was intelligible, if not very intelligent.  
It did not desire to see any other European power in these 
countries, and it did not want to assume the responsibility 
and incur the expense of protecting the few Europeans settled 
there.  Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of the Cape (1877-1880), 
had foreseen that this attitude portended trouble, and had 
urged that the whole of the unoccupied coastline, up to 
the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under British 
protection.  But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as something 
of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British flag was 
hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent land 
declared to be British.  The fact appears to be that British 
statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over 
Germany.  They believed that Prince Bismarck would never give 
his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to 
the German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed 
in Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were 
sent.  Meanwhile the various colonial societies established 
in Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, 
and, more important still, they had convinced the great 
chancellor.  Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. 
Luderitz, a Bremen merchant, informed the German government 
of his intention to establish a factory on the coast between 
the Orange river and the Little Fish river, and asked if he 
might rely on the protection of his government in case of 
need, he met with no discouragement from Prince Bismarck.  
In February 1883 the German ambassador in London informed 
Lord Granville of Luderitz's design, and asked ``whether 
Her Majesty's government exercise any authority in that 
locality.'' It was intimated that if Her Majesty's government 
did not, the German government would extend to Luderitz's 
factory ``the same measure of protection which they give 
to their subjects in remote parts of the world, but without 
having the least design to establish any footing in South 
Africa.'' An inconclusive reply was sent, and on the 9th of 
April Luderitz's agent landed at Angra Pequena, and after a 
short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by which 
some 215 square miles around Angra Pequena were ceded to 
Luderitz.  In England and at the Cape irritation at the news 
was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated 
that Luderitz would be disavowed by his government.  But 
for this belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of 
the unoccupied coast-line would have been promptly declared 
under British protection.  Still Prince Bismarck was slow to 
act.  In November the German ambassador again inquired if Great 
Britain made any claim over this coast, and Lord Granville 
replied that Her Majesty exercised sovereignty only over 
certain parts of the coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested 
that arrangements might be made by which Germany might assist 
in the settlement of Angra Pequena.  By this time Luderitz 
had extended his acquisitions southwards to the Orange river, 
which had been declared by the British government to be the 
northern frontier of Cape Colony.  Both at the Cape and in 
England it was now realized that Germany had broken away from 
her former purely continental policy, and, when too late, the 
Cape parliament showed great eagerness to acquire the territory 
which had lain so long at its very doors, to be had for the 
taking.  It is not necessary to follow the course-of the 
subsequent negotiations.  On the 15th of August 1884 an 
official note was addressed by the German consul at Capetown 
to the high commissioner, intimating that the German emperor 
had by proclamation taken ``the territory belonging to Mr 
A. Luderitz on the west coast of Africa under the direct 
protection of His Majesty.'' This proclamation covered the 
coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26 deg.  S. 
latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including ``the 
islands belonging thereto by the law of nations.'' On the 
8th of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her 
Majesty's government ``that the west coast of Africa from 
26 deg.  S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had 
been placed under the protection of the German emperor.'' 
Thus, before the end of the year 1884, the foundations of 
Germany's colonial empire had been laid in South-West Africa. 

In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British 
government, through the German charge d'affaires in London, 

Nachtigal's mission to West Africa. 

that ``the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has been 
commissioned by my government to visit the west coast of 
Africa in the course of the next few months, in order to 
complete the information now in the possession of the Foreign 
Office at Berlin, on the state of German commerce on that 
coast.  With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly embark at 
Lisbon, on board the gunboat `Mowe.' He will put himself into 
communication with the authorities in the British possessions 
on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on behalf of 
the imperial government, negotiations connected with certain 
questions.  I venture,'' the official communication proceeds, 
``in accordance with my instructions, to beg your excellency 
to be so good as to cause the authorities in the British 
possessions in West Africa to be furnished with suitable 
recommendations.'' Although at the date of this communication 
it must have been apparent, from what was happening in South 
Africa, that Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of 
colonial expansion, and although the wording of the letter was 
studiously vague, it does not seem to have occurred to the British 
government that the real object of Gustav Nachtigal's journey 
was to make other annexations on the west coast.  Yet such was 
indeed his mission.  German traders and missionaries had been 
particularly active of late years on the coast of the Gulf of 
Guinea.  German factories were dotted all along the coast in 
districts under British protection, under French protection 
and under the definite protection of no European power at 
all.  It was to these latter places that Nachtigal turned his 
attention.  The net result of his operations was that on 
the 5th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the king of 
Togo, placing his country under German protection, and that 
just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed 
over the Cameroon district.  Before either of these events 
had occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that 
she could no longer dally with the subject, if she desired 
to consolidate her possessions in West Africa.  The British 
government had again and again refused to accord native 
chiefs the protection they demanded.  The Cameroon chiefs 
had several times asked for British protection, and always in 
vain.  But at last it became apparent, even to the official 
mind, that rapid changes were being effected in Africa, 
and on the 16th of May Edward Hyde Hewett, British consul, 
received instructions to return to the west coast and to make 
arrangements for extending British protection over certain 
regions.  He arrived too late to save either Togoland or 
Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King 
Bell and the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with 
Nachtigal.  But the British consul was in time to secure the 
delta of the river Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending 
from Rio del Rey to the Lagos frontier, where for a long 
period British traders had held almost a monopoly of the trade. 

Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making.  While 
the British government still remained under the spell of the 

French and British rivalry in West Africa. 

fatal resolution of 1865, the French government was strenuously 
endeavouring to extend France's influence in West Africa, in 
the countries lying behind the coastline.  During the year 
1884 no fewer than forty-two treaties were concluded with 
native chiefs, an even larger number having been concluded 
in the previous twelve months.  In this fashion France was 
pushing on towards Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the 
policy which resulted in surrounding all the old British 
possessions in West Africa with a continuous band of French 
territory.  There was, however, one region on the west coast 
where, notwithstanding the lethargy of the British government, 
British interests were being vigorously pushed, protected and 
consolidated.  This was on the lower Niger, and the leading 
spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie Taubman (afterwards 
Sir George Taubman Goldie).  In 1877 Sir George Goldie visited 
the Niger and conceived the idea of establishing a settled 
government in that region.  Through his efforts the various 
trading firms on the lower Niger formed themselves in 1879 
into the ``United African Company,'' and the foundations 
were laid of something like settled administration.  An 
application was made to the British government for a charter in 
1881, and the capital of the company increased to a million 
sterling.  Henceforth the company was known as the ``National 
African Company,'' and it was acknowledged that its object 
was not only to develop the trade of the lower Niger, 
but to extend its operations to the middle reaches of the 
river, and to open up direct relations with the great Fula 
empire of Sokoto and the smaller states associated with 
Sokoto under a somewhat loosely defined suzerainty.  The 
great development of trade which followed the combination 
of British interests carried out under Goldie's skilful 
guidance did not pass unnoticed in France, and, encouraged by 
Gambetta, French traders made a bold bid for a position on the 
river.  Two French companies, with ample capital, were 
formed, and various stations were established on the lower 
Niger.  Goldie realized at once the seriousness of the 
situation, and lost no time in declaring commercial war on the 
newcomers.  His bold tactics were entirely successful, and a 
few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference he had 
the satisfaction of announcing that he had bought out the 
whole of the French interests on the river, and that Great 
Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower Niger. 

To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at 
the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to 

The position in Tunisia and Egypt. 

refer briefly to the course of events in North and East 
Africa since 1875.  In 1881 a French army entered Tunisia, 
and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing that country 
under French protection.  The sultan of Turkey formally 
protested against this invasion of Ottoman rights, but the 
great powers took no action, and France was left in undisturbed 
possession of her newly acquired territory.  In Egypt the 
extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to the establishment in 
1879, in the interests of European bondholders, of a Dual 
Control exercised by France and Great Britain.  France had, 
however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppression 
of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished 
unaided.  As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished 
in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army 
quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position 
in Egyptian affairs (see EGYPT.) In East Africa, north of 
the Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was 
the most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly 
preparing the foundations of her present colony of German East 
Africa.  But no overt act had warned Europe of what was 
impending.  The story of the foundation of German East Africa 
is one of the romances of the continent.  Early in 1884 the 
Society for German Colonization was founded, with the avowed 
object of furthering the newly awakened colonial aspirations 
of the German people.12 It was a society inspired and 
controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884, 
eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three 
young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar.  They 
were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters, 
the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count 
Pfeil, and Dr Juhlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of 
a number of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms.  
They proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and 

The German flag raised in East Africa. 

to conclude treaties in the back country with native chiefs 
placing their territories under German protection.  The 
enterprise was frowned upon by the German government; 
but, encouraged by German residents at Zanzibar, the three 
young pioneers crossed to the mainland, and on the 19th of 
November, while the diplomatists assembled at Berlin were 
solemnly discussing the rules which were to govern the game of 
partition, the first ``treaty'' was signed at Mbuzini, and 
the German flag raised for the first time in East Africa. 

Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent 
before the meeting of the Berlin conference.  The Rubattino 
Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of 
Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that 
it was declared an Italian colony.  This was followed by the 
conclusion of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the 
Danakil, signed on the 15th of March 1883, and subsequently 
approved by the king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the 
cession of part of Ablis (Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy 
undertaking to protect with her fleet the Danakil littoral. 

One other event must be recorded as happening before the 
meeting of the Berlin conference.  The king of the Belgians had 

Recognition of the International Association. 

been driven to the conclusion that, if his African enterprise 
was to obtain any measure of permanent success, its international 
status must be recognized.  To this end negotiations were 
opened with various governments.  The first government to 
``recognize the flag of the International Association of the 
Congo as the flag of a friendly government'' was that of the 
United States, its declaration to that effect bearing date 
the 22nd of April 1884.  There were, however, difficulties 
in the way of obtaining the recognition of the European 
powers, and in order to obtain that of France, King Leopold, 
on the 23rd of April 1884, while labouring under the feelings 
of annoyance which had been aroused by the Anglo-Portuguese 
treaty concluded by Lord Granville in February, authorized 
Colonel Strauch, president of the International Association, 
to engage to give France ``the right of preference if, through 
unforeseen circumstances, the Association were compelled 
to sell its possessions.'' France's formal recognition of 
the Association as a government was, however, delayed by 
the discussion of boundary questions until the following 
February, and in the meantime Germany, Great Britain, 
Italy, Austria-Hungary, Holland and Spain had all recognized 
the Association; though Germany alone had done so--on the 
8th of November--before the assembling of the conference. 

The conference assembled at Berlin on the 15th of November 
1884, and after protracted deliberations the ``General Act of 

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85. 

the Berlin Conference'' was signed by the representatives of 
all the powers attending the conference, on the 26th of February 
1885.  The powers represented were Germany, Austria-Hungary, 
Belgium, Denmark, Spain, the United States, France, Great 
Britain, Italy, Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and 
Norway, and Turkey, to name them in the alphabetical order 
adopted in the preamble to the French text of the General 
Act. Ratifications were deposited by all the signatory powers 
with the exception of the United States.  It is unnecessary 
to examine in detail the results of the labours of the 
conference.  The General Act dealt with six specific subjects: 
(1) freedom of trade in the basin of the Congo, (2) the slave 
trade, (3) neutrality of territories in the basin of the Congo, 
(4) navigation of the Congo, (5) navigation of the Niger, 
(6) rules for future occupation on the coasts of the African 
continent.  It will be seen that the act dealt with other 
matters than the political partition of Africa; but, so far as 
they concern the present purpose, the results effected by the 
Berlin Act may be summed up as follows.  The signatory powers 
undertook that any fresh act of taking possession on any portion 
of the African coast must be notified by the power taking 
possession, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory 
powers.  It was further provided that any such occupation to be 
valid must be effective.  It is also noteworthy that the first 
reference in an international act to the obligations attaching 
to ``spheres of influence'' is contained in the Berlin Act. 

It will be remembered that when the conference assembled, 
the International Association of the Congo had only been 

Constitution of the Congo State. 

recognized as a sovereign state by the United States and 
Germany.  But King Leopold and his agents had taken full 
advantage of the opportunity which the conference afforded, 
and before the General Act was signed the Association had 
been recognized by all the signatory powers, with the not 
very important exception of Turkey, and the fact communicated 
to the conference by Colonel Strauch.  It was not, however, 
until two months later, in April 1885, that King Leopold, 
with the sanction of the Belgian legislature, formally assumed 
the headship of the new state; and on the 1st of August 
in the same year His Majesty notified the powers that from 
that date the ``Independent State of the Congo'' declared 
that ``it shall be perpetually neutral'' in conformity 
with the provisions of the Berlin Act. Thus was finally 
constituted the Congo Free State, under the sovereignty of 
King Leopold, though the boundaries claimed for it at that 
time were considerably modified by subsequent agreements. 

From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with renewed 
vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the 

The chief partition treaties. 

century the work of partition, so far as international 
agreements were concerned, was practically completed.  To 
attempt to follow the process of acquisition year by year 
would involve a constant shifting of attention from one part 
of the continent to another, inasmuch as the scramble was 
proceeding simultaneously all over Africa.  It will therefore 
be the most convenient plan to deal with the continent in 
sections.  Before doing so, however, the international 
agreements which determined in the main the limits of the 
possessions of the various powers may be set forth.  They 
are:-- I. The agreement of the 1st of July 1890 between Great 
Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in 
East, West and South-West Africa.  This agreement was the 
most comprehensive of all the ``deals'' in African territory, 
and included in return for the recognition of a British 
protectorate over Zanzibar the cession of Heligoland to Germany. 

II. The Anglo-French declaration of the 5th of August 1890, which 
recognized a French protectorate over Madagascar, French influence 
in the Sahara, and British influence between the Niger and Lake Chad. 

III. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of the 11th of June 
1891, whereby the Portuguese possessions on the west 
and east coasts were separated by a broad belt of 
British territory, extending north to Lake Tanganyika. 

IV. The Franco-German convention of the 15th of March 1894, by 
which the Central Sudan was left to France (this region by an 
Anglo-German agreement of the 15th of November 1893 having been 
recognized as in the German sphere).  By this convention France 
was able to effect a territorial )unction of her possessions 
in North and West Africa with those in the Congo region. 

V. Protocols of the 24th of March and the 15th of April 1891, 
for the demarcation of the Anglo-Italian spheres in East Africa. 

VI. The Anglo-French convention of the 14th of June 1898, 
for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries 
west of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration 
of the 21st of March 1899 whereby France recognized the 
upper Nile valley as in the British sphere of influence. 

Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations 
of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free State, which 

The growth of the Congo State. 

occupied, geographically, a central position, may serve as the 
starting-point for the story of the partition after the Berlin 
conference.  In the notification to the powers of the 1st of 
August 1885, the boundaries of the Free State were set out in 
considerable detail.  The limits thus determined resulted partly 
from agreements made with France, Germany and Portugal, and 
partly from treaties with native chiefs.  The state acquired 
the north bank of the Congo from its mouth to a point in the 
unnavigable reaches, and in the interior the major part of 
the Congo basin.  In the north-east the northern limit was 4 deg.  
N. up to 30 deg.  E., which formed the eastern boundary of, the 
state.  The south-eastern frontier claimed by King Leopold 
extended to Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru and Bangweulu, but it 
was not until some years later that it was recognized and 
defined by the agreement of May 1894 with Great Britain.  
The international character of King Leopold's enterprise had 
not long been maintained, and his recognition as sovereign 
of the Free State confirmed the distinctive character 
which the Association had assumed, even before that event. 

In April 1887 France was informed that the right of pre-emption 
accorded to her in 1884 had not been intended by King Leopold 
to prejudice Belgium's right to acquire the Congo State, 
and in reply the French minister at Brussels took note of 
the explanation, ``in so far as this interpretation is not 
contrary to pre-existing international engagements.'' By his 
will, dated the 2nd of August 1889, King Leopold made Belgium 
formally heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free 
State.  In 1895 an annexation bill was introduced into the 
Belgian parliament, but at that time Belgium had no desire to 
assume responsibility for the Congo State, and the bill was 
withdrawn.  In 1901, by the terms of a loan granted in 
1890, Belgium had again an opportunity of annexing the Congo 
State, but a bill in favour of annexation was opposed by the 
government and was withdrawn after King Leopold had declared 
that the time was not ripe for the transfer.  Concessionaire 
companies and a Domaine de la Couronne had been created 
in the state, from which the sovereign derived considerable 
revenues--facts which helped to explain the altered attitude 
of Leopold II. The agitation in Great Britain and America 
against the Congo system of government, and the admissions of an 
official commission of inquiry concerning its maladministration, 
strengthened, however, the movement in favour of transfer.  
Nevertheless in June 1906 the king again declared himself 
opposed to immediate annexation.  But under pressure of public 
opinion the Congo government concluded, 28th of November 
1907, a new annexation treaty.  As it stipulated for the 
continued existence of the crown domain the treaty provoked 
vehement opposition.  Leopold II. was forced to yield, and 
an additional act was signed, 5th of March 1908, providing 
for the suppression of the domain in return for financial 
subsidies.  The treaty, as amended, was approved by the 
Belgian parliament in the session of 1908.  Thus the Congo 
state, after an existence of 24 years as an independent 
power, became a Belgian colony. (See CONGO FREE STATE.) 

The area of the Free State, vast as it was, did not suffice to 
satisfy the ambition of its sovereign.  King Leopold maintained 
that the Free State enjoyed equally with any other state the 
right to extend its frontiers.  His ambition involved the 
state in the struggle between Great Britain and France for 
the upper Nile.  To understand the situation it is necessary 
to remember the condition of the Egyptian Sudan at that 
time.  The mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed, had preached a holy war 
against the Egyptians, and, after the capture of Khartum and 
the death of General C. G. Gordon, the Sudan was abandoned 
to the dervishes.  The Egyptian frontier was withdrawn to 
Wadi Haifa, and the vast provinces of Kordofan, Darfur and 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal were given over to dervish tyranny and 
misrule.  It was obvious that Egypt would sooner or later 
seek to recover her position in the Sudan, as the command of 
the upper Nile was recognized as essential to her continued 
prosperity.  But the international position of the abandoned 
provinces was by no means clear.  The British government, 
by the Anglo-German agreement of July 1890, had secured the 
assent of Germany to the statement that the British sphere 
of influence in East Africa was bounded on the west by the 
Congo Free State and by ``the western watershed of the basin 
of the upper Nile''; but this claim was not recognized either 
by France or by the Congo Free State.  From her base on the 
Congo, France was busily engaged pushing forward along the 
northern tributaries of the great river.  On the 27th of April 
1887 an agreement was signed with the Congo Free State by 
which the right bank of the Ubangi river was secured to French 
influence, and the left bank to the Congo Free State.  The 
desire of France to secure a footing in the upper Nile valley 
was partly due, as has been seen, to her anxiety to extend 
a French zone across Africa, but it was also and to a large 

The contest for the upper Nile. 

extent attributable to the belief, widely entertained in 
France, that by establishing herself on the upper Nile France 
could regain the position in Egyptian affairs which she had 
sacrificed in 1882.  With these strong inducements France set 
steadily to work to consolidate her position on the tributary 
streams of the upper Congo basin, preparatory to crossing into 
the valley of the upper Nile.  Meanwhile a similar advance 
was being made from the Congo Free State northwards and 
eastwards.  King Leopold had two objects in view---to obtain 
control of the rich province of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and to 
secure an outlet on the Nile.  Stations were established on 
the Welle river, and in February 1891 Captain van Kerckhoven 
left Leopoldville for the upper Welle with the most powerful 
expedition which had, up to that time, been organized by the 
Free State.  After some heavy fighting the expedition reached 
the Nile in September 1892, and opened up communications 
with the remains of the old Egyptian garrison at Wadelai.  
Other expeditions under Belgian officers penetrated into 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and it was apparent that King Leopold 
proposed to rely on effective occupation as an answer to any 
claims which might be advanced by either Great Britain or 
France.  The news of what was happening in this remote region 
Of Africa filtered through to Europe very slowly, but King 
Leopold was warned on several occasions that Great Britain 
would not recognize any claims by the Congo Free State on the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal.  The difficulty was, however, that neither from 
Egypt, whence the road was barred by the khalifa (the successor 
of the mahdi), nor from Uganda, which was far too remote from 
the coast to serve as the base of a large expedition, could 
a British force be despatched to take effective occupation 
of the upper Nile valley.  There was, therefore, danger 
lest the French should succeed in establishing themselves 
on the upper Nile before the preparations which were being 
made in Egypt for ``smashing'' the khalifa were completed. 

In these circumstances Lord Rosebery, who was then British 
foreign minister, began, and his successor, the 1st earl of 

The Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894. 

Kimberley, completed, negotiations with King Leopold which 
resulted in the conclusion of the Anglo-Congolese agreement of 
12th May 1894.  By this agreement King Leopold recognized the 
British sphere of influence as laid down in the Anglo-German 
agreement of July 1890, and Great Britain granted a lease 
to King Leopold of certain territories in the western basin 
of the upper Nile, extending on the Nile from a point on 
Lake Albert to Fashoda, and westwards to the Congo-Nile 
watershed.  The practical effect of this agreement was to 
give the Congo Free State a lease, during its sovereign's 
lifetime, of the old Bahr-el-Ghazal province, and to secure 
after His Majesty's death as much of that territory as lay 
west of the 30th meridian, together with access to a port on 
Lake Albert, to his successor.  At the same time the Congo 
Free State leased to Great Britain a strip of territory, 
15 1/2 m. in breadth, between the north end of Lake Tanganyika 
and the south end of Lake Albert Edward.  This agreement 
was hailed as a notable triumph for British diplomacy.  But 
the triumph was short-lived.  By the agreement of July 1890 
with Germany, Great Britain had been reluctantly compelled 
to abandon her hopes of through communication between the 
British spheres in the northern and southern parts of the 
continent, and to Consent to the boundary of German East 
Africa marching with the eastern frontier of the Congo Free 
State.  Germany frankly avowed that she did not wish to have a 
powerful neighbour interposed between herself and the Congo Free 
State.  It was obvious that the new agreement would effect 
precisely what Germany had declined to agree to in 1890.  
Accordingly Germany protested in such vigorous terms that, on 
the 22nd of June 1894, the offending article was withdrawn by 
an exchange of notes between Great Britain and the Congo Free 
State.  Opinion in France was equally excited by the new 
agreement.  It was obvious that the lease to the Congo Free 
State was intended to exclude France from the Nile by placing 
the Congo Free State as a barrier across her path.  Pressure 
was brought to bear on King Leopold, from Paris, to renounce the 
rights acquired under the agreement, and on the 14th of August 
1894 King Leopold signed an agreement with France by which, in 
exchange for France's acknowledgment of the Mbomu river as his 
northern frontier, His Majesty renounced all occupation and all 
exercise of political influence west of 30 deg.  E., and north of 
a line drawn from that meridian to the Nile along 5 deg.  30' N. 

This left the way still open for France to the Nile, 
and in June 1896 Captain J. Marchand left France with 
secret instructions to lead an expedition into the Nile 
valley.  On the 1st of March in the following year he left 
Brazzaville, and began a journey which all but plunged Great 
Britain and France into war.  The difficulties which Captain 
Marchand had to overcome were mainly those connected with 
transport.  In October 1897 the expedition reached the banks 
of the Sue, the waters of which eventually flow into the 
Nile.  Here a post was established and the ``Faidherbe,'' a 
steamer which had been carried across the Congo-Nile watershed 
in sections, was put together and launched.  On the 1st of 
May 1898 Marchand started on the final stage of his journey, 
and reached Fashoda on the 10th of July, having established 
a chain of posts en route. At Fashoda the French flag 
was at once raised, and a ``treaty'' made with the local 
chief.  Meanwhile other expeditions had been concentrating on 

The French at Fashoda. 

Fashoda--a mud-flat situated in a swamp, round which for many 
months raged the angry passions of two great peoples.  French 
expeditions, with a certain amount of assistance from the 
emperor Menelek of Abyssinia, had been striving to reach the 
Nile from the east, so as to join hands with Marchand and 
complete the line of posts into the Abyssinian frontier.  In 
this, however, they were unsuccessful.  No better success 
attended the expedition under Colonel (afterwards Sir) Ronald 
Macdonald, R.E., sent by the British government from Uganda 
to anticipate the French in the occupation of the upper Nile.  
It was from the north that claimants arrived to dispute with 
the French their right to Fashoda, and all that the occupation 
of that dismal post implied.  In 1896 an Anglo-Egyptian 
army, under the direction of Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) 
Kitchener, had begun to advance southwards for the reconquest 
of the Egyptian Sudan.  On the 2nd of September 1898 Khartum 
was captured, and the khalifa's army dispersed.  It was then 
that news reached the Anglo-Egyptian commander, from native 
sources, that there were white men flying a strange flag at 
Fashoda.  The sirdar at once proceeded in a steamer up the 
Nile, and courteously but firmly requested Captain Marchand 
to remove the French flag.  On his refusal the Egyptian flag 
was raised close to the French flag, and the dispute was 
referred to Europe for adjustment between the British and 
French governments.  A critical situation ensued.  Neither 
government was inclined to give way, and for a time war seemed 
imminent.  Happily Lord Salisbury was able to announce, on 
the 4th of November, that France was willing to recognize 
the British claims, and the incident was finally closed on 
the 21st of March 1899, when an Anglo-French declaration was 
signed, by the terms of which France withdrew from the Nile 
valley and accepted a boundary line which satisfied her 
earlier ambition by uniting the whole of her territories in 
North, West and Central Africa into a homogeneous whole, 
while effectually preventing the realization of her dream 
of a transcontinental empire from west to east.  By this 
declaration it was agreed that the dividing line between 
the British and French spheres, north of the Congo Free 
State, should follow the Congo-Nile water-parting up to its 
intersection with the 11th parallel of north latitude, from 
which point it was to be ``drawn as far as the 15th parallel 
in such a manner as to separate in principle the kingdom of 
Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the province of Darfur,'' 
but in no case was it to be drawn west of the 21st degree of 
east longitude, or east of the 23rd degree.  From the 15th 
parallel the line was continued north and north-west to the 
intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with 16 deg.  E. French 
influence was to prevail west of this line, British influence 
to the east.  Wadai was thus definitely assigned to France. 

When, by the declaration of the 21st of March 1899, France 
renounced all territorial ambitions in the upper Nile basin, King 

Fate of the Bar-el-Ghazal. 

Leopold revived his claims to the Bahr-el-Ghazal province 
under the terms of the lease granted by Article 2 of the 
Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894.  This step he was encouraged 
to take by the assertion of Lord Salisbury, in his capacity as 
secretary of state for foreign affairs during the negotiations 
with France concerning Fashoda, that the lease to King Leopold 
was still in full force.  But the assertion was made simply 
as a declaration of British right to dispose of the territory, 
and the sovereign of the Congo State found that there was no 
disposition in Great Britain to allow the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall 
into his hands.  Long and fruitless negotiations ensued.  The 
king at length (1904) sought to force a settlement by sending 
armed forces into the province.  Diplomatic representations 
having failed to secure the withdrawal of these forces, the 
Sudan government issued a proclamation which had the effect 
of cutting off the Congo stations from communication with the 
Nile, and finally King Leopold consented to an agreement, 
signed in London on the 9th of May 1906, whereby the 1894 
lease was formally annulled.  The Bahr-el-Ghazal thenceforth 
became undisputedly an integral part of the Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan.  King Leopold had, however, by virtue of the 1894 
agreement administered the comparatively small portion of 
the leased area in which his presence was not resented by 
France.  This territory, including part of the west bank of 
the Nile and known as the Lado Enclave, the 1906 agreement 
allowed King Leopold to ``continue during his reign to occupy.'' 
Provision was made that within six months of the termination 
of His Majesty's reign the enclave should be handed over to 
the Sudan government (see CONGO FREE STATE.) In this manner 
ended the long struggle for supremacy on the upper Nile, 
Great Britain securing the withdrawal of all European rivals. 

The course of events in the southern half of the continent 
may now be traced.  By the convention of the 14th of February 

Portugal's trans-African schemes.  

1885, in which Portugal recognized the sovereignty of the 
Congo Free State, and by a further convention concluded with 
France in 1886, Portugal secured recognition of her claim to 
the territory known as the Kabinda enclave, lying north of the 
Congo, but not to the northern bank of the river.  By the same 
convention of 1885 Portugal's claim to the southern bank of 
the river as far as Noki (the limit of navigation from the 
sea) had been admitted.  Thus Portuguese possessions on the 
west coast extended from the Congo to the mouth of the Kunene 
river.  In the interior the boundary with the Free State 
was settled as far as the Kwango river, but disputes arose 
as to the right to the country of Lunda, otherwise known as 
the territory of the Muato Yanvo.  On the 25th of May 1891 
a treaty was signed at Lisbon, by which this large territory 
was divided between Portugal and the Free State.  The interior 
limits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa south of the 
equator gave rise, however, to much more serious discussions 
than were involved in the dispute as to the Muato Yanvo's 
kingdom.  Portugal, as has been stated, claimed all the 
territories between Angola and Mozambique, and she succeeded 
in inducing both France and Germany, in 1886, to recognize 
the king of Portugal's ``right to exercise his sovereign 
and civilizing influence in the territories which separate 
the Portuguese possessions or Angola and Mozambique.'' The 
publication of the treaties containing this declaration, 
together with a map showing Portuguese claims extending over 
the whole of the Zambezi valley, and over Matabeleland to 
the south and the greater part of Lake Nyasa to the north, 
immediately provoked a formal protest from the British 
government.  On the 13th of August 1887 the British charge 
d'affaires at Lisbon transmitted to the Portuguese minister 
for foreign affairs a memorandum from Lord Salisbury, in 
which the latter formally protested ``against any claims not 
founded on occupation,'' and contended that the doctrine of 
effective occupation had been admitted in principle by all the 
parties to the Act of Berlin.  Lord Salisbury further stated 
that ``Her Majesty's government cannot recognize Portuguese 
sovereignty in territory not occupied by her in sufficient 
strength to enable her to maintain order, protect foreigners 
and control the natives.'' To this Portugal replied that the 
doctrine of effective occupation was expressly confined by 
the Berlin Act to the African coast, but at the same time 
expeditions were hastily despatched up the Zambezi and some 
of its tributaries to discover traces of former Portuguese 
occupation.  Matabeleland and the districts of Lake Nyasa were 
specially mentioned in the British protest as countries in which 
Her Majesty's government took a special interest.  As a matter 
of fact the extension of British influence northwards to the 
Zambezi had engaged the attention of the British authorities 
ever since the appearance of Germany in South-West Africa and 
the declaration of a British protectorate over Bechuanaland.  
There were rumours of German activity in Matabeleland, and 

Rhodesia secured for Great Britain. 

of a Boer trek north of the Limpopo.  Hunters and explorers 
had reported in eulogistic terms on the rich goldfields and 
healthy plateau lands of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, over 
both of which countries a powerful chief, Lobengula, claimed 
authority.  There were many suitors for Lobengula's favours; 
but on the 11th of February 1888 he signed a treaty with J. 
S. Moffat, the assistant commissioner in Bechuanaland, the 
effect of which was to place all his territory under British 
protection.  Both the Portuguese and the Transvaal Boers were 
chagrined at this extension of British influence.  A number of Boers 
attempted unsuccessfully to trek into the country, and Portugal 
opposed her ancient claims to the new treaty.  She contended 
that Lobengula's authority did not extend over Mashonaland, 
which she claimed as part of the Portuguese province of Sofala. 

Meanwhile preparations were being actively made by British 
capitalists for the exploitation of the mineral and other 
resources of Lobengula's territories.  Two rival syndicates 
obtained, or claimed to have obtained, concessions from 
Lobengula; but in the summer of 1889 Cecil Rhodes succeeded 
in amalgamating the conflicting interests, and on the 29th of 
October of that year the British government granted a charter 
to the British South Africa Company (see RHODESIA.) The 
first article of the charter declared that ``the principal 
field of the operations'' of the company ``shall be the region 
of South Africa lying immediately to the north of British 
Bechuanaland, and to the north and west of the South African 
Republic, and to the west of the Portuguese dominions.'' 
No time was lost in making preparations for effective 
occupation.  On the advice of F. C. Selous it was determined 
to despatch an expedition to eastern Mashonaland by a new 
route, which would avoid the Matabele country.  This plan was 
carried out in the summer of 1890, and, thanks to the rapidity 
with which the column moved and Selous's intimate knowledge of 
the country, the British flag was, on the 11th of September, 
hoisted at a spot on the Makubusi river, where the town of 
Salisbury now stands, and the country taken possession of 
in the name of Queen Victoria.  Disputes with the Portuguese 
ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for 
a time embittered the relations between the two countries. 

Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were 
making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect 


Anglo-Portuguese disputes in Central Africa. 

of centuries by hastily organized expeditions and the hoisting of 
flags.  In 1888 an attempt to close the Zambezi to British 
vessels was frustrated by the firmness of Lord Salisbury.  
In a despatch to the British minister at Lisbon, dated the 
25th of June 1888, Lord Salisbury, after brushing aside 
the Portuguese claims founded on doubtful discoveries three 
centuries old, stated the British case in a few sentences:-- 

It is (he wrote) an undisputed point that the recent discoveries 
of the English traveller, Livingstone, were followed by organized 
attempts on the part of English religious and commercial 
bodies to open up and civilize the districts surrounding 
and adjoining the lake.  Many British settlements have been 
established, the access to which from the sea is by the 
rivers Zambezi and Shire.  Her Majesty's government and the 
British public are much interested in the welfare of these 
settlements.  Portugal does not occupy, and has never occupied, 
any portion of the lake, nor of the Shire; she has neither 
authority nor influence beyond the confluence of the Shire 
and Zambezi, where her interior custom-house, now withdrawn, 
was placed by the terms of the Mozambique Tariff of 1877. 

In 1889 it became known to the British government that a 
considerable Portuguese expedition was being organized under 
the command of Major Serpa Pinto, for operating in the Zambezi 
region.  In answer to inquiries addressed to the Portuguese 
government, the foreign minister stated that the object of 
the expedition was to visit the Portuguese settlements on the 
upper Zambezi.  The British government was, even so late as 
1889, averse from declaring a formal protectorate over the 
Nyasa region; but early in that year H. H. (afterwards Sir 
Harry) Johnston was sent out to Mozambique as British consul, 
with instructions to travel in the interior and report on 
the troubles that had arisen with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa 
and with the Portuguese.  The discovery by D. J. Rankin in 
1889 of a navigable mouth of the Zambezi--the Chinde--and 
the offer by Cecil Rhodes of a subsidy of L. 10,000 a year 
from the British South Africa Company, removed some of the 
objections to a protectorate entertained by the British 
government; but Johnston's instructions were not to proclaim 
a protectorate unless circumstances compelled him to take that 
course.  To his surprise Johnston learnt on his arrival at 
the Zambezi that Major Serpa Pinto's expedition had been 
suddenly deflected to the north.  Hurrying forward, Johnston 
overtook the Portuguese expedition and warned its leader that 
any attempt to establish political influence north of the 
Ruo river would compel him to take steps to protect British 
interests.  On arrival at the Ruo, Major Serpa Pinto returned 
to Mozambique for instructions, and in his absence Lieutenant 
Coutinho crossed the river, attacked the Makololo chiefs 
and sought to obtain possession of the Shire highlands by a 
coup de main. John Buchanan, the British vice-consul, lost 
no time in declaring the country under British protection, 
and his action was subsequently confirmed by Johnston on his 
return from a treaty-making expedition on Lake Nyasa.  On the 
news of these events reaching Europe the British government 
addressed an ultimatum to Portugal, as the result of which 
Lieutenant Coutinho's action was disavowed, and he was ordered 
to withdraw the Portuguese forces south of the Ruo. After 
prolonged negotiations, a convention was signed between Great 
Britain and Portugal on the 20th of August 1890, by which 
Great Britain obtained a broad belt of territory north of the 
Zambezi, stretching from Lake Nyasa on the east, the southern 
end of Tanganyika on the north, and the Kabompo tributary of 
the Zambezi on the west; while south of the Zambezi Portugal 
retained the right bank of the river from a point ten miles above 
Zumbo, and the western boundary of her territory south of the 
river was made to coincide roughly with the 33rd degree of east 
longitude.  The publication of the convention aroused deep 
resentment in Portugal, and the government, unable to obtain 
its ratification by the chamber of deputies, resigned.  In 
October the abandonment of the convention was accepted by 
the new Portuguese ministry as a fait accompli; but on 
the 14th of November the two governments signed an agreement 
for a modus vivendi, by which they engaged to recognize 
the territorial limits indicated in the convention of 20th 
August ``in so far that from the date of the present agreement 

British and Portuguese spheres defined. 

to the termination thereof neither Power will make treaties, 
accept protectorates, nor exercise any act of sovereignty 
within the spheres of influence assigned to the other party 
by the said convention.'' The breathing-space thus gained 
enabled feeling in Portugal to cool down, and on the 11th of 
June 1891 another treaty was signed, the ratifications being 
exchanged on the 3rd of July, As already stated, this is the 
main treaty defining the British and Portuguese spheres both 
south and north of the Zambezi.  It contained many other 
provisions relating to trade and navigation, providing, inter 
alia, a maximum transit duty of 3% on imports and exports 
crossing Portuguese territories on the east coast to the British 
sphere, freedom of navigation of the Zambezi and Shire for 
the ships of all nations, and stipulations as to the making of 
railways, roads and telegraphs.  The territorial readjustment 
effected was slightly more favourable to Portugal than that 
agreed upon by the 1890 convention.  Portugal was given both 
banks of the Zambezi to a point ten miles west of Zumbo--the 
farthest settlement of the Portuguese on the river.  South of 
the Zambezi the frontier takes a south and then an east course 
till it reaches the edge of the continental plateau, thence 
running, roughly, along the line of 33 deg.  E. southward to the 
north-eastern frontier of the Transvaal.  Thus by this treaty 
Portugal was left in the possession of the coast-lands, while 
Great Britain maintained her right to Matabele and Mashona 
lands.  The boundary between the Portuguese sphere of influence 
on the west coast and the British sphere of influence north 
of the Zambezi was only vaguely indicated; but it was to be 
drawn in such a manner as to leave the Barotse country within 
the British sphere, Lewanika, the paramount chief of the 
Marotse, claiming that his territory extended much farther 
to the west than was admitted by the Portuguese.  In August 
1903 the question what were the limits of the Barotse kingdom 
was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy.  By 
his award, delivered in June 1905, the western limit of the 
British sphere runs from the northern frontier of German 
South-West Africa up the Kwando river to 22 deg.  E., follows 
that meridian north to 13 deg.  S., then runs due east to 24 deg.  
E., and then north again to the frontier of the Congo State. 

Before the conclusion of the treaty of June 1891 with Portugal, 
the British government had made certain arrangements for 
the administration of the large area north of the Zambezi 
reserved to British influence.  On the 1st of February 
Sir Harry Johnston was appointed imperial commissioner in 
Nyasaland, and a fortnight later the British South Africa 
Company intimated a desire to extend its operations north of the 
Zambezi.  Negotiations followed, and the field of operations 
of the Chartered Company was, on the 2nd of April 1891, 
extended so as to cover (with the exception of Nyasaland) 
the whole of the British sphere of influence north of the 
Zambezi (now known as Northern Rhodesia).  On the 14th of May 
a formal protectorate was declared over Nyasaland, including 
the Shire highlands and a belt of territory extending along 
the whole of the western shore of Lake Nyasa.  The name 
was changed in 1893 to that of the British Central Africa 
Protectorate, for which designation was substituted in 
1907 the more appropriate title of Nyasaland Protectorate. 

At the date of the assembling of the Berlin conference the 
German government had notified that the coast-line on the 

Germany's share of South Africa. 

south-west of the continent, from the Orange river to Cape 
Frio, had been placed under German protection.  On the 13th of 
April 1885 the German South-West Africa Company was constituted 
under an order of the imperial cabinet with the rights of state 
sovereignty, including mining royalties and rights, and a 
railway and telegraph monopoly.  In that and the following years 
the Germans vigorously pursued the business of treaty-making 
with the native chiefs in the interior; and when, in July 
1890, the British and German governments came to an agreement 
as to the limits of their respective spheres of influence in 
various parts of Africa, the boundaries of German South-West 
Africa were fixed in their present position.  By Article 
III. of this agreement the north bank of the Orange river up 
to the point of its intersection by the 20th degree of east 
longitude was made the southern boundary of the German sphere of 
influence.  The eastern boundary followed the 20th degree 
of east longitude to its intersection by the 22nd parallel 
of south latitude, then ran eastwards along that parallel 
to the point of its intersection by the 21st degree of east 
longitude.  From that point it ran northwards along the 
last-named meridian to the point of its intersection by the 
18th parallel of south latitude, thence eastwards along that 
parallel to the river Chobe or Kwando, and along the main 
channel of that river to its junction with the Zambezi, where it 
terminated.  The northern frontier marched with the southern 
boundary of Portuguese West Africa.  The object of deflecting 
the eastern boundary near its northern termination was to give 
Germany access by her own territory to the upper waters of the 
Zambezi, and it was declared that this strip of territory 
was at no part to be less than 20 English miles in width. 

To complete the survey of the political partition of Africa south 
of the Zambezi, it is necessary briefly to refer to the events 

Fate of the Dutch Republics. 

connected with the South African Republic and the Orange Free 
State.  In October 1885 the British government made an 
agreement with the New Republic, a small community of Boer 
farmers who had in 1884-85 seized part of Zululand and set up a 
government of their own, defining the frontier between the New 
Republic and Zululand; but in July 1888 the New Republic was 
incorporated in the South African Republic.  In a convention 
of July-August 1890 the British government and the government 
of the South African Republic confirmed the independence of 
Swaziland, and on the 8th of November 1893 another convention 
was signed with the same object; but on the 19th of December 
1894 the British government agreed to the South African 
Republic exercising ``all rights and powers of protection, 
legislation, jurisdiction and administration over Swaziland and 
the inhabitants thereof,'' subject to certain conditions and 
provisions, and to the non-incorporation of Swaziland in the 
Republic.  In the previous September Pondoland had been 
annexed to Cape Colony; on the 23rd of April 1895 Tongaland 
was declared by proclamation to be added to the dominions of 
Queen Victoria, and in December 1897 Zululand and Tongaland, 
or Amatongaland, were incorporated with the colony of 
Natal.  The history of the events that led up to the Boer 
War of 1899-1902 cannot be recounted here (see TRANSVAAL, 
History), but in October 1899 the South African Republic and 
the Orange Free State addressed an ultimatum to Great Britain 
and invaded Natal and Cape Colony.  As a result of the military 
operations that followed, the Orange Free State was, on the 
28th of May 1900, proclaimed by Lord Roberts a British colony 
under the name ``Orange River Colony,'' and the South African 
Republic was on the 25th of October 1900 incorporated in the 
British empire as the ``Transvaal Colony.'' In January 1903 
the districts of Vryheid (formerly the New Republic), Utrecht 
and part of the Wakkerstroom district, a tract of territory 
comprising in all about 7000 sq. m., were transferred from 
the Transvaal colony to Natal.  In 1907 both the Transvaal 
and Orange River Colony were granted responsible government. 

On the east coast the two great rivals were Germany and Great 
Britain.  Germany on the 30th of December 1886, and Great 

Anglo-German rivalry in East Africa. 

Britain on the 11th of June 1891, formally recognized the 
Rovuma river as the northern boundary of the Portuguese sphere 
of influence on that coast; but it was to the north of that 
river, over the vast area of East or East Central Africa in 
which the sultan of Zanzibar claimed to exercise suzerainty, 
that the struggle between the two rival powers was most 
acute.  The independence of the sultans of Zanzibar had 
been recognized by the governments of Great Britain and 
France in 1862, and the sultan's authority extended almost 
uninterruptedly along the coast of the mainland, from Cape 
Delgado in the south to Warsheik on the north--a stretch of 
coast more than a thousand miles long--though to the north 
the sultan's authority was confined to certain ports.  In 
Zanzibar itself, where Sir John Kirk, Livingstone's companion 
in his second expedition, was British consul-general, British 
influence was, when the Berlin conference met, practically 
supreme, though German traders had established themselves on 
the island and created considerable commercial interests.  
Away from the coasts the limits and extent of the sultan's 
authority were far from being clearly defined.  The sultan 
himself claimed that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but 
the claim did not rest on any very solid ground of effective 
occupation.  The little-known region of the Great Lakes had 
for some time attracted the attention of the men who were 
directing the colonial movement in Germany; and, as has been 
stated, a small band of pioneers actually landed on the 
mainland opposite Zanzibar in November 1884, and made their 
first ``treaty'' with the chief of Mbuzini on the 19th of 
that month Pushing up the Wami river the three adventurers 
reached the Usagara country, and concluded more ``treaties,'' 
the net result being that when, in the middle of December, 
Karl Peters returned to the coast he brought back with him 
documents which were claimed to concede some 60,000 sq. 
m. of country to the German Colonization Society.  Peters 
hurried back to Berlin, and on the 17th of February 1885 the 
German emperor issued a ``Charter of Protection'' by which 
His Majesty accepted the suzerainty of the newly-acquired 
territory, and ``placed under our Imperial protection the 
territories in question.'' The conclusion of these treaties 
was, on the 6th of March, notified to the British government 
and to the sultan of Zanzibar.  Immediately on receipt of 
the notification the sultan telegraphed an energetic protest 
to Berlin, alleging that the places placed under German 
protection had belonged to the sultanate of Zanzibar from 
the time of his fathers.  The German consul-general refused 
to admit the sultan's claims, and meanwhile agents of the 
German society were energetically pursuing the task of 
treaty-making.  The sultan (Seyyid Bargash) despatched a 
small force to the disputed territory, which was subsequently 
withdrawn, and in May sent a more imposing expedition under 
the command of General Lloyd Mathews, the commander-in-chief 
of the Zanzibar army, to the Kilimanjaro district, in 
order to anticipate the action of German agents.  Meanwhile 
Lord Granville, then at the British Foreign Office, had 

Lord Granville's complaisance towards Germany. 

taken up an extremely friendly attitude towards the German 
claims.  Before these events the sultan of Zanzibar had, on 
more than one occasion, practically invited Great Britain 
to assume a protectorate over his dominions.  But the 
invitations had been declined.  Egyptian affairs were, in 
the year 1885, causing considerable anxiety to the British 
government, and the fact was not without influence on the 
attitude of the British foreign secretary.  On the 25th 
of May 1885, in a despatch to the British ambassador at 
Berlin, Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet to communicate 
the views of the British cabinet to Prince Bismarck:-- 

I have to request your Excellency to state that the supposition 
that Her Majesty's Government have no intention of opposing 
the German scheme of colonization in the neighbourhood of 
Zanzibar is absolutely correct.  Her Majesty's Government, on 
the contrary, view with favour these schemes, the realization 
of which will entail the civilization of large tracts over 
which hitherto no European influence has been exercised, the 
co-operation of Germany with Great Britain in the work of 
the suppression of the slave gangs, and the encouragement of 
the efforts of the Sultan both in the extinction of the slave 
trade and in the commercial development of his dominions. 

In the same despatch Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet 
to intimate to the German government that some prominent 
capitalists had originated a plan for a British settlement 
in the country between the coast and the lakes, which are 
the sources of the White Nile, ``and for its connexion with 
the coast by a railway.'' But Her Majesty's government would 
not accord to these prominent capitalists the support they 
had called for, ``unless they were fully satisfied that 
every precaution was taken to ensure that it should in no 
way conflict with the interests of the territory that has 
been taken under German protectorate,'' and Prince Bismarck 
was practically invited to say whether British capitalists 
were or were not to receive the protection of the British 
government.  The reference in Lord Granville's despatch was 
to a proposal made by a number of British merchants and others 
who had long been interested in Zanzibar, and who saw in the 
rapid advance of Germany a menace to the interests which had 
hitherto been regarded as paramount in the sultanate.  In 
1884 H. H. Johnston had concluded treaties with the chief 
of Taveta in the Kilimanjaro district, and had transferred 
these treaties to John Hutton of Manchester.  Hutton, with Mr 
(afterwards Sir William) Mackinnon, was one of the founders 
of what subsequently became the Imperial British East Africa 
Company.  But in the early stages the champions of British 
interests in East Africa received no support from their own 
government, while Germany was pushing her advantage with the 
energy of a recent convert to colonial expansion, and had 
even, on the coast, opened negotiations with the sultan of 
Witu, a small territory situated north of the Tana river, whose 
ruler claimed to be independent of Zanzibar.  On the 5th of May 
1885 the sultan of Witu executed a deed of sale and cession to 
a German subject of certain tracts of land on the coast, and 
later in the same year other treaties or sales of territory 
were effected, by which German subjects acquired rights on 
the coast-line claimed by the sultan.  Inland, treaties had 
been concluded on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of the 
Kilimanjaro region, and an intimation to that effect made to 
the British government.  But before this occurred the German 
government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgment 
of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of 
Zanzibar.  Early in August a powerful German squadron appeared 
off Zanzibar, and on the 14th of that month the sultan yielded 
to the inevitable, acknowledged the German protectorate over 
Usagara and Witu, and undertook to withdraw his soldiers. 

Meanwhile negotiations had been opened for the appointment of 
an international commission, ``for the purpose of inquiring 

Partition of the sultanate of Zanzibar. 

into the claims of the sultans of Zanzibar to sovereignty 
over certain territories on the east coast of Africa, and 
of ascertaining their precise limits.'' The governments to 
be represented were Great Britain, France and Germany, and 
towards the end of 1885 commissioners were appointed.  The 
commissioners reported on the 9th of June 1886, and assigned 
to the sultan the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mafia 
and a number of other small islands.  On the mainland they 
recognized as belonging to the sultan a continuous strip of 
territory, 10 sea-miles in depth, from the south bank of 
the Minengani river, a stream a short distance south of the 
Rovuma, to Kipini, at the mouth of the Tana river, some 600 
m. in length.  North of Kipini the commissioners recognized 
as belonging to the sultan the stations of Kismayu, Brava, 
Marka and Mukdishu, with radii landwards of 10 sea-miles, 
and of Warsheik with a radius of 5 sea-miles.  By an exchange 
of notes in October--November 1886 the governments of Great 
Britain and Germany accepted the reports of the delimitation 
commissioners, to which the sultan adhered on the 4th of the 
following December.  But the British and German governments 
did more than determine what territories were to be assigned 
to the sultanate of Zanzibar.  They agreed to a delimitation 
of their respective spheres of influence in East Africa.  
The territory to be affected by this arrangement was to be 
bounded on the south by the Rovuma river, ``and on the north 
by a line which, starting from the mouth of the Tana river, 
follows the course of that river or its affluents to the point 
of intersection of the equator and the 38th degree of east 
longitude, thence strikes direct to the point of intersection 
of the 1st degree of north latitude with the 37th degree 
of east longitude, where the line terminates.'' The line of 
demarcation between the British and the German spheres of 
influence was to start from the mouth of the river Wanga or 
Umba (which enters the ocean opposite Pemba Island to the 
north of Zanzibar), and running north-west was to skirt the 
northern base of the Kilimanjaro range, and thence to be 
drawn direct to the point on the eastern side of Victoria 
Nyanza intersected by the 1st degree of south latitude.  
South of this line German influence was to prevail; north 
of the line was the British sphere.  The sultan's dominions 
having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with 
the recognition of the ``independence'' of Zanzibar in which 
France and Great Britain had joined in 1862.  The effect 
of this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of 
the two countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided 
no limit westwards, and left the country north of the Tana 
river, in which Germany had already acquired some interests 
near the coast, open for fresh annexations.  The conclusion 
of the agreement immediately stimulated the enterprise 
both of the German East African Company, to which Peters's 
earlier treaties had been transferred, and of the British 
capitalists to whom reference had been made in Lord Granville's 
despatch.  The German East African Company was incorporated 
by imperial charter in March 1887, and the British capitalists 
formed themselves into the British East Africa Association, 
and on the 24th of May 1887 obtained, through the good offices 
of Sir William Mackinnon, a concession of the 10-miles strip 
of coast from the Umba river in the south to Kipini in the 
north.  The British association further sought to extend 
its rights in the sphere reserved to British influence by 
making treaties with the native chiefs behind the coast 
strip, and for this purpose various expeditions were sent 
into the interior.  When they had obtained concessions 
over the country for some 200 m. inland the associated 

Formation of British East Africa. 

capitalists applied to the British government for a charter, which 
was granted on the 3rd of September 1888, and the association became 
the Imperial British East Africa Company (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA). 

The example set by the British company in obtaining a lease 
of the coast strip between the British sphere of influence 
and the sea was quickly followed by the German association, 
which, on the 28th of April 1888, concluded an agreement 
with the sultan Khalifa, who had succeeded his brother 
Bargash, by which the association leased the strip of Zanzibar 
territory between the German sphere and the sea.  It was not, 
however, until August that the German officials took over the 
administration, and their want of tact and ignorance of native 
administration almost immediately provoked a rebellion of 
so serious a character that it was not suppressed until the 
imperial authorities had taken the matter in hand.  Shortly 
after its suppression the administration was entrusted to an 
imperial officer, and the sultan's rights on the mainland strip 
were bought outright by Germany for four millions of marks 

Events of great importance had been happening, meanwhile, in 
the country to the west and north of the British sphere of 
influence.  The British company had sent caravans into the 
interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the 
native chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural 
possibilities.  One of these had gone up the Tana river.  
But another and a rival expedition was proceeding along 
the northern bank of this same river.  Karl Peters, whose 
energy cannot be denied, whatever may be thought of his 
methods, set out with an armed caravan up the Tana on the 
pretext of leading an expedition to the relief of Emin Pasha, 
the governor of the equatorial province of the Egyptian 
Sudan, then reported to be hemmed in by the dervishes at 
Wadelai.  His expedition was not sanctioned by the German 
government, and the British naval commander had orders to 
prevent his landing.  But Peters succeeded in evading the 
British vessels and proceeded up the river, planting German 
flags and fighting the natives who opposed his progress.  
Early in 1890 he reached Kavirondo, and there found letters 
from Mwanga, king of Uganda, addressed to F. J. Jackson, the 
leader of an expedition sent out by the British East Africa 

Uganda secured by Great Britain. 

Company, imploring the company's representative to come 
to his assistance and offering to accept the British 
flag.  To previous letters, less plainly couched. from the 
king, Jackson had returned the answer that his instructions 
were not to enter Uganda, but that he would do so in case of 
need.  The letters that fell into Peters's hands were in 
reply to those from Jackson.  Peters did not hesitate to 
open the letters, and on reading them he at once proceeded 
to Uganda, where, with the assistance of the French Roman 
Catholic priests, he succeeded in inducing Mwanga to sign 
a loosely worded treaty intended to place him under German 
protection.  On hearing of this Jackson at once set out for 
Uganda, but Peters did not wait for his arrival, leaving 
for the south of Victoria Nyanza some days before Jackson 
arrived at Mengo, Mwanga's capital.  As Mwanga would not 
agree to Jackson's proposals, Jackson returned to the coast, 
leaving a representative at Mengo to protect the company's 
interests.  Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D. Lugard, who had 
recently entered the company's employment, was at once ordered 
to proceed to Uganda.  But in the meantime an event of great 
importance had taken place, the conclusion of the agreement 
between Great Britain and Germany with reference to their 
different spheres of influence in various parts of Africa. 

The Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1890 has already 
been referred to and its importance insisted upon.  Here 
we have to deal with the provisions in reference to East 
Africa.  In return for the cession of Heligoland, Lord 
Salisbury obtained from Germany the recognition of a British 
protectorate over the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, 
including the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, but excluding 
the strip leased to Germany, which was subsequently ceded 
absolutely to Germany.  Germany further agreed to withdraw 
the protectorate declared over Witu and the adjoining coast 
up to Kismayu in favour of Great Britain, and to recognize as 
within the British sphere of influence the vast area bounded, 
on the south by the frontier line laid down in the agreement 
of 1886, which was to be extended along the first parallel 
of south latitude across Victoria Nyanza to the frontiers of 
the Congo Free State, on the west by the Congo Free State and 
the western watershed of the Nile, and on the north by a line 
commencing on the coast at the north bank of the mouth of the 
river Juba, then ascending that bank of the river until it 
reached the territory at that time regarded as reserved to 
the influence of Italy13 in Gallaland and Abyssinia, when it 
followed the frontier of the Italian sphere to the confines of 
Egypt.  To the south-west of the German sphere in East Africa 
the boundary was formed by the eastern and northern shore of 
Lake Nyasa, and round the western shore to the mouth of the 
Songwe river, from which point it crossed the Nyasa-Tanganyika 
plateau to the southern end of the last-named lake, 

Limits of German East Africa defined. 

leaving the Stevenson Road on the British side of the boundary.  
The effect of this treaty was to remove all serious causes of 
dispute about territory between Germany and Great Britain in East 
Africa.  It rendered quite valueless Peters's treaty with 
Mwanga and his promenade along the Tana; it freed Great Britain 
from any fear of German competition to the northwards, and 
recognized that her influence extended to the western limits of 
the Nile valley.  But, on the other hand, Great Britain had to 
relinquish the ambition of connecting her sphere of influence 
in the Nile valley with her possessions in Central and South 
Africa.  On this point Germany was quite obdurate; and, as 
already stated, an attempt subsequently made (May 1894) to 
secure this object by the lease of a strip of territory from 
the Congo Free State was frustrated by German opposition. 

Uganda having thus been assigned to the British sphere of 
influence by the only European power in a position to contest 
its possession with her, the subsequent history of that 
region, and of the country between the Victoria Nyanza and the 
coast, must be traced in the articles on BRITISH EAST AFRICA 
and UGANDA, but it may be well briefly to record here the 
following facts:--The Imperial British East Africa Company, 
finding the burden of administration too heavy for its financial 
resources, and not receiving the assistance it felt itself 
entitled to receive from the imperial authorities, intimated 
that it would be compelled to withdraw at the end of the year 
1892.  Funds were raised to enable the company to continue 
its administration until the end of March 1893, and a strong 
public protest against evacuation compelled the government 
to determine in favour of the retention of the country.  In 
January 1893 Sir Gerald Portal left the coast as a special 
commissioner to inquire into the ``best means of dealing with 
the country, whether through Zanzibar or otherwise.'' On the 
31st of March the union jack was raised, and on the 29th of 
May a fresh treaty was concluded with King Mwanga placing his 
country under British protection.  A formal protectorate was 
declared over Uganda proper on the 19th of June 1894, which was 
subsequently extended so as to include the countries westwards 
towards the Congo Free State, eastwards to the British East 
Africa protectorate and Abyssinia, and northwards to the 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.  The British East Africa protectorate 
was constituted in June 1895, when the Imperial British East 
Africa Company relinquished all its rights in exchange for 
a money payment, and the administration was assumed by the 
imperial authorities.  On the 1st of April 1902 the eastern 
province of the Uganda protectorate was transferred to the 
British East Africa protectorate, which thus secured control 
of the whole length of the so-called Uganda railway, and 
at the same time obtained access to the Victoria Nyanza. 

Early in the 'eighties, as already seen, Italy had obtained her 
first formal footing on the African coast at the Bay of Assab 

Italy in East Africa. 

(Aussa) on the Red Sea. In 1885 the troubles in which Egypt 
found herself involved compelled the khedive and his advisers to 
loosen their hold on the Red Sea littoral, and, with the tacit 
approval of Great Britain, Italy took possession of Massawa and 
other ports on that coast.  By 1888 Italian influence had been 
extended from Ras Kasar on the north to the northern frontier of 
the French colony of Obok on the south, a distance of some 650 
m.  The interior limits of Italian influence were but ill 
defined, and the negus Johannes (King John) of Abyssinia viewed 
with anything but a favourable eye the approach of the Italians 
towards the Abyssinian highlands.  In January 1887 an Italian 
force was almost annihilated at Dogali, but the check only 
served to spur on the Italian government to fresh efforts. 

The Italians occupied Keren and Asmara in the highlands, and 
eventually, in May 1889, concluded a treaty of peace and 
friendship with the negus Menelek, who had seized the throne 
on the death of Johannes, killed in battle with the dervishes 
in March of the same year.  This agreement, known as the 
treaty of Uccialli, settled the frontiers between Abyssinia 
and the Italian sphere, and contained the following article:-- 

XVII.  His Majesty the King of Kings of Ethiopia consents to 
avail himself of the Italian government for any negotiations 
which he may enter into with the other powers or governments. 

In Italy and by other European governments this article was 
generally regarded as establishing an Italian protectorate 
over Abyssinia; but this interpretation was never accepted 
by the emperor Menelek, and at no time did Italy succeed 
in establishing any very effective control over Abyssinian 
affairs.  North of the Italian coast sphere the Red Sea littoral 
was still under Egyptian rule, while immediately to the south 
a small stretch of coast on the Gulf of Tajura constituted 
the sole French possession on the East African mainland (see 
SOMALILAND.) Moreover, when Egyptian claims to the Somali 
coast were withdrawn, Great Britain took the opportunity to 
establish her influence on the northern Somali coast, opposite 
Aden.  Between the 1st of May 1884 and the 15th of March 1886 
ten treaties were concluded, placing under British influence 
the northern Somali coast from Ras Jibuti on the west to Bandar 
Ziada on the east.  In the meantime Italy, not content with 
her acquisitions on the Red Sea, had been concluding treaties 
with the Somali chiefs on the east coast.  The first treaty 
was made with the sultan of Obbia on the 8th of February 
1889.  Later in the same year the British East Africa Company 
transferred to Italy--the transference being subsequently 
approved by the sultan of Zanzibar--the ports of Brava, Marka, 
Mukdishu and Warsheik, leased from Zanzibar.  On the 24th 
of March 1891 an agreement between Italy and Great Britain 
fixed the northern bank of the Juba up to latitude 6 deg.  N. as 
the southern boundary of Italian influence in Somaliland, the 
boundary being provisionally prolonged along lines of latitude 
and longitude to the intersection of the Blue Nile with 35 deg.  E. 
longitude.  On the 15th of April 1891 a further agreement 
fixed the northern limit of the Italian sphere from Ras Kasar 
on the Red Sea to the point on the Blue Nile just mentioned.  
By this agreement Italy was to have the right temporarily to 
occupy Kassala, which was left in the Anglo-Egyptian sphere, 
in trust for Egypt--a right of which she availed herself in 
1894.  To complete the work of delimitation the British and 
Italian governments, on the 5th of May 1894, fixed the boundary 
of the British sphere of influence in Somaliland from the 
Anglo-French boundary, which had been settled in February 1888. 

But while Great Britain was thus lending her sanction to 
Italy's ambitious schemes, the Abyssinian emperor was becoming 
more and more incensed at Italy's pretensions to exercise a 
protectorate over Ethiopia.  In 1893 Menelek denounced the 
treaty of Uccialli, and eventually, in a great battle, fought at 
Adowa on the 1st of March 1896, the Italians were disastrously 
defeated.  By the subsequent treaty of Adis Ababa, concluded 
on the 26th of October 1896, the whole of the country to the 

The independence of Abyssinia recognized. 

south of the Mareb, Belesa and Muna rivers was restored to 
Abyssinia, and Italy acknowledged the absolute independence of 
Abyssinia.  The effect of this was practically to destroy 
the value of the Anglo-Italian agreement as to the boundaries 
to the south and west of Abyssinia; and negotiations were 
afterwards set on foot between the emperor Menelek and his 
European neighbours with the object of determining the Abyssinian 
frontiers.  Italian Somaliland, bordering on the south-eastern 
frontier of Abyssinia, became limited to a belt of territory 
with a depth inland from the Indian Ocean of from 180 to 250 
m.  The negotiations concerning the frontier lasted until 
1908, being protracted over the question as to the possession 
of Lugh, a town on the Juba, which eventually fell to Italy.  
After the battle of Adowa the Italian government handed over 
the administration of the southern part of the country to the 
Benadir Company, but in January 1905 the government resumed 
control and at the same time transformed the leasehold rights 
it held from the sultan of Zanzibar into sovereign rights by 
the payment to the sultan of L. 144,000.  To facilitate her 
communications with the interior, Italy also secured from the 
British government the lease of a small area of land immediately 
to the north of Kismayu.  In British Somaliland the frontier 
fixed by agreement with Italy in 1894 was modified, in so 
far as it marched with Abyssinian territory, by an agreement 
which Sir Rennell Rodd concluded with the emperor Menelek in 
1897.  The effect of this agreement was to reduce the area 
of British Somaliland from 75,000 to 68,000 sq. m.  In the 
same year France concluded an agreement with the emperor, 
which is known to have fixed the frontier of the French Somali 
Coast protectorate at a distance of 90 kilometres (56 m.) 
from the coast.  The determination of the northern, western 
and southern limits of Abyssinia proved a more difficult 
matter.  A treaty of July 1900 followed by an agreement 
of November 1901 defined the boundaries of Eritrea on the 
side of Abyssinia and the Sudan respectively.  In certain 
details the boundaries thus laid down were modified by an 
Anglo-Italian-Abyssinian treaty signed at Adis Ababa on the 
15th of May 1902.  On the same day another treaty was signed 
at the Abyssinian capital by Sir John Harrington, the British 
minister plenipotentiary, and the emperor Menelek, whereby the 
western, or Sudan-Abyssinian, frontier was defined as far south 
as the intersection of 6 deg.  N. and 35 deg.  E. Within the British 
sphere were left the Atbara up to Gallabat, the Blue Nile up 
to Famaka and the Sobat up to the junction of the Baro and 
Pibor.  While not satisfying Abyssinian claims to their full 
extent, the frontier laid down was on the whole more favourable 
to Abyssinia than was the line fixed in the Anglo-Italian 
agreement of 1891.  On the other hand, Menelek gave important 
economic guarantees and concessions to the Sudan government. 

In Egypt the result of the abolition of the Dual Control 
was to make British influence virtually predominant, though 
theoretically Turkey remained the suzerain power; and after 
the reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army a 
convention between the British and Egyptian governments was 
signed at Cairo on the 19th of January 1899, which, inter 
alia, provided for the joint use of the British and Egyptian 
flags in the territories south of the 22nd parallel of north 
latitude.  From the international point of view the British 
position in Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration 
of the 8th of April 1904.  For some time previously there had been 

The Anglo-French agreements of April 1904. 

a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of the 
settlement of a number of important questions in which 
British and French interests were involved.  The movement 
was no doubt strengthened by the desire to reduce to their 
least dimensions the possible causes of trouble between the 
two countries at a time when the outbreak of hostilities 
between Russia (the ally of France) and Japan (the ally of 
Great Britain) rendered the European situation peculiarly 
delicate.  On the 8th of April 1904 there was signed in 
London by the British foreign secretary, the marquess of 
Lansdowne, and the French ambassador, M. Paul Cambon, a series 
of agreements relating to several parts of the globe.  Here we 
are concerned only with the joint declaration respecting Egypt 
and Morocco and a convention relating, in part, to British 
and French frontiers in West Africa.  The latter we shall 
have occasion to refer to later.  The former, notwithstanding 
the declarations embodied in it that there was ``no intention 
of altering the political status'' either of Egypt or of 
Morocco, cannot be ignored in any account of the partition in 
Africa.  With regard to Egypt the French government declared 
``that they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain 
in that country by asking that a limit of time be fixed for 
the British occupation or in any other manner.'' France also 
assented--as did subsequently the other powers interested--to 
a khedivial decree simplifying the international control 
exercised by the Caisse de la Dette over the finances of Egypt. 

In order to appreciate aright that portion of the declaration 
relating to Morocco it is necessary to say a few words about 
the course of French policy in North-West Africa.  In Tunisia 
the work of strengthening the protectorate established in 
1881 had gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that 
the extension of French influence had been most marked.  
The movement of expansion southwards was inevitable.  With 
the progress of exploration it became increasingly evident 
that the Sahara constituted no insurmountable barrier 
between the French possessions in North and West Central 
Africa.  But France had not only the hope of placing Algeria 
in touch with the Sudan to spur her forward.  To consolidate 
her position in North-West Africa she desired to make 
French influence supreme in Morocco.  The relations between 
the two countries did not favour the realization of that 
ambition.  The advance southwards of the French forces of 
occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government, 
particularly with regard to the occupation in 1900-1901 of 
the Tuat Oases.  Under the Franco-Moorish treaty of 1845 the 
frontier between Algeria and Morocco was defined from the 
Mediterranean coast as far south as the pass of Teniet el 
Sassi, in about 34 deg.  N.; beyond that came a zone in which 
no frontier was defined, but in which the tribes and desert 
villages (ksurs) belonging to the respective spheres of 
influence were named; while south of the desert villages the 
treaty stated that in view of the character of the country 
``the delimitation of it would be superfluous.'' Though 
the frontier was thus left undefined, the sultan maintained 
that in her advance southwards France had trespassed on 
territories that unmistakably belonged to Morocco.  After 
some negotiation, however, a protocol was signed in Paris on 

France's privileged position in Morocco. 

the 20th of July 1901, and commissioners appointed to devise 
measures for the co-operation of the French and Moorish 
authorities in the maintenance of peaceful conditions in 
the frontier region.  It was reported that in April 1902 
the commissioners signed an agreement whereby the Sharifan 
government undertook to consolidate its authority on the 
Moorish side of the frontier as far south as Figig.  The 
agreement continued: ``Le Gouvernement francais, en 
raison de son voisinage, lui pretera son appui, en cas de 
besoin.  Le Gouvernement francais etablira son autorite 
et la paix dans les regions du Sahara, et le Gouvernement 
marocain, son voisin, lui aidera de tout son pouvoir.'' 
Meanwhile in the northern districts of Morocco the conditions 
of unrest under the rule of the young sultan, Abd el Aziz IV., 
were attracting an increasing amount of attention in Europe 
and were calling forth demands for their suppression.  It was 
in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declaration 
of April 1904 the British government recognized ``that it 
appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose 
dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of 
Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide 
assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic, 
financial and military reforms which it may require.'' Both 
parties to the declaration, ``inspired by their feeling of 
sincere friendship for Spain, take into special consideration 
the interests which that country derives from her geographical 
position and from her territorial possessions on the Moorish 
coast of the Mediterranean.  In regard to these interests 
the French government will come to an understanding with the 
Spanish government.'' The understanding thus foreshadowed 
was reached later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere 
of interest on the Mediterranean coast.  In pursuance of 
the policy marked out in the Anglo-French declaration, 
France was seeking to strengthen her influence in Morocco 
when in 1905 the attitude of Germany seriously affected her 
position.  On the 8th of July France secured from the German 
government formal ``recognition of the situation created 
for France in Morocco by the contiguity of a vast extent 
of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and by the 
special relations resulting therefrom between the two adjacent 
countries, as well as by the special interest for France, 
due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan 
Empire.'' Finally, in January-April 1906, a conference of the 
powers was held at Algeciras to devise, by invitation of the 
sultan, a scheme of reforms to be introduced into Morocco 
(q.v..) French capital was allotted a larger share than 
that of any other power in the Moorish state bank which it 
was decided to institute, and French and Spanish officers 
were entrusted with the organization of a police force for 
the maintenance of order in the principal coast towns.  The 
new regime had not been fully inaugurated, however, when a 
series of outrages led, in 1907, to the military occupation 
by France of Udja, a town near the Algerian frontier, and 
of the port of Casablanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. 

It only remains to be noted, in connexion with the story 
of French activity in North-West Africa, that with such 
energy was the penetration of the Sahara pursued that in 
April 1904 flying columns from Insalah and Timbuktu met 
by arrangement in mid-desert, and in the following year it 
was deemed advisable to indicate on the maps the boundary 
between the Algerian and French West African territories. 

Brief reference must be made to the position of Tripoli.  
While Egypt was brought under British control and Tunisia 
became a French protectorate, Tripoli remained a province 
of the Turkish empire with undefined frontiers in the 
hinterland, a state of affairs which more than once threatened 
to lead to trouble with France during the expansion of the 
latter's influence in the Sahara.  As already stated, Italy 
early gave evidence that it was her ambition to succeed 
to the province, and, not only by the sultan of Turkey but 
in Italy also, the Anglo-French declaration of March 1899, 
respecting the limits of the British and French spheres 
of influence in north Central Africa, was viewed with some 
concern.  By means of a series of public utterances on the 
part of French and Italian statesmen in the winter 1901-1902 it 

Italy's interest in Tripoli. 

was made known that the two powers had come to an understanding 
with regard to their interests in North Africa, and in May 1902 
Signor Prinetti, then Italian minister for foreign affairs, 
speaking in parliament in reply to an interpellation on the 
subject of Tripoli, declared that if ``the status quo in 
the Mediterranean were ever disturbed, Italy would be sure of 
finding no one to bar the way to her legitimate aspirations.'' 

At the opening of the Berlin conference Spain had established no 
formal claim to any part of the coast to the south of Morocco; 
but while the conference was sitting, on the 9th of January 1885, 
the Spanish government intimated that in view of the importance 
of the Spanish settlements on the Rio de Oro, at Angra de Cintra, 

Spanish colonies. 

and at Western Bay (Cape Blanco), and of the documents 
signed with the independent tribes on that coast, the king 
of Spain had taken under his protection ``the territories 
of the western coast of Africa comprised between the 
fore-mentioned Western Bay and Cape Bojador.'' The interior 
limits of the Spanish sphere were defined by an agreement 
concluded in 1900 with France.  By this document some 70,000 
sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish. 

The same agreement settled a long-standing dispute between 
Spain and France as to the ownership of the district around 
the Muni river to be south of Cameroon, Spain securing a block 
of territory with a coast-line from the Campo river on the 
north to the Muni river on the south.  The northern frontier 
is formed by the German Cameroon colony, the eastern by 
11 deg.  20' E., and the southern by the first parallel of north 
latitude to its point of intersection with the Muni river. 

Apart from this small block of Spanish territory south of 
Cameroon, the stretch of coast between Cape Blanco and the 

Division of the Guinea coast. 

mouth of the Congo is partitioned among four European powers--Great 
Britain, France, Germany and Portugal --and the negro republic of 
Liberia.  Following the coast southwards from Cape Blanco is 
first the French colony of Senegal, which is indented, along 
the Gambia river, by the small British colony of that name, and 
then the comparatively small territory of Portuguese Guinea, 
all that remains on this Coast to represent Portugal's share in 
the scramble in a region where she once played so conspicuous a 
part.  To the south of Portuguese Guinea is the French Guinea 
colony, and still going south and east are the British 
colony of Sierra Leone, the republic of Liberia, the French 
colony of the Ivory coast, the British Gold Coast, German 
Togoland, French Dahomey, the British colony (formerly known 
as the Lagos colony) and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, 
the German colony of Cameroon, the Spanish settlements on the 
Muni river, the French Congo colony, and the small Portuguese 
enclave north of the Congo to which reference has already been 
made, which is administratively part of the Angola colony.  
When the General Act of the Berlin conference was signed the 
whole of this coast-line had not been formally claimed; but 
no time was lost by the powers interested in notifying claims 
to the unappropriated sections, and the conflicting claims 
put forward necessitated frequent adjustments by international 
agreements.  By a Franco-Portuguese agreement of the 12th of 
May 1886 the limits of Portuguese Guinea--surrounded landwards 
by French territory--were defined, and by agreements with 
Great Britain in 1885 and France in 1892 and 1907 the Liberian 
republic was Confined to an area of about 43,000 sq. m. 

The real struggle in West Africa was between France and Great 
Britain, and France played the dominant part, the exhaustion 
of Portugal, the apathy of the British government and the 
late appearance of Germany in the field being all elements 
that favoured the success of French policy.  Before tracing 
the steps in the historic contest between France and Great 
Britain it is necessary, however, to deal briefly with the 
part played by Germany.  She naturally could not be disposed 
of by the chief rivals as easily as were Portugal and 
Liberia.  It will be remembered that Dr Nachtigal, while the 
proposals for the Berlin conference were under discussion, 
had planted the German flag on the coast of Togo and in 
Cameroon in the month of July 1884.  In Cameroon Germany 
found herself with Great Britain for a neighbour to the 
north, and with France as her southern neighbour on the Gabun 
river.  The utmost activity was displayed in making treaties 
with native chiefs, and in securing as wide a range of coast for 
German enterprise as was possible.  After various provisional 
agreements had been concluded between Great Britain and 
Germany, a ``provisional line of demarcation'' was adopted in 
the famous agreement of the 1st of July 1890, starting from 
the head of the Rio del Rey creek and going to the point, 
about 9 deg.  8' E., marked ``rapids'' on the British Admiralty 
chart.  By a further agreement of the 14th of April 1893, 
the right bank of the Rio del Rey was made the boundary 
between the Oil Rivers Protectorate (now Southern Nigeria) and 
Cameroon.  In the following November (1893) the boundary was 
continued from the ``rapids'' before mentioned, on the Calabar 
or Cross river, in a straight line towards the centre of the 
town of Yola, on the Benue river.  Yola itself, with a radius 

Germany in west Central Africa. 

of some 3 m., was left in the British sphere, and the German 
boundary followed the circle eastwards from the point of 
intersection as it neared Yola until it met the Benue river.  
From that point it crossed the river to the intersection of 
the 13th degree of longitude with the 10th degree of north 
latitude, and then made direct for a point on the southern 
shore of Lake Chad ``situated 35 minutes east of the meridian 
of Kuka.'' By this agreement the British government withdrew 
from a considerable section of the upper waters of the 
Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had entered into 
relations.  The limit of Germany's possible extension 
eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and 
Darfur, Kordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were to be excluded 
from her sphere of influence.  The object of Great Britain 
in making the sacrifice she did was two-fold.  By satisfying 
Germany's desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on 
French designs on the Benue region, while by recognizing the 
central Sudan (Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier 
was interposed to the advance of France from the Congo to the 
Nile.  This last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany 
in coming to terms with France as to the southern and eastern 
limits of Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central 
Sudan.  She had already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed 
a protocol with France fixing her southern frontier, where it 
was coterminous with the French Congo colony.  But to the east 
German explorers were crossing the track of French explorers 
from the northern bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an 
agreement was obvious.  Accordingly, on the 4th of February 
1894, a protocol--which, some weeks later, was confirmed by 
a convention-- was signed at Berlin, by which France accepted 
the presence of Germany on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and 
effected the best bargain she could by making the left bank 
of the Shari river, from its outlet into Lake Chad to the 
10th parallel of north latitude, the eastern limit of German 
extension.  From this point the boundary line went due west 
some 230 m., then turned south, and with various indentations 
joined the south-eastern frontier, which had been slightly 
extended so as to give Germany access to the Sanga river-- 
a tributary of the Congo.  Thus, early in 1894, the German 
Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite limits.  In 1908 
another convention, modifying the frontier, gave Germany 
a larger share of the Sanga, while France, among other 
advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to 10 deg.  40' N. 

The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip of 
the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in 
between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey.  At first 
France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little 
Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French 
government acknowledged the German protectorate over these 

Exclusion of Germany from the Niger. 

places, and the boundary between French and German territory, 
which runs north from the coast to the 11th decree of 
latitude, was laid down by the Franco-German convention 
of the 12th of July 1897.  The fixing of the 11th parallel 
as the northern boundary of German expansion towards the 
interior was not accomplished without some sacrifice of German 
ambitions.  Having secured an opening on Lake Chad for her 
Cameroon colony, Germany was anxious to obtain a footing on 
the middle Niger for Togoland.  German expeditions reached 
Gando, one of the tributary states of the Sokoto empire on 
the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding the existence of prior 
treaties with Great Britain, sought to conclude agreements 
with the sultan of that country.  But this German ambition 
conflicted both with the British and the French designs in 
West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content with 
the 11th parallel as her northern frontier.  On the west 
the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 
by British and German commissioners at 1 deg.  10' E. longitude, 
and its extension towards the interior laid down for a short 
distance.  A curious feature in the history of its prolongation 
was the establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither 
power was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive 
influence.  It was not until November 1899 that, as part of 
the Samoa settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between 
the two powers and the frontier extended to the 11th parallel. 

The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain 
in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the 

Anglo-French rivalry in West Africa. 

first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second dealing with 
the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake Chad.  As regards 
the Coast colonies, France was wholly successful in her design 
of isolating all Great Britain's separate possessions in that 
region, and of securing for herself undisputed possession of 
the upper Niger and of the countries lying within the great 
bend of that river.  When the British government awoke to 
the consciousness of what was at stake France had obtained 
too great a start.  French governors of the Senegal had 
succeeded, before the Berlin Conference, in establishing forts 
on the upper Niger, and the advantage thus gained was steadily 
pursued.  Every winter season French posts were pushed farther 
and farther along the river, or in the vast regions watered 
by the southern tributaries of the Senegal and Niger rivers.  
This ceaseless activity met with its reward.  Great Britain 
found herself compelled to acknowledge accomplished facts and 
to conclude agreements with France, which left her colonies 
mere coast patches, with a very limited extension towards the 
interior.  On the 10th of August 1889 an agreement was signed 
by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was confined to 
a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river for 
about 200 m. from the sea.  In June 1882 and in August 1889 
provisional agreements were made with France fixing the western 
and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners were 
appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon by the two 
governments.  But the commissioners failed to agree, and on the 
21st of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made, the boundary 
being subsequently traced by a mixed commission.  Sierra Leone, 
as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of about 180 
m. and a maximum extension towards the interior of some 200 m. 

At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies 
of Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single 
colony under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the 
13th of January 1886 the territory comprised under that title 
was erected into two separate colonies--Lagos and the Gold 
Coast (the name of the former being changed in February 1906 
to the colony of Southern Nigeria).  The coast limits of the 
new Gold Coast colony were declared to extend from 5 deg.  W. 
to 2 deg.  E., but these limits were subsequently curtailed by 
agreements with France and Germany.  The arrangements that 
fixed the eastern frontier of the Gold Coast colony and its 
hinterland have already been stated in connexion with German 
Togoland.  On the western frontier it marches with the French 
colony of the Ivory Coast, and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful 
attempt to achieve the same end by an agreement concluded in 
1889, the frontier was defined from the neighbourhood of the 
Tano lagoon and river of the same name, to the 9th degree of 
north latitude.  In August 1896, following the destruction of 
the Ashanti power and the deportation of King Prempeh, as a 
result of the second Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate 
was declared over the whole of the Ashanti territories and 
a resident was installed at Kumasi.  But no northern limit 
had been fixed by the 1893 agreement beyond the 9th parallel, 
and the countries to the north--Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and 
Gurma---were entered from all sides by rival British, French 
and German expeditions.  The conflicting claims established 
by these rival expeditions may, however, best be considered in 
connexion with the struggle for supremacy on the middle Niger 
and in the Chad region, to which it is now necessary to turn. 

A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir 
George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French 
interests on the lower Niger.  The British company's influence 
had at that date been extended by treaties with the native 
chiefs up the main Niger stream to its junction with the 
Benue, and some distance along this latter river But the 
great Fula states of the central Sudan were still outside 
European influence, and this fact did not escape attention in 
Germany.  German merchants had been settled for some years 
on the coast, and one of them, E. R. Flegel, had displayed 
great interest in, and activity on, the river.  He recognized 
that in the densely populated states of the middle Niger, 
Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west of Lake Chad, there 
was a magnificent field for Germany's new-born colonizing 
zeal.  The German African Company14 and the German Colonial 
Society listened eagerly to Flegel's proposals, and in April 
1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states of Sokoto and 
Gando.  But it was impossible to keep his intentions entirely 
secret, and the (British) National African Company had no 
desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so much 
difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even 
more troublesome German.  Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the 
young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had 
the satisfaction of concluding on the 1st of June 1885 a 
treaty with ``Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and 
Sultan of Sokoto,'' which practically secured the whole of 
the trading rights and the control of the sultan's foreign 
relations to the British company.  Thomson concluded a similar 
treaty with the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the 
possibility of its being alleged that Gando was an independent 
state and not subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of 
Sokoto.  As Thomson descended the river with his treaties, he 
met Flegel going up the river, with bundles of German flags 
and presents for the chiefs.  The German government continued 
its efforts to secure a footing on the lower Niger until 
the fall of Prince Bismarck from power in March 1890, when 
opposition ceased, and on the failure of the half-hearted 
attempt made later to establish relations with Gando from 
Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the 

The Niger Company granted a charter. 

western Sudan and left the field to France and Great Britain.  
After its first great success the National African Company 
renewed its efforts to obtain a charter from the British 
government, and on the 10th of July 1886 the charter was 
granted, and the company became ``The Royal Niger Company, 
chartered and limited.'' In June of the previous year a British 
protectorate had been proclaimed Over the whole of the coast 
from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos frontier, and as already 
stated, on the 13th of January 1886 the Lagos settlements had 
been separated from the Gold Coast and erected into a separate 
colony.  It may be convenient to state here that the western 
boundary of Lagos with French territory (Dahomey) was determined 
in the Anglo-French agreement of the 10th of August 1889, ``as 
far as the 9th degree of north latitude, where it shall stop.'' 
Thus both in the Gold Coast hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland 
a door was left wide open to the north of the 9th parallel. 

Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance 
down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego 
on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu, 
until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British 
influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger 
Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall 
her.  It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the 
French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement 
of the 5th of August 1890, by which Great Britain recognized 
France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article: 

The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere of 
influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions 
up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn 
m such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the 
Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; 
the line to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed. 

The commissioners never were in fact appointed, and the 
proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently 
became a subject of bitter controversy between the two 
countries.  An examination of the map of West Africa will 
show what possibilities of trouble were left open at the 
end of 1890 by the various agreements concluded up to that 
date.  From Say on the Niger to where the Lagos frontier came 
to an abrupt stop in 9 deg.  N. there was no boundary line between 
the French and British spheres of influence.  To the north 
of the Gold Coast and of the French Ivory Coast colony the 
way was equally open to Great Britain and to France, while 
the vagueness of the Say-Barrua line left an opening of which 
France was quick to avail herself.  Captain P. L. Monteil, 
who was despatched by the French government to West Africa in 
1890, immediately after the conclusion of the August agreement, 
did not hesitate to pass well to the south of the Say-Barrua 
line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with chiefs who 
were, beyond all question, within the British sphere.  Still 
farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions of 
Lieutenant Mizon--in 1890 and 1892--failed to do any real 
harm to British interests.  In 1892 an event happened which 
had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute. 

French advance Timbuktu. 

After a troublesome war with Behanzin king of to the native 
state of Dahomey, France annexed some portion of Dahomeyan 
territory on the coast, and declared a protectorate over 
the rest of the kingdom.  Thus was removed the barrier which 
had up to that time prevented France from pushing her way 
Nigerwards from her possessions on the Slave Coast, as well 
as from the upper Niger and the Ivory Coast.  Henceforth 
her progress from all these directions was rapid, and in 
particular Timbuktu was occupied in the last days of 1893. 

In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France 
that, for the development of the vast regions which she was 
placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely 
desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable 
portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she 
was excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right 
bank, where the frontier had still to be fixed by international 
agreement.  In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long 
stretch of the river so impeded by rapids that navigation is 
practically impossible, except in small boats and at considerable 
risk.  Below these rapids France had no foothold on the river, 
both banks from Bussa to the sea being within the British 
sphere.  In 1890 the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty 
with the emir and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French 
declared that the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the 
king of Bussa, but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions 
were despatched in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under 
French protection.  Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be 
baffled.  While maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty 
with Bussa, he despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. 
D. Lugard to Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing 
all his French competitors by several days, reaching Nikki 
on the 5th of November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the 
king and chiefs.  The French expeditions, which were in great 
strength, did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the 
king to execute fresh treaties with France, and with these in 
their possession they returned to Dahomey.  Shortly afterwards 
a fresh act of aggression was committed.  On the 13th of 
February 1895 a French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived 
on the right bank of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a 
fort.  His presence there was notified to the Royal Niger 
Company, who protested to the British government against 
this invasion of their territory.  Lord Rosebery, who was 
then foreign minister, at once made inquiries in Paris, and 
received the assurance that Commandant Toutee was ``a private 
traveller.'' Eventually Commandant Toutee was ordered to 
withdraw, and the fort was occupied by the Royal Niger Company's 
troops.  Commandant Toutee subsequently published the official 
instructions from the French government under which he had 
acted.  It was thought that the recognition of the British 
claims, involved in the withdrawal of Commandant Toutee, 
had marked the final abandonment by France of the attempt 
to establish herself on the navigable portions of the Niger 
below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was renewed in the most 
determined manner.  In February of that year a French force 
suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was quickly followed 
by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up the river.  In 
November 1897 Nikki was occupied.  The situation on the Niger 
had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a chartered 
company that for some time before these occurrences the 
assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region 

The Franco-British settlement of 1898. 

by the imperial authorities had been practically decided on; 
and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to the Niger with a number 
of imperial officers to raise a local force in preparation for 
the contemplated change.  The advance of the French forces from 
the south and west was the signal for an advance of British 
troops from the Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast 
protectorate.  The situation thus created was extremely 
serious.  The British and French flags were flying in close 
proximity, in some cases in the same village.  Meanwhile the 
diplomatists were busy in London and in Paris, and in the latter 
capital a commission sat for many months to adjust the conflicting 
claims.  Fortunately, by the tact and forbearance of the officers 
on both sides, no local incident occurred to precipitate a 
collision, and on the 14th of June 1898 a convention was signed 
by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G. Hanotaux which practically 
completed the partition of this part of the continent. 

The settlement effected was in the nature of a compromise.  
France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier 
line west of the Niger being drawn from the 9th parallel to 
a point ten miles, as the crow flies, above Giri, the port of 
Illo.  France was thus shut out from the navigable portion of 
the middle and lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes 
Great Britain agreed to lease to France two small plots of land 
on the river-the one on the right bank between Leaba and the 
mouth of the Moshi river, the other at one of the mouths of the 
Niger.  By accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki 
and a great part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to 
France.  East of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified 
in favour of France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and 
Bornu where they meet the southern edge of the Sahara.  In the 
Gold Coast hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great 
Britain abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of 
the latter country, together with a further extensive area 
in the territory assigned to both powers, was declared to be 
equally free, so far as trade and navigation were concerned, 
to the subjects and protected persons of both nationalities.  
The western boundary of the Gold Coast was prolonged along 
the Black Volta as far as latitude 11 deg.  N., and this parallel 
was followed with slight deflexions to the Togoland frontier.  
In consequence of the acute crisis which shortly afterwards 
occurred between France and Great Britain on the upper Nile, 
the ratification of this agreement was delayed until after 
the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement of March 1899 already 
referred to.  In 1900 the two patches on the Niger leased to 
France were selected by commissioners representing the two 
countries, and in the same year the Anglo-French frontier 
from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was delimited. 

East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898, 
failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to 
Lake Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to 
which reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was 

Further concessions to France. 

agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore question 
in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line more to the 
south.  The new boundary was described at some length, but 
provision was made for its modification in points of detail 
on the return of the commissioners engaged in surveying the 
frontier region.  In 1906 an agreement was reached on all 
points, and the frontier at last definitely settled, sixteen 
years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed.  This revision 
of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent the 
only territorial compensation received by France in West 
Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland 
question.  By the same convention of April 1904 the British 
government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal 
and the Gambia colony ``so as to give to France Yarbutenda 
and the lands and landing-places belonging to that locality,'' 
and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands 
off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands. 

Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left both 
the British and the French governments free to devote increased 
attention to the subdivision and control of their West African 
possessions.  On the 1st of January 1900 the imperial authorities 
assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the territories 
of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth a purely 
commercial undertaking.  The Lagos protectorate was extended 
northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise with extended 
frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the greater part 
of the territories formerly administered by the company were 
constituted into the protectorate of Northern Nigeria--all 
three administrations being directly under the Colonial 
Office In February 1906 the administration of the Southern 
Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos at the 
same time as the name of the latter was changed to the Colony 
of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual 

Organization of the British and French protectorates. 

amalgamation of all three dependencies under one governor or 
governor-general.  In French West Africa changes in the 
internal frontiers have been numerous and important.  The 
coast colonies have all been increased in size at the expense 
of the French Sudan, which has vanished from the maps as 
an administrative entity.  There are carved out of the 
territories comprised in what is officially known as French 
West Africa five colonies--Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory 
Coast, Dahomey and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last 
being entirely cut off from the sea--and the civil territory of 
Mauritania.  To the colony of the Upper Senegal and Niger 
is attached the military territory of the Niger, embracing 
the French Sahara up to the limit of the Algerian sphere of 
influence.  Not only are all these divisions of French West 
Africa connected territorially, but administratively they 
are united under a governor-general.  Similarly the French 
Congo territories have been divided into three colonies--the 
Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad--all 
united administratively under a commissioner-general. 

There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of 
islands, which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the 

Ownership of the African Islands. 

African mainland.  The majority of these African islands were 
occupied by one or other of the European powers long before 
the period of continental partition.  The Madeira Islands 
to the west of Morocco, the Bissagos Islands, off the Guinea 
coast, and Prince's Island and St Thomas' Island, in the 
Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese possessions of old standing; 
while in the Canary Islands and Fernando Po Spain possesses 
remnants of her ancient colonial empire which are a more 
valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent times on the 
mainland.  St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius and some 
small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, are 
British possessions acquired long before the opening of the 
last quarter of the 19th century.  Zanzibar, Pemba and some 
smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, 
as has already been stated, placed under British protection in 
1890, and the island of Sokotra was placed under the ``gracious 
favour and protection'' of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 
1886.  France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the 17th 
century, but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French 
protection until April 1886.  None of these islands, with the 
exception of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially 
affected the partition of the continent, and they need not 
be enumerated in the table which follows.  But the important 
island of Madagascar stands in a different category, both on 
account of its size and because it was during the period under 
review that it passed through the various stages which led to 
its becoming a French colony.  The first step was the placing 
of the foreign relations of the island under French control, 
which was effected by the treaty of the 17th of December 
1885, after the Franco-Malagasy war that had broken out in 
1883.  In 1890 Great Britain and Germany recognized a French 
protectorate over the island, but the Hova government declined 
to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895 France sent an 
expedition to enforce her claims.  The capital was occupied on 
the 30th of September in the same year, and on the day following 
Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recognizing the French 
protectorate.  In January 1896 the island was declared a 
French possession, and on the 6th of August was declared to 
be a French colony.  In February 1897 the last vestige of 
ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of the queen. 

Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun 
and ended in the short space of a quarter of a century.  
There are still many finishing touches to be put to the 
structure.  The southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain 
undefined, while the mathematical lines by which the spheres 
of influence of the powers were separated one from the other 
are being variously modified on the do ut des principle as 
they come to be surveyed and as the effective occupation of 
the continent progresses.  Much labour is necessary before the 
actual area of Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately 
determined, but in the following table the figures are at least 
approximately correct.  Large areas of the spheres assigned 
to different European powers have still to be brought under 
European control; but this work is advancing by rapid strides. 


 
 BRITISH-- Sq. m.
   Cape Colony  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  276,995
   Natal and Zululand . . . . . . . . . . .   35,371
   Basutoland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   10,293
   Bechuanaland Protectorate  . . . . . . .  225,000
   Transvaal and Swaziland  . . . . . . . .  117,732
   Orange River Colony  . . . . . . . . . .   50,392
   Rhodesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  450,000
   Nyasaland Protectorate . . . . . . . . .   43,608
   British East Africa Protectorate . . . .  240,000
   Uganda Protectorate  . . . . . . . . . .  125,000
   Zanzibar Protectorate  . . . . . . . . .    1,020
   Somaliland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   68,000
   Northern Nigeria   . . . . . . . . . . .  258,000
   Southern Nigeria (colony and protectorate) 80,000
   Gold Coast and hinterland  . . . . .   82,000
   Sierre Leone (colony and protectorate) .   34,000
   Gambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    4,000
 
       Total British Africa . . . . . . .  2,101,411
 
   Egypt and Libyan Desert  . . . . . . . .  650,000
   Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . . . . . . . . . .  950,000
                                       1,600,000
 
 FRENCH--
   Algeria and Algerian Sahara  . . . . . .  945,000
   Tunisia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   51,000
   French West Africa--
     Senegal  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   74,000
     French Guinea  . . . . . . . . . . . .  107,000
     Ivory Coast  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  129,000
     Dahomey  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   40,000
     Upper Senegal and Niger, and
       Mauritania (including French West
       African Sahara)  . . . .  1,581,000 1,931,000
   French Congo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  700,000
   French Somaliland  . . . . . . . . . . .   12,000
   Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  227,950
 
       Total French Africa  . . . . . . .  3,866,950
 
 GERMAN--
   East Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  364,000
   South.West Africa  . . . . . . . . . . .  322,450
   Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  190,000
   Togoland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   33,700
 
       Total German Africa  . . . . . . . .  910,150
 
 ITALIAN--
   Eritrea  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   60,000 
   Somaliland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  140,000
 
       Total Italian Africa . . . . . . . .  200,000
 
 PORTUGUESE--
   Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   14,000
   West Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  480,000
   East Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  293,500
 
       Total Portuguese Africa  . . . . . .  787,500
 
 SPANISH--
   Rio de Oro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,000
   Muni River Settlements . . . . . . . . . .  9,800
 
         Total Spanish Africa . . . . . . . . 79,800
 
 BELGIAN--
   Congo State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900,000
 
 TURKISH--
   Tripoli and Benghazi  . . . . . . . . . . 400,000
 
 SEPARATE STATES--
   Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  43,000
   Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220,000
   Abyssinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350,000
 
       Total Independent Africa  . . . . . . 613,000
 
 Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the ``scramble''
 has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows:--
 
                                            Sq. m.
   British Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,101,411
   Egyptian Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,600,000
   French Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,866,950
   German Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910,150
   Italian Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200,000
   Portuguese Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 787,500
   Spanish Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  79,800
   Belgian Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900,000
   Turkish Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400,000
   Independent Africa  . . . . . . . . . . . 613,000
 
                                          11,458,811
 
                                          (J. S. K.)
 


1 Commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome were 
made in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C..  The first 
armed conflict between the rival powers, begun in 264 
B.C., was a contest for the possession of Sicily. 

2 This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire.  
They appear to have made no attempt to trace its course 
beyond the rapids which stop navigation from the sea. 

3 France acquired, as stations for her ships on the 
voyage to and from India, settlements in Madagascar and the 
neighbouring islands.  The first settlement was made in 1642. 

4 The Association, in 1831, was merged in the Royal Geographical Society. 

5 The Mamelukes, whom the Turks had overthrown in the 
16th century, had regained practically independent power. 

6 In imitation of the British example, an American society 
founded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia. 

7 The first territorial acquisition made by Great Britain 
in this region was in 1851, when Lagos Island was annexed. 

8 As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzibar journeying 
across the continent had arrived at Benguella. 

9 Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who spent 
the greater part of the period 1875-1886 in the east central Sudan. 

10 Specially appointed to consider West African affairs. 

11 See the tables in Behm and Wagner's 
Bevolkerung der Erde (Gotha, 1872). 

12 in 1887 this society united with the German Colonial 
Society, an organization founded in 1882.  The united 
society took the title of the German Colonial Company. 

13 At this period negotiations between Great 
Britain and Italy had begun but were not concluded. 

14 This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations 
primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in 1891. 

VI. EXPLORATION AND SURVEY SINCE 1875 

In giving the history of the partition of the continent, 
the later work of exploration, except where, as in the 
case of de Brazza's expeditions, it had direct political 
consequences, has of necessity not been told.  The results 
achieved during and after the period of partition may now be 
indicated.  Stanley's great journey down the Congo in 
1875-1876 initiated a new era in African exploration.  The 
numbers of travellers soon became so great that the once 
marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea 
became common.  With increased knowledge and much ampler 
means of communication trans-African travel now presents few 
difficulties.  While d'Anville and other cartographers of 
the 18th century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had 
left a great blank on the map, the work accomplished since 
1875 has filled it with authentic topographical details.  
Moreover surveys of high accuracy have been made at several 
points.  As the work of exploration and survey progressed 
journeys of startling novelty became impossible--save in 
the eastern Sahara, where the absence of water and boundless 
wastes of sand render exploration more difficult, perhaps, 
than in any other region of the globe.  Within their 
respective spheres of influence each power undertook detailed 
surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to 
knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working 
colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity.  Their 
work it is impossible here to recognize adequately; the 
following lines record only the more obvious achievements. 

The relation of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river 
systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers.  
In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portuguese 
government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto 

Work in the Congo. 

Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola.  The 
first named made his way by the head-streams of the Kubango 
to the upper Zambezi, which he descended to the Victoria 
Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria and Durban.  Capello 
and Ivens confined their attention to the south-west Congo 
basin, where they disproved the existence of Lake Aquilunda, 
which had figured on the maps of that region since the 16th 
century.  In a later journey (1884- 1885) Capello and Ivens 
crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the 
Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the borderlands 
between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi.  More important 
results were obtained by the German travellers Paul Pogge and 
Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed through previously 
unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's kingdom, and reached the 
upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence Wissmann made his way to the east 
coast.  In 1884-1885 a German expedition under Wissmann solved 
the most important geographical problem relating to the southern 
Congo basin by descending the Kasai, the largest southern 
tributary, which, contrary to expectation, proved to unite 
with the Kwango and other streams before joining the main 
river.  Further additions to the knowledge of the Congo 
tributaries were made at the same time by the Rev. George 
Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied in 1885 by K. 
von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer ``Peace,'' 
especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be the 
lower course of the Welle, discovered in 1870 by Schweinfurth. 

In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of 
the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo. 

Opening up East Africa. 

The first new journey of importance on this side was made 
(1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Exploration 
Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the death of his 
leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from the coast to the 
north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, on both sides 
of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end of 
Lake Rukwa on the east.  In 1882-1884 the French naval 
lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to 
Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct 
map.  North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route a large area 
of new ground was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, 
who traversed the whole length of the Masai country to Lake 
Baringo and Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light 
on the great East African rift-valley and neighbouring 
highlands, including Mounts Kenya and Elgon.  A great advance 
in the region between Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was 
made in 1887-1889 by the Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and 
Lieut.  Ludwig von Hohnel, who discovered the large Basso 
Norok, now known as Lake Rudolf, till then only vaguely 
indicated on the map as Samburu.  At this time Somaliland was 
being opened up by English and Italian travellers.  In 1883 
the brothers F. L. and W. D. James penetrated from Berbera 
to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio Bottego (afterwards 
murdered in the Abyssinian highlands) started from Berbera 
and reached the upper Juba, which he explored to its 
source.  The first person, however, to cross from the Gulf 
of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American, A. Donaldson 
Smith, who in 1894-1895 explored the headstreams of the Webi 
Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the feeder of Lake Rudolf. 

In the region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest 
additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley 
in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin 
Pasha.  The expedition set out in 1887 by way of the Congo to 
carry supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial 
province.  The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal 
tributary of the Congo from the north-east, by which the 
expedition made its way, encountering immense difficulties, 
through the great equatorial forest, the character and extent 
of which were thus for the first time brought to light.  
The return was made to the east coast, and resulted in the 
discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwenzori or Runsoro, 
and the confirmation of the existence of a third Nile lake 
discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the Semliki 
river.  A further discovery was that of a large bay, hitherto 
unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the Victoria Nyanza. 

Great activity was also displayed in completing the work of 
earlier explorers in North and West Africa.  Morocco was in 

Expeditions in North and West Africa. 

1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by de Foucauld, 
a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, crossed and re-crossed 
the Atlas and supplied the first trustworthy information as 
to the orography of many parts of the chain.  In 1887-1889 
Louis Gustave Binger, a French officer, made a great journey 
through the countries enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 
1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil went from St Louis to Say, on the 
Niger, thence through Sokoto to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence 
he crossed the Sahara to Tripoli.  Meantime explorers had 
been busy in the region between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea 
and the Congo.  The Sanga, one of the principal northern 
tributaries of the Congo, was reached from the north by 
Lieut.  Louis Mizon, a French naval officer, who drew the 
first line of communication between the Benue and the Congo 
(1890-1892).  In 1890 Paul Crampel, who in the previous 
year had explored north of the Ogowe, undertook a great 
expedition from the Ubangi to the Shari, but was attacked and 
killed, with several of his companions, on the borders of the 
Bagirmi.  Several other expeditions followed, and in 1806 
Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer on its 
waters and pushed on to Lake Chad.  Early in 1900 Lake 
Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, 
who had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of 
the Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert 
from Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder. 

The last ten years of the 19th century also witnessed many 
interesting expeditions in east Central Africa.  In 1891 Emin 

Lakes and mountains of Equatorial Africa. 

Pasha, accompanied by Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his way south 
of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile lakes, visiting for 
the first time the southern and western shores of Albert 
Edward.  Stuhlmann also ascended the Ruwenzori range to a 
height of over 13,000 ft.  In the same year Dr O. Baumann, 
who had already done good work in Usambara, near the coast, 
started on a more extended journey through the region of steppes 
between Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring 
the headstreams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the 
Nile.  In the steppe region referred to he discovered two new 
lakes, Manyara and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African 
valley system.  This region was again traversed in 1893-1894 
by Count von Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake 
Kivu, north of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke 
over thirty years before, had never yet been visited.  He also 
reached for the first time the line of volcanic peaks north of 
Kivu, one of which he ascended, afterwards crossing the great 
equatorial forest by a new route to the Congo and the west 
coast.  Valuable scientific work was done in 1893 by Dr J. 
W. Gregory, who ascended Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 
ft.  In 1893-1894 Scott Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of 
Uganda, returning by Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. 
Hobley made the circuit of the great mountain Elgon, north-east 
of Victoria Nyanza.  In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its 
summit by a party under H. J. Mackinder.  The exploration 
of Mount Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans 
Meyer, who first directed his attention to it in 1887. 

The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake Rudolf, 
being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile, 
was traversed by several explorers, among whom may be mentioned 
Capt.  M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain of 
small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake Rudolf, 
and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the lower 
Sobat.  Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the Nile by 
Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin commanded 
two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Lake 
Rudolf during 1899-1901.  Meantime in south Central Africa the 
Barotse country had been partly made known by the missionary 
F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the middle and 
upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored and mapped 
by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants in 1895-1896 and 
1898-1900.  In the same period the Congo-Zambezi watershed 
was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt.  C. Lemaire, who 
had ascended one of the upper tributaries of the Kasai. 

In the early years of the 19th century the first recorded 
crossing of Africa took place.  That crossing and all subsequent 
crossings had been made either from west to east or east to 
west.  The first journey through the whole length of the 
continent was accomplished in the two last years of the 
century when a young Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from 
Cape Town reached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, 
the central line of lakes and the Nile.  Other travellers 
followed in Grogan's footsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons. 

Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about 
1890 onwards by the international commissions which traced 

Work of international commissions and surveying parties. 

the frontiers of the protectorates of the European powers.  
On several occasions the labours of the commissions disclosed 
errors of importance in the maps upon which international 
agreements had been based.  Among those which yielded 
valuable results were the Anglo-French commission which in 
1903 traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake 
Chad, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904 fixed 
the Cameroon boundary between Yola, on the Benue, and Lake 
Chad.  These expeditions and French surveys in the same region 
during 1902-1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad 
had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the 19th 
century.  In 1903 a French officer, Capt.  E. Lenfant, succeeded 
in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and Chad 
basins.  Subsequently Lenfant explored the western basin of the 
Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch of that river. 

In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed (1901-1902) 
Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the lake, R. Kandt 
making a special study of Kivu and the Kagera sources, while 
the Anglo-German boundary commission of 1902-1904 surveyed 
the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the exact position 
of Albert Edward Nyanza.  Much new information concerning 
the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia between 
Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the survey 
executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, Captain P. Maud. 

While political requirements led to the exact determination 
of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments 
concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under their 
protection.  Before the close of the first decade of the 20th 
century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the German 
colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the Algerian 
Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by military 
officers.  A British naval officer, Commander B. Whitehouse, 
mapped the entire coastdine of Victoria Nyanza.  Government 
and railway surveys apart, the chief points of interest for 
explorers during 1904-1906 were the Ruwenzori range and the 
connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and Congo 
systems.  Lieut.  Boyd Alexander was the leader of a party which 
during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a considerable 
part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via the Shari, 
the Ubangi and the Nile.  Two members of the party, Capt.  
Claud Alexander and Capt.  G. B. Gosling, died during the 
expedition.  The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source of 
attraction.  Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond 
the snow-line to 14,800 ft.; in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached 
from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; 
and in the same year Capt.  T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German 
Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at 16,619 
ft.  During 1904-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were at work 
in the region.  That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the most 
successful.  In the summer of 1906 the duke or members of his 
party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches 17,000 
ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed.  Major 
Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done good 
work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905-1906 in a 
detailed examination of the Lado enclave and the country west of 
Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes.  This expedition 
was specially fruitful in additions to zoological knowledge. 

Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas 
Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719- 1731, 
by James Bruce's exploration, 1765-1767, of the ruins in 
Barbary, and by the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, 
has been systematically carried out in North Africa since 
the middle of the 19th century (see EGYPT and AFRICA, 
ROMAN.) In South Africa the first thorough examination of 
the ruins in Rhodesia was made in 1905, when Randall-MacIver 
demonstrated that the great Zimbabwe and similar buildings 
were of medieval or post-medieval origin. (F. R. C.) 

VII. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 

The eagerness with which the nations of western Europe 
partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, 
more to the necessities of commerce than to mere land 
hunger.  Yet, except in the north and south temperate 
regions, the commercial intercourse of the continent with 
the rest of the world had been until the closing years of the 
19th century of insignificant proportions.  In addition to 
slaves, furnished by the continent from the earliest times, 
a certain amount of gold and ivory was exported from the 
tropical regions, but no other product supplied the material 
for a flourishing trade with those parts.  To their Asiatic 
and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many creature 
comforts--the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar cane, 
the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and many 
other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other 
animals--but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led 
to little development of commerce.  The continent continued 
in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the 

Causes of isolation. 

world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in natural 
resources, as to the special circumstances which likewise 
caused so large a part of the continent to remain so long a 
terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may be summarized 
as: (1) the absence of means of communication with the 
interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3) the 
small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of 
the slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce.  None 
of these causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult 
to remove being the third; the negro races finding the means 
of existence easy have little incentive to toil.  The first 
drawback has almost disappeared, and the building of railways 
and the placing of steamers on the rivers and lakes--a work 
continually progressing --renders it year by year easier for 
producer and consumer to come together.  As to the second 
drawback, while the coast-lands in the tropics will always 
remain comparatively unhealthy, improved sanitation and the 
destruction of the malarial mosquito have rendered tolerable to 
Europeans regions formerly notorious for their deadly climate. 

At various periods since the partition of the continent began, 
united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the 
interests of African trade.  The Berlin conference of 1884-1885 
decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the 
Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like 
privileges for the Zambezi.  The Berlin conference likewise 
enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa--the conventional 
basin of the Congo--there should be complete freedom of trade, 
a freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo 
State and French Congo by the granting to various companies 
proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the 
soil.  More important in their effect on the economic condition 
of the continent than the steps taken to ensure freedom 
of trade were the measures concerted by the powers for the 
suppression of the slave trade.  The British government had 
for long borne the greater part of the burden of combating 
the slave trade on the east coast of Africa and in the Indian 
Ocean, but the changed conditions which resulted from the 
appearance of other European powers in Africa induced Lord 
Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address, in the autumn of 
1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians to take the 
initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at Brussels 
to concert measures for ``the gradual suppression of the 

Suppression of the slave trade. 

slave trade on the continent of Africa, and the immediate 
closing of all the external markets which it still supplies.'' 
The conference assembled in November 1889, and on the 2nd of 
July 1890 a general act was signed subject to the ratification 
of the various governments represented, ratification taking 
place subsequently at different dates, and in the case of 
France with certain reservations.  The general act began with 
a declaration of the means which the powers were of opinion 
might be most effectually adopted for ``putting an end to the 
crimes and devastations engendered by the traffic in African 
slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal populations of 
Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the benefits of 
peace and civilization.'' It proceeded to lay down certain 
rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines 
suggested.  The act covers a wide field, and includes no 
fewer than a hundred separate articles.  It established 
a zone ``between the 20th parallel of north latitude, and 
the 22nd parallel of south latitude, and extending westward 
to the Atlantic and eastward to the Indian Ocean and its 
dependencies, comprising the islands adjacent to the coast as 
far as 100 nautical miles from the shore,'' within which the 
importation of firearms and ammunition was forbidden except 
in certain specified cases, and within which also the powers 
undertook either to prohibit altogether the importation and 
manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties not 
below an agreed-on minimum.1 An elaborate series of rules 
was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by 
sea, the conditions on which European powers were to grant 
to natives the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, 
and regulating the procedure connected with the right of 
search on vessels flying a foreign flag.  The Brussels Act 
was in effect a joint declaration by the signatory powers of 
their joint and several responsibility towards the African 
native, and notwithstanding the fact that many of its articles 
have proved difficult, if not impossible, of enforcement, 
the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face of the 
world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on the 
action of several of the powers.  Moreover, with the increase 
of means of communication and the extension of effective 
European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largely 
checked and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being 
thus given security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture. 

Other important factors in the economic as well as the social 
conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made 
by the natives in several regions and the increase of the 
areas found suitable for white colonization.  The advance in 
civilization among the natives, exemplified by the granting to 
them of political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape 
Colony, leads directly to increased commercial activity; and 
commerce increases in a much greater degree when new countries--
e.g. Rhodesia and British East Africa--become the homes of 
Europeans.  Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern 
the commercial development of the continent, note must be taken 
of the sparsity of the population over the greater part of 
Africa, and the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and 
often ineffective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic 
labourers in various districts--of Indian coolies in Natal and 
elsewhere, and of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal. 

The resources of Africa may be considered under the head 
of: (1) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal 

Chief economic resources. 

products; (4) minerals.  Of the first named the most important 
are india-rubber and palm-oil. which in tropical Africa supply by 
far the largest items in the export list.  The rubber-producing 
plants are found throughout the whole tropical belt, and the 
most important are creepers of the order Apocynaceae, especially 
various species of Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now 
united).  In East Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies 
the largest amount, though various other species are known.  
Forms of apparently wider distribution are L. hendelotii, 
which is found in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and extends right 
across the continent to Senegambia; and L. (formerly Vahea) 
comorensis, which, including its variety L. florida, has 
the widest distribution of all the species, occurring in Upper 
and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the east coast, 
the Comoro Islands and Madagascar.  In parts of East Africa 
Clitandra orienitalis is a valuable rubber vine.  In Lagos 
and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous tree, 
Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various 
species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East 
Africa.  The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of 
South America, but this is largely due to careless methods of 
preparation.  The great destruction of vines brought about 
by native methods of collection much reduced the supply in 
some districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to 
preserve and cultivate the rubber-yielding plants.  This 
has been done in many districts with usually encouraging 
results.  Experiments have been made in the introduction of 
South American rubber plants, but opinions differ as to the 
prospects of success, as the plants in question seem to demand 
very definite conditions of soil and climate.  The second 
product, palm-oil, is derived from a much more limited area 
than rubber, for although the oil palm is found throughout the 
greater part of West Africa, from 10 deg.  N. to 10 deg.  S., the great 
bulk of the export comes from the coast districts at the head 
of the Gulf of Guinea.  A larger supply, equal to any market 
demand, could easily be obtained.  A third valuable product 
is the timber supplied by the forest regions, principally in 
West Africa.  It includes African teak or oak (Oldfieldia 
africana), excellent for shipbuilding; the durable odum 
of the Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa); African mahogany 
(Khaya senegalensis); ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood 
(Baphia nitida); and many other ornamental and dye woods.  
The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but 
since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe.  In parts 
of East Africa the Podocarpus milanjianus, a conifer, is 
economically important.  Valuable timber grows too in South 
Africa, including the yellow wood (Podocarpus), stinkwood 
(Ocotea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Euclea) and ironwood. 

Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arabic, obtained 
from various species of acacia (especially A. senegal), 
the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia 
and the steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c.); gum 
copal, a valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous 
order, the best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming 
from the East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also 
found in a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced 
chiefly in the coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the 
order Sterculiaceae (Kola acuminata); archil or orchilla, 
a dye-yielding lichen (Rocella tinctoria and triciformis) 
growing on trees and rocks in East Africa, the Congo basin, 
&c.; cork, the bark of the cork oak, which flourishes 
in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manufacture 
(Machrochloa tenacissima), growing in great abundance on 
the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which 
attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or 
resin, derived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucalli. 

The cultivated products include those of the tropical and warm 
temperate zones.  Of the former, coffee is perhaps the most 
valuable indigenous plant.  It grows wild in many parts, the 
home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries 
south of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia.  The Abyssinian 
coffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the 
world.  Cultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best 
results, and attention has been given to this in various European 
colonies.  Plantations have been established in Angola, 
Nyasaland, German East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c. 

Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied 
chiefly by Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east 
coast.  Groundnuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis 
hypogaea, are grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest 
export is from Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra 
ground-nuts (Voandzeia subterranea) are very generally 
cultivated from Guinea to Natal.  Cloves are extensively 
grown on Zanzibar and Pemba islands, Pemba being the chief 
source of the world's supply of cloves.  The chief drawbacks 
to the industry are the fluctuations of the yield of the 
trees, and the risk of over-production in good seasons. 

Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is 
exported in small quantities in the raw state; but the main 
export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's 
sources of supply of the article.  It is also cultivated in 
West Africa--the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having 
been developed since the beginning of the 20th century--and 
in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from 
which Egyptian cotton is grown.  Sugar, which is the staple 
crop of Mauritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is 
also produced in Natal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in 
Mozambique.  Dates are grown in Tunisia and the Saharan 
oases, especially Tafilet; maize in Egypt, South Africa and 
parts of the tropical zone; wheat in Egypt, Algeria and the 
higher regions of Abyssinia; rice in Madagascar.  Wine is 
largely exported from Algeria, and in a much smaller quantity 
from Cape Colony; fruit and vegetables from Algeria.  Tobacco 
is widely grown on a small scale, but, except perhaps from 
Algeria, has not become an important article of export, 
though plantations have been established in various tropical 
colonies.  The cultivation of cocoa has proved successful in 
the Gold Coast, Cameroon and other colonies, and in various 
districts the tea plant is cultivated.  Indigo, though not 
originally an African product, has become naturalized and grows 
wild in many parts, while it is also cultivated on a small 
scale.  The main difficulty in the way of tropical cultivation 
is the labour question, which has already been referred to. 

Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the 
largest export of which is from the Congo Free State.  The 
diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up 
of the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off 
in this export.  Beeswax is obtained from various parts 
of the interior of West Africa, and from Madagascar.  Raw 
hides are exported in large quantities from South Africa, 
as are also the wool and hair of the merino sheep and Angora 
goat.  Both hides and wool are also exported from Algeria and 
Morocco, and hides from Abyssinia and Somaliland.  Ostrich 
feathers are produced chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape 
Colony, but some are also obtained from the steppes to 
the north of the Central Sudan.  Live stock, principally 
sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle from Morocco. 

The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts, 
the resources of the continent in this respect being largely 

Mineral Wealth. 

undeveloped.  Since the discovery of gold in the Transvaal, 
particularly in the district known as the Rand (1885), the 
output has grown enormously, so that in 1898 the output of gold 
from South Africa was greater than from any other gold-field 
in the world.  The Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand 
the leading position, but by 1905 the output--in that year 
over L. 20,800,000--was greater than it had ever been.  The 
supply of gold from South Africa is roughly 25% of the world's 
output.  The gold-yielding formations extend northwards through 
Rhodesia.  The Gold Coast is so named from the quantity 
of gold obtained there, and since the close of the 19th 
century the industry has developed largely in the hands of 
Europeans.  In the Galla countries gold has long been an 
article of native commerce.  It is also found in various parts 
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the western shore of the 
Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large quantities in a series 
of beds known as the Kimberley shales, the principal mines 
being at Kimberley, Cape Colony.  Diamonds are also found in 
Orange River Colony, while one of the richest diamond mines 
in the world--the Premier--is situated in the Transvaal near 
Pretoria.  Some 80% of the world's production of diamonds 
comes from South Africa.  Copper is found in the west of Cape 
Colony, in German South-West Africa, and in the Katanga country 
in the southern Congo basin, where vast beds of copper ore 
exist.  There are also extensive deposits of copper in the 
Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia.  It also occurs in 
Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich tin deposits 
have been found in the southern Congo basin and in Northern 
Rhodesia.  Iron is found in Morocco, Algeria (whence there 
is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and worked by 
the natives, in the tropical zone.  But the deposits are 
generally not rich.  Coal is worked, principally for home 
consumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange 
River Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the 
Zambezi.  Coal deposits also exist in the German territory 
north of Lake Nyasa.  Phosphates are exported from Algeria and 
Tunisia.  Of other minerals which occur, but are little 
worked, zinc, lead and antimony are found in Algeria, lead 
and manganese in Cape Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone. 

The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly 
of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the 
development of the different countries in civilization.  In 
Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the 
necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured 
cotton and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the 
first place, but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and 
miscellaneous articles being also included.  In tropical 
Africa, and generally where few Europeans have settled, 
the great bulk of the imports consists as a rule of cotton 
goods, articles for which there is a constant native demand. 

No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of 
communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade 

Development of means of communication. 

of the 19th century that decided steps were taken to remedy these 
defects.  The African rivers, with the exception of the middle 
Congo and its affluents, and the middle course of the three 
other chief rivers, are generally unfavourable to navigation, 
and throughout the tropical region almost the sole routes have 
been native footpaths, admitting the passage of a single file 
of porters, on whose heads all goods have been carried from 
place to place.  Certain of these native trade routes are, 
however, much frequented, and lead for hundreds of miles from 
the coast to the interior.  In the desert regions of the north 
transport is by caravans of camels, and in the south ox-wagons, 
before the advent of railways, supplied the general means of 
locomotion.  The native trade routes led generally from the 
centres of greatest population or production to the seaports 
by the nearest route, but to this rule there was a striking 
exception.  The dense forests of Upper Guinea and the upper 
Congo proved a barrier which kept the peoples of the Sudan 
from direct access to the sea, and from Timbuktu to Darfur 
the great trade routes were either west to east or south 
to north across the Sahara.  The principal caravan routes 
across the desert lead from different points in Morocco and 
Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano and other 
great marts of the western and central Sudan; from Bengazi 
to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the Great Oasis 
and the Libyan desert to Darfur.  South of the equator the 
principal long-established routes are those from Loanda to the 
Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via Bihe to Urua 
and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across the Kunene to 
the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite Zanzibar, to 
Tanganyika.  Many of the native routes have been superseded 
by the improved communications introduced by Europeans in the 
utilization of waterways and the construction of roads and 
railways.  Steamers have been conveyed overland in sections and 
launched on the interior waterways above the obstructions to 
navigation.  On the upper Nile and Albert Nyanza their 
introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General C. G. Gordon 
(1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents to Sir H. 
M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, as well 
as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake Nyasa 
to the supporters of the Scottish mission.  A small vessel 
was launched on Victoria Nyanza 1896 by a British mercantile 
firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip 
in November 1900.  On the other great lakes and on most of 
the navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before 
the close of the 19th century.  However, the shallowness of 
the water in the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation 
possible only to light-draught steamers.  Roads suitable for 
wheeled traffic are few.  The first attempt at road-making 
in Central Africa on a large scale was that of Sir T. Fowell 
Buxton and Mr (afterwards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed 
the first section of a track leading into the interior from 
Dar-es-Salaam (1879).  A still more important undertaking 
was the ``Stevenson road,'' begun in 1881 from the head of 
Lake Nyasa to the south end of Tanganyika, and constructed 
mainly at the expense of Mr James Stevenson, a director of the 
African Lakes Company--a company which helped materially in 
the opening up of Nyasaland.  The Stevenson road forms a link 
in the ``Lakes route'' into the heart of the continent.  In 
British East Africa a road connecting Mombasa with Victoria 
Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has since been in great 
measure superseded by the railway.  Good roads have also been 
made in German East Africa and Cameroon and in Madagascar. 

Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the 
interior of the continent, were for many years after their 
first introduction to Africa almost entirely confined to 
the extreme north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and 
Natal).  Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at 
Lourenco Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 
without a railway system.  In Egypt the Alexandria and 
Cairo railway dates from 1855, while in 1877 the lines open 
reached about 1100 miles, and in 1890, in addition to the 
lines traversing the delta, the Nile had been ascended to 
Assiut.  In Algeria the construction of an inter-provincial 
railway was decreed in 1857, but was still incomplete twenty 
years later, when the total length of the lines open hardly 
exceeded 300 miles.  Before 1890 an extension to Tunis had 
been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by the lines 
to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east.  In Senegal 
the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced and 
completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the 
Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also 
constructed during the same decade.  In Cape Colony, where 
in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood 
of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next 
decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town 
to Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port 
Elizabeth.  The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been 
crossed.  In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond 
Ladysmith.  The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of 
the partition of the continent was followed by many projects 
for the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence 
of the various powers by the building of railways; several of 
these schemes being carried through in a comparatively short 
time.  The building of railways was undertaken by the governments 
concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned.  In 
the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to 
build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle 
Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and 
upper courses of the river were linked by the opening of a 
line past Stanley Falls.  Thus the vast basin of the Congo 
was rendered easily accessible to commercial enterprise.  In 
North Africa the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely 
extended, and proposals were made for a great trunk-line 
from Tangier to Alexandria.  The railway from Ain Sefra was 
continued southward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan 
line having occupied the attention of French engineers since 
1880.  In French West Africa railway communication between 
the upper Senegal and the upper Niger was completed in 1904; 
from the Guinea coast at Konakry another line runs north-east 
to the upper Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to 
the Niger at Garu.  In the British colonies on the same coast 
the building of railways was begun in 1896.  A line to Kumasi 
was completed in 1903, and the line from Lagos to the lower 
Niger had reached Illorin in 1908.  Thence the railway was 
continued to the Niger at Jebba.  From Baro, a port on the 
lower Niger which can be reached by steamers all the year 
round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes via Bida, Zungeru 
and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400 miles.  A line from 
Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with the Lagos railway. 

But the greatest development of the railway systems was in 
the south and east of the continent.  In British East Africa 
a survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was 
made in 1892.  The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line 
reached the lake in December 1901.  Meanwhile, there had been 
a great extension of railways in South Africa.  Lines from 
Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa 
Bay all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, 
the centre of the Rand gold mines.  A more ambitious project 
was that identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely, 
the extension northward of the railway from Kimberley with 
the object of effecting a continuous railway connexion from 
Cape Town to Cairo.  The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo 
in 1897. (Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east 
coast by another line, completed in 1902, which goes through 
Portuguese territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the 
line northward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi 
being bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 
1905.  From this point the railway goes north to the Katanga 
district of the Congo State.  In the north of the continent 
a step towards the completion of the Cape to Cairo route was 
taken in the opening in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to 
Khartum.  A line of greater economic importance than the last 
named is the railway (completed in 1905) from Port Sudan on the 
Red Sea to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the 
world.  A west to east connexion across the continent by rail 
and steamer, from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was 
arranged in 1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo 
and Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, 
on the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway 
starting from the river Congo near Stanley Falls.  A railway of 
considerable importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden 
to Harrar, giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia. 

Besides the railways mentioned there are several others of 
less importance.  Lines run from Loanda and other ports of 
Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and 
Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the 
great lakes.  In British Central Africa a railway connects 
Lake Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and 
various lines have been built by the French in Madagascar. 

All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British 
West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and in Egypt 
south of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge.  The main lines 
in Lower Egypt and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 
8 1/2 in. gauge.  Elsewhere as in French West and British 
East Africa the lines are of metre (3.28 ft.) gauge. 

The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than 
that of the railways, the newer European possessions having 
in most cases been provided with telegraph lines before 
railway projects had been set on foot.  In Algeria, Egypt 
and Cape Colony the systems date back to the middle of the 
19th century, before the end of which the lines had in each 
country reached some thousands of miles.  In tropical Africa 
the systems of French West Africa, where the line from Dakar 
to St Louis was begun in 1862, were the first to be fully 
developed, lines having been carried from different points 
on the coast of Senegal and Guinea towards the Niger, the 
main line being prolonged north-west to Timbuktu, and west 
and south to the coast of Dahomey.  The route for a telegraph 
line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria was surveyed in 
1905.  The Congo region is furnished with several telegraphic 
systems, the longest going from the mouth of the river to Lake 
Tanganyika.  From Ujiji on the east coast of that lake there 
is telegraphic communication via Tabora with Dar-es-Salaam and 
via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town.  The last-named line is 
the longest link in the trans-continental line first suggested 
in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and afterwards taken 
up by Cecil Rhodes.  The northern link from Egypt to Khartum 
has been continued southward to Uganda, while another line 
connects Uganda with Mombasa.  At the principal seaports the 
inland systems are connected with submarine cables which place 
Africa in telegraphic communication with the rest of the world. 

Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany, 
France and other countries to the African seaports, 
the journey from any place in western Europe to any 
port on the African coast occupying, by the shortest 
route, not more than three weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.) 

1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic 
in Africa were held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906.  In 
both instances conventions were signed by the powers, 
raising the minimum duty on imported spirituous liquors. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Authoritative works dealing with Africa 
as a whole in any of its aspects are comparatively 
rare.  Besides such volumes the following list includes 
therefore books containing valuable information 
concerning large or typical sections of the continent:-- 

sec.  I. General Descriptions.--(a) Ancient and Medieval.  
Herodotus, ed.  G. Rawlinson, 4 vols.1 (1880); Ptolemy's 
Geographia, ed.  C. Muller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn 
Haukal, ``Description de l'Afrique (transl.  McG. de Slane), 
Nouv.  Journal asiatique, 1842; Edrisi, ``Geographie'' 
(transl.  Jaubert), Rec. de voyages . . . Soc. de 
Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographie 
(transl.  Reinaud and Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883); M. A. P. 
d'Avezac, Description de l'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845); 
L. de Marmol, Description general de Africa (Granada, 
1573); L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice, 1588); F. 
Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597); 
Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa 
(transl.  J. Pory, ed.  R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper, 
Naukeurige beschrijvinge der afrikaensche gewesten, &c. 
(Amsterdam, 1668) (also English version by Ogilvy, 1670, and 
French version, Amsterdam, 1686); B. Tellez, ``Travels of 
the Jesuits in Ethiopia,'' A New Collection of Voyages, 
vol. vii. (1710); G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica 
Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, et Angola (Milan, 
1690) (account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries 
and their observations on the country and people); J. Barbot, 
``Description of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of 
Ethiopia Inferior,', Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. 
Bosman, A New . . . Description of the Coasts of North and 
South Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat, Nouvelle 
relation de l'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728); 
Idem, Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale, 5 
vols. (Paris, 1732). (b) Modern.  B. d'Anville, Memoire 
conc. les rivieres de l'interieur de l'Afrique (Paris, 
n.d.); M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville's fur seine 
kritische Karte von Afrika Munich, 1904); C. Ritter, Die 
Erdkunde, i.  Theil, 1. Buch, ``Afrika'' (Berlin, 1822); 
l.  M`Queen, Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and 
Central Africa (Edinburgh, 1821 ); Idem, Geographical Survey 
of Africa ( 1840); W. D. Cooley, Inner Africa laid open 
(1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geographie universelle, vols. 
x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa (in Stanford's 
Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907); F. Hahn and W. 
Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and A. 
Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XXe siecle (Paris, 1906); 
Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 
vols. iii. and iv. (Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J. 
Herbertson, Descriptive Geographies from Original Sources: 
Africa (1902); British Africa (The British Empire Series, 
vol. ii., 1899); Journal of the African Society; Comite 
de l'Afrique francaise, Bulletin, Paris; Mutteilungen der 
afrikan.  Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879-1889); 
Mitteilungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten 
(Berlin); H. Schirmer, Le Sahara (Paris, 1893); Mary H. 
Kingsley, West African Studies, 2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce, 
Impressions of South Africa (1897); Sir Harry Johnston, The 
Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol ii. is devoted to 
anthropology); E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa (1902). 

sec.  II. Geography (Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and 
Fauna. -- (For Descriptive Geogr. see sec.  I.)--G.  Gurich, 
``Uberblick uber den geolog.  Bau des afr.  Kontinents,'' 
Peterm.  Mitt., 1887; A. Knox, Notes on the Geology of the 
Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a bibliography); L. von 
Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess, B eitrage zur 
geologischen Kenntniss des omstlichcn Afrika (Vienna, 1891); 

E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten 
in Afrika (Munich, 1896); J. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte 
uniserer Tage: Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. 
Heidrich, ``Die mittlere Hohe Afrikas,'' Peterm.  Mitt., 
1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-Valley (1896); H. G. 
Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin 
(Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch einer 
physischgeogr.  Darstellung . . . des sudafr.  Beckens (Berlin, 
1904); Idem, ``Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika,'' 
Naturw. Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The 
Tanganyika, Problem (1903); W. H. Hudleston, ``On the Origin 
of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika,'' Journ. of 
Trans.  Victoria Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole 
question of the geological history of equatorial Africa); E. 
Stromer, ``Ist der Tanganyika ein Rellikten-See?'' Peterm.  
Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter, ``Die . . . Arbeiten 
der Pendelexpedition . . . in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika,'' Verh.  
Deuts.  Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet, 
``La geologie du bassin du Congo,'' Bull.  Soc. Beige 
geol., 1898; E. G. Ravenstein, ``The Climatology of Africa'' 
(ten reports), Reports Brit.  Association, 1892-1901; Idem, 
``Climatological Observations . . . I. Tropical Africa'' 
(1904); H. G. Lyons, ``On the Relations between Variations of 
Atmospheric Pressure . . . and the Nile Flood,'' Proc.  Roy. 
Soc., Ser. A, vol. lxxvi., 1905; P. Reichard, ``Zur Frage 
der Austrocknung Afrikas,'' Geogr.  Zeitschrift, 1895; J. 
Hoffmann, ``Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hochlandern,'' 
&c., Peterm.  Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, ``Studien uber die 
jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik.  Kontinents,'' 
Peterm. Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, 
Flora of) Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K. 
Oschatz, Anordnung der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen, 
1900); A. Engler, Hochgebirgs-flora des tropischen Afrika 
(Berlin, 1892); Idem, Die Pflanzenwelt Ostaftikras und der 
Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895); Idem, Beitrage zur 
Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan.  Jahrbucher, 14 vols. 
&c.); W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants Collected by 
Dr Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896-1901); R. 
Schlechter, Westafrikanische Kautschuk-Expedition (Berlin, 
1903); H. Baum, Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) 
(largely concerned with botany); W. L. Sclater, ``Geography of 
Mammals, No. iv.  The Ethiopian Region,'' Geog.  Journal, 
March 1896; H. A. Bryden and others, Great and Small Game 
of Africa (1899); F. C. Selous, African Nature Notes and 
Reminiscences (1908); E. N. Buxton, Two African Trips: 
with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation in 
Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals); G. 
Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle in Equatorial East 
Africa (1906); Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking 
collection of photographs of living wild animals); Exploration 
scientifique de l'Algerie: Histoire naturelle, 14 vols. 
and 4 atlases, Paris (1846-1850); Annales du Musee du 
Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c.).  The 
latest results of geographical research and a bibliography 
of current literature are given in the Geographical 
Journal, published monthly by the Royal Geographical Society. 

sec.  III. Ethnology.--H.  Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas 
(Leipzig, 1879); B. Ankermann, ``Kulturkreise in Afrika,'' Zeit. 
f.  Eth. vol. xxxvii. p. 34; Idem, ``Uber den gegenwartigen 
Stand der Ethnographie der Sudhalfte Afrikas,'' Arch. 
f.  Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Sergi, Antropologia della 
stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J. Deniker, ``Distribution 
geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains,'' 
La Geographie, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. 
Stow and G. M. Theal, The Native Races of South Africa 
(1905); K. Barthel, Volkerbewegungen auf der Sudhalfte des 
afrik.  Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); A. B. Ellis, The 
Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (1887); Idem, The 
Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The 
Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling 
Roth, Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903); H. 
Frobenius, Die Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan 
(Berlin, 1893); Herbert Spencer and D. Duncan, Descriptive 
Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); A. de Preville, 
Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald, 
Africana or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882); 
L. Frobenius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen 
(Der Ursprung der Kultur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem, 
``Die Masken und Geheimbunde Afrikas,'' Abhandl.  Kaiserl.  
Leopoldin.-Carolin.  Deuts.  Akad. Naturforscher, 1899, 
1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Artes africanae Illustrations and 
Descriptions of . . . industrial Arts, &c. (in German and 
English) (Leipzig, 1875); F. Ratzel, Die afsikanischen Bogen 
. . . eine anthrop. geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. 
Weule, . Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899); H. Frobenius, 
Afrikanische Bautypen (Dauchau bei Munchen, 1894); H. 
Schurtz, Die afrikan. Gewerbe (Leipzig, 1900); E. W. 
Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887); 
James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, or Africa and 
its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903); W. H. J. Bleek, 
Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts 
(1862-1869); Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo 
Marques, &c., &c. (1900); R. N. Cust, Sketch of the 
Modern Languages of Africa, 2 vols. (1993): F. W. Kolbe, A 
Language Study based on Bantu (1888); J. T. Last, Polyglotta 
Africana orientalis (1885); J. Torrend, Comparative Grammar 
of the South African Bantu Languages (1891); S. W. Koelle, 
Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen 
der Suaheli von Expeditionen v.  Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1900) 
(narratives taken down from the mouths of natives); A. Vierkandt, 
Volksgedichte im westlichen Central-Afrika (Leipzig, 1895).  
For latest information the following periodicals should be 
consulted:-- Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great 
Britain and Ireland; Man (same publishers); Zeitschrift 
f.  Ethnologie; Archiv f.  Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie. 

sec.  IV. Archaeology and Art.-- Publications of the Egyptian 
Exploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of Upper 
Egypt (1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); 
G. Maspero, L' Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); 
R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien . . 
., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A. Hoskins, Travels in 
Ethiopia . . . illustrating the Antiquities of the Ancient 
Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being English 
Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 
10, 12 (1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892); 
D. Randall-MacIver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) 
(archaeology and ethnology of North Africa); G. Boissier, 
L'Afrique romaine Promenades archeologiques en Algerie 
et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901); H. Randall-MacIver, 
Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906); Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de 
l'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris, 
1879; G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient 
Egypt, 2 vols. (1993); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art 
(1900); C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the 
City of Benin and from other parts of West Africa (1899). 

sec.  V. Travel and Exploration.--Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce 
and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus ofthe 
Erythraean Sea (1807); G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the 
Discovery and Conquest of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 
1896, 1899); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator 
(1868); E. G. Ravenstein, ``The Voyages of Diogo Cao and 
Barth.  Diaz,'' Geogr.  Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig, 
``Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas,'' 
Mitt. Geogr.  Gesells.  Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H. 
Murray, Historical Account of Discoveries, &c., 2 vols., 
2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch, Account of the Discoveries 
of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique 
(1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr.  Forschung des afrikan.  
Continents (Vienna, 1880); A. Supan, ``Ein Jahrhundert der 
Afrika-Forschung,'' Peterm.  Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The 
Story of Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); 
Sir Harry Johnston, The Nile Quest (1903); James Bruce, 
Travels to discover the Source of the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 
vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the Association 
for . . . Discovery of!the Interior Parts of Africa, 
1790-1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts 
of Africa (1799); Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815); 
Capt.  J. K. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore 
the River Zaire or Congo in 1816 (1818): D. Denham and H. 
Clapperton, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in N. and 
Cent.  Africa (1826); R. Caillie, Journal d'un voyage 
a Temboctu et a Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830); D. Livingstone, 
Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last 
Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed.  H. 
Waller (1874); H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North 
and Central Africa, 5 vols. (1857); J. L. Krapf, Travels, 
Researches, &c., in Eastern Africa (1860); Sir R. F. Burton, 
The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols. (1860); J. H. 
Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile 
(1863).: Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); 
G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. 
Cameron, Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The 
Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa (1877); Sir H. M. 
Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 2 vols. (1878); 
Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1890); G. Nachtigal, 
Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889); P. S. de 
Brazza, Les Voyages de . . . (1875-1882), Paris, 1884; 
i.  Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann, 
Unter Deutscher Flagge quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 
1889); Idem, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa 
(1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa 1875-1886, 3 vols. 
(1890-1892); L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee, &c. 
(Paris, 1892); O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur Nilquelle 
(Berlin, 1894); R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); C. A. von 
Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896); L. 
Vanutelli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bottego: L'Omo 
(Milan, 1899); P. Foureau, D'Alger au Congo par le Tchad 
(Paris, 1902); C. Lemaire, Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: 
Journal de route, 1 vol., Resultats des observations, 
16 parts (Brussels, 1902); A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from 
South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E. 
Lenfant, La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905); Boyd 
Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907). 

sec.  VI. Historical and Political.--H.Schurtz, Africa 
(World's History, vol. 3, part 3) (1903); Sir H. H. Johnston, 
History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races 
(Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional chapter ``Latest 
Developments,'' 1905); A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the 
Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations of 
Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of 
Ancient Egypt (1881); A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902); J. de 
Barros, Asia: Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J. 
Strandes, Die Portugiesenzeit von . . . Ostafrika (Berlin, 
1899); R. Schuck, Brandenburg- Preussens Kolonial-Politik 
. . . 1641-1721, 2 vols.  Leipzig, 1889): G. M`Call Theal, 
History and Ethnography of Africa south of the Zambesi 
. . . to 1795, 3 vols. (1907-1910), and History of South 
Africa since September 1795 (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, 
Records of South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898-1903; Lady 
Lugard, A Tropical Dependency: Outline of the History of 
the Western Sudan, &c.; (1905); Sir F. Hertslet, The Map 
of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909); J . S. Keltie, 
The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895); F. Van Ortroy, 
Conventions internationales definissant les limites . . . 
en Afrique (Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference 
of Berlin, 1885: The Surveys and Explorations of British 
Africa (Colonial Reports, No. 500) (1906), and annual reports 
thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard, The Rise or our East African 
Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les colonies francaises, 
2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904); E. Rouard de Card, Les Traites 
de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 1870-1895 
(Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d'Afrique 
Lisbon, 1900); B.Trognitz, ``Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents 
Afrika,'' Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, ``Die 
Bevolkerung der Erde,'' xii., Peterm.  Mitt. Erganzungsh. 
146 (Gotha, 1904) (deals with areas as well as population). 

sec.  VII. Commerce and Economics.--A.  Silva White, The 
Development of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892): K. Dove, ``Grundzuge 
einer Wirtschaftsgeographie Afrikas,'' Geographische 
Zeitschrift, 1905, i-18; E. Hahn, ``Die Stellung Afrikas in 
der Geschichte des Welthandels,'' Verhandl. 11. Deutsch.  
Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896); L. de Launay, 
Les Richesses minerales de l'Afrique (Paris, 1903); K. 
Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion 
(Berlin, 1894); P. Reichard, ``Das afrikan.  Elfenbein und 
sein Handel,'' Deutsche geogr.  Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir 
A. Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); 
Dewevre, ``Les Caoutchoucs africains,'' Ann. Soc. Sci. 
Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade 
and its Remedy (1840); C. M. A. Lavigerie, L'Esclavage 
africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les chemins de fer 
coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905); H. Meyer, 
Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); G. 
Grenfell, ``The Upper Congo as a Waterway,'' Geogr.  Journ., 
Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, ``The Nile and Zambezi Systems 
as Waterways,'' Journ.  R. Colon.  Inst., 1901; K. Lent, 
``Verkehrsmittel in Ostafrika,'' Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 
1894; ``Trade of the United Kingdom with the African Continent 
in 1898-1902,'' Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and 
Consular Peports, Annual Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. 
Parke, Guide to Health in Africa (1893); R. W. Felkin, 
Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases in Africa (1895) 

The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay, 
Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs a l'Afrique, &c. (San Remo, 
1875); P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur von 1500 bis 1750 
(Vienne, 1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol. 
3, Africa (specially for government publications). (E. HE.) 

1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be understood. 

AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to 
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya 
(Aibbe.) It comprised the whole of the portion of the 
African continent known to the ancients, except Egypt and 
Ethiopia.  But besides this general sense, which occurs in 
Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the 
official and administrative language used the word Africa 
in a narrower sense, which is noticed below.  The term was 
certainly borrowed by the Romans from the language of the 
natives.  In Latin literature it was employed for the 
first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the interval 
between the First and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.; Sat. 
iii.).  By him the term was confined to the territory of 
Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the 
Atlas.  Among the numerous conjectures which have been made 
as to the etymology of the term Africa ('Afrike) may be 
quoted that which derives it from the Semitic radical resh 
daleth pe (``separate''), Africa being considered, in this 
connexion, as a Phoenician settlement ``separated'' from the 
mother country, Asiatic Phoenicia.  It has also been held that 
the word Africa comes from friqi, farikia (the country of 
fruit).  The best hypothesis in the writer's opinion is that 
maintained by Charles Tissot, who sees in the word ``Africa'' 
the name of the great Berber tribe, the Aourigha (whose name 
would have been pronounced Afarika), the modern Aouraghen, 
now driven back into the Sahara, but in ancient times the 
principal indigenous element of the African empire of Carthage 
(Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389).  Thus Africa was originally, 
in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, the country 
inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians called 
Afarik.  Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was then 
excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west. 

At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Carthaginians 
was but a fragment of their ancient native empire.  It comprised 
the territory bounded by a vague line running from the mouth 
of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of Tabraca 
(Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the mouth 
of the Gulf of Gabes.  The rest of Africa had passed into the 
hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans. 

After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this 
territory was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, 
the fossa regia, was dug to mark the boundary of the 
Roman province of Africa and the dominions of the Numidian 
princes.  There have been discovered (1907) the remains of 
this ditch protected by a low wall or a stone dyke; some of 
the boundary stones which marked its course, and inscriptions 
mentioning it, have also been found.  From Testur on the 
Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by these indications 
for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid.  The ditch ran 
northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina.  The importance 
of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch which 
in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and 
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the 
boundary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, ``Le fosse 
des frontieres romaines'' in Melanges Boissier, 1905, p. 
227; L. Poinssot in Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscript. 
et Belles Lettres, 1907, p. 466; Classical Review, 1907, 
December, p. 255).  The government of the Roman province thus 
delimited was entrusted to a praetor or propraetor, of 
whom several are now known, e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor 
Africae, according to coins of Hadrumetum of the year 94 
B.C. The towns which had fought on the side of the Romans 
during the Third Punic War were declared civitates liberae, 
and became exceedingly prosperous.  They were Utica (Bu 
Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus (Dimas), Leptis Minor 
(Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about 11 m. from Utica) 
and Theudalis.  Those towns, however, which had remained 
faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like Carthage itself. 

After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio 
Tripolitana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), 
Sabrata, and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, 
appears to have been annexed to the Roman province in a more 
or less regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus 
in 46 made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the 
spheres of administration were clearly marked out.  Numidia was 
converted into a new province called ``Africa Nova,'' and of 
this province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and 
invested with the imperium. From that time the old province 
of Africa was known as ``Africa Vetus'' or ``Africa Propria.'' 

This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time.  In 
31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King 
Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some 
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia, 
which thus reverted to direct Roman control.  Numidia, however, 
no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached to the 
old province of Africa.  From 25 B.C. the Roman province of 
Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth of 
the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and the two 
tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable boundary 
between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east (Tissot ii. 
261).  In the partition of the government of the provinces of 
the Roman empire between the senate and the emperor, Africa 
fell to the senate, and was henceforth administered by a 
proconsul.  Subordinate to him were the legati pro consule, 
who were placed at the head of districts called dioceses.  
At first there were only three dioceses: Carthaginiensis, 
Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now Bizerta), 
and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine).  At 
a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and 
perhaps at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana. 

The province of Africa was the only senatorial province 
whose governor had originally been invested with military 
powers.  The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of 
the legio III. Augusta and the auxiliary corps.  But in 
A.D. 37 Caligula deprived the proconsul of his military 
powers and gave them to the imperial legate (legatus Augusti 
pro praetore provinciae Africae), who was nominated directly 
by the emperor, and whose special duty it was to guard the 
frontier zone (Tacitus, Mist. iv. 48; Dio Cass. lix. 20). The 
headquarters of the imperial legate were originally at Cirta 
and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa).  The military posts were 
drawn up in echelon along the frontier of the desert, especially 
along the southern slopes of the Aures, as far as Ad Majores 
(Besseriani), and on the Tripolitan frontier as far as Cydamus 
(Ghadames), forming an immense arc extending from Cyrenaica to 
Mauretania.  A network of military routes, constructed and 
kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa in all 
directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as 
Leptis Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa), Thenae and Tacape 
(Gabes).  The powers of the proconsul, however, extended 
scarcely beyond the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the 
littoral.  Towards 194 Septimius Severus completed the reform 
of Caligula by detaching from the province of Africa the greater 
part of Numidia to constitute a special province governed by a 
procurator, subordinate to the imperial legate and resident 
at Cirta (Tissot ii. 34). This province was called Numidia 
Cirtensis, as opposed to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia. 

In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of 
the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of 
Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province of 
Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six 
provinces: Zeugitana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum, now 
Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana 
(Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif), and 
Mauretania Caesariensis (Caesarea, now Cherchel).  These 
provinces were administered, according to circumstances, by 
a praeses of senatorial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or 
a vir clarissimus consularis. Some changes were eventually 
necessitated by the wars with the Moors and the Vandals.  
By a treaty concluded in 476, the emperor Zeno recognized 
Genseric as master of all Africa.  Reconquered by Belisarius in 
534, Africa formed, under the name of praefectura Africae, 
one of the great administrative districts of the Byzantine 
empire.  It was subdivided into six provinces, which were 
placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect of 
Africa.  These provinces were Zeugitana (the former 
Proconsularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and 
Mauretania.  The civil government was carried on by consulares 
or praesides, while the military government was in the 
hands of four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to 
drive out the barbarians.  The country was studded thickly 
with burgi (small forts) and clausurae (long walls), the 
ruins of which still subsist.  In 647 the Arabs penetrated 
into Ifrikia, which was destined to fall for ever out 
of the grasp of the Romans.  In 697 Carthage was taken. 

The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably 
composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes, 
the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman 
colonists.  The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by 
their common spoken language and by the comparatively numerous 
Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore in ancient 
times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians and Moors or 
Maurusiani.  Herodotus mentions a great number of these 
tribes.  During the Roman period, according to Pliny, there 
were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the 
Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica.  The much more detailed list of 
Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of 
Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis.  Ammianus Marcellinus, 
Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still further 
names.  Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of 
Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars 
against the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the 
Maces, the Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani 
or Musulamii (whence the name Mussulman), the Massyli 
and the Massaesyli in the E., who were neighbours of the 
Moors.  The non-nomads of these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts 
made of stakes supporting plaited mats of rush or asphodel.  
These dwellings, which were called mapalia, are the modern 
gourbis. African epigraphy has revealed the names of some 
of their deities: deus invictus Aulisva; the god Motmanius, 
associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus; Baldir Augustus; 
Kautus pater; the goddess Gilva, identified with Tellus, and 
Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486).  The Johannis of Corippus 
mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman and 
Gurzil.  There were also local divinities in all the principal 
districts.  The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing 
native divinities are rare, and give only very summary 
representations.  Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers 
in Tunisia and the province of Constantine.  Tumuli, too, 
are found throughout northern Africa, the most celebrated 
being that near Cherchel, the Kubr-er-Rumia (``tomb of 
the Christian lady''), which was regarded by Pomponius 
Mela as the royal burying-place of the kings of Numidia. 

During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician 
origin and the bastard population termed by ancient authors 
Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably formed 
the predominant population of the towns on the littoral, 
and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the 
Christian era.  The municipal magistrates took the title of 
suffetes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain 
towns the Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua 
Punica, since it was the only language that the people 
understood.  Nevertheless, the Roman functionaries, the 
army and the colonists from Italy soon brought the Latin 
element into Africa, where it flourished with such vigour 
that, in the 3rd century, Carthage became the centre of a 
Romano-African civilization of extraordinary literary brilliancy, 
which numbered among its leaders such men as Apuleius, 
Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine and many others. 

Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under 
Augustus, when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the 
town.  Utica became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the 
civitates liberae, municipia, castella, pagi and turres 
were peopled with Latins.  The towns of the ancient province 
of Africa which received coloniae were very numerous: 
Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba), Bisica Lucana 
(Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage, Cuina, Curubis 
(Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus or Zarytus 
(Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades, Rades or 
Gades), Neapolis (Nabel, Nebeul), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata 
(Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape 
(Gabes), Thaenae or Thenae (Tina), Thelepte (Medinet Kedima), 
Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem), 
Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median).  Of the municipia may 
be mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium 
Bure (Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin). 

The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by 
the military settlements of the Romans.  Cirta (Constantine) 
and Bulla Regia(Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received 
coloniae of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste 
(Tebessa) and Thamugas (Timgad).  The fine ruins which have 
been discovered at the last-mentioned place have earned 
for it the surname of the African Pompeii (see below). 

Archaeology.--Roman Africa has been the subject of innumerable 
historical and archaeological researches, especially since 
the conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French.  The 
country is covered with Roman and Byzantine remains.  Each 
of these ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have 
copied inscriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, 
porticos, mausoleums and the other monuments which are still 
standing, collected statues or other antiquities; and in many 
cases they have actually excavated.  The results of all these 
labours have been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, 
and, indeed, almost from day to day, in various scientific 
periodicals.  Among the principal of these are:--Memoires 
de la Societe archeologique de Constantine, Bulletin 
de la Societe geographique et archeologique d'Oran, 
Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the 
Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions 
scientifiques and the Bulletin archeologique du Comite 
des travaux historiques and the Melanges of the French 
School at Rome.  In all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia 
museums have been founded for storing the antiquities of 
the region; the most important of these are the museums of 
St Louis, Carthage and the palace of Bardo (musee Alaoui) 
near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine, Lambessa, Timgad, 
Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran.  Under the title 
of Musees et collections archeologiques de l'Algerie 
et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction 
publishes from time to time illustrated descriptions of all 
these archaeological treasures.  In this collection have 
already appeared descriptions of the museums of Algiers by 
G. Doublet; of Constantine by G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; 
of Oran by R. de La Blanchere; of Cherchel by P. Gauckler; 
of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of Philippeville by S. Gsell and 
Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La Blanchere and P. Gauckler; 
of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of Tebessa by S. Gsell; of 
Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by R. Cagnat and A. Ballu. 

The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with 
the expansion of French dominion.  From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre 
published his Exploration archeologique de l'Algerie, in 
collaboration with the French officers.  In 1850 Leon Renier 
was officially instructed to collect all the inscriptions in 
Algeria which should be found by the military expeditionary 
columns.  This scholar examined first the ruins of Lambessa, 
an account of which he published in 1854 in his Melanges 
d'epigraphie; subsequently he made his important collection 
of Inscriptions romaines de l'Algerie (1855-1858) 
which formed the groundwork of the volume of the Corpus 
Inscr.  Lat. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman 
Africa.  A little later General Faidherbe published his 
Collection complete des inscriptions numidiques 
(1870).  Apart from the province of Constantine, Algeria 
is less rich in Roman remains than Tunisia; mention must, 
however, be made of the excavations of Victor Waille at 
Cherchel, where were found fine statues in the Greek style 
of the time of King Juba II.; of P. Gavault at Tigzirt 
(Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at Tipasa 
(basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif 
and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum).  In the department 
of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains, 
Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de 
Villefosse, who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, 
a triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the 
gate of the Byzantine general Solomon.  But all these ruins 
fade into insignificance in comparison with the majestic 
grandeur of those of Timgad which are almost entirely laid 
bare; they are described in Timgad, une cite africaine sous 
l'empire romain, by R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu. 

In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeological 
investigation.  Major Humbert was sent there by Napoleon 
in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum of 
Leiden.  Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins; the Dane 
Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de Sainte-Marie 
and others also have carried out researches; for more than 
twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of Carthage 
(q.v.) with extraordinary success.  For the rest of Tunisia, 
the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor 
Guerin in 1860; his results are contained in his remarkable 
Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis (1862, 2 
vols.).  A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the 
sites of the ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus 
(Dimas).  But it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French 
in 1881 which really gave the impetus to modern investigations 
in this district of ruined cities.  They were put on a solid 
foundation by the publication of the Geographie comparee 
of Charles Tissot (1884).  Trained scholars were sent there 
annually by the French government: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, 
La Blanchere, S. Reinach, E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, 
Steph.  Gsell, J. Toutain, Esperandieu, Gauckler, Merlin, 
Homo and many others, to say nothing of German scholars, such 
as Willmans and Schulten, and especially of a great number 
of enthusiastic officers of the army of occupation, who 
explored all the ancient sites, and in many cases excavated 
with great success (for their results see the works quoted 
above).  It would be impossible to enumerate here all the 
monographs describing, for example, the ruins of Carthage, those 
of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, the amphitheatre 
of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, the royal tomb 
and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the bridge of Chemtu 
(Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of Tebursuk and Medeina 
(Althiburus), the rich villa of the Laberii at Wadna (Uthina), 
the sanctuary of Saturn Balcaranensis on the hill called 
Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of Enfida (Aphrodisium, 
Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis minor (Lemta), of Thenae 
(near Sfax), those of the island of Meninx (Jerba), of the 
peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla (Sufetula), Gigthis 
(Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c. 

From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence as to 
the history and more especially the internal administration of 
Africa under the Romans has been derived.  In particular we know 
how rural life was there developed, and with what care the water 
necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere provided.  
Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial and of 
minor importance; the only exceptions are certain statues found 
at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the Mauretanian kings. 

AUTHORITIES.--Among general works on the subject may be 
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa christiana (1816); Gustave 
Boissiere, L'Algerie romaine (2nd ed., 1883); E. Mercier, 
Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot, 
Geographie comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique 
(1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint-Martin, Le Nord 
de l'Afrique dans l'antiquite grecque et romaine (1883); 
Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de 
Lessert, Fastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulaire, 
Numidie, Mauretainie) sous la domination romaine 
(1896-1901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee romaine d'Afrique 
(1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis 
et le Byzacium (1869); Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de 
l'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl, 
L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches 
archeologiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire 
litteraire de l'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905); J. 
Toutain, Les Cites romaines de la Tunisie (1895); Atlas 
archeologique de la Tunisie, published by the Ministry of 
Public Instruction (1895 foll.); Atlas archeologique de 
l'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foll.); 
Toulotte, Geographie de l'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894); 
Corpus inscriptionum latiniarum, vol. viii. and Supplement 
(1881).  Cf. also articles CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, &c., 
JUGURTHA, and articles relating to Roman History. (E. B.n) 

AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus), a member of 
the natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good 
Hope, whence it was introduced at the close of the 17th 
century.  It is a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy 
in the south of England and Ireland if protected from severe 
frosts.  It has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, 
arching leaves,  1/2 to 2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2 
to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped 
flowers.  The plants are easy to cultivate, and are generally 
grown in large pots or tubs which can be protected from frost in 
winter.  During the summer they require plenty of water, 
and are very effective on the margins of lakes or running 
streams, where they thrive admirably.  They increase by 
offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the root-stock 
in early spring or autumn.  A number of forms are known in 
cultivation; such are albidus, with white flowers, aureus, 
with leaves striped with yellow, and variegatus, with leaves 
almost entirely white with a few green bands.  There are 
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms. 

AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and historian 
of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and may have 
served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians in 
A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except 
that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to 
the emperor Heliogabalus1 to ask for the restoration of the 
town, which had fallen into ruins.  His mission succeeded, 
and Emmaus was henceforward known as Nicopolis.  Dionysius 
bar-Salibi makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a 
presbyter.  He wrote a history of the world(Chronografiai, 
in five books) from the creation to the year A.D. 221, a 
period, according to his computation, of 5723 years.  He 
calculated the period between the creation and the birth of 
Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated the latter event by three 
years.  This method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian 
era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches.  The 
history, which had an apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but 
copious extracts from it are to be found in the Chronicon of 
Eusebius, who used it extensively in compiling the early episcopal 
lists.  There are also fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and 
the Paschale Chronicon. Eusebius (Hist.  Ecc. i. 7, cf. 
vi. 31) gives some extracts from his letter to one Aristides, 
reconciling the apparent discrepancy between Matthew and 
Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a reference to the Jewish 
law, which compelled a man to marry the widow of his deceased 
brother, if the latter died without issue.  His terse and 
pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the authority of the 
apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's wordy and uncritical 
answer, are both extant.  The ascription to Africanus of an 
encyclopaedic work entitled Kestoi (embroidered girdles), 
treating of agriculture, natural history, military science, 
&c., has been needlessly disputed on account of its secular 
and often credulous character.  Neander suggests that it 
was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself 
to religious subjects.  For a new fragment of this work 
see Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff. 

AUTHORITIES.--Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509; 
translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 
125-140.  See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus und die 
byzant.  Chronographie, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885); 
G. Kruger, Early Christian Literature, 248-253; A. 
Harnack, Altchristl.  Litt.  Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70. 

1 So Eusebius.  Syncellus says Alexander Severus. 

AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the 
Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier province of 
India.  The Afridis are the most powerful and independent 
tribe on the border, and the largest with the exception of the 
Waziris.  Their special country is the lower and easternmost 
spurs of the Safed Koh range, to the west and south of the 
Peshawar district, including the Bazar and Bara valleys.  
On their east they are bounded by British districts, on the 
north by the Mohmands, on the west by the Shinwaris and on 
the south by the Orakzai and Bangash tribes.  Their origin 
is obscure, but they are said to have Israelitish blood 
in their veins, and they have a decidedly Semitic cast of 
features.  They are possibly the Aparytai of Herodotus, 
the names and positions being identical.  If this theory is 
correct, they were then a powerful people, and held a large 
tract of country, but have been gradually driven back by the 
encroachments of other tribes.  The tribe is divided into 
the following eight clans:--Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar 
Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the most 
turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel.  The first seven 
clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate 
to Tirah in the summer months.  The Adam Khel (5900 fighting 
men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less 
migratory in their habits.  In appearance the Afridi is a 
fine, tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, 
high nose and cheek-bones, and a fair complexion.  On his own 
hillside he is one of the finest skirmishers in the world, 
and in the Indian army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is 
apt to be home-sick when removed from the air of his native 
mountains.  In character the Afridi has obtained an evil name 
for ferocity, craft and treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert 
Warburton, who lived eighteen years in charge of the Khyber 
Pass and knew the Afridi better than any other Englishman, 
says:--``The Afridi lad from his earliest childhood is taught 
by the circumstances of his existence and life to distrust 
all mankind, and very often his near relations, heirs to his 
small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his deadliest 
enemies.  Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to strike 
the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore 
become the maxims of the Afridi.  If you can overcome this 
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by 
a great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you 
like to give him except abuse.'' In short the Afridi has the 
vices and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree.  The 
fighting strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this 
estimate is excessive, judged by the number and size of their 
villages.  They derive their importance from their geographical 
position, which gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat 
roads, and the history of the British connexion with them 
has been almost entirely with reference to these two passes. 

There have been several British expeditions against the separate clans:-- 

(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir Colin 
Campbell in 1850.  The British connexion with the Adam Khel 
Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation of the Peshawar 
and Kohat districts.  Following the example of all previous 
rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay the tribe a 
subsidy to protect the pass.  But in 1850 a thousand Afridis 
attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, killing 
twelve and wounding six.  It was supposed that they disliked 
the making of a road which would lay open their fastnesses 
to regular troops.  An expedition of 3200 British troops was 
despatched, which traversed the country and punished them. 

(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages in 
1853.  When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in 1850, the 
Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; but they 
turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force of 1700 
British traversed their country and destroyed their stronghold at 
Bori.  The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam Khel, who inhabit 
the country lying between the Kohat Pass and the river Indus. 

(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel 
Craigie in 1855.  In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding 
themselves admitted to a share of the allowances of the 
Kohat Pass, commenced a series of raids on the Peshawar 
border and attacked a British camp.  An expedition of 1500 
troops entered the country and inflicted severe punishment 
on the tribe, who made their submission and paid a fine. 

(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel Mocatta in 
1877.  In that year the government proposed to reduce the Jowaki 
allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and the tribesmen resented 
this by cutting the telegraph wire and raiding into British 
territory.  A force of 1500 troops penetrated their country in 
three columns, and did considerable damage by way of punishment. 

(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier-General 
Keyes in 1877-78.  The punishment inflicted by the previous 
expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude of 
the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British 
territory went on.  A much stronger force, therefore, of 
7400 British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed 
their principal villages and occupied their country for some 
time, until the tribe submitted and accepted government 
terms.  The Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed. 

(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar 
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878.  At the time of 
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan 
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked 
their outposts.  A force of 2500 British troops traversed 
their country, and the tribesmen made their submission. 

(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar 
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879.  After the 
previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued 
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan 
War, so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their 
country, and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made 
their submission.  After this both the Khyber and Kohat 
Passes were put on a stable footing, and no further trouble 
of any consequence occurred in either down to the time of 
the frontier risings of 1897, when the Afridis attacked 
the Khyber Pass, which was defended by Afridi levies. 

(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TIRAH CAMPAIGN. 

(9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel 
again made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James 
Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the 
following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands, 
the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan. 

See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884); 
Warburton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.) 

AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing 
occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in the hour 
of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snowfields 
in mountain regions long after sunset.  The phenomenon is due 
to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions 
of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the 
component parts of white light.  After the eruption of Krakatoa in 
1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the 
world.  These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly 
fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, 
and then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents. 

AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born at 
Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750.  He was appointed teacher 
of oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 
demonstrator of botany.  From 1792 he spent some years on 
the west coast of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary 
of the Swedish embassy in London.  Returning to Sweden, he 
founded the Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 
1812 became professor of materia medica at the university.  
He died at Upsala in 1837.  In addition to various botanical 
writings, he published the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823. 

His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (1753-1837),known as ARVIDSON, 
was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother, PER 
AF (1760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala in 
1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner. 

AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor, poet, 
historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October 
1785.  From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871 
he was parish priest of Enkoping.  He is mainly known as a 
collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in 
the great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor 
fran forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816).  He published 
also translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga, 
and a history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German 
translation was published in 1842), as well as original poems. 

AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying 
a dignitary or lord.  Among the Turks it is applied to the 
chief of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, 
cavalry and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the 
seraglio.  It is also employed generally as a term of 
respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c. 

AGAIAMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers 
in British New Guinea, now almost extinct.  In his annual 
report for 1904 the acting administrator of British New 
Guinea stated that on a visit he paid to their district 
he saw six males and four females.  The Agaiambo live in 
huts erected on piles in the lakes and marshes.  Dwarfish 
in stature but broadly built, they are remarkable for the 
shortness of their legs.  They live almost entirely in their 
``dug-outs'' or canoes, or actually wading in the water.  
Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-lily and 
fish.  The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly 
numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the 
raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours.  In features, 
colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans. 

AGA KHAN I., HIS HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title 
accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia, 
1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under 
the protection of the British government.  He was believed to 
have descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the 
daughter of the Prophet Mahomet.  Ali's son, Hosain, having 
married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the 
time of Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the 
royal house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, 
times.  His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs 
of the Beni-Fatimites for a number of years, at a period 
coeval with the Crusades.  Before the Aga Khan emigrated from 
Persia, he was appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be 
governor-general of the extensive and important province of 
Kerman.  His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and 
high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time 
in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the 
shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues 
and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites, 
and with internal turbulence.  At last, however, the fate 
usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and 
he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah.  He 
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, 
preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay his 
headquarters.  At that period the first Afghan War was at its 
height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan 
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services 
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the 
British.  A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous 
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help 
was utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier 
tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority 
as their spiritual head.  Napier held his Moslem ally in great 
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political 
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier.  The Aga Khan 
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship 
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to 
the British government, and when he finally settled down in 
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah 
section of Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the 
government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on 
him, with a large pension.  From that time until his death 
in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful 
and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British 
rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions, 
not only among his followers in India, but towards the 
more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious 
sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, Khorasan, 
Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even distant Syria and 
Morocco.  He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the 
British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned influence 
among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India 
he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of 
trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several 
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of 
India.  He was also the means of checking the fanaticism 
of the more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, 
which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings 
finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots. 

He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince 
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner 
that won the approbation of the local government, and earned 
for him the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the 
Indian Empire and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. 

AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the 
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became 
the head of the family and its devotees.  He was born in 
1877, and, under the care of his mother, a daughter of the 
ruling house of Persia, was given not only that religious and 
oriental education which his position as the religious leader 
of the Ismailians made indispensable, but a sound European 
training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather.  This 
blending of the two systems of education produced the happy 
result of fitting this Moslem chief in an eminent degree both 
for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual 
position, and for those social duties of a great and enlightened 
leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of that 
position.  He travelled in distant parts of the world to 
receive the homage of his followers, and with the object 
either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare 
by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance.  The 
distinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was 
conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received 
like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, 
the sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates. 

See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903) (M. M. BH.) 

AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. agalma, statue, and 
lithos, stone), a soft species of mineral, also called 
pagodite, used by the Chinese for carving, especially 
into grotesque figures (whence called ``figure-stone''). 

AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orchomenus in 
Boeotia.  He is always associated with his brother Trophonius 
as a wonderful architect, the constructor of underground 
shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure.  When 
building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed one 
of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever 
they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the 
treasure.  Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes 
was caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his 
brother's head and fled with it.  He was pursued by Hyrieus, 
and swallowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia.  On 
this spot was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; 
those who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of 
a ram and called upon the name of Agamedes.  A similar story 
is told of Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121).  According 
to Pindar (apud Plutarch), the brothers built the temple 
of Apollo at Delphi; when they asked for a reward, the god 
promised them one in seven days; on the seventh day they died. 

Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ad 
Apollonium, 14; Cicero, Tusc.  Disp. i. 47. 

AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek 
heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope, 
grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of 
Menelaus.  Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes 
(the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been 
Aerope's first husband.  Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus 
(q.v.), who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and 
ruled jointly with his father Thyestes.  During this period 
Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king 
of Sparta, whose daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly 
Clytaemestra) and Helen they respectively married.  By 
Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon had three daughters, Iphigeneia 
(Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice), Chrysothemis, and a son, 
Orestes.  Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus, and Agamemnon, 
with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and 
Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom.  He extended his 
dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in 
Greece.  When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried 
off his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the 
country and called upon them to unite in a war of revenge 
against the Trojans.  He himself furnished 100 ships, and 
was chosen commander-in-chief of the combined forces.  The 
fleet, numbering 1200 ships, assembled at the port of Aulis in 
Boeotia.  But Agamemnon had offended the goddess Artemis by 
slaying a hind sacred to her, and boasting himself a better 
hunter.  The army was visited by a plague, and the fleet was 
prevented from sailing by the total absence of wind.  Calchas 
announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be appeased 
by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia (q.v..) The fleet then set 
sail.  Little is heard of Agamemnon until his quarrel with Achilles 
(q.v..) After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the daughter of 
Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of 
war.  On his return, after a stormy voyage, he landed in 
Argolis.  His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval had 
seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at 
which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put 
to death by Clytaemnestra.  According to the account given 
by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his 
wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first 
been thrown over him to prevent resistance.  Her wrath at the 
sacrifice of Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are 
said to have been the motives of her crime.  The murder of 
Agamemnon was avenged by his son Orestes (q.v..) Although 
not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon is a dignified 
representative of kingly authority.  As commander-in-chief, 
he summons the princes to the council and leads the army in 
battle.  He takes the field himself, and performs many heroic 
deeds until he is wounded and forced to withdraw to his 
tent.  His chief fault is his overweening haughtiness, due to 
an over-exalted opinion of his position, which leads him to 
insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster 
upon the Greeks.  But his family had been marked out for 
misfortune from the outset.  His kingly office had come to 
him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of Atreus and 
Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality which. 
explained the hostile destiny which pursued him.  The fortunes 
of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, 
ancient and modern, the most famous being the Oresteia of 
Aeschylus.  In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was 
regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in 
Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon.  His 
tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae. 

In works of art there is considerable resemblance between 
the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and 
Agamemnon, king of men.  He is generally characterized 
by the sceptre and diadem, the usual attributes of kings. 

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie 
and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. 

AGAPE (Gr. agape, ``Love''), the early Christian 
lovefeast.  The word seems to be used in this sense in the 
epistle of Jude 12: ``These are they who are hidden rocks in 
your lovefeasts when they banquet with you.'' But this is not 
certain, for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading 
apatais (``deceits'') for agapais, and the oldest MSS. 
hesitate.  The history of the agape coincides, until the 
end of the 2nd century, with that of the eucharist (q.v.), 
and it is doubtful whether the following detailed account of 
the agape given in Tertullian's Apology (c. 39) is to 
be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying eucharist: ``It 
is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians that is 
criticised.  Our supper (coena) shows its character by its 
name.  It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love 
(i.e. agape.) Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear 
gain that it is incurred on the score of piety, seeing that 
we succour the poorest by such entertainments (refrigerio.) 
We do not lie down at table until prayer has been offered to 
God, as it were a first taste.  We eat only to appease our 
hunger, we drink only so much as it is good for temperate 
persons to do.  If we satisfy our appetites, we do so without 
forgetting that throughout the night we must say our prayers 
to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge that the 
Lord is listening.  After washing our hands and lighting the 
lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, 
either taken from holy writ or of his own composition.  So 
we prove him, and see how well he has drunk.  Prayer ends, 
as it began, the banquet; and we break up not in bands of 
brigands, nor in groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out 
into debauchery. . . . This meeting of Christians we admit 
deserves to be made illicit, if it resembles illicit acts; it 
deserves to be condemned, if any complain of it on the same 
score on which complaints are levelled at factious meetings.  
But to do harm to whom do we ever thus come together?'' 

The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa.  But in Egypt 
about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his 
Pedagogus (ii. 1) condemns the ``little suppers which were 
called, not without presumption, agape.'' This word, he 
complains, should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable 
feast alone, and the Lord never used it of mere junketings.  
Clement wished the name to be reserved for the eucharist. 
because the love-feasts of the church had degenerated, as 
Tertullian too discovered, as soon as he turned Montanist.  
For in his tract on fasting (ch. xvii.) he complains that the 
young men misbehaved with the sisters after the agapee. 

Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract 
entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how 
the sisters after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 P.M.) 
are to dine: ``When you sit down at a table and come to break 
bread, seal it thrice with the sign of the cross and thus give 
thanks: `We thank thee, our Father, for thy holy resurrection; 
for through Jesus thy servant thou hast shewn it unto us.  
And as this bread on this table was scattered, but has been 
brought together and become one, so may thy church be brought 
together into thy kingdom.  For thine is the power and the 
glory, for ever and ever, Amen.' This prayer as you break the 
bread, and are about to eat, you must say.  And when you lay 
it on the table and desire to eat it, repeat the `Our Father' 
entire.  But after dinner (or breakfast), and when we rise 
from table, we use the prayer given above, viz. `Blessed be 
God, who hath pity and nourisheth us from our infancy, who 
giveth food to all flesh.  Fill our hearts with joy and 
gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we 
may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord, 
&c.''' The writer then enjoins that, ``if two or three other 
virgins are present, they also shall give thanks over the 
bread set out, and join in the prayers.  But if a catechumen 
be found at the table, she shall not be suffered to join with 
the full believers in their prayers, nor shall the latter sit 
with her to eat the morsel'' (fiomon, used specially of 
the sanctified bread). ``Nor shall they sit with frivolous 
and joking women, if they can help it, for they are sanctified 
to God, and their food and drink have been hallowed by the 
prayers and holy words used over them. . . . If a rich woman 
sits down with them at table, and they see a poor woman, 
they shall invite her also to eat with them, and not put 
her to shame because of the rich one.'' The last words echo 
1 Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that which 
the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic 
rite.  Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century 
a Lord's supper, which like the one described in 1 Cor. x. 
is agape and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private 
house and not in church, and the celebrants are holy women! 

The historian Socrates (Hist.  Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the 
survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts 
and eucharists in one.  Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid, 
he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other 
Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament).  For 
after holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of 
all kinds, they at eventide make the offering (prosfora) 
and partake of it.  So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about 
the year 350, records that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, 
celebrated the communion in their own houses, and partook of 
the sacrament by themselves whenever they chose.  In the old 
Egyptian church order, known as the Canons of Hippolytus, 
there are numerous directions for the service of the agape, 
held on Sundays, saints' days or at commemorations of the 
dead.  The 74th canon of the council of Trullo (A.D. 692) 
forbade the holding of symposia known as agapes in church.  
In his 54th homily (tom. v. p. 365) Chrysostom describes how 
after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the faithful remained 
in church, while the rich brought out meats and drink from 
their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished ``common 
tables, common banquets, common symposia in the church 
itself.'' The council of Gangra (A.D. 355) anathematized 
the over-ascetic people who despised ``the agapes based 
on faith.'' Only a few years later, however, the council of 
Laodicea forbade the holding of agapes in churches.  The 
42nd canon of the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise 
forbade them, but these were only local councils.  In the 
age of Chrysostom and Augustine the agape was frequent. 

In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches, 
respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in their 
tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under 
Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of 
a pre-Christian age.  Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given 
sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and 
deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his 
perquisite.  In Armenia the Greek word agape has been 
used ever since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial 
meals, which either began or ended with a eucharistic 
celebration.  The earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed 
in the two following rules recorded against them by a renegade 
Armenian prelate named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over 
to the Byzantine church: ``Christ did not hand down to us the 
teaching to celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread 
in church, but in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common 
table.  So then let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in 
churches.  It was after supper, when his disciples were 
thoroughly sated, that Christ gave them of his own body to 
eat.  Therefore let them first eat meats and be sated, and 
then let them partake of the mysteries.'' These old canons are 
adduced by way of ridiculing the Armenians, yet they reflect old 
usage.  They are given in the Historia Monothelitarum of 
Combefisius, col. 317. Older MSS. of the Greek Euchologion 
contain numerous prayers to be offered over animals sacrificed; 
and in the form of agape such sacrifices were common 
in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies of a saint, and 
Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his Latin 
poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail.  Gregory the 
Great sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of 
sacrificing bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th 
century.  In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean 
(xx. 4), the latter taxes the Catholics with having turned 
the sacrifices of the heathen into agapes, their idols into 
martyrs, whom they worship with similar rites. ``You appease,'' 
he says, ``the shades of the dead with wines and banquets, you 
celebrate the feast-days of the heathen along with them . . . 
in their way of living you have certainly changed nothing.'' 
This was true enough, but there is truth also in the remark of 
Prof.  Sanday (``Eucharist'' in Hastings' Dictionary of 
the Bible) that Providence even in its revolutions is 
conservative.  The world could only be christianized on 
condition that old holy days and customs were continued.  
The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation to the 
older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted.  The 
association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with 
the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the 
eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the 
year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday 
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an 
eucharist.  The 41st canon of the council of Carthage enacted 
that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting, 
except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper.  It is clear 
that at an earlier date the agape preceded the eucharist. 

Pagan Analogues.--In ancient states common meals called 
sussitia (sussitia) were instituted, particularly in 
the Doric states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete.  Plato 
advocated them, and perhaps the later Jews imitated the 
Spartan community.  Trade and other gilds in antiquity held 
subscription suppers or iranoi, similar to those of the early 
Corinthian church, usually to support the needs of the poorer 
members.  These hetairiae or clubs were forbidden (except in 
cities formally allied to Rome) by Trajan and other emperors, 
as being likely to be centres of disaffection; and on this 
ground Pliny forbade the agape of the Bithynian churches, 
Christianity not being a lawful religion licensed for such 
gatherings.  The custom which most resembles the eucharist 
and agape was that known as charistia described by 
Valerius Maximus ii. 1. 8. It was a solemn feast attended 
only by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled 
were at the sacrament of the table (apud sacra mensae) 
reconciled.  It was held on the 20th of February.  Ovid in 
his Fasti, ii. 617, alludes to it-- Proxima cognati dixere 
charistia cari, Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos. 

AUTHORITIES.--``The Canons of Hippolytus,'' in Duchesne's 
Origines du culte chretien (Paris, 1898).; A. Allen, 
Christian Institutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol, 
Etudes d'histoire (Paris, 1902 and 1905); F. X. Funk, 
``L'Agape,'' in the Revue de l'histoire ecclesiastique 
(Louvain, Jan. 1903); Ad. Harnack, ``Brod und Wasser'' (Texte 
und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, 
The Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901): F. X. Kraus, 
arts. ``Agapes'' and ``Mahle'' in the Realencycklop. d. 
christl.  Altertumer; P. Ladeuze, ``L'Eucharistie et les 
repas communs'' in the Revue de l'orient chretien, No. 
3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire 
(London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur 
(Gottingen, 1893); E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in 
altesten Christianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren; The 
Liturgy and Ritual of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897); 
T. Zahn, art. ``Agapen'' in Hauck's Realencyklop.; F.. C. 
Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum (Oxford, 1905; it contains the 
oldest Latin and Greek forms), The Key of Truth (Oxford, 
1898), and art. on ``The Survival of Animal Sacrifices'' in 
the American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903); F. X. 
Funk, Didascalia et Constitutiones Apostolorum (Paderborn, 
1906); V. Ermoni, L'Agape (Paris, 1904); G. Horner, The 
Statutes of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and 
Arabic MSS. (London, 1904); Thefr.  Drescher, Diss. de 
vet.  Christianorum Agapis (Giesse, 1824); L. A. Muratori, 
Anecdota Graeca, ``De agapis sublatis'' (Patavii, 1709); I. 
A. Fabricius, Bibliogr.  Ant. p. 587; Muenter, Primord.  
Eccl.  Afr. p. 111; Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles. 
capita 18,19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani, 
xxxi.; Pualini Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.) 

AGAPEMONITES, or COMMUNITY OF THE SON OF MAN. This sect, 
based upon the theories of various German religious mystics, 
and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the 
matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry James 
Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (1811-1899).  
He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 
and was appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in 
Bath, his native city.  Compelled by ill-health to abandon 
his profession, he entered himself in 1837 as a student at 
St. David's Theological College, Lampeter, where he gathered 
about him a band of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as 
the Lampeter Brethren, and was eventually ordained to the 
curacy of Charlinch in Somerset, where he had sole charge 
in the illness and absence of the rector, the Rev. Samuel 
Starkey.  By that time he had contracted his first ``spiritual 
marriage,'' and had persuaded himself that he had been absorbed 
into the personality of God and had become a visible embodiment 
of the Holy Spirit.  During his illness Mr. Starkey read one 
of his curate's sermons and was not only ``cured'' forthwith, 
but embraced his strange doctrines, and together they procured 
many conversions in the countryside and the neighbouring 
towns.  In the end the rector was deprived of his living and 
Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with a few disciples 
they started the Charlinch Free Church, which had a very brief 
existence.  Prince shortly afterwards became curate of Stoke in 
Suffolk, where, however, the character of his revivalist zeal 
caused his departure at the end of twelve months.  It was now 
decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister Prince had married 
as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis Prince should leave the 
Church of England and preach their own gospel; Prince opened 
Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and Starkey established himself at 
Weymouth.  The chief success lay in the latter town, and 
thither Prince soon migrated.  A number of followers, 
estimated by Prince at 500, but by his critics at one-fifth 
of the number, were got together, and it was given out by 
``Beloved'' or ``The Lamb''--the names by which the Agapemonites 
designated their leader--that his disciples must divest 
themselves of their possessions and throw them into the common 
stock.  This was done, even by the poor or ill-furnished, 
all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the present 
dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder of this 
world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating earthly 
ties, to treat them as purely spiritual.  With the money 
thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the 
``Abode of Love,'' was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and 
three sisters, who contributed L. 6000 each, were immediately 
married to three of Prince's nearest disciples.  Despite the 
purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view 
of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and 
when the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was 
brought which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's 
right to its custody.  The circumstance in which a fourth 
sister who joined the community was abducted by her brothers 
led to an inquiry in lunacy and to her final settlement at 
Spaxton.  A few years after the establishment of the ``Abode 
of Love,'' a peculiarly gross scandal, in which Prince and one 
of his female followers were involved, led to the secession 
of some of his most faithful friends, who were unable any 
longer to endure what they regarded as the amazing mixture 
of blasphemy and immorality offered for their acceptance.  
The most prominent of those who remained received such titles 
as the ``Anointed Ones,'' the ``Angel of the Last Trumpet,'' 
the ``Seven Witnesses'' and so forth.  In 1862 ``Brother 
Prince'' sent ``to the kings and people of the earth'' letters 
``making known to all men that flesh is saved from death.'' 
At that period the Agapemonites counted their adherents at 
600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them when their 
deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899, four years 
after he had opened a branch church at Clapton, London, which 
is said to have cost L. 20.000.  This church, decorated with 
elaborate symbolism,'was styled the ``Ark of the Covenant,'' 
and in it the elect were to await the coming of the Lord. 

On the death of ``Brother'' Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth-Pigott, 
pastor of the ``Ark,'' became the acknowledged head of the 
sect.  He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county 
family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor 
before the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church 
of England and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted 
about 1897 to the views of Prince.  For five years after 
this he was not heard of outside his own sect.  On the 7th of 
September 1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the 
Ark of the Covenant for service, found the communion table 
replaced by a chair.  In this Pigott presently seated himself 
and proclaimed himself as the Messiah with the words, ``God is 
no longer there,'' pointing upwards, ``but here,'' pointing to 
himself.  This astonishing announcement was followed by an 
excellent sermon on Christian love.  Pigott's claim was at 
once admitted by the members of his sect, including even 
his own wife, as the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to 
appear in due time in the ``Ark.'' By the outside world the 
affair was greeted with mingled ridicule and indignation, 
and the new Messiah had to be protected by the police from 
the violence of an angry mob.  After providing ``copy'' for 
the newspapers for a few days, however, the whole thing was 
forgotten.  Pigott retired to the headquarters of the sect, 
the ``Abode of Love'' in Somerset, and all efforts to interview 
him or to obtain details of the life of the community were 
abortive.  At last, in August 1905, the long and mysterious 
silence was broken by the announcement that a son had been 
born to Pigott by his ``spiritual wife,'' Miss Ruth Preece, an 
inmate of the Agapemone.  This event by no means disconcerted 
the believers, who saw in it only another manifestation 
of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as ``an earnest of 
the total redemption of man.'' The child was registered as 
``Glory,'' and, at the christening service in the chapel 
of the Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in 
a jewelled cradle in the chancel.  Another child by Miss 
Preece, christened ``Power,'' was born on the 20th of August 
1908.  The publicity given to this event renewed the 
scandal, and in November an attempt to ``tar and feather'' 
Mr Pigott resulted in two men being sent to prison.  Later 
in the month proceedings were instituted against him by the 
bishop of Bath and Wells under the Clergy Discipline Act. 

One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone 
deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the 
origin of the wealth of the community.  Mr Charles Stokes 
Read, a resident at the Agapemone and director of the V. 
V. Bread Company, was requested by his fellow-directors to 
resign, on the ground that his connexion with the sect 
was damaging the business of the company.  He denied this 
to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious 
liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the 
concern.  On the 13th of September 1905, a meeting of the 
shareholders of the company was held, and Read ``asked them 
to believe that it was not in the interests of the company, 
but because he knew that the Lord Jesus Christ had come 
again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone, that he was 
thus cast out by his colleagues.'' The motion calling on 
him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 
votes to 2953. (See The Times, 14th of September 1905.) 

AGAPETAE, a class of ``virgins'' who, in the church of 
the early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks 
to whom they were said to be united by spiritual love.  
The practice was suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139. 

AGAPETUS, the name of two popes:-- 

AGAPETUS I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened 
pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at 
Rome a library of ecclesiastical authors.  King Theodahad 
sent him on an embassy to Constantinople, where he 
died, after having deposed Anthimus, the monophysite 
bishop of that town, and ordained Menas his successor. 

AGAPETUS II., pope from 946 to 955, at the time when Alberic, 
son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of 
Rome under the title of ``prince and senator of the Romans.'' 
Agapetus, a man of some force of character, did his best 
to put a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had 
fallen, the so-called ``Pornocracy,'' which lasted from 
the accession of Sergius III. in 904 to the deposition of 
John XII. in 963. His appeal to Otto the Great to intervene 
in Rome remained without immediate effect, since Alberic's 
position was too strong to be attacked, but it bore fruit 
after his death.  Agapetus died on the 8th of November 955. 

AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at 
Constantinople.  He presented to the emperor Justinian, on his 
accession in 527, a work entitled Scheda regia sive de officio 
regis, which contained advice on the duties of a Christian 
prince.  The work was often reprinted and is included in Dom 
Anselme Banduri's Imperium Orientale (Paris, 1711).  There 
is an English translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French 
translation, executed in 1612 from a Latin version by Louis 
XIII., with the assistance of his tutor, David Rivault. 

AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was born at 
Foston, Derbyshire, in 1540.  He was trained as a lawyer, 
but entered the exchequer as a clerk.  On the authority of 
Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed 
by Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in 
1570, and that he held this office for forty-five years.  His 
patent of appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office, 
proves that he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the 
11th of July 1603.  With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and 
Camden, he was one of the original members of the Society of 
Antiquaries.  He spent much labour in cataloguing the records 
and state papers, and made a special study of the Domesday 
Book, preparing an explanation of its more obscure terms.  
Thomas Hearne, in his Collection of Curious Discourses 
written by Eminent Antiquaries (Oxford, 1720), includes 
six by Agarde on such subjects as the origin of parliament, 
the antiquity of shires, the authority and privileges of 
heralds, &c. Agarde died on the 22nd of August 1615 and was 
buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on his tomb 
being inscribed ``Recordorum regiorum hic prope depositorum 
diligens scrutator.'' He bequeathed to the exchequer all 
his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir 
Robert Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty 
volumes, most of which are now in the British Museum. 

AGAS, RADULPH, or RALPH (c. 1540-1621), English land 
surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about 
1540, and entered upon the practice of his profession in 
1566.  Letters which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the 
methods of surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising 
prospectus of his abilities, in which he describes himself as 
clever at arithmetic and ``skilled in writing smaule, after 
the skantelinge & proportion of copiynge the Oulde & New 
Testamentes seven tymes in one skinne of partchmente without 
anie woorde abreviate or contracted, which maie also serve 
for drawinge discriptions of contries into volumes portable in 
verie little cases.'' He is best known for his maps of Oxford 
(1578), Cambridge (1592) and London.  Copies of the first two 
are preserved in the Bodleian Library.  Of the map of London 
and Westminster, which was probably prepared about 1591, two 
copies have been preserved, one by the Corporation of London 
and the other in the Pepysian collection at Magdalene College, 
Cambridge.  The map is over six feet long, printed from 
wooden blocks, and gives a valuable picture of the London of 
Elizabeth's time.  Agas died on the 26th of November 1621. 

AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name.  
Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue 
called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre.  Agasias, son 
of Menophilus, is the author of another striking figure 
of a warrior in the museum of Athens.  Both belonged to 
the school of Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C. 

See E. A. Gardner, Handbook Greek Sculpture, ii. p. 475. 

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), American man of 
science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchatel, 
Switzerland, on the 17th of December 1835.  He came to the 
United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard 
in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, 
and taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence 
scientific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 
1859 became an assistant in the United States Coast Survey.  
Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, 
but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence 
and exploitation of mines, being superintendent of the Calumet 
and Hecla copper mines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and 
afterwards, as a stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of 
which he gave to Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology 
and other purposes, some $500,000.  In 1875 he surveyed Lake 
Titicaca, Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, 
and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum, 
of which he was curator from 1874 to 1885.  He assisted Sir 
Wyville Thomson in the examination and classification of the 
collections of the ``Challenger'' exploring expedition, and 
wrote the Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the 
reports.  Between 1877 and 1880 he took part in the three 
dredging expeditions of the steamer ``Blake,'' of the United 
States Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them 
in two volumes (1888).  Of his other writings on marine 
zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of 
the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in 1865 
(with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, his step-mother) Seaside Studies 
in Natural History, a work at once exact and stimulating, 
and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay. 

AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1873), Swiss naturalist 
and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor of the 
parish of Motier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake of 
Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity 
of the Lake of Neuchatel.  Agassiz was born at this retired 
place on the 28th of May 1807.  Educated first at home, then 
spending four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed 
his elementary studies at the academy of Lausanne.  Having 
adopted medicine as his profession, he studied successively 
at the universities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and 
he availed himself of the advantages afforded by these 
universities for extending his knowledge of natural history, 
especially of botany.  After completing his academical 
course, he took in 1829 his degree of doctor of philosophy at 
Erlangen, and in 1830 that of doctor of medicine at Munich. 

Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study of 
ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occupation 
of his life.  Agassiz always declared that he was led into 
ichthyological pursuits through the following circumstances:-- 

In 1819-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged 
in their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to 
Europe, amongst other collections of natural objects they 
brought home an important set of the freshwater fishes of 
Brazil, and especially of the Amazon river.  Spix, who died 
in 1826, did not live long enough to work out the history 
of these fishes; and Agassiz though little more than a youth 
just liberated from his academic studies, was selected by 
Prof.  Martius for this purpose.  He at once threw himself into 
the work with that earnestness of spirit which characterized 
him to the end of his busy life, and the task of describing and 
figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed and published in 
1829.  This was followed by an elaborate research into the 
history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel.  
Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a 
History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was 
only in 1839, however, that the first part of this publication 
appeared, and it was completed in 1842.  In 1832 he was 
appointed professor of natural history in the university of 
Neuchatel.  Having become a professed ichthyologist, it was 
impossible that the fossil fishes should fail to attract his 
attention.  The rich stores furnished by the slates of Glarus 
and the limestones of Monte Bolca were already well known; 
but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific 
study of them.  Agassiz, as early as 1829, with his wonted 
enthusiasm, planned the publication of the work which, more 
than any other, laid the foundation of his world-wide fame.  
Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles 
appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844].  They were 
magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of Joseph 
Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating natural 
objects.  In gathering materials for this great work Agassiz 
visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in 
Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him. 

Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours rendered 
necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification.  The 
fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of 
fishes.  They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, 
even the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few 
instances.  He therefore adopted his well-known classification, 
which divided fishes into four groups--viz.  Ganoids, 
Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of 
the scales and other dermal appendages.  While Agassiz 
did much to place the subject on a scientific basis, his 
classification has not been found to meet the requirements 
of modern research.  As remarked by Dr A. Smith Woodward, 
he sought to interpret the past structures by too rigorous 
a comparison with those of living forms. (See Catalogue 
of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.) 

As the important descriptive work of Agassiz proceeded, it 
became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless 
assistance could be afforded.  The British Association came 
to his aid, and the earl of Ellesmere--then Lord Francis 
Egerton--gave him yet more efficient help.  The original 
drawings made for the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted 
to 1290 in number.  These were purchased by the Earl, and 
presented by him to the Geological Society of London.  
In 1836 the Wollaston medal was awarded by the council of 
that society to Agassiz for his work on fossil ichthyology; 
and in 1838 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal 
Society.  Meanwhile the invertebrate animals engaged his 
attention.  In 1837 he issued the ``Prodrome'' of a monograph 
on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which 
appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he published two quarto volumes 
on the fossil Echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he 
issued his Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles. 

Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours 
of Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the 
remarkable fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of 
Scotland.  The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the 
Coccosteus and other genera were then made known to geologists 
for the first time.  They naturally were of intense interest 
to Agassiz, and formed the subject of a special monograph 
by him published in 1844-1845: Monographie des poissons 
fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien 
(Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie. 

The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investigation, 
which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological 
science.  Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz, 
Charpentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps 
the subjects of special study, and Charpentier had even 
arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine 
rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura 
mountains had been conveyed thither by glaciers.  The question 
having attracted the attention of Agassiz, he not only made 
successive journeys to the alpine regions in company with 
Charpentier, but he had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar 
glaciers, which for a time he made his home, in order to 
investigate thoroughly the structure and movements of the 
ice.  These labours resulted in the publication of his grand 
work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers, 
1840.  Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers, 
their moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding 
the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the 
striations and roches moutonnees with which we are now so 
familiar.  He not only accepted Charpentier's idea that some 
of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and 
valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhone, and thus landed parts 
of their remains upon the uplands of the Jura, but he went still 
farther.  He concluded that, at a period geologically recent, 
Switzerland had been another Greenland; that instead of a few 
glaciers stretching across the areas referred to, one vast 
sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had extended 
over the entire valley of north-western Switzerland until 
it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, though 
they checked and deflected its further extension, did not 
prevent the ice from reaching in many places the summit of the 
range.  The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus 
to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world. 

Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the 
movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a 
discovery which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William 
Buckland.  These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland 
together, and found in different localities clear evidence of 
ancient glacial action.  The discovery was announced to the 
Geological Society of London in successive communications from 
the two distinguished observers.  The mountainous districts 
of England and Wales and Ireland were also considered to 
constitute centres for the dispersion of glacial debris; and 
Agassiz remarked ``that great sheets of ice, resembling those 
now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries 
in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; 
that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration 
of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, &c.'' 

In 1842-1846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologicus, a 
classified list, with references, of all names employed in 
zoology for genera and groups--a work of great labour and 
research.  With the aid of a grant of money from the king of 
Prussia, Agassiz, in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic, 
with the twofold design of investigating the natural history 
and geology of the United States and delivering a course of 
lectures on zoology, by invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the 
Lowell Institute at Boston; the tempting advantages, pecuniary 
and scientific, presented to him in the New World induced 
him to settle in the United States, where he remained to the 
end of his life.  He was appointed professor of zoology and 
geology in Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S., in 1847.  
In 1852 he accepted a medical professorship of comparative 
anatomy at Charlestown, but this he resigned in two years. 

The transfer to a new field and the association with 
fresh objects of interest gave his energies an increased 
stimulus.  Volume after volume now proceeded from his pen: 
some of his writings were popular, but most of them dealt 
with the higher departments of scientific research.  His work 
on Lake Superior, and his four volumes of Contributions to 
the Natural History of the United States, 1857-1862, were 
of this latter character.  We must not overlook the valuable 
service he rendered to science by the formation, for his own 
use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs--an extraordinary 
work for a man whose hands were already so full.  This 
catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late Hugh 
E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the 
title of Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in 4 vols., 
1848-1854.  Nor must we forget that he was building up another 
magnificent monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural 
History, which rose under his fostering care, at Cambridge.  
But at length the great strain on his physical powers began to 
tell.  His early labours among the fishes of Brazil had often 
caused him to cast a longing glance towards that country, 
and he now resolved to combine the pursuit of health with the 
gratification of his long cherished desires.  In April 1865 
he started for Brazil, with his wife and class of qualified 
assistants.  An interesting account of this expedition, 
entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was published by Mrs 
Agassiz and himself after they returned home in August 1866. 

In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern shores 
of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic and its 
Pacific sea-boards.  He had for many years yearned after the 
establishment of a permanent school where zoological science 
could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of 
study.  The last, and possibly the most influential, of 
the labours of his life was the establishment of such an 
institution, which he was enabled to effect through the 
liberality of Mr John Anderson, a citizen of New York.  That 
gentleman, in 1873, not only handed over to Agassiz the island 
of Penikese, in Buzzard's Bay, on the east coast, but also 
presented him with $50,000 wherewith permanently to endow it 
as a practical school of natural science, especially devoted 
to the study of marine zoology.  Unfortunately he did not 
long survive the establishment of this institution.  The 
disease with which he had struggled for some years proved 
fatal on the 14th of December 1873.  He was buried at Mount 
Auburn.  His monument is a boulder selected from the moraine 
of the glacier of the Aar near the site of the old Hotel des 
Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where his hut once stood; 
and the pine-trees which shelter his grave were sent from his 
old home in Switzerland.  His extensive knowledge of natural 
history makes it somewhat remarkable to find that from first 
to last he steadily rejected the doctrine of evolution, and 
affirmed his belief in independent creations.  When studying 
the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains in 1865, 
his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area, 
as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier, 
extending from the Andes to the sea.  This view, however, 
has not been generally accepted.  His daring conceptions were 
only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine enthusiasm 
with which he worked them out; and if in details his labours 
were somewhat defective, it was only because he had ventured 
to attempt what was too much for any one man to accomplish. 

It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses 
written by Longfellow on ``The fiftieth birthday of 
Agassiz'' were read by the author at a dinner given to 
Agassiz by the Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857. 

Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had 
an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.v.), born in 1835; in 1850, 
after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot 
Cary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and 
as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with 
Radcliffe College (see an article on Radcliffe College, by 
Helen Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895). 

AUTHORITIES--L. Agassiz, His Life and Correspondence, 2 vols., 
by E. C (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1885); Louis Agassiz, His Life and 
Work, by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.) 

AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, 
but to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly 
Chalcedony (q.v..) According to Theophrastus the agate 
(achates) was named from the river Achates, now the Drillo, 
in Sicily, where the stone was originally found.  Most agates 
occur as nodules in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where 
they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement 
of vapour in the molten mass, and since filled, wholly or 
partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers 
upon the walls.  Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit 
a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, 
giving a banded appearance to the section, whence such stones 
are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate.  
Certain agates also occur, to a limited extent, in veins, of 
which a notable example is the beautiful brecciated agate of 
Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony--a stone mostly composed 
of angular fragments of agate cemented with amethystine quartz. 

In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that 
waters containing silica in solution--derived, perhaps, 
from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava 
itself--percolated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous 
coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles.  Variations in 
the character of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit, 
may have caused corresponding variation in the successive 
layers, so that bands . of chalcedony often alternate with 
layers of crystalline quartz, and occasionally of opaline 
silica.  By movement of the lava, when originally viscous, 
the vesicles were in many cases drawn out and compressed, 
whence the mineral matter with which they became filled 
assumed an elongated form, having the longer axis in the 
direction in which the magma flowed.  From the fact that 
these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called 
amygdales, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as an 
amygdaloid.  Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the 
rock is viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may 
become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a 
Brazilian geode, lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35 
tons, was exhibited at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902. 

The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the 
``skin'' of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral 
substance, like celadonite, delessite or ``green earth,'' 
which are hydrous silicates rich in iron, derived probably 
from the decomposition of the augite in the mother-rock., 
This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown 
oxide of iron (limonite), producing a rusty appearance on 
the outside of the agate-nodule.  The outer surface of an 
agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, 
apparently in consequence of the removal of the original 
coating.  The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity 
has been called the ``priming,'' and upon this basis zeolitic 
minerals may be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr M. F. 
Heddle.  Chalcedony is generally one of the earlier deposits 
and crystallized quartz one of later formation.  Tubular 
channels, usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often 
visible in sections of agate, and were formerly regarded, 
especially by L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of 
infiltration, by which the siliceous solutions gained access 
to the interior of the amygdaloidal cavity.  It seems likely, 
however, that the solution transuded through the walls 
generally, penetrating the chalcedonic layers, as Heddle 
maintained, by osmotic action.  Much of the chalcedony in an 
agate is known, from the method of artificially staining the 
stone, to be readily permeable.  It was argued by E. Reusch 
that the cavities were alternately filled and emptied by means 
of intermittent hot springs carrying silica; while G. Lange, of 
Idar, suggested that the tension of the confined steam might 
pierce an outlet through some weak point in the coating of 
gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls, so that the tubes 
would be channels of egress rather than of ingress--a view 
supported by Heddle, who described them as ``tubes of escape.'' 

It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata usually 
opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity 
after the walls have been lined with successive layers of 
chalcedony.  Many agates are hollow, since deposition has 
not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such 
cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often 
amethystine, having the apices of the crystals directed towards 
the free space, so as to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode. 

When the deposits in an agate have been formed on a crop of 
crystals, or on a rugose base, the cross-section presents a 
zigzag pattern, rather like the plan of a fortress with salient 
and retiring angles, whence the stone is termed fortification 
agate.  If the section shows concentric circles, due either to 
stalactitic growth or to deposition in the form of bosses and 
beads on the floor, the stone is known as ring agate or eye 
agate.  A Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has 
received the name of ``cyclops.'' Included matter of a green 
colour, like fragments of ``green earth,'' embedded in 
the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms 
suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to moss agate.  
These inorganic enclosures in the agate have been sometimes 
described, even after microscopic examination, as true vegetable 
structures.  Dendritic markings of black or brown colour, due 
to infiltration of oxides of manganese and iron, produce the 
variety of agate known as Mocha stone.  Agates of exceptional 
beauty often pass in trade under the name of Oriental agate.  
Certain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted 
light, show a diffraction spectrum, due to the extreme delicacy 
of the successive bands, whence they are termed rainbow agates. 

On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are 
embedded, they are set free, and, being by their siliceous 
nature extremely resistant to the action of air and water, 
remain as nodules in the soil and gravel, or become rolled as 
pebbles in the streams.  Such is the origin of the ``Scotch 
pebbles,'' used as ornamental stones.  They are agates derived 
from the andesitic lavas of Old Red Sandstone age, chiefly 
in the Ochils and the Sidlaws.  In like manner, the South 
American agates, so largely cut and polished at the present 
time, are found mostly as boulders in the beds of rivers. 

An enormous trade in agate-working is carried on in a small 
district in Germany, around Oberstein on the Nahe, a tributary 
of the Rhine at Bingen.  Here the industry was located many 
centuries ago, in consequence of the abundant occurrence 
of agates in the amygdaloidal melaphyre of the district, 
notably in the Galgenberg, or Steinkaulenberg, overlooking 
the village of Idar, on the Idar Bach, about two miles from 
Oberstein.  The abundant water-power in the neighbourhood 
had also a share in the determination of the industrial 
site.  At the present time, however, steam power and even 
electricity are employed in the mills of the Oberstein 
district.  Although the agateindustry is still carried on 
there, especially at Idar, the stones operated on are 
not of indigenous origin, but are imported mostly from 
Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) and from Uruguay, where they 
were discovered in 1827.  Agate-working is also carried 
on to a limited extent at Waldkirch in the Black Forest. 

Most commercial agate is artificially stained, so that stones 
naturally unattractive by their dull grey tints come to be 
valuable for ornamental purposes.  The art of staining the 
stone is believed to be very ancient.  Possibly referred to 
by Pliny (bk. xxxvii. cap. 75), it was certainly practised 
at an early date by the Italian cameo-workers, and from 
Italy a knowledge of the art--long kept secret and practised 
traditionally--passed in the early part of the 19th century to 
the agate-workers in Germany, by whom it has since been greatly 
developed.  The colouring matter is absorbed by the porosity 
of the stone, but different stones and even different layers 
in the same stone exhibit great variation in absorptive 
power.  The Brazilian agates lend themselves readily to 
coloration, while the German agates are much less receptive. 

To produce a dark brown or black colour, the stone is kept perhaps 
for two or three weeks in a saccharine solution, or in olive 
oil, at a moderate temperature.  After removal from this medium, 
the agate is well washed and then digested for a short time in 
sulphuric acid, which entering the pores chars or carbonizes 
the absorbed sugar or oil.  Certain layers of chalcedony are 
practically impermeable, and these consequently remain uncoloured, 
so that an alternation of dark and white bands is obtained, 
thus giving rise to an onyx.  If stained too dark, the colour 
may be ``drawn,'' or lightened, by the action of nitric acid. 

Agate is stained red, so as to form carnelian and sardonyx, 
by means of ferric oxide.  This may be derived from any iron 
compound naturally present in the stone, especially from limonite 
by dehydration on baking.  Some stones are ``burnt'' by mere 
exposure to the heat of the sun, whereby the brown colour passes to 
red.  Usually, however, an iron-salt, like ferrous sulphate, 
is artificially introduced in solution and then decomposed 
by heat, so as to form in the pores a rich red pigment. 

A blue colour, supposed to render the agate rather like lapis 
lazuli, is produced by using first an iron salt and then 
a solution of ferrocyanide or ferricyanide of potassium; 
a green colour, like that of chrysoprase, is obtained 
by means of salts of nickel or of chromium; and a yellow 
tint is developed by the action of hydrochloric acid. 

Among the uses to which agate is applied may be mentioned the 
formation of knife-edges of delicate balances, small mortars 
and pestles for chemical work, burnishers and writing styles, 
umbrella-handles, paper-knives, seals, brooches and other trivial 
ornaments.  Most of these are cut and polished in the Oberstein 
district, at a very cheap rate, from South American stones. 

Numerous localities in the United States and Canada yield 
agates, as described by Dr G. F. Kunz.  They are abundant in 
the trap rocks of the Lake Superior region, some of the finest 
coming from Michipicoten Island, Ontario.  A locality on the 
shore of the lake is called Agate Bay. Wood agate, or agatized 
wood, is not infrequently found in Colorado, California and 
elsewhere in the West, the most notable locality being the 
famous ``silicified forest'' known as Chalcedony Park, in Apache 
county, Arizona.  Here there are vast numbers of water-rolled 
logs of silicified wood, in rocks of Triassic age, but only 
a small quantity of the wood is fine enough for ornamental 
purposes.  The cellular tissue of the vegetable matter is 
filled, or even replaced, by various siliceous minerals like 
chalcedony, jasper, crystalline quartz and semi-opal, the silica 
having probably been introduced by thermal waters.  Some of the 
agate shows the microscopic structure of araucarian wood.  The 
agatized wood is sometimes known by the Indian name of shinarump. 

In India agates occur abundantly in the amygdaloidal varieties of 
the Deccan and Rajmahal traps, and as pebbles in the detritus 
derived from these rocks.  Some of the finest are found in the 
agate-gravels near Ratanpur, in Rajpipla.  The trade in agates 
has been carried on from early times at Cambay, where the stones 
are cut and polished.  Agates are also worked at Jubbulpore. 

In many parts of New South Wales, agates, resulting from the 
disintegration of trap rocks, are common in the river-beds and old 
drifts.  They occur also in Queensland, as at Agate Creek, running 
into the Gilbert river.  South Africa likewise yields numerous 
agates, especially in the gravels of the Orange and Vaal rivers. 

It should be noted that in England agates are found not 
only in old lavas, like the andesites of the Cheviots, but 
also to a limited extent in the Dolomitic Conglomerate, 
an old beachdeposit of Triassic age in the Mendips and 
the neighbourhood of Bristol.  They are also found as 
weathered pebbles in the drift of Lichfield in Staffordshire. 

For Scottish agates see M. F. Heddle, ``On the Structure of 
Agates,'' Trans.  Geolog.  Soc. Glasgow, vol. xi. part ii., 
1900, p. 153; and Mineralogy of Scotland (1901), vol. i. 
p. 58; J. G. Goodchild, Proc.  Phys.  Soc. Edinburgh, vol. 
xiv., 1899, p. 191. For the agate-industry see G. Lange, Die 
Halbedelsteine (Kreuznach, 1868).  For American agates, G. F. 
Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North America (1890), p. 
128. For agates in general see Max Bauer's Precious Stones, 
translated by L. J. Spencer (London, 1904). (F. W. R.n) 

AGATHA, SAINT, the patron saint of Catania, Sicily, where 
her festival is celebrated on the 5th of February.  The legend 
is that she was a native of Sicily (probably of Catania, 
though Palermo also claims her), of noble birth and great 
beauty.  She repelled the advances of the Roman prefect sent 
by the emperor Decius to govern Sicily, and was by his orders 
brutally tortured and finally sent to the stake.  As soon as 
the fire was lighted, an earthquake occurred, and the people 
insisted on her release.  She died in prison on the 5th 
of February 251. The rescue of Catania from fire during an 
eruption of Mount Etna was later attributed to St Agatha's veil. 

AGATHANGELUS, AGATHANGE or AKATHANKELOS, Armenian 
historian, lived during the 4th century, and wrote a History 
of the Reign of Dertad, or Tiridates, and of the Preaching 
of St Gregory the Illuminator. The text of this history 
has been considerably altered, but it has always been in 
high favour with the Armenians.  It has been translated 
into several languages, and Greek and Latin translations 
are found in the Acta Sanctorum Bollandistarum, tome 
viii.  As known to us the history consists of three parts, 
a history of St Gregory and his companions, the doctrine of 
Gregory, and the conversion of Armenia to Christianity. 

See V. Langlois, Collection des historiens 
anciens et modernes de l'Armenie (Paris, 1868). 

AGATHARCHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, of Cnidus, Greek historian 
and geographer, lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor 
(181-146 B.C.) and his successors.  Amongst other works, 
he wrote treatises on Asia, Europe and The Red Sea. 
Interesting extracts from the last, of some length, are 
preserved in Photius (cod. 213), who praises the style 
of the author, which was modelled on that of Thucydides. 

See H. Leopoldi, De Agatharchide Cnidio Dissertatio 
(1892); C. W. Muller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, 
iii., and Geographi Graeci Minores, i.; E. H. 
Bunbury, Hist. of Ancient Geography, ii. (1879). 

AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian painter of the 5th century B.C. 
He is said by Vitruvius to have been the first to paint a scene 
for the acting of tragedies.  Hence some writers, such as Karl 
Woermann, have supposed that he introduced perspective and 
illusion into painting.  This is a mistaken view, for ancient 
writers know nothing of canvas scenes; the background painted 
by Agatharchus was the wooden front of the stage building, 
and it was painted, not with reference to any particular 
play, but as a permanent decorative background, representing 
no doubt a palace or temple.  Agatharchus is said to have 
been seized by Alcibiades and compelled by him to paint the 
interior of his house, which shows that at the time (about 
435 B.C.) decorative painting of rooms was the fashion. 

AGATHIAS (c. A.D. 536-582), of Myrina in Aeolis, 
Greek poet and historian.  He studied law at Alexandria, 
completed his training at Constantinople and practised as 
an advocate (scholasticus) in the courts.  Literature, 
however, was his favourite pursuit.  He wrote a number of 
short love-poems in epic metre, called Daphniaca. He next 
put together a kind of anthology, containing epigrams by 
earlier and contemporary poets and himself, under the title 
of a Cycle of new Epigrams. About a hundred epigrams by 
Agathias have been preserved in the Greek Anthology and 
show considerable taste and elegance.  After the death of 
Justinian (565), some of Agathias's friends persuaded him 
to write the history of his own times.  This work, in five 
books, begins where Procopius ends, and is the chief authority 
for the period 552-558.  It deals chiefly with the struggles 
of the Byzantine army, under the command of the eunuch 
Narses, against the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Persians.  The 
author prides himself on his honesty and impartiality, but 
he is lacking in judgment and knowledge of facts; the work, 
however, is valuable from the importance of the events of 
which it treats.  Gibbon contrasts Agathias as ``a poet and 
rhetorician'' with Procopius ``a statesman and soldier.'' 

AUTHORITIES.--Editio princeps, by B. Vulcanius (1594); in 
the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Byz. Hist., by B. G. Niebuhr 
(1828); in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, lxxxviii.; L. Dindorf, 
Historici Graeci Minores (1871); W. S. Teuffel, ``Agathias 
von Myrine,'' in Philolegus (i. 1846); C. Krumbacher, 
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897). 

AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily.  He is 
noteworthy as the pope who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored 
to his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease 
payment of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the 
emperor at Constantinople.  It was during his pontificate 
that the 6th oecumenical council was held at Constantinople, 
to which he sent his legates and those from a Roman council 
held in 679. Agatho died on the 10th of January 681. 

AGATHOCLES (361-289 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, was 
born at Thermae Himeraeae (mod. Termini Imerese) in 
Sicily.  The son of a potter who had removed to Syracuse, 
he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the 
army.  In 333 he married the widow of his patron Damas, a 
distinguished and wealthy citizen.  He was twice banished for 
attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party in Syracuse 
(q.v.); in 317 he returned with an army of mercenaries under 
a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution which 
was then set up.  Having banished or murdered some 10,000 
citizens, and thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created 
a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of 
Sicily.  War with Carthage followed.  In 310 Agathocles, 
defeated and besieged in Syracuse, took the desperate resolve 
of breaking through the blockade and attacking the enemy in 
Africa.  After several victories he was at last completely 
defeated (306) and fled secretly to Sicily.  After concluding 
peace with Carthage, Agathocles styled himself king of 
Sicily, and established his rule over the Greek cities of 
the island more firmly than ever.  Even in his old age he 
displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been 
meditating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his 
death.  His last years were harassed by ill-health and the 
turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at whose instigation 
he is said to have been poisoned; according to others, he 
died a natural death.  He was a born leader of mercenaries, 
and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, 
he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular ``tyrant.'' 

See Justin xxii., xxiii.; Diodorus Siculus xix., xxi., xxii. 
(follows generally Timaeus who had a special grudge against 
Agathocles); Polybius ix. 23; Schubert, Geschichte des 
Agathokles (1887); Grote, History of Greece, ch. 97; also 
SICILY, History. AGATHODAEMON; in Greek mythology, the 
``good spirit'' of cornfields and vineyards.  It was the custom 
of the Greeks to drink a cup of pure wine in his honour at 
the end of each meal (Aristophanes, Equites, 106).  He was 
also regarded as the protecting spirit of the state and of 
individuals.  He was often accompanied by 'Agathe Tuche 
(good fortune), and in this aspect may be compared with 
the Roman Bonus Eventus (Pliny, Nat Hist. xxxvi. 23), and 
Genius.  He is represented in works of art in the form of a 
serpent, or of a young man with a cornucopia and a bowl 
in one hand, and a poppy and ears of corn in the other. 

See Gerhard, Uber Agathodamon und Bona Dea (Berlin, 1849). 

AGATHODAEMON, of Alexandria, map designer, probably lived 
in the 2nd century A.D. Some MSS. of the Geography of 
Ptolemy contain twenty-seven maps, which are stated to have 
been drawn by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who ``delineated 
the whole world according to the eight books of Ptolemy's 
geography.'' As Ptolemy speaks of IIinakes to accompany his 
treatise, these maps were probably the work of a contemporary 
acting under his instructions.  About 1470 Nicolaus Doris, 
a Benedictine monk, brought out a revised edition of 
them, the names being inserted in Latin instead of Greek. 

See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, ii. 

AGATHON (c. 448-400 B.C.), Athenian tragic poet, friend of 
Euripides and Plato, best known from his mention by Aristophanes 
(Thesmophoriazusae) and in Plato's Symposium, which describes 
the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for a tragedy 
(416).  He probably died at the court of Archelaus, king of 
Macedonia.  He introduced certain innovations, and Aristotle 
(Poetica, 9) tells us that the plot of his 0Antho1 was 
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects. 

See Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100; Plato, Symp. 
198 c; Plutarch, Symp. 3; Aelian, Var. Hist. xiv. 13; Ritsch, 
Opuscula, i.; fragments in Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 

AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin, who in the earliest 
historical times occupied the plain of the Maris (Maros), in 
the region now known as Transylvania.  Thyrsi is supposed to 
be a Scythian form of Trausoi (Trausi), a Thracian tribe 
mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium.  They are described 
by Herodotus (iv. 104) as of luxurious habits, wearing gold 
ornaments (the district is still auriferous) and having wives in 
common.  They tattooed their bodies (picti, Aeneid iv. 136), 
degrees of rank being indicated by the manner in which this 
was done, and coloured their hair dark blue.  Like the Gallic 
Druids, they recited their laws in a kind of sing-song to 
prevent their being forgotten, a practice still in existence 
in the days of Aristotle (Problemata, xix. 28). Valerius 
Flaccus (Argonautica, vi. 135) calls them Thyrsagetae, 
probably in reference to their celebration of orgiastic rites 
in honour of some divinity akin to the Thracian Dionysus.  
In later times the Agathyrsi were driven farther north, and 
their name was unknown to the Romans in their original home. 

[26]. 88; Pomponius Mela ii. 1. 10: W. Tomaschek, ``Die alten 
Thraker,'' in Sitzungsber. der philosophisch-historischen 
Klasse der kaiserl.  Akad. der Wiss. cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893). 

AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, 
chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and western 
United States and in central and tropical South America.  The 
plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally 
ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout 
stem is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the 
root.  They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of 
years, when a tall stem or ``mast'' grows from the centre of 
the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular 
flowers.  After development of fruit the plant dies down, 
but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the 
stem which become new plants.  The most familiar species is 
Agave americana (see fig.), a native of tropical America, 
the so-called century plant or American aloe (the maguey of 
Mexico).  The number of years before flowering occurs depends 
on the vigour of the individual, the richness of the soil 
and the climate; during these years the plant is storing in 
its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of 
flowering.  During the development of the inflorescence there 
is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk.  In 
the case of A. americana and other species this is used by 
the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the 
flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently 
fermented.  By distillation a spirit called mescal is 
prepared.  The leaves of several species yield fibre, as for 
instance, A. rigida var. sisalana, sisal hemp (q.v.), 
A. decipiens, false sisal hemp; A. americana is the 
source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre plant in 
Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe.  The flowering 
stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms 

Agave americana, Century plant or American aloe.  About 
1/40 nat. size. 1, Flower; 2, same flower split open above the 
ovary; 3, ovary cut across; 1, 2, and 3, about  1/2 nat. size. 

From the Botanical Magazine, by permission of Lovell Reeve and Co. 

natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves 
will lather in water like soap.  In the Madras Presidency 
the plant is extensively used for hedges along railroads. 
Agave americana, century plant, was introduced into Europe 
about the middle of the 16th century and is now widely 
cultivated for its handsome appearance; in the variegated 
forms the leaf has a white or yellow marginal or central 
stripe from base to apex.  As the leaves unfold from the 
centre of the rosette the impression of the marginal spines 
is very conspicuous on the still erect younger leaves.  The 
plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in the summer 
months, but in the winter require to be protected from 
frost.  They mature very slowly and die after flowering, but 
are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the stem. 

AGDE, a town of southern France, in the department of Herault, 
on the left bank of the river of that name, 2 1/2 m. from the 
Mediterranean Sea and 32 m.  S.W. of Montpellier on the Southern 
railway.  Pop. (1906) 7146.  The town lies at the foot of 
an extinct volcano, the Montagne St Loup, and is built of 
black volcanic basalt, which gives it a gloomy appearance.  
Overlooking the river is the church of St Andre, which dates 
partly from the 12th century, and, till the Revolution, was a 
cathedral.  It is a plain and massive structure with crenelated 
walls, and has the aspect of a fortress rather than of a 
church.  The exterior is diversified by arched recesses forming 
machicolations, and the same architectural feature is reproduced 
in the square tower which rises like a donjon above the 
building.  The Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the 
Garonne with the Mediterranean, passes under the walls of the 
town, and the mouth of the Herault forms a harbour which is 
protected by a fort.  The maritime commerce of the town has 
declined, owing partly to the neighbourhood of Cette, partly 
to the shallowness of the Herault.  The fishing industry 
is, however, still active.  The chief public institutions 
are the tribunal of commerce and the communal college. 

Agde is a place of great antiquity and is said to have 
been founded under the name of agathe polis (Good 
City) by the Phocaeans.  The bishopric was established 
about the year 400 and was suppressed in 1790. 

SYNOD OF AGDE (Concilium Agathense.)--With the permission 
of the West Goth Alaric II. thirty-five bishops of southern 
Gaul assembled in person or sent deputies to Agde on the 11th 
of September 506. Caesarius, bishop of Arles, presided.  The 
forty seven genuine canons of the synod deal with discipline, 
church life, the alienation of ecclesiastical property and 
the treatment of Jews.  While favouring sacerdotal celibacy 
the council laid rather rigid restrictions on monasticism.  It 
commanded that the laity communicate at Christmas, Easter and 
Whitsuntide.  The canons of Agde are based in part on earlier 
Gallic, African and Spanish legislation; and some of them 
were re-enacted by later councils, and found their way into 
collections such as the Hispana, Pseudo-Isidore and Gratian. 

See Mansi viii. 319 ff.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, 
2nd edition, ii. 649 ff. (English translation, iv. 
76 ff.); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, i. 242. 

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from 
aetas), a term used (1) of the divisions into which it 
is suggested that human history may be divided, whether 
regarded from the geological, cultural or moral aspects, 
e.g. the palaeolithic age, the bronze age, the dark ages; 
(2) of an historic epoch or generation; (3) of any period 
or stage in the physical life of a person, animal or thing; 
(4) of that time of life at which the law attributes full 
responsibility for his or her acts to the individual. 

(1) From the earliest times there would appear to have been 
the belief that the history of the earth and of mankind 
falls naturally into periods or ages.  Classical mythology 
popularized the idea.  Hesiod, for example, in his poem Works 
and Days, describes minutely five successive ages, during 
each of which the earth was peopled by an entirely distinct 
race.  The first or golden race lived in perfect happiness 
on the fruits of the untilled earth, suffered from no bodily 
infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep, and became after 
death guardian daemons of this world.  The second or silver 
race was degenerate, and refusing to worship the immortal 
gods, was buried by Jove in the earth.  The third or brazen 
race, still more degraded, was warlike and cruel, and perished 
at last by internal violence.  The fourth or heroic race 
was a marked advance upon the preceding, its members being 
the heroes or demi-gods who fought at Troy and Thebes, and who 
were rewarded after death by being permitted to reap thrice 
a year the free produce of the earth.  The fifth or iron 
race, to which the poet supposes himself to belong, is the 
most degenerate of all, sunk so low in every vice that any new 
change must be for the better.  Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, 
follows Hesiod exactly as to nomenclature and very closely as to 
substance.  He makes the degeneracy continuous, however, 
by omitting the heroic race or age, which, as Grote points 
out, was probably introduced by Hesiod, not as part of his 
didactic plan, but from a desire to conciliate popular feeling 
by including in his poem the chief myths that were already 
current among the Greeks.  Varro recognized three ages: (1) 
from the beginning of mankind to the Deluge, a quite indefinite 
period; (2) from the Deluge to the First Olympiad, called the 
Mythical Period; (3) from the First Olympiad to his own time, 
called the Historic Period.  Lucretius divided man's history 
into three cultural periods: (1) the Age of Stone; (2) the 
Age of Bronze; (3) the Age of Iron.  He thus anticipated the 
conclusions of some of the greatest of modern archaeologists. 

(2) A definite period in history, distinguished by some 
special characteristic, such as great literary activity, is 
generally styled, with some appropriate epithet, an age.  It 
is usual, for example, to speak of the Age of Pericles, the 
Augustan, the Elizabethan or the Victorian Ages; of the Age 
of the Crusades, the Dark Ages, the Middle Ages, the Age of 
Steam.  Such isolated periods, with no continuity or necessary 
connexion of any kind, are obviously quite distinct from the 
ages or organically related periods into which philosophers have 
divided the whole course of human history.  Auguste Comte, for 
instance, distinguishes three ages according to the state of 
knowledge in each, and he supposes that we are now entering 
upon the third of these.  In the first age of his scheme 
knowledge is supernatural or fictitious; in the second it is 
metaphysical or abstract; in the third it is positive or 
scientific.  Schemes somewhat similar have been proposed by other 
philosophers, chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to be 
regarded by them as essential to any complete science of history. 

(3) The subject of the duration of human and animal life 
does not fall within the scope of this article, and the 
reader is referred to LONGEVITY. But the word ``age'' 
has been used by physiologists to express certain natural 
divisions in human development and decay.  These are usually 
regarded as numbering five, viz. infancy, lasting to the 
seventh year; childhood to the fourteenth; youth to 
the twenty-first; adult life till fifty; and old age. 

(4) The division of human life into periods for legal purposes 
is naturally more sharp and definite than in physiology.  It 
would be unscientific in the physiologist to name any precise 
year for the transition from one of his stages to another, 
inasmuch as that differs very considerably among different 
nations, and even to some extent among different individuals 
of the same nation.  But the law must necessarily be fixed and 
uniform, and even where it professes to proceed according to 
nature, must be more precise than nature.  The Roman law divided 
human life for its purposes into four chief periods, which 
had their subdivisions--(1) infantia, lasting till the close 
of the seventh year; (2) the period between infantia and 
pubertas, males becoming puberes at fourteen and females 
at twelve; (3) adolescentia, the period between puberty 
and majority; and (4) the period after the twenty-fifth year, 
when males became majores. The first period was one of total 
legal incapacity; in the second period a person could lawfully 
do certain specified acts, but only with the sanction of his 
tutor or guardian; in the third the restrictions were fewer, 
males being permitted to manage their own property, contract 
marriage and make a will; but majority was not reached until 
the age of twenty-five.  By English law there are two great 
periods into which life is divided--infancy, which lasts 
in both sexes until the twenty-first year, and manhood or 
womanhood.  The period of infancy, again, is divided into several 
stages, marked by the growing development both of rights and 
obligations.  Thus at twelve years of age a male may take 
the oath of allegiance; at fourteen both sexes are held 
to have arrived at years of discretion, and may therefore 
choose guardians, give evidence and consent or disagree to a 
marriage.  A female has the last privilege from the twelfth 
year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until the majority 
of the parties without the consent of parents or guardians.  At 
fourteen, too, both sexes are fully responsible to the criminal 
law.  Between seven and fourteen there is responsibility only 
if the accused be proved doli capax, capable of discerning 
between right and wrong, the principle in that case being that 
malitia supplet aetatem. At twenty-one both males and females 
obtain their full legal rights, and become liable to all legal 
obligations.  A seat in the British parliament may be taken at 
twenty-one.  Certain professions, however, demand as a 
qualification in entrants a more advanced age than that of 
legal man. hood.  In the Church of England a candidate for 
deacon's orders must be twenty-three (in the Roman Catholic 
Church, twenty-two) and for priest's orders twenty-four years 
of age; and no clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under 
thirty.  In Scotland infancy is not a legal term.  The time 
previous to majority, which, as in England, is reached by both 
sexes at twenty-one, is divided into two stages: pupilage 
lasts until the attainment of puberty, which the law fixes 
at fourteen in males and twelve in females; minority lasts 
from these ages respectively until twenty-one. Minority 
obviously corresponds in some degree to the English years of 
discretion, but a Scottish minor has more personal rights 
than an English infant in the last stage of his infancy, e.g 
he may dispose by will of movable property, make contracts, 
carry on trade, and, as a necessary consequence, is liable 
to be declared a bankrupt.  In France the year of majority 
is twenty-one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and 
fifteen for females, with a restriction as to the consent of 
guardians.  Age qualification for the chamber of deputies 
is twenty-five and for the senate forty years.  In Germany, 
majority is reached at twenty-one, the nubile age is twenty 
for males and sixteen for females, subject to the consent of 
parents.  Without the consent of parents, the age is 
twenty-five for males and twenty-four for females.  The 
age qualification for the Reichstag is twenty-five.  In 
Austria the age of majority is twenty-four, and the nubile 
age fourteen for either sex, subject to the consent of the 
parents.  In Denmark, qualified majority is reached at eighteen 
and full majority at twenty-five.  The nubile age is twenty 
for males and sixteen for females.  In Spain, majority is 
reached at twenty-three; the nubile age is eighteen for males 
and sixteen for females.  In Greece the age of majority is 
twenty-one, and the nubile age sixteen for males and fourteen 
for females.  In Holland the age of majority is twenty-one, 
and the nubile age eighteen for males and sixteen for 
females.  In Italy, majority is reached at twenty-one; the 
nubile age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females.  In 
Switzerland the age of majority is twenty, and the nubile age 
is eighteen for males and sixteen for females.  In the United 
States the age qualification for a president is thirty-five, 
for a senator thirty and for a representative twenty-five. 

AGELADAS, or (as the name is spelt in an inscription) 
HAGELAIDAS, a great Argive sculptor, who flourished in the 
latter part of the 6th and the early part of the 5th century 
B.C. He was specially noted for his statues of Olympic victors 
(of 520, 516, 508 B.C.); also for a statue at Messene of 
Zeus, copied on the coins of that city.  Ageladas was said to 
have been the teacher of Myron, Phidias and Polyclitus; this 
tradition is a testimony to his wide fame, though historically 
doubtful.  We have no work of Ageladas surviving; but we have 
an inscription which contains the name of his son Argeiadas. 

AGEN, a city of south-western France, capital of the 
department of Lot-et-Garonne, 84 m.  S.E. of Bordeaux by the 
Southern railway between Bordeaux and Toulouse.  Pop. (1906) 
18,640.  It is skirted on the west by the Garonne itself, and 
on the north by its lateral canal.  The river is crossed by 
a stone bridge, by a suspension bridge for foot-passengers, 
and by a fine canal bridge, carrying the lateral canal.  
Pleasant promenades stretch for some distance along the right 
bank.  The town is a medley of old narrow streets contrasting 
with the wide modern boulevards which cross it at intervals.  
The chief building in Agen is the cathedral of St Caprais, 
the most interesting portion of which is the apse of the 
12th century with its three apse-chapels; the transept dates 
from the 12th and 13th centuries, the nave from the 14th to 
the 16th centuries; the tower flanking the south facade is 
modern.  The interior is decorated with modern paintings and 
frescoes.  There are several other churches, among them the 
church of the Jacobins, a brick building of the 13th century, 
and the church of St Hilaire of the 16th century, which has 
a modern tower.  In the prefecture, a building of the 18th 
century, once the bishop's palace, is a collection of historical 
portraits.  The hotel de ville occupies the former Hotel du 
Presidial, an obsolete tribunal, and contains the municipal 
library.  Two houses of the 16th century, the Hotel d'Estrades 
and the Hotel de Vaurs, are used as the museum, which has 
a rich collection of fossils, prehistoric and Roman remains, 
and other antiquities and curiosities.  The poet Jacques 
Jasmin was a native of the town, which has erected a statue to 
him.  Through its excellent water communication it affords 
an outlet for the agricultural produce of the district, 
and forms an entrepot of trade between Bordeaux and 
Toulouse.  Agen is the seat of a bishop.  It is the seat of 
a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and has tribunals 
of first instance and of commerce and a chamber of commerce.  
There are also ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees for boys and 
girls, training-colleges, a school of commerce and industry, 
and a branch of the Bank of France.  Agen is the market for 
a rich agricultural region.  The chief articles of commerce 
are fattened poultry, prunes (pruneaux d'Agen) and other 
fruit, cork, wine, vegetables and cattle.  Manufactures 
include flour, dried plums, pate de foie gras and other 
delicacies, hardware, manures, brooms, drugs, woven goods tiles. 

Agen (Aginnum) was the capital Of the Celtic tribe of the 
Nitiobroges, and the discovery of extensive ruins attests 
its importance under the Romans.  In later times it was the 
capital of the Agenais.  Its bishopric was founded in the 4th 
century.  Agen changed hands more than once in the course of the 
Albigensian wars, and at their close a tribunal of inquisition 
was established in the town and inflicted cruel persecution on the 
heretics.  During the religious wars of the 16th century Agen took 
the part of the Catholics and openly joined the League in 1589. 

See Labenazie, Histoire de la ville d'Agen et pays 
d'Agenois, ed. by A.-G. de Dampierre (1888); A. Ducom, La 
Commune d'Agen: essai sur son histoire et son organisation 
depuis son origine jusqu'au traite de Bretigny (1892). 

AGENAIS, or AGENOIS, a former province of France.  In 
ancient Gaul it was the country of the Nitiobroges with Aginnum 
for its capital, and in the 4th century it was the Civitas 
Agennensium which was a part of Aquitania Secunda and 
which formed the diocese of Agen.  Having in general shared the 
fortunes of Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Carolingian 
periods, Agenais next became an hereditary countship in the part 
of the country now called Gascony (Vasconia.) In 1038 this 
countship was purchased by the dukes of Aquitaine and counts of 
Poitiers.  The marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry 
Plantagenet in 1152 brought it under the sway of England; but 
when Richard Coeur-de-Lion married his sister Joan to Raymund 
VI., count of Toulouse, in 1196, Agenais formed part of the 
princess's dowry; and with the other estates of the last 
independent count of Toulouse it lapsed to the crown of France in 
1271.  This, however, was not for long; the king of France 
had to recognize the prior rights of the king of England to 
the possession of the countship, and restored it to him in 
1279.  During the wars between the English and the French 
in the 14th and 15th centuries, Agenais was frequently taken 
and retaken, the final retreat of the English in 1453 at 
last leaving the king of France in peaceable possession.  
Thenceforth Agenais was no more than an administrative 
term.  At the end of the ancien regime it formed part 
of the ``Gouvernement'' of Guienne, and at the Revolution 
it was incorporated in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, of 
which it constitutes nearly the whole.  The title of count 
of Agenais, which the kings of England had allowed to fall 
into desuetude, was revived by the kings of France, and 
in 1789 was held by the family of the dukes of Richelieu. 

There is no good history of Agenais; that published by Jules 
Andrieu in 1893 (Histoire de l'Agenais, 2 vols.) being quite 
inadequate.  The Bibliographie generale de l'Agenais, by the 
same author (1886-1891, 3 vols.), may be found useful. (C. B.n) 

AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act), a name applied generally 
to, any person who acts for another.  It has probably been 
adopted from France, as its function in modern civil law was 
otherwise expressed in Roman jurisprudence.  Ducange (s.v. 
Agentes) tells us that in the later Roman empire the officers 
who collected the grain in the provinces for the troops and 
the household, and afterwards extended their functions so 
as to include those of government postmasters or spies, came 
to be called agentes in rebus, their earlier name having 
been frumentarii. In law an agent is a person authorized, 
expressedly or impliedly, to act for another, who is thence 
called the principal, and who is, in consequence of, and to 
the extent of, the authority delegated by him, bound by the 
acts of his agent. (See PRINCIPAL AND AGENT; FACTOR, &c.) 

In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in the preparation of 
cases in the various law-courts are called agents. (See SOLICITOR.) 

In France the agents de change were formerly the class 
generally licensed for conducting all negotiations, as 
they were termed, whether in commerce or the money market.  
The term has, however, become practically limited to those 
who conduct transactions in public stock.  The laws and 
regulations as to courtiers, or those whose functions were 
more distinctly confined to transactions in merchandise, have 
been mixed up with those applicable to agents de change. 
Down to the year 1572 both functions were free; but at that 
period, partly for financial reasons, a system of licensing 
was adopted at the suggestion of the chancellor, l'Hopital.  
Among the other revolutionary measures of the year 1791, the 
professions of agent and courtier were again opened to the 
public.  Many of the financial convulsions of the ensuing years, 
which were due to more serious causes, were attributed to this 
indiscriminate removal of restrictions, and they were reimposed in 
1801.  From that period regulations have been made from time 
to time as to the qualifications of agents, the security to be 
found by them and the like.  They are now regarded as public 
officers, appointed, with certain privileges and duties, 
by the government to act as intermediaries in negotiating 
transfers of public funds and commercial stocks and for dealing 
in metallic currency. (See STOCK EXCHANGE: France.) 

In diplomacy the term ``agent'' was originally applied to all 
``diplomatic agents,'' including ambassadors.  With the evolution 
of the diplomatic hierarchy, however, the term gradually sank 
until it was technically applied only to the lowest class of 
``diplomatic agents,'' without a representative character and 
of a status and character so dubious that, by the regulation 
of the congress of Vienna, they were wholly excluded from 
the immunities of the diplomatic service. (See DIPLOMACY.) 

AGENT-GENERAL, the term given to a representative in England 
of one of the self-governing British colonies.  Agents-general 
may be said to hold a position mid-way between agents of 
provinces and ambassadors of foreign countries.  They are 
appointed, and their expenses and salaries provided, by the 
governments of the colonies they represent, viz.  Cape of 
Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, New South Wales, Queensland, 
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, New 
Zealand and Canada (whose representatives are termed high 
commissioners).  Their duties are to look after the political 
and economic interests of their colonies in London, to 
assist in all financial and commercial matters in which their 
colonies may be concerned, such as shipping arrangements and 
rates of freight, cable communications and rates, tenders for 
public works, &c., and to make known the products of their 
colonies.  Those colonies which are not under responsible 
government are represented in London by crown agents. 

AGESANDER, a Rhodian sculptor, whose title to fame is 
that he is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 37) as 
author (with Polydorus and Athenodorus) of the group of the 
Laocoon.  Inscriptions recently found at Lindus in Rhodes 
date Agesander and Athenodorus to the period 42-21 B.C. The 
date of the Laocoon seems thus finally settled, after long 
controversy.  It represents the culmination of a sentimental 
or pathetic tendency in art, which is prominent in the 
somewhat earlier sculpture of Pergamum. (See GREEK ART.) 

AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family, 
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger 
step-brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C. 
Agis had, indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as 
illegitimate, current rumour representing him as the son of 
Alcibiades.  Agesilaus' success was largely due to Lysander, 
who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance 
of his political designs; in this hope, however, Lysander war 
disappointed, and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon 
led to his downfall.  In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia 
with a force of 2000 Neodamodes (enfranchized Helots) and 
6000 allies to secure the Greek cities against a Persian 
attack.  On the eve of sailing from Aulis he attempted to 
offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before the Trojan 
expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent it, an 
insult for which he never forgave them.  On his arrival at 
Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissaphernes, 
the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations conducted 
during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination 
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty 
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Carla.  
After spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he 
made a successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395. 
Tithraustes was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who 
paid with his life for his continued failure.  An armistice 
was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the 
southern satrapy and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged 
until the following spring.  He then came to an agreement 
with the satrap Pharnabazus and once more turned southward.  
It was said that he was planning a campaign in the interior, 
or even an attack on Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled 
to Greece owing to the war between Sparta and the combined 
forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor 
states.  A rapid march through Thrace and Macedonia brought 
him to Thessaly, where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who 
tried to impede him.  Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian 
troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces 
at Coronea in Boeotia, and in a hotly contested battle was 
technically victorious, but the success was a barren one 
and he had to retire by way of Delphi to the Peloponnese.  
Shortly before this battle the Spartan navy, of which he had 
received the supreme command, was totally defeated off Cnidus 
by a powerful Persian fleet under Conon and Pharnabazus. 

Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the Corinthian 
war, making several successful expeditions into Corinthian 
territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum.  The loss, 
however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates, 
neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to 
Sparta.  In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but 
two years later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly 
supported by Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities.  When war 
broke out afresh with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia 
(378, 377), and it was on his advice that Cleombrotus was 
ordered to march against Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was 
defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.  
In 370 Agesilaus tried to restore Spartan prestige by an 
invasion of Mantinean territory, and his prudence and heroism 
saved Sparta when her enemies, led by Epaminondas, penetrated 
Laconia that same year, and again in 362 when they all but 
succeeded in seizing the city by a rapid and unexpected 
march.  The battle of Mantinea (362), in which Agesilaus took 
no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, 
stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.  
In order to gain money for prosecuting the war Agesilaus 
had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he went to 
Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos against 
Persia.  He soon transferred his services to Tachos's cousin 
and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave 
him a sum of over 200 talents.  On his way home Agesilaus 
died at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years. 

A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was 
somewhat lame from birth, a fact which was used as an argument 
against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against 
a ``lame reign.'' He was a successful leader in guerilla 
warfare, alert and quick, yet cautious--a man, moreover, whose 
personal bravery was unquestioned.  As a statesman he won 
himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but 
of his patriotism there can be no doubt.  He lived in the most 
frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his 
campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content 
to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as 
he had set forth. . The worst trait in his character is his 
implacable hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle 
of Leuctra and Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy. 

See lives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend), 
Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch; Xenophon's Hellenica and Diodorus 
xiv., xv.  Among modern authorities, besides the general 
histories of Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ff.; G. F. 
Hertzberg, Das Leben des Konigs Agesilaos II. von Sparta 
(1856); Buttmann, Agesilaus Sohn des Archidamus (1872); C. 
Haupt, Agesilaus in Asien (1874); E. von Stern, Geschichte der 
spartanischen und thebanischen Hegemonie (1884). (M. N. T.) 

AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat. agglomerare, to form into a ball, 
glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded 
in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to the 
accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently 
occur near extinct or active volcanoes.  Agglomerates in the 
geological sense, with which this article is concerned, consist 
typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed often 
with more or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded 
in a finer-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser 
fragments.  As distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs, 
they are essentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded; 
they are less persistent and tend to occur locally, but 
may attain a very great thickness.  Showers of fine ash may 
be distributed over a wide area of country and will form 
thin layers of great extent.  Coarser accumulations gather 
only near the actual foci of eruption (craters, fissures, 
&c.).  When the activity of a volcanic vent comes to an 
end, the orifice is often choked by masses of debris, which 
will in time become compacted into firm agglomerates.  Hence 
rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites of necks, the 
remains of once-active volcanic craters.  In this connexion 
they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always 
important to be able to locate the exact points at which 
volcanic products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted. 

The blocks in agglomerates vary greatly in size.  Some 
are thirty or forty feet in diameter, and weigh many tons; 
these are usually pieces of the strata through which the 
volcano has forced an outlet.  They are never far from the 
crater; most of them, in fact, lie within its boundaries, 
and cases are known in which enormous masses of this kind 
(half an acre in area) have been found in such situations.  
They are masses which have been dislodged, by fissures and 
landslides, from the crater's walls and have tumbled into the 
cavity.  Pieces of sandstone, limestone and shale occur in 
the agglomerates mixed with volcanic materials, and very 
often have been baked and partly recrystallized by contact 
with the hot igneous rocks and the gases discharged by the 
volcano.  At Vesuvius such blocks of altered limestone 
are rich in new minerals and are well known to collectors. 

Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs.  These 
are spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from 
the crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in 
it, and was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of 
steam.  These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of 
ejection and by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal 
form.  They are commonly one or two feet in diameter, 
but specimens as large as nine or twelve feet have been 
observed.  There is less variety in their composition at any 
volcanic centre than in the case of the foreign blocks above 
described.  They correspond in nature to the lava which at 
the time fills the crater of the volcano, and as this varies 
only very slowly the bombs belong mostly to only a few kinds 
of rock and are similar in composition to the lava flows. 

Crystalline masses of a different kind occur in some 
numbers in certain agglomerates.  They consist of volcanic 
minerals very much the same as those formed in the lavas, 
but exhibiting certain peculiarities which indicate that 
they have formed slowly under pressure at considerable 
depths.  Hence they bear a resemblance to plutonic igneous 
rocks, but are more correctly to be regarded as agglomerations 
of crystals formed within the liquid lava as it slowly rose 
towards the surface, and at a subsequent period cast out 
by violent steam explosions.  The sanidinites of the Eifel 
belong to this group.  At Vesuvius, Ascension, St Vincent 
and many other volcanoes, they form a not inconsiderable 
part of the coarser ash-beds.  Their commonest minerals are 
olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite, biotite and leucite. 

Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known.  In many 
parts of Britain they attain a great development either in 
beds alternating with lavas or as the material occupying 
necks.  In the latter case they are often penetrated by 
dikes.  They also show a steep, angular, funnel-shaped 
dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), and may contain 
thin layers of clay or ashy sand-stone, which gathered 
in the crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.) 

AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally 
to fasten together with glue), a term used technically in 
philology for the method of word-formation by which two 
significant words or roots are joined together in a single 
word to express a combination of the two meanings each of 
which retains its force.  This juxtaposition or conjoining 
of roots is characteristic of languages such as the Turkish 
and Japanese, which are therefore known as agglutinative, 
as opposed to others, known generically as inflexional, 
in which differences of termination or combinations in 
which all separate identity disappears are predominant. 

The term was also formerly used by associationist 
philosophers for those mental associations which were 
regarded as peculiarly close.  Combination in its 
simplest form has been called Agglutination by W. Wundt. 

AGGRAVATION (from Lat. ad, increasing, and gravis, 
heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially 
of offences; also used as synonymous with ``irritation.'' In the 
canon law ``aggravation'' was a form of ecclesiastical censure, 
threatening excommunication after three disregarded admonitions. 

AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect 
together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or 
states in which matter exists.  Three primary ``states of 
aggregation'' are recognized--gaseous, liquid and solid.  
Generally, if a solid be heated to a certain temperature, it 
melts or fuses, assuming the liquid condition (see FUSION); 
if the heating be continued the liquid boils and becomes 
a vapour (see VAPORIZATION.) On the other hand, if a gas 
be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it liquefies; this 
transition is treated theoretically in the article CONDENSATION 
OF GASES, and experimentally in the article LIQUID GASES. 

AGGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Gomor, 
situated to the south of Rozsnyo, on the road from Budapest to 
Dobsina.  Pop. (1900) 557. In the neighbourhood is the 
celebrated Aggtelek or Baradla cavern, one of the largest 
and most remarkable stalactite grottos in Europe.  It has a 
length, together with its ramifications, of over 5 miles, and 
is formed of two caverns--one known for several centuries, 
and another discovered by the naturalist Adolf Schmidl in 
1856.  Two entrances give access to the grotto, an old one 
extremely narrow, and a new one, made in 1890, through which 
the exploration of the cavern can be made in about 8 hours, 
half the time it took before.  The cavern is composed of 
a labyrinth of passages and large and small halls, and is 
traversed by a stream.  In these caverns there are numerous 
stalactite structures, which, from their curious and fantastic 
shapes, have received such names as the Image of the Virgin, 
the Mosaic Altar, &c. The principal parts are the Paradies 
with the finest stalactites, the Astronomical Tower and the 
Beinhaus.  Rats, frogs and bats form actually the only 
animal life in the caves, but a great number of antediluvian 
animal bones have been found here, as well as human bones 
and numerous remains of prehistoric human settlements. 

AGINCOURT (AZINCOURT), a village of northern France in 
the department of Pas de Calais, 14 m.  N.W. of St Pol by 
road, famous on account of the victory, on the 25th of October 
1415, of Henry V. of England over the French.  The battle 
was fought in the defile formed by the wood of Agincourt and 
that of Tramecourt, at the northern exit of which the army 
under d'Albret, constable of France, had placed itself so 
as to bar the way to Calais against the English forces which 
had been campaigning on the Somme.  The night of the 24th 
of October was spent by the two armies on the ground, and 
the English had but little shelter from the heavy rain which 
fell.  Early on the 25th, St Crispin's day, Henry arrayed 
his little army (about 1000 men-at-arms, 6000 archers, and a 
few thousands of other foot).  It is probable that the usual 
three ``battles'' were drawn up in line, each with its archers 
on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the centre; 
the archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped salients, 
almost exactly as at Crecy (q.v..) The French, on the other 
hand, were drawn up in three lines, each line formed in deep 
masses.  They were at least four times more numerous than the 
English, but restricted by the nature of the ground to the 
same extent of front, they were unable to use their full 
weight (cf. Bannockburn); further, the deep mud prevented 
their artillery from taking part, and the crossbowmen were as 
usual relegated to the rear of the knights and men-at-arms.  
All were dismounted save a few knights and men-at-arms on 
the flanks, who were intended to charge the archers of the 
enemy.  For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting; 
then Henry, finding that the French would not advance, 
moved his army farther into the defile.  The archers fixed 
the pointed stakes, which they carried to ward off cavalry 
charges, and opened the engagement with flights of arrows.  
The chivalry of France, undisciplined and careless of the 
lesson of Crecy and Poitiers, was quickly stung into action, 
and the French mounted men charged, only to be driven back in 
confusion.  The constable himself headed the leading line 
of dismounted men-at-arms; weighted with their armour, and 
sinking deep into the mud with every step, they yet reached and 
engaged the English men-at-arms; for a time the fighting was 
severe.  The thin line of the defenders was borne back and 
King Henry was almost beaten to the ground.  But at this 
moment the archers, taking their hatchets, swords or other 
weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, 
who could not move to cope with their unarmoured assailants, 
and were slaughtered or taken prisoners to a man.  The 
second line of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the 
melee; its leaders, like those of the first line, were 
killed or taken, and the commanders of the third sought and 
found their death in the battle, while their men rode off to 
safety.  The closing scene of the battle was a half-hearted 
attack made by a body of fugitives, which led merely to the 
slaughter of the French prisoners, which was ordered by Henry 
because he had not enough men both to guard them and to meet 
the attack.  The slaughter ceased when the assailants drew 
off.  The total loss of the English is stated at thirteen 
men-at-arms (including the duke of York, grandson of Edward 
III.) and about 100 of the foot.  The French lost 5000 of 
noble birth killed, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts 
and 90 barons; 1000 more were taken prisoners, amongst them 
the duke of Orleans (the Charles d'Orleans of literature). 

See Sir Harris Nicolas, Battle of Agincourt; 
Fortescue, History of the British Army, vol. i.; 
and H. B. George, Battles of English History. 

AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount, premium), a term 
used in commerce in three slightly different connexions. 
(a) The variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange 
in the currencies of different countries.  For example, in 
most of the gold-standard countries, the standard coin is 
kept up to a uniform point of fineness, so that an English 
sovereign fresh from the mini will bear the following 
constant relation to coins of other countries in a similar 
condition:--L. 1 =frcs. 25.221 =mks. 2O.429=$4.867, &c. This 
is what is known as the mint par of exchange.  But the mint 
par of exchange, say, between France and England is not 
necessarily the market value of French currency in England, 
or English currency in France.  The balance of trade between 
the various countries is the factor determining the rate of 
exchange.  Should the balance of trade (q.v.) be against 
England, money must be remitted to France in payment of the 
indebtedness, but owing to the cost for,the transmission 
of specie there will be a demand for bills drawn on Paris 
as a cheaper and more expeditious method of sending money, 
and it therefore will be necessary, in order to procure the 
one of the higher current value, to pay a premium for it, 
called the agio. (b) The term is also used to denote the 
difference in exchange between two currencies in the same 
country; where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is 
sometimes allowed for payment in the more convenient form of 
gold, or where the paper currency of a country is reduced 
below the bullion which it professes to represent, an agio 
is payable on the appreciated currency. (c) Lastly, in 
some states the coinage is so debased, owing to the wear of 
circulation, that the real is greatly reduced below the nominal 
value.  Supposing that this reduction amounts to 5%, then if 
100 sovereigns were offered as payment of a debt in England 
while such sovereigns were current there at their nominal 
value, they would be received as just payment; but if they 
were offered as payment of the same amount of debt in a foreign 
state, they would be received only at their intrinsic value of 
L. 95, the additional L. 5 constituting the agio.  Where the state 
keeps its coinage up to a standard value no agio is required. 

AGIRA (formerly SAN FILIPPO D'ARGIRO), a town of the 
province of Catania, Sicily, with a railway station 4 1/2 m. 
to the south of the town, 35 m.  W. of Catania.  Pop. (1901) 
17,738.  It occupies the site of Agyrion, an ancient Sicel 
city which was ruled by tyrants, one of whom, Agyris, was 
the most powerful ruler in the centre of Sicily.  He was 
a contemporary of Dionysius I., and with him successfully 
resisted the Carthaginians when they invaded the territory of 
Agyrium in 392 B.C. Agira was not colonized by the Greeks 
until Timoleon drove out the last tyrant in 339 B.C. and 
erected various splendid buildings of which no traces remain.  
Agyrion was the birthplace of the historian Diodorus Siculus. 

AGIS, the name of four Spartan kings:-- 

(1) Son of Eurysthenes, founder of the royal house of the 
Agiadae (Pausanias iii. 2.1).  His genealogy was traced 
through Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus and Hyllus 
to Heracles (Herodotus vii. 204), and he belongs rather 
to mythology than to history.  Tradition ascribed to him 
the capture of the maritime town of Helos, which resisted 
his attempt to curtail its guaranteed rights, and the 
institution of the class of serfs called Helots (q.v..) 

Ephorus ap. Strabo, viii. p. 365. 

(2) Son of Archidamus II., Eurypontid, commonly called Agis 
I. He succeeded his father, probably in 427 B.C., and from 
his first invasion of Attica in 425 down to the close of 
the Peloponnesian war was the chief leader of the Spartan 
operations on land.  After the conclusion of the peace of 
Nicias (421 B.C.) he marched against the Argives in defence of 
Epidaurus, and after skilful manoeuvring surrounded the Argive 
army, and seemed to have victory within his grasp when he 
unaccountably concluded a four months' truce and withdrew his 
forces.  The Spartans were indignant, and when the Argives and 
their allies, in flagrant disregard of the truce, took Arcadian 
Orchomenus and prepared to march on Tegea, their fury knew no 
bounds, and Agis escaped having his house razed and a fine 
of 100,000 drachmae imposed only by promising to atone for 
his error by a signal victory.  This promise he brilliantly 
fulfilled by routing the forces of the Argive confederacy 
at the battle of Mantinea (418), the moral effect of which 
was out of all proportion to the losses inflicted on the 
enemy.  In the winter 417-416 a further expedition to Argos 
resulted in the destruction of the half-finished Long Walls 
and the capture of Hysiae.  In 413, on the suggestion of 
Alcibiades, he fortified Decelea in Attica, where he remained 
directing operations until, after the battle of Aegospotami 
(405), he took the leading part in the blockade of Athens, 
which was ended in spring 404 by the surrender of the city.  
Subsequently he invaded and ravaged Elis, forcing the Eleans 
to acknowledge the freedom of their perioeci and to allow 
Spartans to take part in the Olympic games and sacrifices.  
He fell ill on his return from Delphi, where he had gone to 
dedicate a tithe of the spoils, and, probably in 401, died at 
Sparta, where he was buried with unparalleled solemnity and pomp. 

Thuc. iii. 89, iv. 2. 6, v., vii. 19. 27, viii.; Xenophon, 
Hellenica, i 1. ii. 2. 3, iii. 2. 3; Diodorus xii. 35, xiii. 
72, 73, 107; Pausanias iii. 8. 3-8; Plutarch, Lysander 
ix. 14. 22, Alcibiades 23-25, Lycurgus 12, Agesilaus 
i. 3, de Tranquill.  Anim. 6. (See PELOPONNESIAN WAR.) 

(3) Son of Archidamus III., of the Eurypontid line, commonly 
called Agis II. He succeeded his father in 338 B.C., on 
the very day of the battle of Chaeronea.  During Alexander's 
Asiatic campaign he revolted against Macedonia (333 B.C.) 
and, with the aid of Persian money and ships and a force 
of 8000 Greek mercenaries, gained considerable successes in 
Crete.  In the Peloponnese he routed a force under Corragus 
and, although Athens held aloof, he was joined by Elis, Achaea 
(except Pellene) and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, 
which the allies besieged.  Antipater marched rapidly to its 
relief at the head of a large army, and the allied force was 
defeated after a desperate struggle (331) and Agis was slain. 

Pausanias iii. 10. 5; Diodorus xvii. 48, 62, 63; Justin xii. 1; 
Quintus Curtius iv. 1, 39, vi. 1; Arrian, Anabasis, ii. 13. 

(4) Son of Eudamidas II., of the Eurypontid family, commonly 
called Agis III. He succeeded his father probably in 245 
B.C., in his twentieth year.  At this time the state had 
been brought to the brink of ruin by the growth of avarice and 
luxury; there was a glaring inequality in the distribution of 
land and wealth, and the number of full citizens had sunk to 
700, of whom about 100 practically monopolized the land.  
Though reared in the height of luxury he at once determined to 
restore the traditional institutions of Lycurgus, with the aid 
of Lysander, a descendant of the victor of Aegospotami, and 
Mandrocleidas, a man of noted prudence and courage; even his 
mother, the wealthy Agesistrata, threw herself heartily into 
the cause.  A powerful but not disinterested ally was found 
in the king's uncle, Agesilaus, who hoped to rid himself 
of his debts without losing his vast estates.  Lysander as 
ephor proposed on behalf of Agis that all debts should be 
cancelled and that Laconia should be divided into 19,500 
lots, of which 4500 should be given to Spartiates, whose 
number was to be recruited from the best of the perioeci and 
foreigners, and the remaining 15,000 to perioeci who could 
bear arms.  The Agiad king Leonidas having prevailed on the 
council to reject this measure, though by a majority of only 
one, was deposed in favour of his son-in-law Cleombrotus, 
who assisted Agis in bearing down opposition by the threat of 
force.  The abolition of debts was carried into effect, but 
the land distribution was put off by Agesilaus on various 
pretexts.  At this point Aratus appealed to Sparta to help the 
Achaeans in repelling an expected Aetolian attack, and Agis 
was sent to the Isthmus at the head of an army.  In his absence 
the open violence and extortion of Agesilaus, combined with the 
popular disappointment at the failure of the agrarian scheme, 
brought about the restoration of Leonidas and the deposition 
of Cleombrotus, who took refuge at the temple of Apollo at 
Taenarum and escaped death only at the entreaty of his wife, 
Leonidas's daughter Chilonis.  On his return Agis fled to the 
temple of Athene Chalcioecus at Sparta, but soon afterwards 
he was treacherously induced to leave his asylum and, after 
a mockery of a trial, was strangled in prison, his mother and 
grandmother sharing the same fate (241).  Though too weak and 
good-natured to cope with the problem which confronted him, 
Agis was characterized by a sincerity of purpose and a blend of 
youthful modesty with royal dignity, which render him perhaps 
the most attractive figure in the whole of Spartan history. 

See Plutarch's biography.  Pausanias' accounts (ii. 8. 5, vii. 
7. 3, viii. 10. 5-8, 27. 13) of his attack on Megalopolis, 
his seizure of Pellene and his death at Mantinea fighting 
against the Arcadians, Achaeans and Sicyonians are without 
foundation (J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 2. 123-127).  See also 
Manso, op. cit. iii. 1. 276-302; B. Niese, Geschichte der 
griechischen und makedonischcn Staaten, ii. 299-303. (M. N. T.) 

AGISTMENT. To ``agist'' (from O. Fr. agister, derived 
from gesir--Lat. jacere--to lie) is, in law, to take 
cattle to graze, for a renumeration. ``Agistment,'' in the 
first instance, referred more particularly to the proceeds of 
pasturage in the king's forests, but now means either (a) 
the contract for taking in and feeding horses or other cattle 
on pasture land, for the consideration of a weekly payment 
of money, or (b) the profit derived from such pasturing.  
Agistment is a contract of bailment, and the bailer is bound 
to take reasonable care of the animals entrusted to him; 
he is responsible for damages and injury which result from 
ordinary casualties, if it be proved that such might have been 
prevented by the exercise of great care.  There is no lien on 
the cattle for the price of the agistment, unless by express 
agreement.  Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, agisted 
cattle cannot be distrained on for rent if there be other 
sufficient distress to be found, and if such other distress 
be not found, and the cattle be distrained, the owner may 
redeem them on paying the price of their agistment.  The tithe 
of agistment or ``tithe of cattle and other produce of grass 
lands,'' was formally abolished by the act of union in 1707, 
on a motion submitted with a view to defeat that measure. 

AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS, the name given to representatives 
elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English 
Parliamentary army.  The word really means an agent, but it 
was confused with ``adjutant,'' often called ``agitant,'' a 
title familiar to the soldiers, and thus the form ``adjutator'' 
came into use.  Early in 1647 the Long Parliament wished 
either to disband many of the regiments or to send them to 
Ireland.  The soldiers, whose pay was largely in arrear, 
refused to accept either alternative, and eight of the cavalry 
regiments elected agitators, called at first commissioners, 
who laid their grievances before the three generals, and whose 
letter was read in the House of Commons on the 30th of April 
1647.  The other regiments followed the example of the 
cavalry, and the agitators, who belonged to the lower ranks 
of the army, were supported by many of the officers, who 
showed their sympathy by signing the Declaration of the 
army.  Cromwell and other generals succeeded to some extent 
in pacifying the troops by promising the payment of arrears 
for eight weeks at once; but before the return of the generals 
to London parliament had again decided to disband the army, 
and soon afterwards fixed the 1st of June as the date on 
which this process was to begin.  Again alarmed, the agitators 
decided to resist; a mutiny occurred in one regiment and the 
attempt at disbandment failed.  Then followed the seizure 
of the king by Cornet Joyce, Cromwell's definite adherence 
to the policy of the army, the signing of the manifestoes, 
a Humble Representation and a Solemn Engagement, and the 
establishment of the army council composed of officers and 
agitators.  Having, at an assembly on Thriplow Heath, near 
Royston, virtually refused the offers made by parliament, the 
agitators demanded a march towards London and the ``purging'' 
of the House of Commons.  Subsequent events are part of the 
general history of England.  Gradually the agitators ceased to 
exist, but many of their ideas were adopted by the Levellers 
(q.v.), who may perhaps be regarded as their successors.  
Gardiner says of them, ``Little as it was intended at the 
time, nothing was more calculated than the existence of this 
elected body of agitators to give to the army that distinctive 
political and religious character which it ultimately bore.'' 

See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great 
Civil War, vols. iii. and iv. (London, 1905). 

AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832- ), papal diplomatist, was born at 
Cologno (Bergamo), Italy, on the 4th of September 1832.  He 
studied theology and canon law, and, after acting as parish 
priest in his native diocese for twelve years, was sent by 
the pope to Canada as a bishop's chaplain.  On his return he 
was appointed secretary to the Propaganda.  In 1884 he was 
created by Leo XIII. archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and 
sent to India to report on the establishment of the hierarchy 
there.  In 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms 
of the concordat arranged with Portugal.  The same year he 
was appointed secretary to the Congregation super negotiis 
ecclesiae extraordinariis, in 1889 became papal nuncio at 
Munich and in 1892 at Vienna.  Allowing himself to be involved 
in the ecclesiastical disputes by which Hungary was divided 
in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the 
Hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled.  His services 
were rewarded by a Cardinalate and the archbishopric of 
Ferrara.  In 1903 he was named vice-chancellor of the Roman Church. 

AGNANO, LAGO DI, a circular lake, 5 m.  W. of Naples, 
Italy.  It was apparently not formed until the middle ages, 
as it is not mentioned by ancient writers; it was drained in 
1870.  It occupied the crater of an extinct volcano, 4 m. in 
circumference.  On the south bank are the Stufe di S. Germano, 
natural sulphureous vapour baths, and close by is the Grotta 
del Cane, from the floor of which warm carbonic acid gas 
constantly rises to a height of 18 in., the fumes of which 
render a dog insensible in a few seconds.  It is mentioned 
by Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 93). Remains of an extensive Roman 
building and some statues have been discovered close by. 

AGNATES (Agnati), in Roman law, persons related through 
males only, as opposed to cognates.  Agnation was founded on 
the idea of the family held together by the patria potestas; 
cognatio involves simply the modern idea of kindred. 

AGNES, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the Catholic Church.  The 
legend of St Agnes is that she was a Roman maid, by birth a 
Christian, who suffered martyrdom when but thirteen during 
the reign of the emperor Diocletian, on the 21st of January 
304. The prefect Sempronius wished her to marry his son, 
and on her refusal condemned her to be outraged before her 
execution, but her honour was miraculously preserved.  When 
led out to die she was tied to a stake, but the faggots would 
not burn, whereupon the officer in charge of the troops drew 
his sword and struck off her head.  St Agnes is the patron 
saint of young girls, who, in rural districts, formerly 
indulged in all sorts of quaint country magic on St Agnes' Eve 
(20th-21st January) with a view to discovering their future 
husbands.  This superstition has been immortalized in Keats's 
poem, ``The Eve of St Agnes.'' St Agnes's bones are supposed 
to rest in the church of her name at Rome, originally built 
by Constantine and repaired by Pope Honorius in the 7th 
century.  Here on her festival (21st of January) two lambs 
are specially blessed after pontifical high mass, and 
their wool is later woven into pallia (see PALLIUM.) 

AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of France, was the daughter 
of Bertold IV., duke of Meran in Tirol.  She is called Marie 
by some of the chroniclers.  In June 1196 she married Philip 
II., king of France, who had repudiated Ingeborg of Denmark in 
1193.  The pope espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip 
did not submit until 1200, when, interdict having been 
added to excommunication, he consented to a separation from 
Agnes.  She died in July of the next year, at the castle of 
Poissy, and was buried in the church of St Corentin, near 
Nantes.  Her two children by Philip II., Philip, count of 
Clermont (d. 1234), and Mary, who married Philip, count of 
Namur, were legitimized by Innocent III. in 1201 on the 
demand of the king.  Little is known of the personality 
of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she 
exercised over Philip II. She has been made the heroine 
of a tragedy by Francois Ponsard, Agnes de Meranie. 

See the notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp II. August 
von Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888).  A 
genealogical notice is furnished by the Chronicon of 
the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Fontaines, (Albericus Trium 
Fontium) in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii. pp. 872 
f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229. 

AGNESI, MARIA GAETANA (1718-1799), Italian mathematician, 
linguist and philosopher, was born at Milan on the 16th of May 
1718, her father being professor of mathematics in the university 
of Bologna.  When only nine years old she had such command of 
Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address in that 
language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies 
was not improper for her sex.  By her thirteenth year she 
had acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German and other 
languages.  Two years later her father began to assemble in 
his house at stated intervals a circle of the most learned 
men in Bologna, before whom she read and maintained a series 
of theses on the most abstruse philosophical questions.  
Records of these meetings are given in de Brosse's Lettres 
sur l'Italie and in the Propositiones Philosophicae, which 
her father caused to be published in 1738.  These displays, 
being probably not altogether congenial to Maria, who was of a 
retiring disposition, ceased in her twentieth year, and it is 
even said that she had at that age a strong desire to enter a 
convent.  Though the wish was not gratified, she lived from that 
time in a retirement almost conventual, avoiding all society 
and devoting herself entirely to the study of mathematics.  
The most valuable result of her labours was the Instituzioni 
analitiche ad uso della gioventu italiana, a work of great 
merit, which was published at Milan in 1748.  The first volume 
treats of the analysis of finite quantities. and the second of 
the analysis of infinitesimals.  A French translation of the 
second volume by P. T. d'Antelmy, with additions by Charles 
Bossut (1730-1814), appeared at Paris in 1775; and an English 
translation of the whole work by John Colson (1680-1760), 
the Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, was 
published in 1801 at the expense of Baron Maseres.  Madame 
Agnesi also wrote a commentary on the Traite analytique des 
sections coniques of the marquis de l'Hopital, which, though 
highly praised by those who saw it in manuscript, was never 
published.  She invented and discussed the curve known as 
the ``witch of Agnesi'' (q.v.) or versiera.  In 1750, on 
the illness of her father, she was appointed by Pope Benedict 
XIV. to the chair of mathematics and natural Philosophy at 
Bologna.  After the death of her father in 1752 she carried 
out a long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the study of 
theology, and especially of the Fathers.  After holding for 
some years the office of directress of the Hospice Trivulzio for 
Blue Nuns at Milan, she herself joined the sisterhood, and in 
this austere order ended her days on the 9th of January 1799. 

Her sister, MARIA TERESA AGNESI (1724-1780), a well-known 
Italian pianist and composer, was born at Milan in 
1724.  She composed several cantatas, two pianoforte 
concertos and five operas, Sofenisbe, Ciro in Armenia, 
Nitocri, Il Re Pastore and Insubria consolata. 

See Antonio Francesco Frisi, Eloge historique de 
Mademoiselle Agnesi, translated by Boulard (Paris, 1807); 
Milesi-Mojon, Vita di M. G. Agnesi (Milan, 1836); J. 
Boyer, ``La Mathematicienne Agnesi'' in the Revue Catholique 
des revues francaises et etrangeres (Paris, 1897). 

AGNEW, DAVID HAYES (1818-1892), American surgeon, was born 
in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of November 
1818.  He graduated from the medical department of the 
university of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later set 
up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the 
Philadelphia School of Anatomy.  He was appointed surgeon at 
the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its 
pathological museum.  For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he 
was connected with the medical faculty of the university of 
Pennsylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery 
in 1870 and professor of the principles and practice of 
surgery in the following year.  From 1865 to 1884--except 
for a brief interval --he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania 
Hospital.  During the American Civil War he was consulting 
surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and 
acquired considerable reputation for his operations in cases 
of gun-shot wounds.  He attended as operating surgeon when 
President Garfield was fatally wounded by the bullet of an 
assassin in 1881.  He was the author of several works, the 
most important being The Principles and Practice of Surgery 
(1878-1883).  He died at Philadelphia on the 22nd of March 1892. 

AGNI, the Hindu God of Fire, second only to Indra in the 
power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology.  
His name is the first word of the first hymn of the Rig-veda: 
``Agni, I entreat, divine appointed priest of sacrifice.'' 
The sacrifices made to Agni pass to the gods, for Agni is a 
messenger from and to the gods; but, at the same time, he is 
more than a mere messenger, he is an immortal, for another 
hymn runs: ``No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of 
thee, the mighty One. . . .'' He is a god who lives among men, 
miraculously reborn each day by the fire-drill, by the friction 
of the two sticks which are regarded as his parents; he is 
the supreme director of religious ceremonies and duties,and 
even has the power of influencing the lot of man in the future 
world.  He is worshipped under a threefold form, fire on earth, 
lightning and the sun.  His cult survived the metamorphosis 
of the ancient Vedic nature-worship into modern Hinduism, 
and there still are in India fire-priests (agnihotri) whose 
duty is to superintend his worship.  The sacred fire-drill for 
procuring the temple-fire by friction--symbolic of Agni's daily 
miraculous birth--is still used.  In pictorial art Agni is 
always represented as red, two-faced, suggesting his destructive 
and beneficent qualities, and with three legs and seven arms. 

See W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900); 
A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). 

AGNOETAE (Gr. agnoeo, to be ignorant of), a monophysite 
sect who maintained that Christ's human nature was like other 
men's in all respects, including limited knowledge.  Its 
founder was Themistius, a deacon in Alexandria in the 6th 
century.  The sect was anathematized by Gregory the Great. 

AGNOIOLOGY (from Gr. agnoi-a, ignorance), the science or 
study of ignorance, which determines its quality and conditions. 

AGNOSTICISM. The term ``agnostic'' was invented by Huxley 
in 1869 to describe the philosophical and religious attitude 
of those who hold that we can have scientific or real 
knowledge of phenomena only, and that so far as what may lie 
behind phenomena is concerned--God, immortality, &c.--there 
is no evidence which entitles us either to deny or aflirm 
anything.  The attitude itself is as old as Scepticism 
(q.v.); but the expressions ``agnostic'' and ``agnosticism'' 
were applied by Huxley to sum up his deductions from those 
contemporary developments of metaphysics with which the 
names of Hamilton (``the Unconditioned'') and Herbert Spencer 
(``the Unknowable'') were associated; and it is important, 
therefore, to fix precisely his own intellectual standpoint 
in the matter.  Though Huxley only began to use the term 
``agnostic'' in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time 
before that date.  In a letter to Charles Kingsley (September 
23, 1860) he wrote very fully concerning his beliefs:-- 

``I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man.  I 
see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, 
I have no means of disproving it.  I have no a priori 
objections to the doctrine.  No man who has to deal daily 
and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a priori 
difficulties.  Give me such evidence as would justify 
me in believing in anything else, and I will believe 
that.  Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the 
conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter. . . . 

``It is no use to talk to me of analogies and 
probabilities.  I know what I mean when I say I believe 
in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest 
my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. . . . 

``That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true.  
But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal 
subtleties.  I have champed up all that chaff about the ego 
and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, 
too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these 
questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth.'' 

And again, to the same correspondent, the 5th of May 1863:-- 

``I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons 
against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the 
greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel 
school.  Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, 
exactly what the Christian would call, and, so far as I can 
see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. l cannot 
see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown 
underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the 
relation of a Father--loves us and cares for us as Christianity 
asserts.  So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, 
immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, 
what possible objection can I--who am compelled perforce to 
believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, 
and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and 
punishments for our deeds--have to these doctrines? Give me 
a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them.'' 

Of the origin of the name ``agnostic'' to cover this attitude, 
Huxley gave (Coll.  Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account:-- 

``When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask 
myself whether I was an atheist, a theist or a pantheist, a 
materialist or an idealist, a Christian or a freethinker, I 
found that the more I learned and reflected, the less ready 
was the answer.  The one thing on which most of these good 
people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from 
them.  They were quite sure they had attained a certain 
`gnosis'--had more or less successfully solved the problem 
of existence; while I was quite sure that I had not, and had 
a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble.  
This was my situation when I had the good fortune to find a 
place among the members of that remarkable confraternity of 
antagonists, the Metaphysical Society.  Every variety of 
philosophical and theological opinion was represented there; 
most of my colleagues were -ists of one sort or another; and 
I, the man without a rag of a belief to cover himself with, could 
not fail to have some of the uneasy feelings which must have 
beset the historical fox when, after leaving the trap in which 
his tail remained, he presented himself to his normally elongated 
companions.  So I took thought, and invented what I conceived 
to be the appropriate title of `agnostic.' It came into my head 
as suggestively antithetic to the `gnostic' of Church history, 
who professed to know so much about the very things of which 
I was ignorant.  To my great satisfaction the term took.'' 

This account is confirmed by R. H. Hutton, who in 1881 wrote 
that the word ``was suggested by Huxley at a meeting held 
previous to the formation of the now defunct Metaphysical 
Society at Mr Knowles's house on Clapham Common in 1869, in my 
hearing.  He took it from St Paul's mention of the altar 
to the Unknown God.'' Hutton here gives a variant etymology 
for the word, which may be therefore taken as partly derived 
from agnostos (the ``unknown'' God), and partly from an 
antithesis to ``gnostic''; but the meaning remains the same 
in either case.  The name, as Huxley said, ``took''; it was 
constantly used by Hutton in the Spectator and became a 
fashionable label for contemporary unbelief in Christian 
dogma.  Hutton himself frequently misrepresented the doctrine 
by describing it as ``belief in an unknown and unknowable 
God''; but agnosticism as defined by Huxley meant not belief, 
but absence of belief, as much distinct from belief on the 
one hand as from disbelief on the other; it was the half-way 
house between the two, where all questions were ``open.'' All 
that Huxley asked for was evidence, either for or against; 
but this he believed it impossible to get.  Occasionally 
he too mis-stated the meaning of the word he had invented, 
and described agnosticism as meaning ``that a man shall not 
say he knows or believes what he has no scientific ground 
for professing to know or believe.'' But as the late Rev. 
A. W. Momerie remarked, this would merely be ``a definition 
of honesty; in that sense we ought all to be agnostics.'' 

Agnosticism really rests on the doctrine of the Unknowable, 
the assertion that concerning certain objects--among them 
the Deity--we never can have any ``scientific'' ground for 
belief.  This way of solving, or passing over, the ultimate 
problems of thought has had many followers in cultured circles 
imbued with the new physical science of the day, and with 
disgust for the dogmatic creeds of contemporary orthodoxy; and 
its outspoken and even aggressive vindication by physicists 
of the eminence of Huxley had a potent influence upon the 
attitude taken towards metaphysics, and upon the form which 
subsequent Christian apologetics adopted.  As a nickname 
the term ``agnostic'' was soon misused to cover any and 
every variation of scepticism, and just as popular preachers 
confused it with atheism (q.v.) in their denunciations, 
so the callow freethinker--following Tennyson's path of 
``honest doubt''--classed himself with the agnostics, even 
while he combined an instinctively Christian theism with a 
facile rejection of the historical evidences for Christianity. 

The term is now less fashionable, though the state of mind 
persists.  Huxley's agnosticism was a natural consequence of 
the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the 'sixties, 
when clerical intolerance was trying to excommunicate scientific 
discovery because it appeared to clash with the book of 
Genesis.  But as the theory of evolution was accepted, a new 
spirit was gradually introduced into Christian theology, which 
has turned the controversies between religion and science 
into other channels and removed the temptation to flaunt a 
disagreement.  A similar effect has been produced by the 
philosophical reaction against Herbert Spencer, and by 
the perception that the canons of evidence required in 
physical science must not be exalted into universal rules of 
thought.  It does not follow that justification by faith 
must be eliminated in spiritual matters where sight cannot 
follow, because the physicist's duty and success lie in 
pinning belief solely on verification by physical phenomena, 
when they alone are in question; and for mankind generally, 
though possibly not for an exceptional man like Huxley, an 
impotent suspension of judgment on such issues as a future 
life or the Being of God is both unsatisfying and demoralizing. 

It is impossible here to do more than indicate the path out 
of the difficulties raised by Huxley in the letter to Kingsley 
quoted above.  They involve an elaborate discussion, not 
only of Christian evidences, but of the entire subject-matter 
alike of Ethics and Metaphysics, of Philosophy as a whole, 
and of the philosophies of individual writers who have dealt 
in their different ways with the problems of existence and 
epistemology.  It is, however, permissible to point out that, 
as has been exhaustively argued by Professor J. Ward in his 
Gifford lectures for 1896-1898 (Naturalism and Agnosticism, 
1899), Huxley's challenge ( ``I know what I mean when I 
say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will 
not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions'') is 
one which a spiritualistic philosophy need not shrink from 
accepting at the hands of naturalistic agnosticism.  If, as 
Huxley admits, even putting it with unnecessary force against 
himself,``the immortality of man is not half so wonderful 
as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of 
matter,'' the question then is, how far a critical analysis 
of our belief in the last-named doctrines will leave us in 
a position to regard them as the last stage in systematic 
thinking.  It is the pitfall of physical science, immersed as 
its students are apt to be in problems dealing with tangible 
facts in the world of experience, that there is a tendency 
among them to claim a superior status of objective reality 
and finality for the laws to which their data are found to 
conform.  But these generalizations are not ultimate truths, 
when we have to consider the nature of experience itself. 
``Because reference to the Deity will not serve for a 
physical explanation in physics, or a chemical explanation 
in chemistry, it does not therefore follow,'' as Professor 
Ward says (op. cit. vol. i. p. 24), ``that the sum total 
of scientific knowledge is equally intelligible whether 
we accept the theistic hypothesis or not.  It is true that 
every item of scientific knowledge is concerned with some 
definite relation of definite phenomena, and with nothing 
else; but, for all that, the systematic organization of 
such items may quite well yield further knowledge, which 
transcends the special relations of definite phenomena.'' 

At the opening of the era of modern scientific discovery, 
with all its fruitful new generalizations, the still more 
highly generalized laws of epistemology and of the spiritual 
constitution of man might well baffle the physicist and lead 
his intellect to ``flounder.'' It is fundamentally necessary, 
in order to avoid such floundering, that the ``knowledge'' of 
things sensible should be kept distinct from the ``knowledge'' 
of things spiritual; yet in practice they are constantly 
confused.  When the physicist limits the term ``knowledge', 
to the conclusions from physical apprehensions, his refusal 
to extend it to conclusions from moral and spiritual 
apprehensions is merely the consequence of an illegitimate 
definition.  He relies on the validity of his perceptions of 
physical facts; but the saint and the theologian are no less 
entitled to rely on the validity of their moral and spiritual 
experiences.  In each case the data rest on an ultimate basis, 
undemonstrable, indeed to any one who denies them (even if he 
be called mad for doing so), except by the continuous process 
of working out their own proofs, and showing their consistency 
with, or necessity in, the scheme of things terrestrial on 
the one hand, or the mind and happiness of man on the other.  
The tests in each case differ; and it is as irrelevant for the 
theologian to dispute the ``knowledge'' of the physicist, by 
arguments from faith and religion, as it is for the physicist 
to deny the ``knowledge'' of the theologian from the point 
of view of one who ignores the possibility of spiritual 
apprehension altogether.  On the ground of secular history and 
secular evidence both might reasonably meet, as regards the 
facts, though not perhaps as to their interpretation; but the 
reason why they ultimately differ is to be found simply in 
the difference of their mental attitude towards the nature of 
``knowledge,'-itself a difference of opinion as to the nature of man. 

In addition to the literature cited above, see L. Stephen, An 
Agnostic's Apology (1893); R. Flint, Agnosticism (1903); T. 
Bailey Saunders, The Quest of Faith, chap. ii. (1899); A. W. Benn, 
English Rationalism in the XIXth Century (London, 1906). (H. CH.) 

AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical 
of the Saviour as the ``Lamb of God.'' The device is common 
in ecclesiastical art, but the name is especially given in 
the Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the 
Easter candles and impressed with this figure.  Since the 9th 
century it has been customary for the popes to bless these 
cakes, and distribute them on the Sunday after Easter among 
the faithful, by whom they are highly prized as having the 
power to avert evil.  In modern times the distribution has 
been limited to persons of distinction, and is made by the 
pope on his accession and every seven years thereafter. 

Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem beginning 
with these words, which is said to have been introduced 
into the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701).  Based upon 
John i. 29, the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata 
mundi, miserere nobis. In the celebration of the mass it 
is repeated three times before the communion, and it is also 
appended to many of the litanies.  By the judgment in the 
case of ``Read and others v. The Bishop of Lincoln'' it was 
decided in 1890 that the singing of the Agnus Dei in English 
by the choir during the administration of the Holy Communion, 
provided that the reception of the elements be not delayed 
till its conclusion, is not illegal in the Church of England. 

For the various ceremonies in the blessing of the Agnus 
Dei see A. Vacant, Dict. de theologie (cols. 605-613). 

AGOBARD (c. 779-840), Carolingian prelate and reformer, 
became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and 
on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (816).  We 
know nothing of his early life nor of his descent.  He pursued 
the same vigorous policy as his predecessor, who had been one 
of Charlemagne's most active agents in the reformation of the 
Church.  He was strongly opposed to the schemes of the 
empress Judith for a redivision of the empire in favour of 
her son Charles the Bald, Which he regarded as the cause of 
all the subsequent evils, and supported Lothair and Pippin 
against their father the emperor Louis I. Deposed in 835 by 
the council of Thionville, he made his peace with the emperor 
and was reinstated in 837. Agobard occupies an important 
place in the Carolingian renaissance.  He wrote extensively 
not only theological works but also political pamphlets and 
dissertations directed against popular superstitions.  These 
last works are unique in the literature of the time.  He 
denounced the trial by ordeal of fire and water, the belief 
in witchcraft, and the ascription of tempests to magic, 
maintained the Carolingian opposition to image-worship, but 
carried his logic farther and opposed the adoration of the 
saints.  The basis for this crusade was theological, not 
scientific; but it reveals a clear intellect and independent 
judgment In his purely theological works Agobard was strictly 
orthodox, except that he denied the verbal inspiration of the 
Scriptures.  Agobard was reverenced as a saint in Lyons, 
and although his canonization is disputed his life is 
given by the Bollandists, Acta Sanctorum, Jun. ii. 748. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Agobard's works were lost until 1605, when a 
manuscript was discovered in Lyons and published by Papirius 
Masson, again by Baluze in 1666.  For later editions see Potthast, 
Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi. The life of Agobard in 
Ebert's Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters (1880), Band 
ii., is still one the best to consult.  For further indications 
see A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France, i. p. 235. 

AGONALIA, in ancient Rome, festivals celebrated on the 
9th of January, 17th of March, 21st of May, and 11th of 
December in each year in honour of various divinities (Ovid, 
Fasti, i. 319-332).  The word is derived either from 
agonia, ``a victim,'' or from agonium, ``a festival.'' 

AGONIC LINES (from Gr. a-, privative, and gonia, an 
angle), the term given to the imaginary lines on the earth's 
surface connecting points at which the magnetic needle points to 
the geographical north and south. (See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.) 

AGONOTHETES, in ancient Greece, the president or superintendent 
of the sacred games.  At first the person who instituted the 
games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; but in 
the great public games, such as the Olympic and Pythian, these 
presidents were the representatives of different states, or 
were chosen from the people in whose country the games were 
celebrated; thus at the Panathenaic festival at Athens ten 
athlothetae were elected for four years to superintend the 
various contests.  They were variously called aisumnetai, 
brabeutai, agonarchai, agonodikai, athlothetai (at Athens), 
eabdouchoi or eabdonomoi (from the rod or sceptre emblematic 
of their authority), but their functions were generally the same. 

AGORA, originally, in primitive times, the assembly of the 
Greek people, convoked by the king or one of his nobles.  The 
right of speech and vote was restricted to the nobles, the 
people being permitted to express their opinion only by signs 
of applause or disapproval.  The word then came to be used 
for the place where assemblies were held, and thus from its 
convenience as a meeting-place the agora became in most of the 
cities of Greece the general resort for public and especially 
commercial intercourse, corresponding in general with the Roman 
forum.  At Athens, with the increase of commerce and political 
interest, it was found advisable to call public meetings 
at the Pnyx or the temple of Dionysus; but the important 
assemblies, such as meetings for ostracism, were held in the 
agora.  In the best days of Greece the agora was the place 
where nearly all public traffic was conducted.  It was most 
frequented in the forenoon, and then only by men.  Slaves 
did the greater part of the purchasing, though even the 
noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple to buy and sell 
there.  Citizens were allowed a free market; foreigners 
and metics had to pay a toll.  Public festivals also were 
celebrated in the open area of the agora.  At Athens the 
agora of classical times was adorned with trees planted by 
Cimon; around it numerous public buildings were erected, 
such as the council chamber and the law courts (for its 
topography, see ATHENS.) Pausanias (especially vi. 24) is 
the great architectural authority on the agorae of various 
Greek cities, and details are also given by Vitruvius (v. 1). 

AGORACRITUS, a Parian and Athenian sculptor of the age of 
Phidias, and said to have been his favourite pupil.  His 
most noted work was the statue at Rhamnus of Nemesis, by some 
attributed to Phidias himself.  Of this statue part of the 
head is in the British Museum; some fragments of the reliefs 
which adorned the pedestal are in the museum at Athens. 

AGORANOMI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose 
position and duties were in many respects similar to those 
of the aediles of Rome.  In Athens there were ten, chosen 
annually by lot, five of whom took charge of the city and 
five of the Peiraeus.  They maintained order in the markets, 
settled disputes, examined the quality of the articles 
exposed for sale, tested weights and measures, collected 
the harbour dues and enforced the shipping regulations. 

AGORDAT, a town of Eritrea, N.E. Africa, on the route between 
Massawa and Kassala.  At Agordat on the 21st of December 1893 
the Italian troops under Colonel Arimondi inflicted a severe 
defeat on the followers of the khalifa.  Agordat is protected 
by a strong fort. (See ERITREA and SUDAN, History.) 

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO, Italian antiquary of the 17th century, was 
born at Siena.  After being employed for some time to collect 
works of art for the Barberini palace, he was appointed by 
Pope Alexander VII. superintendent of antiquities in the Roman 
states.  He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian 
Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens; and 
in conjunction with Giovanni Bellori (1615-1696) he also 
published a work on antique sculptured gems, which was 
translated into Latin by Jakob Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1685). 

AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629), 
Italian musician, was born at Valerano, and studied under G. B. 
Nanini, as we learn from the dedication in the third and fourth 
books of his masses, subsequently becoming the son-in-law of his 
master.  He succeeded Ugolini as conductor of the pope's orchestra 
in St. Peter's.  His musical compositions are numerous and of great 
merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being specially admired. 

AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or ANGELO) DA SIENA, Italian 
architects and sculptors in the first half of the 14th 
century.  Della Valle and other commentators deny that they were 
brothers.  They certainly studied together under Giovanni 
Pisano, and in 1317 were jointly appointed architects 
of their native town, for which they designed the Porto 
Romana, the church and convent of St Francis, and other 
buildings.  On the recommendation of the celebrated Giotto, 
who styled them the best sculptors of the time, they executed 
in 1330 the tomb of Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of 
Arezzo, which Giotto had designed.  It was esteemed one of the 
finest artistic works of the 14th century, but unfortunately 
was destroyed by the French under the duke of Anjou. 

AGOULT, MARIE CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNY, COMTESSE D' 
(1805-1876), French author, whose nom de plume was ``Daniel 
Stern,'' was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 31st of December 
1805.  Her father was a French officer who had served in 
the army of the emigrant princes, and her mother was the 
daughter of a Frankfort banker.  She was married in 1827 
to the comte Charles d'Agoult.  In Paris she gathered 
round her a brilliant society which included Alfred de 
Vigny, Sainte-Beuve, Ingres, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Heine and 
others.  She was separated from her husband, and became the 
mistress of Franz Liszt.  During her frequent travels in 
Switzerland, France and Italy she made the acquaintance of 
George Sand, and figures in the Lettres d'un voyageur 
as'`Arabella.'' By Liszt she had three children--a son who 
died young; Blandine, who married M. Emile Ollivier; and 
Cosima, who married first Hans von Bulow and later Richard 
Wagner.  The story of her breach with Liszt is told under a 
very slight disguise in her novel Nelida (1845).  On her 
return to Paris in 1841 she began to write art criticisms for 
the Presse, and in 1844 she contributed to the Revue des 
deux Mondes articles on Bettina von Arnim and on Heinrich 
Heine, but her views were not acceptable to the editor, and 
Daniel Stern withdrew to become a contributor to the Revue 
independante. Mme. d'Agoult was an ardent apostle of the 
ideas of' 48, and from this date her salon, which had 
been literary and artistic, took on a more political tone; 
revolutionists of various nationalities were welcomed by her, 
and she had an especial friendship and sympathy for Daniele 
Manin.  In 1857 she produced a national drama, Jeanne 
Darc, which was translated into Italian and presented with 
brilliant success at Turin.  The most important section of 
Daniel Stern's work is her political and historical essays: 
Lettres republicaines (1848), Esquisses morales et 
politiques (1849), Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 
(3 vols., 1850-1853), Histoire des commencements de la 
Republique aux Pays-Bas (1872).  Mme. d'Agoult died in Paris 
on the 5th of March 1876.  Her daughter Claire Christine (b. 
1830), who married Guy de Charnace, is known as a writer. 

See Mme. d'Agoult, Mes Souvenirs (1806-1833), 1877; A. 
Cuvillier Fleury, Portraits revolutionnaires, vol. i. 
(1889); J. Mazzini, Lettres de Joseph Mazzini a Daniel 
Stern (1872): A. Pommier, Madame la comtesse d'Agoult 
(Daniel Stern), 1876; A. Ungherini, ``Daniel Stern'' in the 
Revista repubblicana (1880, No. 9); S. Rocheblave, Une 
Amitie romanesque, George Sand et Madame d'Agoult (1895). 

AGOUTI, or AGUTI, the West Indian name of Dasyprocta 
aguti, a terrestrial rodent of the size of a rabbit, common 
to Trinidad and Guiana, and classed in the family Caviidae. 
Under the same term may be included the other species of 
Dasyprocta, of which there are about half a score in tropical 
America.  Agoutis are slender-limbed rodents, with five front 
and three hind toes (the first front toe very minute), and very 
short tails.  The hair, especially on the hind-quarters, is 
coarse and somewhat rough; the colour being generally rufous 
brown.  The molar teeth have cylindrical crowns, with several 
islands and a single lateral fold of enamel when worn.  In 
habits agoutis are nocturnal, dwelling in forests, where 
they conceal themselves during the day in hollow tree-trunks, 
or in burrows among roots.  Active and graceful in their 
movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series 
of springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a 
gallop.  They take readily to water, in which they swim well.  
Their food comprises leaves, roots, nuts and other fruits.  
They do much harm to plantations of sugar-cane and bananas.  In 
captivity the females produce only one or two young at a birth. 

AGRA, an ancient city of India, which gives its name to 
a district and division in the United Provinces.  It is 
famous for containing the most perfect specimens of Mogul 
architecture.  Agra, like Delhi, owes much of its importance 
in both historical and modern times to the Commercial and 
strategical advantages of its position.  The river Jumna, 
which washes the walls of its fort, was the natural highway 
for the traffic of the rich delta of Bengal to the heart of 
India, and it formed, moreover, from very ancient times, the 
frontier defence of the Aryan stock settled in the plain between 
the Ganges and the Jumna against their western neighbours, 
hereditary freebooters who occupied the highlands of Central 
India.  No place was better fitted for both an emporium and 
a frontier fortress.  The river formed an unfordable barrier 
and also a useful means of communication.  Jehangir tells us 
in his autobiography that before his father Akbar built the 
present fort, the town was defended by a citadel of great 
antiquity.  For three hundred years the Afghans and other 
tribes came down from the north and founded kingdoms; and 
their power radiated from Delhi and Agra.  It was Sikandar, 
of the house of Lodi (A.D. 1500), the last of the Afghan 
dynasties, who realized the strategic importance of Agra as 
a point for keeping in check his rebellious vassals to the 
south.  He removed his court there, and Agra from being ``a mere 
village of old standing,'' says a Persian chronicler, became 
the capital of a kingdom.  In 1526 the city was captured by the 
emperor Baber, the famous Koh-i-noor diamond being part of the 
loot; and it was here that Baber announced that his invasion 
was to be a permanent conquest, and not a mere temporary 
inroad.  It was Baber's grandson Akbar that built the present 
fort, whose strong and lofty walls of red sandstone are a mile 
and a,half in circumference.  The building was completed in 
1665, when Charles II. was on the throne of England and the 
plague was devastating London.  Another building of much the 
same date is the red stone palace generally attributed to Akbar, 
but probably of an earlier time, which is the finest example 
of pure Hindu architecture; while the Moti Masjid, or Pearl 
Mosque, is an equally perfect example of the Mahommedan style. 

But the glory of Agra, the most splendidly poetic building in the 
world, is the Taj Mahal, the mausoleum built (A.D. 1632) by 

Taj Mahal. 

the emperor Shah Jahan for the remains of his favourite wife, 
Mumtaz Manal, in which he himself also also lies buried.  The 
building is of white marble throughout, crowned with a great 
white dome in the centre, and with a smaller dome at each of 
its four corners.  From the marble terrace which surrounds 
it rise four tall minarets of the same material, one at each 
corner.  The Taj has been modelled and painted more frequently 
than any other building in the world, and the word pictures of 
it are numberless.  But it can only be described as a dream in 
marble.  It amply justifies the saying that the Moguls 
designed like Titans and finished like jewellers.  In regard 
to colour and design the Taj ranks first in the world for 
purely decorative workmanship; while the perfect symmetry of 
its exterior once seen can never be forgotten, nor the aerial 
grace of its domes, rising like marble bubbles into the azure 
sky.  In his History of Architecture, Fergusson says of it:-- 

``This building is an early example of that system of inlaying 
with precious stones which became the great characteristic 
of the style of the Moghals aftrer the death of Akbar.  All 
the spandrils of the Taj, all the angles and more important 
architectural details, are heightened by being inlaid with 
precious stones such as agates, bloodstones, jaspers and the 
like.  These are combined in wreaths, scrolls and frets, 
as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour, and 
relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, 
they form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament 
ever adopted in architecture. 1t is lavishly bestowed on 
the tombs themselves and the screens which surround them, 
but more sparingly introduced on the mosque that forms 
one wing of the Taj, and on the fountains and surrounding 
buildings.  The judgment, indeed, with which this style of 
ornament is apportioned to the various parts, is almost as 
remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea 
of the taste and skill of the architects of this age.'' 

Of the Taj as a whole Lord Roberts says in his Forty-one Years in India:-- 

``Neither words nor pencil could give to the most imaginative reader 
the slightest idea of the all-satisfying beauty and purity of this 
glorious conception.  To those who have not already seen it I would 
say, `Go to India.  The Taj alone is well worth the journey.''' 

The Taj was designed by Ustad Isa, variously described as a 
Byzantine Turk and a native of Shiraz in Persia.  The pietra 
dura work belongs to the Persian school and the common 
belief that it was designed by Austin de Bordeaux, a French 
architect in the service of Shah Jahan, is probably incorrect. 

Agra was formerly the capital of the North-West Provinces, 
but after the Mutiny the seat of government was removed to 
Allahabad.  Situated 841 m. from Calcutta it is now an important 
railway centre, whence two main lines diverge southwards towards 
Bombay.  In 1901 the population was 188,022, showing an increase 
of 12% during the decade.  The city contains cotton mills, 
factories for ginning and pressing cotton, a tannery and boot 
factory and flour mill.  There are also two missionary colleges. 

The DISTRICT OF AGRA has an area of 1856 sq. m.  Its general 
appearance is that common to the Doab, a level plain intersected 
by watercourses and ravines.  Its general elevation is estimated 
at from 650 to 700 ft. above the level of the sea.  The district 
is intersected by the Jumna, and is also watered by the Agra 
canal.  The principal crops are millets, pulses, barley, 
wheat, cotton and a little indigo.  The population in 1901 
was 1,060,528, showing an increase of 6% during the decade. 

The DIVISION OF AGRA has an area of 10,154 sq. m.  In 
1901 the population was 5,249,542, showing an increase 
of 10% during the decade, attributed to the extension of 
irrigation from canals.  It comprises the six districts 
of Muttra, Agra, Farukhabad, Mainpuri, Etawah and Etah. 

For an account of the architecture of Agra see Fergusson's 
History of Architecture; Cities of India (1903) by G. W. Forest; 
Enchanted India (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch; 
and E. B. Havelln, Handbook to Agra and the Taj (1904). 

AGRA CANAL, an important Indian irrigation work, available 
also for navigation, in Delhi, Gurgaon, Muttra and Agra 
districts, and Bharatpur state.  The canal receives its 
water from the Jumna river at Okia, about 10 m. below 
Delhi.  The weir across the Jumna was the first attempted 
in Upper India upon a foundation of fine sand; it is about 
800 yds. long, and rises 7 ft. above the summer level of the 
river.  From Okla the canal follows the high land between 
the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally joins the Banganga 
river about 20 m. below Agra.  Navigable branches connect 
the canal with Muttra and Agra.  It was opened in 1874. 

AGRAM (Hungarian Zagrab, Croatian Zagreb), the capital of 
Croatia-Slavonia, and a royal free town of Hungary; pleasantly 
situated between the north bank of the Save and the mountains 
which culminate in Sljeme (3396 ft.); 187 m. by rail S. of 
Vienna.  Pop. (1890) 38,742; (1900) 57,930, or with garrison 
61,002.  Agram is the seat of the ban, or viceroy, of 
Croatia-Slavonia, of the Banal and Septemviral courts, the 
highest in the land, and of a chamber of commerce.  It is also 
the meeting-place of the parliament; but local affairs are 
conducted by a municipal council.  The city is divided into three 
districts.  The Kapitel-Stadt, sometimes called the Bishop's 
Town, with the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop, and 
his late Gothic cathedral, dating from the 15th century, lies 
eastward of the Medvescak, a brook which flows into the 
Save.  The Upper Town, on high ground west of the 
Medvescak, contains the palace of the ban and the natural 
history museum.  On the south, the Lower Town is separated 
from the other districts by the Inca, a long street traversed 
by a cable tramway.  In it are the business and industrial 
quarters; the palace of justice; the academy of science, with 
picture-galleries, a library and a collection of antiquities; 
the theatre; the Franz Josef University, founded in 1874 to 
teach theology, law and philosophy; the synagogue; and the 
only Protestant church existing in the country at the beginning 
of the 20th century.  Roman Catholic churches and schools are 
numerous.  Besides the large Maximir park and botanical 
gardens, many of the squares are planted with trees and adorned 
with statues; while the whole city is surrounded by vineyards 
and country houses.  Tobacco, leather, linen, carpets and 
war-material are manufactured in Agram, which also contains 
the works of the Hungarian state railways, and has a brisk 
trade in grain, wine, potash, honey, silk and porcelain. 

In 1094 Agram was founded by Ladislaus I. of Hungary, as the 
seat of a bishop; and on the expulsion of its Mongol colony, 
in 1242, it was raised to the rank of a royal free city.  
For centuries a bitter feud raged between the Kapitel-Stadt 
and the Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to join 
hands against the Turks.  Agram, already the political 
centre of Croatia-Slavonia, was selected as the capital in 
1867.  It suffered severely from earthquake in 1880 and 1901. 

AGRAPHA (i.e. ``unwritten''), the name given to certain 
utterances ascribed, with some degree of certainty, to 
Jesus, which have been preserved in documents other than 
the Gospels, e.g. Acts xx. 35; 1 Tim. v. 18; 1 Cor. vii. 
10-12, and the Logia (q.v.) discovered in 1897 and 1903 at 
Oxyrhyncus.  Two interesting examples of such sayings may 
be quoted: (1) ``That which is weak shall be saved by that 
which is strong''; (2) ``Jesus, on whom be peace, has said: 
`The world is merely a bridge; ye are to pass over it, 
and not to build your dwellings upon it.''' The first of 
these is from the Apostolic Canons (c. A.D. 300), the 
second was found by the missionary Alexander Duff inscribed 
in Arabic on the gateway of the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri. 

The earliest modern collection of such sayings was by 
Cotelerius, Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta (1677-1688), followed 
by J. E. Grabe, Spicelegium (1698 and 1700), and J. B. 
Fabricius, Codex Apocryph. N. T. (2nd ed., 1719).  See 
also A. Resch, Agrapha (Leipzig, 1889); J. H. Ropes, Die 
Spruche Jesu (Leipzig, 1896); and the article ``Sayings'' 
in J. Hastings' Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 

AGRARIAN LAWS (Lat. ager, land).  Under this heading we deal 
with the disposal of the public land (ager publicus) of ancient 
Rome.  It was a principle of the Republican constitution 
that no gratuitous disposition of state property should be 
made without the consent of the people.  Hence many of the 
ordinances affecting the public land were laws (leges) 
in the strictest sense of that word.  It is, however, both 
justifiable and convenient to consider in this article all 
the regulations that were made for the administration of 
the public land by the executive authorities, as well as by 
the people during the Republic, and by the commands of the 
emperor, which had the force of law during the Principate. 

The existence of public land, first in Italy, and then 
in the Mediterranean world, was the outcome of two ideas 
which are very familiar to students of antiquity.  This 
land was the prize of conquest and was one of the means of 
defraying the current expenses of state-administration.  
For the latter purpose land is often leased or allowed to 
be occupied on the condition of the payment of dues.  But it 
may be made to fulfil another purpose as well--this purpose 
being the satisfaction of the individual needs of poorer 
citizens.  To meet this object the land is usually assigned, 
and on assignment generally ceases to be the property of the 
state.  But it often happens that the state is not wholly 
disinterested in undertaking such acts of assignment.  It 
gains security and territorial control by planting garrisons 
in conquered country, and it relieves itself of the necessity 
of providing for its poorer classes whether by state-aid 
or by a hazardous tampering with the rights of private 
property.  In this use to which public land could be turned 
we see at once the connexion between agrarian legislation 
and colonization--a connexion which was so close that 
when a Roman spoke of an agrarian law he seems generally 
to have understood by it a law establishing a colony--and 
also the two aspects of colonization, the military and the 
social.  These two objects were indissolubly connected 
throughout the whole of the earlier period of Roman agrarian 
assignation.  They only became separated in the period subsequent 
to the Gracchi in so far as social motives still continued 
to be operative when military precautions had ceased to be 
necessary.  It is probable that one of the chief motives 
which prompted infant Rome to war with her neighbours was 
the land-hunger of her citizens.  This hunger she satisfied 
after conquest by annexing a portion of the enemy's 
territory.  The amount thus confiscated varied from time to 
time.  It was usually a third, but sometimes a half or even 
two-thirds, and after the fall of Capua in the Second Punic 
War the whole territory of the state was annexed.  It is 
possible that by the close of the 2nd century B.C. one-half 
of the land of Italy belonged to Rome whether in private 
ownership or as the property of the state.  Annexation was 
carried on in the provinces on a relatively smaller scale: 
but Rome retained as domain-land much of the territory of 
communities which had been destroyed, such as Carthage and 
Corinth, and the estates of former kings, such as the lands 
of the Attalids in the Chersonese.  Other domains in Sicily 
and Greece, such as the territory of Leontini in the former, 
or Oropus in the latter case, are also found.  This peculiar 
property of the Roman state in the provinces must be carefully 
distinguished from the general overlordship which Rome was 
supposed to hold over all provincial soil, expressed in the 
statement that provincials had only possession or usufruct 
of their land (Gaius ii. 7; Gromatici, p. 36, Lachmann).  
This overlordship was probably merely a legal fiction by which 
the juristic mind assigned a reason for the fact that the 
provincials paid a land tax from which Italians were exempt. 

Such portions of the territories of conquered cities as were 
not claimed by Rome were as a matter of course left in the 
undisturbed possession of these cities.  If the city was 
a federate state (civitas foederata), his possession was 
guaranteed by a treaty; if it was a free city, the guarantee 
was made by charter; if it was neither federate nor free, the 
abandonment of the territory by Rome must have been taken as a 
sufficient guarantee of the city's right to possess, although 
statements relative to the surrender may have been contained 
in the charter of the province (lex provinciae) to which 
the city belonged.  But, whether the states were federate, 
free or stipendiary, there was only one case in which it was 
important to specify precisely that land had been restored 
(redditus) to its former occupants.  This was the case where 
Rome had marked out a territory for assignment to her own 
citizens, but where in or near the limits of the assignment 
some of the land had been left in the hands or its former 
proprietors.  Such land was noted in the state registers as 
redditus veteri possessori. Sometimes it was found that such 
an ancient possessor owned pieces of land separated from one 
another.  In such cases an exchange might be effected between 
him and some other possessor, so that his possessions might be 
continuous.  The fact of such an exchange was symbolized in the 
registers by the entry of land redditus et commutatus pro suo. 

When the claims of earlier owners had been satisfied, the 
state proceeded to deal with such land as it retained.  It 
dealt with it in two ways.  It either alienated it, whether 
in exchange for a price or gratuitously; or it kept it as a 
source of revenue, whether on a system of lease or on some 
system of remunerative occupation.  We may first consider 
the cases in which the state decided to alienate.  The land 
might be sold for the benefit of the treasury.  Typical 
instances of this treatment are furnished by the sale of 
some Campanian land during the Second Punic War (Livy xxviii. 
46, xxxii. 7). The censors may have directed the sale, but 
it was executed by the quaestors as the regular officials 
of the treasury.  Hence such land was described as ager 
quaestorius. The land was sold in definitely marked out 
plots, and we must suppose that, as a rule, when this sale 
had been effected, the lots fell under the absolute ownership 
of their purchasers.  Yet there was some period of Roman 
history when this ownership was (at least in certain cases) 
conditioned.  The Roman writers on agriculture speak of 
conditions and their neglect (Gromatici, p. 115).  The 
conditions were probably those of military service or frontier 
defence.  The epoch of history at which this conditioned 
ownership was recognized cannot be determined.  It is a form 
of tenure that would be equally appropriate to the needs of the 
earliest period of Roman history and to those of imperial times. 

The second mode of alienation was that by assignation.  Lands 
thus assigned were known as agri dati assignati. The gift 
on the part of the state was gratuitous, and ownership passed 
wholly to the assignee.  The land so given was definitely 
surveyed, marked out and registered.  Such an assignment 
might take one of two possible forms.  It might be the 
means of establishing a new ``plantation'' (colonia), with 
some independent political organization of its own, however 
slight--a settlement, therefore, which could be thought of as 
an entity separate from the city of Rome and from any other 
municipality.  Or it might be the means of providing allotments 
for individuals who remained domiciled at Rome or continued 
to be members of some already existing municipality.  It has 
been frequently held in modern times that this latter method of 
assignment is the one which our ancient authorities describe as 
assignment to individuals (viritim), and that the antithesis 
lies between the ``colonial'' and the ``viritane'' method of 
distribution.  It is true that the passages which speak of 
the latter mode of assignation need not, and perhaps cannot, 
be interpreted as presenting the antithesis (Varro, de Re 
Rustica, i. 2. 7, i. 10. 2; Livy iv. 48, v. 24; Festus, p. 
373; Gromatici, pp. 154, 160); yet it is not improbable 
that the antithesis is latent in this specific use of the 
term.  It seems clear that the idea of assignation to, and, 
therefore, of ownership by, individuals must originally have 
been developed in contrast to the idea of ownership by some 
larger group (see ROMAN LAW).  When the stage of individual 
ownership was reached, all assignation was ``viritane,'' but 
only some assignation was ``colonial.'' ``Viritane'' was, 
therefore, the wider term which would cover, and may sometimes 
have been used specially to denote, the system of non-colonial 
assignment.  The amount granted to individuals in assignments 
of both types varied from time to time.  It was reckoned in 
terms of the jugerum, which was approximately  5/8 of an English 
acre.  The earliest and smallest assignment was 2 jugera--an 
amount so small that it seems to presuppose on the part of 
the recipient some share in common or gentile property or 
some additional private property of his own.  Other quotas 
were 3, 3  7/12, 7, 10 + 14 jugera. The last was the maximum 
amount granted before the time of Ti. Gracchus (133 B.C.), 
and it was held by representatives of the old school that 
7 jugera were as much as any frugal Roman should want 
(Pliny, Historia Naturalis, xviii. 18). The division was 
carried out by commissions of 3, 5 or 10 men appointed by 
the people (Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii. 7. 17). The land 
which the state retained as ager publicus was always placed 
in the hands of individuals, who occupied it in some manner 
remunerative to the state.  These individuals (possessores) 
were never regarded as owners of the land thus occupied.  
It remained the property of the state, was held without a 
contract (precario) and could be resumed by the state at 
will.  But though the possessors had no claim against the 
state, their ownership could be defended against all other 
individual claimants; and it seems probable that from an 
early date the praetor's possessory interdict was used 
to protect all occupiers, provided their tenure had been 
acquired neither by force (vi) nor by seizure of land in 
its occupiers, absence (clam), nor by mere permission of 
the previous holder to occupy (precario alter ab altero.) 
Moreover, Appian says that possessors of this type could 
transfer their land by inheritance, and that the land was 
accepted as security by creditors.  This kind of occupation, 
therefore, though clearly distinguished from ownership 
(dominium), was yet regarded as a perfectly secure form of 
tenure.  All occupiers of public land paid dues to the state 
through a state contractor (publicanus.) These dues varied 
in amount, and in the method of their collection.  We learn 
from Appian that the ordinary dues paid by occupiers of 
arable land in Italy were  1/10 of seed crops and  1/5 of plant 
produce.  Owners who turned cattle or sheep on pasture 
land belonging to the state also paid fixed dues to the 
treasury.  The occupiers of the Roman public land in Campania 
paid a large rent (Cic. de leg.  Agr. i. 7. 21). Appian's 
account of the public land (Bell. Civ. i. 7) would lead 
us to suppose that the amount of tax paid by the occupier, 
and the method adopted by the state for the collection of the 
revenues, depended upon the nature of the land at the time 
when it first passed to a possessor. He says that some of 
the public land which was in a good state of cultivation was 
let on lease; but that with regard to the poor or devastated 
land proclamation was made that anyone might squat on it and 
till it in return for the small payment in kind mentioned 
above.  It has been questioned whether the land described by 
Appian and by Cicero as let on lease, of which the Campanian 
land and some lands in Sicily are typical, represents a legally 
distinct class.  It seems probable that the distinction is 
one of practice rather than of law, and that the difference 
lay not in the relation between the state and the possessor 
(as would be the case if the leased land were really let to 
individuals by the censor, while the occupied land was held 
by mere permission of the state without any contract) but 
in the details of the contract between the censor and the 
publicanus with regard to the collection of the dues.  The 
conditions of the tenure of the Roman public land in Africa 
are known to us from the Lex Agraria of 111 B.C. (Bruns, 
Fontes, i. 3. 11, vv. 85 foll.).  Here the publicanus 
is the middleman between the state and the possessor, and 
purchases from the censor the right of collecting dues.  The 
law places no restriction on bargaining between the censor and 
the publicanus, but enacts that no possessor or pastor 
shall ever be required by the publicanus to pay more than the 
amount prescribed by the censors of 115 B.C. These conditions 
may be regarded as typical for the occupation of public 
lands.  And when Cicero speaks of public land as let on lease 
(locatus) by the censor, he no doubt refers to the farming 
of the taxes to a publicanus for a fixed period, and not 
to the letting of the land.  This seems clear from a passage 
(in Verr. iii. 6. 12) where he speaks of land in Sicily 
which had been restored by Rome to former owners as being 
leased.  The land itself could not be leased by Rome if it 
belonged not to Rome but to the Sicilian inhabitants; but the 
collection of the revenues due to Rome could be so leased to 
Publicani (q.v..) And the same explanation would apply to 
Cicero's statements that the Campanian land was let on lease 
by the censors (cf. Festus, s.v. venditiones.) The view 
that there was a distinct class of the public land which was 
let out for a fixed term of years to tenants on a definite 
lease, unlike the ordinary public land which was always held 
in occupation merely at will (precario), has been maintained 
by W. A. Becker, and seems to be supported, with the help 
of conjecture, by a few passages in Cicero and by Hyginus 
(Gromatici, p. 116).  But the passage of Hyginus is barely 
intelligible even on this supposition; and Cicero's repeated 
statement that the Campanian land was expressly exempted from 
the legislation of the Gracchi (cf. Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. 
cit. v. 6) shows that there was not sufficient distinction 
between the Campanian tenure and that of other public land in 
Italy to make this definite exception by name superfluous.  
The Sempronian law could obviously not touch land which the 
state had leased to occupiers on the basis of a definite 
contract.  Moreover, we have absolutely no evidence for such a 
contract, even in Cicero's speeches against Rullus, when he 
might be expected to mention it as an objection to Rullus's 
bill.  That there were some distinctive characteristics 
about the tenure of certain lands, of which the Campanian 
land is typical, seems proved by the repeated association 
of these lands with certain special lands in the provinces, 
especially at Leontini in Sicily, and by some passages in the 
Gromatici where agri vectigales are spoken of as a distinct 
class.  But what these characteristics were cannot be clearly 
determined.  It seems certain that in every case the 
possessor occupied precario, and that only in the bargain 
between the censor and the middleman was there room for 
contract.  Thus the state was justified in the claim to 
resume public land which it made in many of the Agrarian laws. 

The earliest agrarian measures of which we have any record are 
the distributions of land conquered in war to poor citizens, 
which later authorities attribute to Numa and Servius Tullius.  
Such assignments, however, are not the result of legislative 
acts, but of a voluntary surrender on the king's part of his 
own portion of the spoils.  It is probable that the agrarian 
law which resulted from the proposals of Spurius Cassius 
(consul 486 B.C.) was the first attempt made by the Roman 
people to exercise its control over the occupation of state 
territory.  According to the traditional account, Cassius 
proposed that such portion of lands lately conquered from 
the Hernici as fell to the Roman state should be divided 
in equal shares between the Roman plebs and the Latins; 
and further that poor citizens should receive allotments of 
land previously conquered, and occupied without any legal 
right by the Patricians.  The inclusion of the Latins in 
the distribution was afterwards dropped; but the law in its 
final form certainly asserted the right of the Plebeians 
to take their share in the public land.  The accounts given 
of it by Livy and Dionysius are no doubt coloured by their 
knowledge of later agrarian legislation, and it seems hardly 
likely that the proposal to resume and redistribute public 
land already occupied was made at this early stage; but it 
probably challenged the exclusive claim of Patricians to 
occupy.  We hear of another agrarian law proposed by the 
tribune Lucius Icilius in 456 B.C. (Lex Icilia de Aventino 
publicando) which regulated in some way the tenure of public 
land on the Aventine.  In 376 B.C. the tribunes Licinius 
and Sextius introduced into their laws, for the promotion 
of the privileges of the plebs, a clause enacting that no 
more than 500 jugera of land should be occupied by a single 
cultivator.  It seems almost certain from Livy's account 
that this measure referred only to the occupation of ager 
publicus, though some modern authorities have upheld the 
view that it dealt with land held on any kind of tenure, 
others again that it dealtonlywith private property in 
land.  According to Appian, the law also enacted that only 100 
cattle and 500 sheep might be turned by one owner on the public 
pastures.  But it failed of its object because it did not 
provide any adequate machinery for the resumption by the 
state of land held in excess of the prescribed amount, and 
was therefore easily evaded.  The next agrarian law we hear 
of was a more special measure dealing with lands conquered 
from the Senones and Picentines.  In 232 B.C. C. Flaminius, 
then tribune of the plebs, proposed to resume these lands 
for the state, although they were already occupied by large 
landholders, and to distribute them in allotments to poor 
citizens.  The measure met with much opposition from the 
richer classes, and did not gain the sanction of the senate; 
but C. Flaminius ignored constitutional usage and brought it 
direct before the council of the plebs, by which it was made 
law.  In 133 B.C. the tribune Tiberius Gracchus (q.v.) 
re-enacted the earlier measure of Licinius and Sextius, with 
the additional provisions that each owner might occupy 250 
jugera for each son, in addition to the original 500, and that 
a commission of three (iii. viri agris dandis adsignandis) 
should be appointed to carry out the terms of the law.  He 
also enacted that the land occupied in excess of the prescribed 
amount, and on that account resumed for the state by the land 
commission, should be distributed in inalienable lots to poor 
citizens.  Subsequent modifications of those provisions 
which dealt with the powers of the land commission led to 
a re-enactment of the whole by C. Gracchus, the brother of 
Tiberius, tribune in 123 B.C. But within 15 years from 
the tribunate of C. Gracchus the whole of his law had been 
rendered null by three further enactments.  The first of these 
permitted the sale of land allotted under the law, which thus 
tended to return into the hands of its former occupiers as 
private property, which the state had no longer any right to 
resume.  The second abolished the commission appointed to 
carry out the terms of the law, thus putting a stop to further 
resumption and distribution, and also transformed existing 
occupiers into owners of the land they occupied, paying 
only a small due to the treasury.  The third (probably the 
surviving Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit.) abolished the 
payment.  This law belongs to the year 111 B.C. The dates 
of the two former laws are uncertain, but it is probable that 
the first was passed in 121, the second in 119 or 118. From 
this time forward a change comes over land legislation.  The 
ordinary public land in Italy, in the hands of occupiers, 
which had given rise to all the agrarian legislation between 
376 and 111, had practically ceased to exist.  The Campanian 
land still remained, but the same reasons which led to its 
exemption from the Gracchan legislation seem to have continued 
to protect its holders until 63 B.C. In the meantime several 
agrarian laws were passed which provided for the distribution 
of land placed in some other way at the disposal of the 
state.  In 100 B.C. Appuleius Saturninus (q.v.), tribune 
of the plebs, proposed the allotment of lands recently taken 
from the Cimbri in Gaul.  This law was passed, but eventually 
declared null by the senate, with the rest of Saturninus's 
laws.  A more dangerous precedent was set by Sulla in his 
dictatorship (82-81 B.C..) He was the first to confiscate 
the lands of his political foes, and of communities which had 
resisted him, and treating them as ager publicus, assign 
them to his veterans as a prize.  This example was followed 
by Octavian (Augustus) and Antony (M. Antonius) after their 
proscriptions in 43 B.C. A third method of providing land 
for distribution was that adopted by Servilius Rullus (q.v.) 
in 63 B.C. His bill enacted that land should be purchased 
in Italy with money gained by the sale of Roman territories 
abroad, and allotted to citizens.  A commission of ten (x. 
viri agris dandis adsignandis), annually elected by 9 
out of the 35 tribes, was to carry out the terms of the 
law.  Rullus also ventured to propose the distribution of the 
Campanian land, which had hitherto been respected by all agrarian 
reformers.  It was chiefly on this ground that Cicero in 
his three speeches on the Agrarian law succeeded in exciting 
such a general feeling against it that it was eventually 
withdrawn.  In 60 B.C. the tribune L. Flavius brought 
forward a bill for the distribution of lands to Pompey's 
veterans.  The Campanian land was certainly to be included in 
the distribution, and it is clear from Cicero that the bill in 
some way dealt violently with the rights of private owners.  It 
also, however, enacted that land should be purchased by the 
state with the wealth which Pompey's conquests had brought 
into the treasury.  The last proposal was supported by Cicero, 
but the bill seems to have been dropped, only to reappear in 
more moderate form in the following year.  A consular bill, 
the lex Julia Campana, was passed by Julius Caesar in 59 
B.C., which provided for the settlement of Pompey's veterans 
on the Campanian land, and other lands purchased by the state 
from private owners in Italy with the full consent of the 
latter.  In its original form, the bill omitted all reference 
to the Campanian land, which seems to have been included 
by Caesar in the distribution only when the continued and 
unreasoning opposition of the senate had goaded him to extreme 
measures.  A commission of twenty was to be appointed to 
carry out the law, from which Caesar himself was expressly 
excluded.  This measure finally settled the question of 
the Campanian land, which now passed out of the category of 
ager publicus. The last agrarian law of the republic was 
that passed in 44 B.C. on the proposal of the consul M. 
Antonius, or of his brother L. Antonius.  We have no detailed 
account of the measure, but it seems to have provided grants 
of land for veterans, and was to be administered by seven 
commissioners.  The law was afterwards cancelled by decree of 
the senate, probably on the ground of some technical flaw.  
The emperor Vespasian attempted to reclaim for the state small 
oddments of land (subseciva) which were held by neighbouring 
owners to whom they had never been definitely assigned.  The 
attempt met with violent opposition, and though resumed by 
Titus, was finally crushed by Domitian, who issued an edict 
recognizing all oddments of land thus held to be private property. 

AUTHORITIES.--Niebuhr, History of Rome (English 
translation), ii. p. 129 foll. (Cambridge, 1832); Becker, 
Handbuch der romischen Alterthumer, iii. 2, p. 142 
(Leipzig, 1843); Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, 
i. p. 96 foll. (Leipzig, 1881); Madvig, Verfassung und 
Verwaltung des romischen Staates, ii. p. 364 foll. (Leipzig, 
1882), (See also ROME, History.) (A. H. J. G; A. M. CL.) 

AGREDA, MARIA FERNANDEZ CORONEL, ABBESS OF, known in 
religion as Sor (Sister) Maria de Jesus (1602-1665), was the 
daughter of Don Francisco Coronel and of his wife Catalina de 
Arana.  She was born at Agreda, on the borders of Navarre 
and Aragon, on the 2nd of April 1602.  All her family were 
powerfully influenced by the ecstatic piety of Spain in that 
age.  Her biographer, Samaniego, records that even as an 
infant in arms she was filled with divine knowledge.  Her 
stupidity as a child is piously accounted for by extreme 
humility.  From childhood she was favoured by ecstasies and 
visions.  When she was fifteen the whole family entered 
religion.  The father, now an old man, and the two sons 
entered the Franciscan house of San Antonio de Nalda.  Maria, 
her mother and sister established a Franciscan nunnery in the 
family house at Agreda, which, when Maria's reputation had 
extended, was replaced by the existing building.  She began 
it with one hundred reals (one pound sterling) lent her by a 
devotee, and it was completed in fourteen years by voluntary 
gifts.  Much against her own wish, we are told, she was 
appointed abbess at the age of twenty-five.  In 1668, four 
years after her death, the Franciscans published a story that 
at the age of twenty-two she had been miraculously conveyed to 
Mexico, to convert a native people, and had made five hundred 
journeys through the air for that purpose in one year.  
Though the rule required the abbess to be changed every three 
years, Maria remained the effective ruler of Agreda till her 
death.  The Virgin was declared abbess, and Maria acted as 
her locus tenens. In her later years she inclined to the 
``internal prayer,'' and neglect of the outward offices 
of the church, which was usual with the ``alumbrados'' or 
Quietists.  The Inquisition took notice of her, but she was 
not proceeded against with severity.  Maria's importance in 
religion and Spanish history is based on two grounds.  In the 
earlier part of her life, while the Franciscan, Francisco Andres 
de la Torre, was her confessor, she wrote an Introduction to 
the History of the Most Blessed Virgin. It was destroyed by 
the direction of another confessor.  Later on, by the order 
of her superiors, and under the guidance of her Franciscan 
confessor, Andres de Fuen Mayor, she wrote The Mystic City 
of God. It is an extraordinary book, full of apocryphal 
history, visions and scholasticism, which professes to have 
been written by divine inspiration, and is devoted to praise 
of the Virgin.  In 1642 she sent to Philip IV. an account of 
a vision she had had, of a council of the infernal powers for 
the destruction of Catholicism and Spain.  The king visited 
her when on his way to Aragon to suppress the rebellion of 
Catalonia.  A long correspondence, which lasted till her death 
on the 29th of March 1665, was begun.  The king folded a sheet 
of paper down the middle and wrote on the one side of the 
division.  The answers were to be written on the other and 
the sheet returned.  By a pious fraud copies were kept at 
Agreda.  How far Maria was only the mouthpiece of the Franciscans 
must of course be a matter of doubt.  Her correspondence was 
apparently suspended whenever her confessor was absent.  She 
must, however, have co-operated at least, and it is certain 
that the Franciscans, who were very unfortunate in some of 
their pious women, owed not a little to her.  The letters are 
in excellent Spanish, are curious reading, and are invaluable 
as illustrations for the second part of the reign of Philip IV. 

The correspondence of Sor Maria with the king has been 
published in full by Don F. Siluela, Cartas de la Venerable 
Madre Sor Maria de Agreda y del Senor Rey Don Filipe IV. 
(Madrid, 1885). The Mystic City of God is one of the most 
characteristic monuments of Mariolatry, and has continued to be 
much in favour with supporters of the dogma of the Immaculate 
Conception.  It appeared in Madrid in 1668, with a biographical 
introduction by Samaniego, has been often reprinted, and was 
translated into French and Italian.  It was for a time reserved 
by the Index, both Spanish and Papal, but was taken off by the 
influence of the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters 
of the immaculate Conception.  An account of Maria de Agreda 
will be found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 
1706),vol. iii., written by a competent critic and Anglican 
divine of the 18th century who detested ``enthusiasm.'' (D. H.) 

AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719), German landscape 
painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon).  He 
spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England, 
Holland and France, and residing for a considerable period at 
Naples.  His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, 
are remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for 
their skilful representation of varied phases of climate.  In 
composition his style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, 
while in light and colour he imitates Claude Lorraine.  
His pictures are to be found in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, 
Florence, Naples and many other towns of both Germany and Italy. 

AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG 
(1490-1555), German scholar and man of science, known as ``the 
father of mineralogy,'' was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the 
24th of March 1490.  Gifted with a precocious intellect, he 
early threw himself into the pursuit of the ``new learning,'' 
with such effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed 
Rector extraordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great 
School of Zwickau, and made his appearance as a writer on 
philology.  After two years he gave up his appointment in 
order to pursue his studies at Leipzig, where, as rector, he 
received the powerful support of the professor of classics, 
Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), a celebrated humanist of the 
time, with whom he had already been in correspondence.  Here 
he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, physics and 
chemistry.  After the death of Mosellanus he went for a short 
time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree.  On his 
return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimstal, 
a centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly 
``to fill in the gaps in the art of healing,'' partly to test 
what had been written about mineralogy by careful observation 
of ores and the methods of their treatment.  His thorough 
grounding in philology and philosophy had accustomed him to 
systematic thinking, and this enabled him to construct out of 
his studies and observations of minerals a logical system which 
he began to publish in 1528. Bermannus, sive de re metallica 
dialogus, the first attempt to reduce to scientific order 
the knowledge won by practical work, brought Agricola into 
notice.  In 1530 Prince Maurice of Saxony appointed him 
historiographer with an annual allowance, and he migrated to 
Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order to widen 
the range of his observations.  The citizens showed their 
appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician 
and electing him burgomaster.  His popularity was, however, 
short-lived.  Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant 
movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance 
to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his 
office.  He now lived apart from the contentious movements 
of the time, devoting himself wholly to learning.  His chief 
interest was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself 
also with medical, mathematical, theological and historical 
subjects, his chief historical work being the Dominatores 
Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem, published at 
Freiberg.  In 1544 he published the De ortu et causis 
subterraneorum, in which he laid the first foundations 
of a physical geology, and criticized the theories of the 
ancients.  In 1545 followed the De natura eorum quae effluunt 
e terra; in 1546 the De veteribus et novis metallis, a 
comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of 
minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus subterraneis; and 
in the two following years a number of smaller works on the 
metals.  His most famous work, the De re metallica, libri 
xii., was published in 1556, though apparently finished 
several years before, since the dedication to the elector and 
his brother is dated 1550.  It is a complete and systematic 
treatise on mining and metallurgy, illustrated with many fine 
and interesting woodcuts and containing, in an appendix, the 
German equivalents for the technical terms used in the Latin 
text.  It long remained a standard work, and marks its 
author as one of the most accomplished chemists of his 
time.  Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at Stolpen 
to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to 
it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been 
permanently incorporated in the vocabulary of science. 

In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the 
tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered 
to end his days in peace.  He remained to the end a staunch 
Catholic, though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran 
creed; and it is said that his life was ended by a fit of 
apoplexy brought on by a heated discussion with a Protestant 
divine.  He died at Chemnitz on the 21st of November 1555, 
and so violent was the theological feeling against him, that 
he was not suffered to rest in the town to which he had added 
lustre.  Amidst hostile demonstrations he was carried 
to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and there buried. 

See article by Gumbel in Allgem.  Deutsche Biog. 
(1875); F. L. Becher, Georg Agricola und Werner 
(Freiberg, 1819); F. A. Schmidt, Georg Agricola's 
Bermannus mit Einleitung (Freiberg, 1806); Poggendorff, 
Biographisches Handworterbuch; Agricola's works passim. 

AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93), Roman statesman and 
general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was born on 
the 13th of June A.D. 37 (according to others, 39) at Forum 
Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis.  His father, Julius 
Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola 
was brought up by his mother Julia Procilla.  After studying 
philosophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) 
under Suetonius Paulinus in Britain.  In 61 he returned to 
Rome, where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of 
distinction.  In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, 
in 68 praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, 
he immediately declared himself his supporter.  In 70 he was 
appointed to the command of the 20th legion in Britain, then 
stationed at Deva (Chester).  On his return to Rome at the 
end of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of 
patrician, and appointed governor of Aquitania (74-78).  
Appointed consul suffectus in the following year, he was 
admitted into the college of pontiffs and made governor of 
Britain.  In the same year he betrothed his daughter to 
Tacitus.  Although the legation of Britain lasted as a rule 
only three years, Agricola held the post for at least seven 
and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to Roman rule 
and inducing them to adopt the customs and civilization of 
their conquerors.  His military achievements were equally 
brilliant.  After conquering the Ordovices in North Wales and 
the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two years he 
carried his victorious arms to the Taus (Tay; others read 
Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth campaign 
fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the firths 
of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of the 
Caledonians.  Having explored the coasts of Fife and Forfar, he 
gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus 
at the Graupian hill (see BRITAIN, Roman.) His successes, 
however, had aroused the envy and suspicion of Domitian.  
He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life of studied 
retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to the 
tyrant.  He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the 
emperor's orders.  The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law 
Tacitus is practically a panegyric or funeral oration. 

See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); 
Dio Cassius xxxix. 50, lxvi. 20: Mommsen, Provinces of 
the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., 1886), i. 183-184, 194. 

AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774), German musician, was 
born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 4th of January 
1720.  While a student of law at Leipzig he studied music 
under Johann Sebastian Bach.  In 1741 he went to Berlin, 
where he studied musical composition.  He was soon generally 
recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his time; 
and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, Il Filosofo 
convinto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court 
composer to Frederick the Great.  He died in Berlin on the 
1st of December 1774.  In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich 
Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra.  
Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental 
pieces and church music.  His reputation chiefly rests, 
however, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical 
subjects.  He wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio. 

AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES 
(1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born on the 20th of 
April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister 
Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the 
friendship of Luther.  In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great 
assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording 
secretary.  After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he 
went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the reformed mode of 
worship.  He had resided there only a month when he was called 
to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as teacher in the 
school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church.  In 
1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by 
Luther.  Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which 
had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, 
broke out more violently than ever.  Agricola was the first 
to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize 
by the now well-known name Antinomian (q.v.), maintaining 
that while the unregenerate were still under the Mosaic 
law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under 
the gospel alone.  In consequence of the bitter controversy 
with Luther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg 
secretly for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed 
to the elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted 
as a recantation of his obnoxious views.  Luther, however, 
seems not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at 
Berlin.  The elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken 
him into his favour, appointed him court preacher and general 
superintendent.  He held both offices until his death in 1566, 
and his career in Brandenburg was one of great activity and 
influence.  Along with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, 
and Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon. he prepared 
the Augsburg Interim of 1548.  He endeavoured in vain to 
appease the Adiaphoristic controversy (see ADIAPHORISTS.) 
He died during an epidemic of plague on the 22nd of September 
1566.  Agricola wrote a number of theological works which 
are now of little interest.  He was the first to make a 
collection of German proverbs which he illustrated with a 
commentary.  The most complete edition, which contains 
seven hundred and fifty proverbs, is that published at 
Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one is that of Latendorf, 1862. 

See Cordes, Joh. Agricola's Schriften moglichst 
verzeichnet (Altona, 1817); Life by G. Kawerau (1881), 
who also wrote the notice in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. 
fur prot.  Theol., where other literature is cited. 

AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was 
born about 1500 in Lower Silesia.  His German name was Sohr or 
Sore.  From 1524 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, where 
he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant 
school.  The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg, was 
a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing 
valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new 
system of notation, he published.  Agricola was also the first 
to harmonize in four parts Luther's chorale, Ein' feste Burg. 

Four other Agricolas1 are known as composers between 
the end of the 15th century and the middle of the 17th. 

In the 18th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour in 
Germany (1772), much impressed by JOHANN FRIEDRICH AGRICOLA 
(1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal chapel to 
Frederick the Great.  This Agricola was a pupil of Bach, and a 
fine organist and clever writer on music, especially on operatic 
style, the problems of which were beginning to be raised by 
French writers-and composers in preparation for the work of Gluck. 

AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485), 
Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near Groningen, in 1443.  
He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as master of 
arts.  After residing for some time in Paris, he went in 
1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the 
celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek language.  
Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native 
country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic of 
Groningen.  In 1482, on the invitation of Johann von Dalberg, 
bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he had gained 
in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and 
for three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the 
literature of Greece and Rome.  By his personal influence 
much more than by his writings he did much for the promotion 
of learning in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the 
generation immediately succeeding his own are full of his 
praises.  In his opposition to the scholastic philosophy he 
in some degree anticipated the great intellectual revolution 
in which many of his pupils were conspicuous actors.  He died 
at Heidelberg on the 28th of October 1485.  His principal 
work is De inventione dialectica, libri iii., in which 
he attempts to change the scholastic philosophy of the day. 

See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen, 
1830); v.  Bezold, R. Agricola (Munchen, 1884): and Ihm, Der 
Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben und seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893). 

AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys organized 
by an independent gang-master, under whose supervision they 
execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain parts of 
England.  They are sometimes called ``public gangs'' to 
distinguish them from ``private gangs'' consisting of workers 
engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for 
him, under his own supervision or under that of one of his 
men.  The system was for long prevalent in the counties of 
Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, 
Norfolk and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much 
modified form in the fen district.  The practice dates 
from the latter years of the reign of George III., when the 
low-lying, marshy lands surrounding the basin of the Wash 
were being rapidly drained and converted into rich alluvial 
districts.  The unreformed condition of the poor-law, under 
which the support of the poor fell upon each individual parish, 
instead of a union of parishes, made landlords reluctant to 
erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit of their 
tenants.  Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation of 
these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys, being 
cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely 
employed.  The tendency to moral and physical ruin which resulted 
from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into the 
condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the 
reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862, 
and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs 
Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child 
under eight years old, and of any female under a male gangmaster 
unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also 


1 Alexander, died 1506; Johann, flor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph, 
flor. 1630; and George Ludwig, 1643-1676. present.  Gang-masters 
must be licensed by two justices, and may not hold a liquor 
license.  The distance to be traversed on foot is fixed by 
the justices, and the licenses must be renewed every six 
months.  Later legislation made more stringent the regulations 
under which children are employed in agricultural gangs.  By 
the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and re-enacting 
the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children) Act 
1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven years, 
and none between eleven years and thirteen years before the 
child has obtained a certificate of having reached the standard 
of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district. 

AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ager, field, and colere, to 
cultivate), the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil 
so as to produce the means of human subsistence, embracing in its 
widest sense the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of 
crops.  The history of agriculture is the history of man in 
his most primitive, and most permanent aspect.  Hence the 
nations of antiquity ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma 
in Hindustan, Isis in Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in 
Italy, were its founders.  The simplest form of agriculture is 
that in which crops are raised from one patch of ground till it 
is exhausted, when it is allowed to go wild and abandoned for 
another.  This ``extensive'' husbandry is found in combination 
with a nomadic or semi-nomadic and pastoral organization, such 
as that of the German tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus 
(see especially Germania, 26). The discovery of the uses 
of the bare fallow and of manure, by making it possible to 
raise crops from the same area for an indefinite period, marks 
a stage of progress.  This ``intensive'' culture in a more 
or less developed form was practised by the great nations of 
antiquity, and little decided advance was made till after the 
middle ages.  The introduction of new plants, which made it 
possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later the 
application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils, 
plant constituents and manures, brought about a revolution in 
farming.  But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the 
production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is 
due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is 
the work of modern times.  What before was done in the light 
of experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge.  
Even the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the 
practice of the fundamental processes of husbandry--ploughing, 
manuring, sowing, weeding, reaping.  It is the improvements 
in methods, implements and materials, brought about by the 
application of science, that distinguish the husbandry of 
the 20th century from that of medieval and ancient times. 

Ancient Husbandry.--The monumental records of Egypt are 
the source of the earliest information on farming.  The Egypt 

Egypt. 

of the Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed either 
by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the superintendence 
of stewards.  It owed its fertility to the Nile, which, 
inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by means 
of canals over more distant portions of its valley.  The 
autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow 
ploughing performed by oxen yoked to clumsy wooden ploughs, 
the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by 
hand.  Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into 
the soil by the feet of sheep which were driven over the 
fields.  At harvest the corn was cut high on the stalk with 
short sickles and put up in sheaves, after which it was carried 
to the threshing-floor and there trodden out by the hoofs of 
oxen.  Winnowing was done by women, who tossed the grain into the 
air with small wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the 
winds.  Wheat and barley were the chief crops, and another 
plant, perhaps identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of 
modern Egypt, was also cultivated.  The latter, when ripe, was 
pulled up by the roots, and the grain was separated by means 
of an implement resembling a comb.  To these crops may be added 
peas, beans and many herbs and esculent roots.  Oxen were much 
prized, and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to 
selection.  Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared. 

Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle 
were sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures 
of the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen.  
They were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at 
other times tethered in meadows of green clover.  The flocks 
were shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic 
countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also EGYPT.) 

The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, 
like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation, and traces 
of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia.  But 
beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were large 
producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry. 

The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent 
upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper. 

Biblical accounts among the Israelites. 

The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary circumstances 
common to all shepherds alike.  During the summer they frequented 
the mountainous districts, and retired to the valleys to 
winter.  Vast flocks of sheep and of goat constituted their 
wealth, although they also possessed oxen.  When the last 
were abundant, it seems to be an indication that tillage was 
practised.  Job, besides immense possessions in flocks 
and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in 
ploughing, and a ``very great husbandry.'' Isaac, too, 
conjoined tillage with pastoral husbandry, and that with 
success, for ``he sowed in the land Gerar, and reaped an 
hundred-fold''--a return which, it would appear, in some 
favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the labour of the 
husbandman.  In the parable of the sower, Jesus Christ 
mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold. 

Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the Israelites 
are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of 
antiquity.  The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law, 
based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult 
males, a census of whom was taken just before their entrance 
into Canaan.  Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, 
assigning (according to different calculations) from sixteen 
to twenty-five acres of land to each.  This land, held in 
direct tenure from Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory 
inalienable.  The accumulation of debt upon it was prevented 
by the prohibition of interest, the release of debts every 
seventh year, and the reversion of the land to the proprietor, 
or his heirs, at each return of the year of jubilee.  The 
owners of these small farms cultivated them with much care, 
and rendered them highly productive.  They were favoured 
with a soil extremely fertile, and one which their skill and 
diligence kept in good condition.  The stones were carefully 
cleared from the fields, which were also watered from canals 
and conduits, communicating with the brooks and streams 
with which the country ``was well watered everywhere,'' and 
enriched by the application of manures.  The seventh year's 
fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further 
enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth 
of the Sabbatical year.  The crops chiefly cultivated were 
wheat, millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is 
supposed, on grounds not improbable, may be added rice and 
cotton.  The chief implements were a wooden plough of 
simple and light construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light 
harrow.  The ox and the ass were used for labour.  The word 
``oxen,'' which occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as 
well as in the Septuagint and Vulgate, denotes the species, 
rather than the sex.  As the Hebrews did not mutilate any of 
their animals, bulls were in common use.  The quantity of land 
ploughed by a yoke of oxen in one day was called a yoke or 
acre.  Towards the end of October, with which month the rainy 
season begins, seedtime commenced, and of course does so 
still.  The seedtime, begun in October, extends, for wheat 
and some other white crops, through November and December; 
and barley continues to be sown until about the middle of 
February.  The seed appears to have been sometimes ploughed 
in, and at other times to have been covered by harrowing.  
The cold winds which prevail in January and February 
frequently injured the crops in the more exposed and higher 
districts.  The rainy season extends from October to April, 
during which time refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the 
night, and generally at intervals of a few days.  The harvest 
was earlier or later as the rains towards the end of the season 
were more or less copious.  It, however, generally began in 
April, and continued through May for the different crops in 
succession.  In the south, and in the plains, the harvest, as 
might be expected, commenced some weeks earlier than in the 
northern and mountainous districts.  The slopes of the hills 
were carefully terraced and irrigated wherever practicable, 
and on these slopes the vine and olive were cultivated with 
great success.  At the same time the hill districts and 
neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for numerous flocks 
and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of a mixed 
husbandry.  Not by a figure of speech but literally, 
every Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and 
fig-tree; whilst the country as a whole is described (2 
Kings xviii. 32) as ``a land of corn and wine, a land of 
bread and vineyards, a land Of oil olive and of honey.'' 

The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based 
chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation.  The 

Greece. 

agriculture of classical ages was slightly more developed in 
so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less likely to 
leave to nature the fertilization of the soil.  Greece being 
a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine 
rather than to that of cereals.  Scanty information on its 
agriculture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod 
(about the 8th century B.C.), the Oeconomicus of Xenophon 
(4th century B.C.), the History o/ Plants and the Origin 
o/.  Plants of Theophrastus (4th century B.C..)The latter is 
the first writer on botany, and his works also contain interesting 
remarks on manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural 
topics (see also GEOPONICI.) Greek husbandry had no salient 
characteristics.  The summer fallow with repeated ploughing 
was its basis.  The young crop was hoed, reaping was performed 
with a sickle, and a high stubble left on the ground as 
manure.  The methods of threshing and winnowing were the same 
as those in use in ancient Egypt.  Wheat, barley and spelt 
were the leading crops.  Meadows were pastured rather than 
mown.  Attica was famous for its olives and figs, but general 
agriculture excelled in Peloponnesus, where, by means of 
irrigation and drainage, all the available land was utilized. 

In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held 
largely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed 

Rome. 

and classed with war as an occupation becoming a free 
man.  The story of Cincinnatus, twice summoned from the 
plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates 
the status of the Roman husbandman.  The later tendency 
was towards the absorption of smaller holdings into large 
estates.  As wealth increased the peasant-farmer gave way 
before the large landowner, who cultivated his property by 
means of slave-labour, superintended by slave-bailiffs.  The 
low price of grain, which was imported in huge quantities 
from Sicily and other Roman provinces, operated to crush 
the small holder, at the same time as it made arable farming 
unremunerative.  Sheep-raising, involving larger holdings, 
less supervision and less labour, was preferred by the 
capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the wheat, 
spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the 
country.  Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for 
fodder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied 
hay.  Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater 
extent than oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing.  
The following epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman 
in the first book of the Georgics suggests the outline 
of Roman husbandry: ``First learn the peculiarities of your 
soil and climate.  Plough the fallow in early spring, and 
plough frequently--twice in winter, twice in summer unless 
your land is poor, when a light ploughing in September will 
do.  Either let the land lie fallow every other year or else 
let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine.  Repetition of one 
crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the strain, 
only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with manure 
or ashes.  It often does good to burn the stubble on the 
ground.  Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross 
ploughing, work the land thoroughly.  Irrigation benefits a 
sandy soil, draining a marshy soil.  It is well to feed down 
a luxuriant crop when the plants are level with the ridge 
tops.  Geese and cranes, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, 
caltrops, darnel and shade are farmer's enemies.  Scare off 
the birds, harrow up the weeds, cut down all that shades the 
crop.  Ploughs, waggons, threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, 
hurdles, winnowing-fans are the farmer's implements.  
The plough consists of several parts made of seasoned 
wood.  The threshing-floor must be smooth and rammed hard 
to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to get 
through.  Some steep seed in soda and oil lees to get a larger 
produce.  Careful annual selection by hand of the best 
seed is the only way to prevent degeneration.  It is best 
to mow stubble and hay at night when they are moist.'' 

In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other 
manures, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the 
Romans.  The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, 
characterized their husbandry comes out well in the following 
quotation from the 18th book of the Natural History 
of Pliny:--``Cato would have this point especially to be 
considered, that the soil of a farm be good and fertile; also, 
that near it there be plenty of labourers and that it be not 
far from a large town; moreover, that it have sufficient means 
for transporting its produce, either by water or land.  Also 
that the house be well built, and the land about it as well 
managed.  They are in error who hold the opinion that the 
negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his 
successor.  Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and 
disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out 
of heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land 
of one who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise 
and make light of the skill and knowledge of another.'' 

Roman writers on agriculture (see GEOPONICI) are more 
numerous than those of Greece.  The earliest important 
treatises are the De re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) 
and the Rerum Rusticarum Libri of Varro.  More famous 
than either are the Georgics of Virgil, published 
about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage, horticulture, 
cattle-breeding and bee-keeping.  The works of Columella (1st 
century A.D.) and of Palladius (4th century A.D.) are 
exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder 
Pliny (A.D. 23-70) contains considerable information on 
husbandry.  Under the later empire agriculture sank into a 
condition of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark 
Ages.  In Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by 
them, and their successors the Moors, agriculture was carried 
to a high pitch of excellence.  The work on agriculture1 of 
Ibn-al-Awame, who lived in the 12th century A.D., treats 
of the varieties of soils, manuring, irrigation, ploughing, 
sowing, harvesting, stock, horticulture, arboriculture and plant 
diseases, and is a lasting record of their skill and industry. 

The subsequent history of agriculture is treated in the 
following pages primarily from the British standpoint.  Doubtless 
Flanders may claim to be the pioneer of ``high farming'' in 
medieval times, other countries following her lead in many 
respects.  It is not, however, necessary to deal with the 
agricultural evolution of continental Europe, the gradual 
progress of agriculture as a whole being well enough typified 
in the story of its development in England, which indeed has 
led the way in modern times.  After sections on the history 
and chief modern features of British agriculture, a separate 
account is given of the general features of American agriculture. 

HISTORY OF ENGLISH AGRICULTURE 

The ``combined'' or ``common-field'' system of husbandry 
practised by the village community or township (see VILLAGE 
COMMUNITIES) may be taken as the starting-point of English 
agriculture, in which, till the end of the 18th century, it 
is a dominant influence.  The territory of the ``township'' 
consisted of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste.  The 
arable land was divided into two or, more usually, three 
fields, which were cut up into strips bounded by balks and 
allotted to the villagers in such a way that one holding might 
include several disconnected strips in each field--a measure 
designed to prevent the whole of the best land falling to one 
man.  The fields were fenced in from seed-time to harvest, 
after which the fences were taken down and the cattle turned 
in to feed on the stubble.  According to early methods of 
cropping, which were destined to prevail for centuries, wheat, 
the chief article of food, was sown in one autumn, reaped 
the next August; the following spring, oats or barley were 
sown, and the year following the harvest was a period of 
fallow.  This procedure was followed on each of the three 
fields so that in every year one of them was fallow.  In 
addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown 
to some extent.  The meadow-land was also divided into 
strips from which the various holders drew their supply of 
hay.  The pasture-land was common to all, though the number 
of beasts which one man might turn into it was sometimes 
limited.  Rough grazing could also be had on the outlying waste 
lands.  In the absence of artificial grasses and roots, hay was 
very valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for 
live stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring. 

Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the Norman 
Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained, but the 
position of the cultivator was radically altered. ``Villeins,'' 
instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous class of the 
population.  They were bound to the soil and occupied holdings 
of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate or 30 
acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly in 
kind.  A portion of the manor, generally about a third, 
constituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes 
separate, usually consisted of strips intermingled with 
those of his villeins.  It thus formed part of the common 
farm and was cultivated by the villeins and their oxen under 
the superintendence of a bailiff.  Below the villeins in the 
social scale came the cottiers possessing smaller holdings, 
sometimes only a garden, and no oxen.  Free tenants and, after 
the Norman Conquest, slaves formed small proportions of the 
population.  During the middle ages cattle and sheep were the 
chief farm animals, but the intermixture of stock consequent 
on the common-field system was a barrier to improvement in 
the breed and conduced to the propagation of disease.  Oxen, 
usually yoked in teams of eight, were used for ploughing.  
Sheep were small and their fleeces light, nevertheless, owing 
to the meagreness of the yields of cereals2 and the demand for 
wool for export, sheep-farming was looked to, as early as the 
12th century, as the chief source of profit.  Pigs and poultry 
were universally kept.  The treatise on husbandry of Walter of 
Henley, dating from the early 13th century, is very valuable 
as describing the management of the demesne under the two- 
or three-field system.  The following are typical passages:-- 

``April is a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks 
up behind the plough: for second fallowing after St John's 
Day when the dust rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing 
when the earth is well settled and not too cracked; however, 
the busy man cannot be always waiting on the seasons.'' 
``At sowing do not plough large furrows, but little and 
well laid together, that the seed may fall evenly.'' 

``Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings, 
except lands that are sown each year, and that each 
ploughing costs 6d. more or less and the harrowing 1d. 
It is well to sow at least two bushels to the acre.'' 

``Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown 
on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own.'' 

``Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless you need 
it for thatching.  Have manure put up in heaps and mixed with earth.'' 

``Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off.'' 

During the 13th century there arose a tendency to commute 
labour-rents for money payments.  This change led to the 
gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage--the villeins 
and cottiers--and the rise on the one hand of the small 
independent farmer, on the other of the hired labourer.  The 
plague of 1348 marks an epoch in English agriculture.  The 
diminution of the population by one-half led to a scarcity of 
labour and an increase of wages which deprived the landowner 
of his narrow margin of profit.  To meet this situation, the 
Statute of Labourers (1351) enacted that no man should refuse 
to work at the same rate of wages as prevailed before the 
plague.  In addition the landowners attempted to revive the 
disappearing system of labour-rents.  The bitter feelings 
engendered between employer and employed culminated in 
the peasants' revolt of 1381.  Meanwhile large numbers of 
landowners were forced to adopt one of two alternatives.  
In some cases they ceased to farm their own land and let it 
out on lease often together with the stock upon it; or else 
they abandoned arable culture, laid down their demesnes to 
pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted themselves to 
sheep-farming.  In the latter course they were encouraged 
by the high prices of wool during the 14th century, and by 
Edward III.'s policy of fostering both the export of wool 
and the home manufacture of woollen goods.  The 15th century, 
barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was in its 
early years moderately prosperous.  Later on the increasing 
abandonment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought 
about a less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was 
accelerated as the peasant was deprived of his grazing-ground 
by the enclosure of more and more of the waste land.3 

From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the end 
of Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the 

Agriculture under the Tudors and Stuarts. 

encouragement of tillage, though probably to little purpose. 
``Where in some towns,'' says the statute 4th Henry VII. 
(1488), ``two hundred persons were occupied and lived of 
their lawful labours. now there are occupied two or three 
herdsmen, and the residue fall into idleness''; therefore it 
is ordained that houses which within three years have been 
let for farms, with twenty acres of land lying in tillage or 
husbandry, shall be upheld, under the penalty of half the 
profits, to be forfeited to the king or the lord of the 
fee.  Almost half a century afterwards the practice had become 
still more alarming; and in 1534 a new act was tried, apparently 
with as little success. ``Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 
sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and 
some less''; and yet it is alleged the price of wool had nearly 
doubled, ``sheep being come to a few persons' hands.'' A 
penalty was therefore imposed on all who kept above 2000 sheep; 
and no person was to take in farm more than two tenements of 
husbandry.  By the 39th Elizabeth (1597) arable land made 
pasture since the 1st Elizabeth shall be again converted into 
tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted into pasture. 

The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise 
of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the 16th 
century.  The best of the early works is the Book of 
Husbandry (1st ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony 
Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of 
Henry VIII., but more probably written by his elder brother 
John.  This was followed by the Book of Surveying and 
Improvements (1523), by the same author.  In the former 
treatise we have a clear and minute description of the rural 
practices of that period, and from the latter may be learned a 
good deal of the economy of the feudal system in its decline. 

The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the 
plough and other implements, after which about a third part 
of it is occupied with the several operations as they succeed 
one another throughout the year.  Among other passages 
in this part of the work, the following deserve notice:-- 

``Somme (ploughs) wyll tourn the sheld bredith at every 
landsende, and plowe all one way''; the same kind of 
plough that is now found so useful on hilly grounds.  Of 
wheel-ploughs he observes, that ``they be good on even 
grounde that lyeth lyghte''; and on such lands they are 
still most commonly employed.  Cart-wheels were sometimes 
bound with iron; of which he greatly approves.  On the much 
agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen in 
labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated. 

``In some places,'' he says, ``a horse plough is better,'' and 
in others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the 
preference.  Beans and peas seem to have been common crops.  He 
mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats; and after 
describing the method of harrowing ``all maner of cornnes,'' we 
find the roller employed. ``They used to role their barley grounde 
after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even to mowe.'' 
Under the article ``To falowe,'' he observes, ``the greater 
clottes (clods) the better wheate, for the clottes kepe the 
wheat warme all wynter; and at March they will melte and 
breake and fal in manye small peces, the whiche is a new 
dongynge and refreshynge of the corne.'' This is agreeable to 
the present practice, founded on the very same reasons. ``In 
May, the shepe folde is to be set out''; but Fitzherbert does 
not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages 
in a very judicious manner. ``In the latter end of May and 
the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne''; and then 
we have an accurate description of the different weeds, and 
the instruments and mode of weeding.  Next comes a second 
ploughing of the fallow; and afterwards, in the latter end of 
June, the mowing of the meadows begins.  Of this operation, 
and of the forks and rakes and the haymaking there is a very 
good account.  The corn harvest naturally follows: rye and 
wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut with the 
scythe.  The writer does not approve of the common practice 
of cutting wheat high and then mowing the stubbles. ``In 
Somersetshire,'' he says, ``they do shere theyr wheat very 
lowe; and the wheate strawe that they purpose to make thacke 
of, they do not threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd 
it in sheves, and call it rede, and therewith they thacke 
theyr houses.'' He recommends the practice of setting up corn 
in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten 
sheaves as at present--probably owing to the straw being then 
shorter.  The corn was commonly housed; but if there be 
a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a 
scaffold and not upon the ground.  The fallow received a 
third ploughing in September, and was sown about Michaelmas. 
``Wheat is moost commonlye sowne under the forowe, that is to 
say, cast it uppon the falowe, and then plowe it under''; 
and this branch of his subject is concluded with directions 
about threshing, winnowing and other kinds of barn-work. 

Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. ``An housbande,'' he 
says, ``can not well thryue by his corne without he have other 
cattell, nor by his cattell without corne.  And bycause that 
shepe, in myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell 
that any man can haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of 
shepe.'' His remarks on this subject are so accurate that one 
might imagine they came from a storemaster of the present day. 

In some places at present ``they neuer seuer their lambes 
from their dammes''; ``and the poore of the peeke (high) 
countreye, and such other places, where, as they vse to 
mylke theyr ewes, they vse to wayne theyr lambes at 12 weekes 
olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue or syxe weekes''; but 
that, he observes, ``is greate hurte to the ewes, and wyll 
cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tvme of 
the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne.'' ``In June is tyme 
to shere shepe; and ere they be shorne, they must be verye 
well washen, the which shall be to the owner greate profyte 
in the sale of his wool, and also to the clothe-maker.'' 

His remarks on horses, cattle, &c., are not less 
interesting; and there is a very good account of the 
diseases of each species, and some just observations 
on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the same 
pasture.  Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work. 

The author then points out the great advantages of enclosure; 
recommends ``quycksettynge, dychynge and hedgeyng''; and 
gives particular directions about settes, and the method 
of training a hedge, as well as concerning the planting 
and management of trees.  Fitzherbert throws some light on 
the position of women in the agriculture of his day. ``It 
is a wyues occupation,'' he says, ``to wynowe all maner of 
cornes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make heye, 
shere corne, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande 
to fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, 
to loode heye, corne and suche other; and to go or ride 
to the market to sel butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, 
capons, hennes, pygges, gese, and all maner of cornes.'' 

The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge of 
the rural economy of that age. ``Four maner of commens'' are 
described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes, 
and also ``quernes that goo with hand''; different orders of 
tenants, down to the ``boundmen,'' who ``in some places contynue 
as yet''; ``and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be many 
freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is taken 
from them.'' Lime and marl are mentioned as common manures, 
and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to destroy 
heath.  Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though 
the latter but slightly.  And the work concludes with an 
inquiry ``how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a 
yere, worth XX.li. a year,'' advocating the transition from 
communal or open field to individual or enclosure farming. 

``It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth 
in tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable landes 
to plowe and sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses 
and mares upon, and common pasture to kepe and pasture their 
catell, beestes and shepe upon; and also they have medowe 
grounde to get their hey upon.  Than to let it be known how 
many acres of errable lande euery man hath in tyllage, and of 
the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with his neyghbours, 
and to leve them toguyther, and to make hym one seuerall 
close in euery felde for his errable lands; and his leyse in 
euery felde to leve them togyther in one felde, and to make 
one seuerall close for them all.  And also another seuerall 
close for his portion of his common pasture, and also his 
porcion of his medowe in a seuerall close by itselfe, and al 
kept in seureall both in wynter and somer; and euery cottage 
shall haue his portion assigned hym accordynge to his rent, 
and than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse the poore man 
with his cattell; and euery man may eate his oun close at his 
pleasure.  And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will find 
one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, 
and better they shall lyke.  For those beestis in the house 
have short heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle 
and be bare; and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde 
before the heerdmen in wintertyme for colde.  And those that 
lye in a close under a hedge haue longe heare and thyck, and 
they will neuer pylle nor be bare: and by this reason the 
husbande maye keoe twyse so many catell as he did before. 

``This is the cause of this approwment.  Nowe euery husbande 
hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the 
fourthe for his leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, 
and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time there is but 
one occupied with corne, and than hath the husbande other 
fyue to occupiy tyll lente come, and that he hath his falowe 
felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer.  
And when he hath mowen his medowe, then he hath his medowe 
grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be 
amended, or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any 
close he wyll, the which is a great advantage; and if all 
shulde lye commen, than wolde the edyche of the corne feldes 
and the aftermath of all the medowes be eaten in X. or XII. 
dayes.  And the rych men that hath moche catell wold have the 
advantage, and the poore man can have no help nor relefe in 
wynter when he hath moste nede; and if an acre of lande be 
worthe sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth VIII. 
pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and 
dongyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day 
and nighte; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for 
his corne be worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe 
up his close that he hadde for his layse, or the close that 
he hadde for his commen pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with 
corne, and let the other lye for a time, and so shall he have 
always reist grounde, the which will bear moche corne with 
lytel donge; and also he shall have a great profyte of the wod 
in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only these profytes 
and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche more than 
al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, 
drinke and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and 
the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as 
chargeable as all his holle rente; and also his corne shall be 
better saved from eatinge or destroyeng with catel.  For dout 
ye nat but heerdemen with their catell, shepeherdes with their 
shepe, and tieng of horses and mares, destroyeth moch corne, 
the which the hedges wold save.  Paraduenture some men would 
say that this shuld be against the common weale, bicause the 
shepeherdes, heerdmen and swyne-herdes shuld than be put out of 
wages.  To that it may be answered. though these occupations 
be not used, there be as many newe occupations that were not 
used before; as getting of quicke settes. diching, hedging 
and plashing, the which the same men may use and occupye.'' 

The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is 
Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, 
published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 
Lord Molesworth recommended that it should be taught in 
schools.  In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, 
and then follows the Point of Housewifrie, occupying 42 
pages more.  It is written in verse.  Amidst much that is 
valueless there are some useful notices concerning the state 
of agriculture at the time in different parts of England.  
Hops, which had been introduced in the early part of the 16th 
century, and on the culture of which a treatise was published 
in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are mentioned as a well-known 
crop.  Buckwheat was sown after barley.  Hemp and flax 
are mentioned as common crops.  Enclosures must have been 
numerous in some counties; and there is a very good comparison 
between ``champion (open fields) country and several,'' 
which Blith afterwards transcribed into his Improver 
Improved.  Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape, not yet 
cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs 
and roots for the kitchen.  There is nothing to be found in 
Tusser about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works. 

In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated, with 
augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach.  Much stress 
is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of clover. 

Fitzherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the 
practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar 
in modern times of tenants ``who, if they should marl and 
make their holdings much better, fear lest they should be 
put out, or make a great fine or else pay more rent.'' This 
subject is treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's 
Dialogue (1st ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding 
notice.  The author, writing from the landowner's point of 
view, ascribes the rise in rents and the rise in the price 
of corn4 to the ``emulation'' of tenants in competing for 
holdings, a practice implying that the agriculture of the 
period was prosperous.  Norden's work contains many judicious 
observations on the ``different natures of grounds, how 
they may be employed, how they may be bettered, reformed and 
amended.'' The famous meadows near Salisbury are mentioned, 
where, when cattle have fed their fill, hogs, it is said, 
``are made fat with the remnant--namely, with the knots and 
sappe of the grasse.'' ``Clouer grasse, or the grasse honey 
suckle'' (white clover), is directed to be sown with other 
hay seeds. ``Carrot rootes'' were then raised in several 
parts of England, and sometimes by farmers.  London street 
and stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and 
appears from later writers to have been got for the trouble of 
removing.  Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons 
of small capital as better than employing it in purchasing 
land.  The works of Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel 
Plattes and other authors of the first half of the 17th 
century may be passed over, the best part of them being 
preserved by Blith and Hartlib, who are referred to below. 

Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant 
and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, and its 
title indicates the source to which England owed much of its 
subsequent agricultural advancement.  Weston was ambassador 
from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the 
merit of being the first who introduced the Great Clover, 
as it was then called, into English agriculture, about 
1652, and probably turnips also.  Clover thrives best, he 
says, when you sow it on the barrenest ground, such as the 
worst heath ground in England.  The ground is to be pared and 
burnt, and unslacked lime must be added to the ashes.  It 
is next to be well ploughed and harrowed; and about 10 lb. of 
clover seed must be sown on an acre in April or the end of 
March.  If you intend to preserve seed, then the second crop 
must be let stand till it come to a full and dead ripeness, and 
you shall have at the least five bushels per acre.  Being once 
sown, it will last five years; the land, when ploughed, will 
yield, three or four years together, rich crops of wheat, and 
after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is to be sown 
again.  It is in itself an excellent manure, Sir Richard 
adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this 
treatment.  Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly 
according to the present method, seems to have been well 
known in England, and it had also made its way to Ireland. 

A great many works on agriculture appeared during the time 
of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver 
Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legacie are the most 
valuable.  The first edition of the former was published 
in 1649, and of the latter in 1651; and both of them were 
enlarged in subsequent editions.  In the first edition of 
the Improver Improved no mention is made of clover, nor in 
the second of turnips, but in the third, clover is treated of 
at some length, and turnips are recommended as an excellent 
cattle crop, the culture of which should be extended from 
the kitchen garden to the field.  Sir Richard Weston must 
have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith says that 
Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine with 
them.  They were first given boiled, but afterwards the swine 
came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and 
pull them forth as they gathered them--an expression which 
conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields. 

Blith's book is the first systematic work in which there 
are some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of 
interposing clover and turnip between culmiferous crops.  
He is a great enemy to commons and common fields, and to 
retaining land in old pasture, unless it be of the best 
quality.  His description of the different kinds of ploughs is 
interesting; and he justly recommends such as were drawn by two 
horses (some even by one horse) in preference to the weighty 
and clumsy machines which required four or more horses or 
oxen.  The following passage indicates the contemporary 
theory of manuring:---``In thy tillage are these special 
opportunities to improve it, either by liming, marling, 
sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-codding, mucking, chalking, 
pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or by any other means 
as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by pitch marks, and 
tarry stuff, any oyly stuff, salt and many things more, yea 
indeed any thing almost that hath any liquidness, foulness, 
saltness or good moysture in it, is very naturall inrichment 
to almost any sort of land.'' Blith speaks of an instrument 
which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same time; and the 
setting of corn was then a subject of much discussion.  Blith 
was a zealous advocate of drainage and holds that drains to 
be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft. deep.  The drainage of 
the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted during the 17th 
century, but lack of engineering skill and the opposition of 
the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now fertile region. 

Hartlib's Legacie contains, among some very judicious directions, 
a great deal of rash speculation.  Several of the deficiencies 
which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be 
placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can be 
supplied.  Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable to 
the state of the country, and display more of general knowledge 
and good intention than of either the theory or practice of 
agriculture.  Among the subjects deserving notice may be 
mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as 
a preventive of smut; changing every year the Species of 
grain, and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down 
green crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and 
chaff.  This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about 
the advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. ``It were 
no losse to this island,'' he says, ``if that we should not 
plough at all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at 
a reasonable rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures 
of wool''; and one reason for this is, that pasture employs 
more hands than tillage, instead of depopulating the country, 
as was commonly imagined.  The Grout, which he mentions 
as ``coming over to us in Holland ships,'' about which he 
desires information, was probably the same as shelled barley; 
and mills for manufacturing it were introduced into Scotland 
from Holland towards the beginning of the 18th century. 

Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention must 
be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn, both men of 
great talent and research, whose works are still in high estimation. 

The first half of the 17th century was a period of agricultural 
activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed 
farms.  Marling and liming are again practised, new 
agricultural implements and manures introduced, and the 
new crops more widely used.  But the Civil War and the 
subsequent politicaldisturbances intervened to prevent the 
continuance of this progress, and the agriculture of the 
end of the century seems to have relapsed into stagnation. 

Scottish agriculture of the 17th century. 

Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and the 
greater part of the 17th century very little is known; no 
professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the 
Revolution.  The south-eastern counties were the earliest 
improved, and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very 
wretched.  Ray, who made a tour along the eastern coast in 
that year, says, ``We observed little or no fallow ground in 
Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they manured with sea 
wreck.  The men seemed to be very lazy, and may be frequently 
observed to plough in their cloaks.  It is the fashion of them 
to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especially on Sundays.  
They have neither good bread, cheese nor drink.  They cannot make 
them, nor will they learn.  Their butter is very indifferent, 
and one would wonder how they could contrive to make it so 
bad.  They use much pottage made of coal-wort, which they call 
kail, sometimes broth of decorticated barley.  The ordinary 
country-houses are pitiful cots, built of stone and covered with 
turfs, having in them but one room, many of them no chimneys, 
the windows very small holes and not glazed.  The ground in 
the valleys and plains bear very good corn, but especially 
bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye.'' 

It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland 
from the end of the 15th century, except that tenants gradually 
became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of 
having their farm stocked by the landlord. ``The minority of 
James V., the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and 
the civil wars of her grandson Charles I., were all periods of 
lasting waste.  The very laws which were made during successive 
reigns for protecting the tillers of the soil from spoil are 
the best proofs of the deplorable state of the husbandman.''5 

In the 17th century those laws were made which paved the 
way for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland.  By a 
statute of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes 
valued, and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, 
according to the nature of the property.  The statute of 1685, 
conferring on landlords a power to entail their estates, was 
indeed of a very different tendency in regard to its effects on 
agriculture.  But the two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons 
and separation of intermixed properties, facilitated improvements. 

Progress of agriculture from 1688 to 1760. 

From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the 
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as 
might be imagined from the great exportation of corn.  It is 
probable that very little improvement had taken place, either 
in the cultivation of the soil or in the management of live 
stock, from the Restoration down to the middle of the 18th 
century.  Clover and turnips were confined to a few districts, 
and at the latter period were scarcely cultivated at all by 
common farmers in the northern part of the island.  Of the writers 
of this period, therefore, it is necessary to notice only such 
as describe some improvement in the modes of culture, or some 
extension of the practices that were formerly little known. 

In John Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a 
periodical work begun in 1681, there is one of the earliest 
notices of turnips being eaten by sheep:----``Some in Essex have 
their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, 
by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made capable 
to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the 
nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it runs about and 
fertilizes.  By feeding the sheep, the land is dunged as if 
it had been folded; and those turnips, though few or none be 
carried off for human use, are a very excellent improvement, 
nay, some reckon it so, though they only plough the turnips 
in without feeding.'' This was written in February 1694.  Ten 
years before, John Worlidge, one of his correspondents, and 
the author of the Systema Agriculturae (1669), observes, 
``Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an excellent 
nourishment for them in hard winters when fodder is scarce; for 
they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in the 
ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin.  Ten acres 
(he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many 
sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done.'' 

The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole Art of Husbandry, 
a regular, systematic work of considerable merit, was published in 1707. 

From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that 
clover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that 
this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very 
common about the beginning of the 18th century, wherever clover was 
cultivated.  Rye-grass was now sown along with it.  Turnips were 
hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding sheep and cattle. 

The first considerable improvement in the practice of 
that period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of 
Berkshire, who about the year 1701 invented the drill, and 
whose Horse-hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits 
the first decided step in advance upon the principles and 
practices of his predecessors.  Not contented with a careful 
attention to details, Tull set himself, with admirable skill 
and perseverance, to investigate the growth of plants, and 
thus to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which 
the cultivation of field-crops should be regulated.  Having 
arrived at the conclusion that the food of plants consists 
of minute particles of earth taken up by their rootlets, it 
followed that the more thoroughly the soil in which they grew 
was disintegrated, the more abundant would be the ``pasture'' 
(as he called it) to which their fibres would have access.  
He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing his crops in 
rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the 
intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until 
they had well-nigh arrived at maturity.  Such reliance did he 
place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many 
as thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure. 

As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than 
was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he 
begins by showing that these roots extend much farther than 
is commonly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the 
nature of their food.  After examining several hypotheses, 
he decides this to be fine particles of earth.  The chief 
and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to divide the 
earth, to dissolve ``this terrestrial matter, which affords 
nutriment to the mouths of vegetable roots''; and this can be 
done more completely by tillage.  It is therefore necessary not 
only to pulverize the soil by repeated ploughings before it be 
seeded, but, as it becomes gradually more and more compressed 
afterwards, recourse must be had to tillage while the plants 
are growing; and this is hoeing, which also destroys the 
weeds that would deprive the plants of their nourishment. 

The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice 
of laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., 
and upon the middle of these drilling one, two, or three 
rows, distant from one another about 7 in. when there were 
three, and 10 in. when only two.  The distance of the plants 
on one ridge from those on the contiguous one he called 
an interval; the distance between the rows on the same 
ridge, a space or partition; the former was stirred 
repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by the hand-hoe. 

``Hoeing,'' he says, ``may be divided into deep, which is our 
horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing; 
and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt 
rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 
inches.  This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a 
succenadeum to it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor 
fallow, and may be properly called scratch-hoeing.'' But in 
his mode of forming ridges his practice seems to have been 
original; his implements, especially his drill, display much 
ingenuity; and his claim to the title of founder of the present 
horse-hoeing husbandry of Great Britain seems indisputable. 

Contemporary with Tull was Charles, 2nd Viscount Townshend, 
a typical representative of the large landowners to whom 
the strides made by agriculture in the 18th century were 
due.  The class to which he belonged was the only one which 
could afford to initiate improvements.  The bulk of the land 
was still farmed by small tenants on the old common-field 
system, which made it impossible for the individual to adopt 
a new crop rotation and hindered innovation of every kind.  
On the other hand, the small farmers who occupied separated 
holdings were deterred from improving by the fear of a rise in 
rent.  Townshend's belief in the growing of turnips gained 
him the nickname of ``Turnip Townshend.'' In their cultivation 
he adopted Tull's practice of drilling and horse-hoeing, 
and he was also the founder of the Norfolk or four-course 
system, the first of those rotations which dispense with 
the necessity of a summer-fallow and provide winter-keep for 
live-stock (see below, Rotation of Crops).  The spread of 
these principles in Norfolk made it, according to Arthur Young 
(writing in 1770), one of the best cultivated counties in 
England.  In the latter half of the century another Norfolk 
farmer, Thomas William Coke of Holkham, earl of Leicester, 
(1752-1842), figures as a pioneer of high-farming.  He was one 
of the first to use oil-cake and bone-manure, to distinguish 
the feeding values of grasses, to appreciate to the full the 
beneficial effects of stock on light lands and to realize 
the value of long leases as an incentive to good farming. 

Agriculture in Scotland in the 18th century. 

Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the 
end of the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant.  
The first work, written by James Donaldson, was printed in 
1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or, Inquiry 
into the Present Manner of Tilling and Manuring the Ground in 
Scotland.  It appears from this treatise that the state of 
the art was not more advanced at that time in North Britain 
than it had been in England in the time of Fitzherbert.  Farms 
were divided into infield and outfield; corn crops followed 
one another without the intervention of fallow, cultivated 
herbage or turnips, though something is said about fallowing 
the outfield; enclosures were very rare; the tenantry had not 
begun to emerge from a state of great poverty and depression; 
and the wages of labour, compared with the price of corn, 
were much lower than at present, though that price, at least 
in ordinary years, must appear extremely moderate in our 
times.  Leases for a term of years, however, were not 
uncommon; but the want of capital rendered it impossible 
for the tenantry to attempt any spirited improvements. 

The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is The Countryman's 
Rudiments, or Advice to the Farmers in East Lothian, how to 
labour and improve their Grounds, said to have been written 
by John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven about the time of the 
Union, and reprinted in 1723.  The author bespeaks the favour of 
those to whom he addresses himself in the following significant 
terms:---``Neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditching, 
marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, watering and 
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, and 
very agreeable with the soil and situation of East Lothian, 
but I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of improvements, this 
being only intended to initiate you in the true method and 
principles of husbandry.'' The farm-rooms in East Lothian, as 
in other districts, were divided into infield and outfield. 

``The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by 
the tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, 
viz. one of wheat, one of barley, one of pease and one of 
oats, so that the wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley 
after the wheat and the oats after the barley.  The outfield 
land is ordinarily made use of promiscuously for feeding of 
their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis also dunged by their 
sheep who lay in earthen folds; and sometimes, when they 
have much of it, they fauch or fallow a part of it yearly.'' 

Under this management the produce seems to have been three 
times the seed; and yet, says the writer, ``if in East Lothian 
they did not leave a higher stubble than in other places of the 
kingdom, their grounds would be in a much worse condition than 
at present they are, though bad enough.'' ``A good crop of corn 
makes a good stubble, and a good stubble is the equalest mucking 
that is.'' Among the advantages of enclosures, he observes, 
``you will gain much more labour from your servants, a great 
part of whose time was taken up in gathering thistles and other 
garbage for their horses to feed upon in their stables; and 
thereby the great trampling and pulling up and other destruction 
of the corns while they are yet tender will be prevented.'' 
Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be sown in the yard 
(kitchen-garden).  Clover does not seem to have been in 
use.  Rents were paid in corn; and for the largest farm, which 
he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the rent was 
about six chalders of victual ``when the ground is very good, 
and four in that which is not so good.  But I am most fully 
convinced they should take long leases or tacks, that they 
may not be straitened with time in the improvement of their 
rooms; and this is profitable both for master and tenant.'' 

Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the early 
part of the 18th century.  The first attempts at improvement 
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of 
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title 
of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture 
in Scotland.  John, 2nd earl of Stair, one of their most 
active members, is said to have been the first who cultivated 
turnips in that country.  The Select Transactions of this 
society were collected and published in 1743 by Robert Maxwell, 
who took a large part in its proceedings.  It is evident from 
this book that the society had exerted itself with success 
in introducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as 
in improving the former methods of culture.  But there is 
reason to believe that the influence of the example of its 
numerous members did not extend to the common tenantry, who 
not unnaturally were reluctant to adopt the practices of those 
by whom farming was perhaps regarded as primarily a source 
of pleasure rather than of profit.  Though this society, 
the earliest probably in the United Kingdom, soon counted 
upwards of 300 members, it existed little more than 20 years. 

In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection we are told that-- 

``The practice of draining, enclosing, summer fallowing, sowing 
flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, planting cabbages 
after, and potatoes with, the plough, in fields of great extent, 
is introduced; and that, according to the general opinion, 
more corn grows now yearly where it was never known to grow 
before, these twenty years last past, than perhaps a sixth of 
all that the kingdom was in use to produce at any time before.'' 

In 1757 Maxwell issued another work entitled The Practical 
Husbandman; being a collection of miscellaneous papers 
on Husbandry, &c. In it the greater part of the Select 
Transactions is republished, with a number of new papers, 
among which an Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, 
with a proposal for the improvement of it, is the most 
valuable.  In this he lays it down as a rule that it is 
bad husbandry to take two crops of grain successively, 
which marks a considerable progress in the knowledge of 
modern husbandry; though he adds that in Scotland the best 
husbandmen after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after the 
wheat, peas; then barley, and then oats; and after that they 
fallow again.  The want of enclosures was still a matter of 
complaint.  The ground continued to be cropped so long 
as it produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented 
with four seeds, which was more than the general produce. 

1760 to 1815. 

The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon after 
the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of population and of 
wealth derived from manufactures and commerce, gave a powerful 
stimulus to rural industry, augmented agricultural capital and 
called forth a more skilful and enterprising race of farmers. 

A more rational system of cropping now began to take the 
place of the thriftless and barbarous practice of sowing 
successive crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, 
and then leaving it foul with weeds to recover its pover 
by an indefinite period of rest.  Green crops, such as 
turnips, clover and rye. grass, began to be alternated 
with grain crops, whence the name alternate husbandry. 

The writings of Arthur Young (q.v.), secretary to the Board of 
Agriculture, describe the transition from the old to the new 
agriculture.  In many places turnips and clover were still 
unknown or ignored.  Large districts still clung to the old 
common-field system, to the old habits of ploughing with teams 
of four or eight, and to slovenly methods of cultivation.  
Young's condemnation of these survivals was as pronounced as 
his support of the methods of the large farmers to whom he 
ascribed the excellence of the husbandry of Kent, Norfolk and 
Essex.  He realized that with the enclosure of the waste 
lands and the absorption of small into large holdings, the 
common-field farmer must migrate to the town or become a 
hired labourer; but he also realized that to feed a rapidly 
growing industrial population, the land must be improved by 
draining, marling, manuring and the use of better implements, 
in short by the investment of the capital which the yeoman 
farmer, content to feed himself and his own family, did not 
possess.  The enlargement of farms, and in Scotland the 
letting of them under leases for a considerable term of 
years, continued to be a marked feature in the agricultural 
progress of the country until the end of the century, and 
is to be regarded both as a cause and a consequence of that 
progress.  The passing of some 3500 enclosure bills, 
affecting between 5 and 5 1/2 million acres, during the 
reign of George III., before which the whole number was 
between 200 and 250, shows how rapidly the break-up of the 
common-field husbandry and the cultivation of new land now 
proceeded.  The disastrous American War for a time interfered 
with the national prosperity; but with the return of peace 
in 1783 the cultivation of the country made more rapid 
progress.  The quarter of a century immediately following 
1760 is memorable for the introduction of various important 
improvements.  It was during this period that the genius of 
Robert Bakewell produced an extraordinary change in the character 
of our more important breeds of live stock, more especially 
by the perfecting of a new race of sheep--the well-known 
Leicesters.  Bakewell's fame as a breeder was for a time 
enhanced by the improvement which he effected on the Long-horned 
cattle, then the prevailing breed of the midland counties of 
England.  These, however, were ere long rivalled and afterwards 
superseded by the Shorthorn or Durham breed, which the 
brothers Charles and Robert Colling obtained from the useful 
race of cattle that had long existed in the valley of the 
Tees, by applying to them the principle of breeding which 
Bakewell had already established.  To this period also belong 
George and Matthew Culley--the former a pupil of Bakewell-- 
who left their paternal property on the bank of the Tees and 
settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing with 
them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved husbandry 
of their native district.  The improvements introduced by 
these energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and 
exerted a most beneficial influence upon the border counties. 

From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced with steady steps.  
This period was distinguished for the adoption and working out 
of ascertained improvements.  Small's swing plough and Andrew 
Meikle's threshing-machine, although invented some years before 
this, were now perfected and brought into general use, to the 
great furtherance of agriculture.  Two important additions 
were about this time made to the field crops, viz. the Swedish 
turnip and potato oat.  The latter was accidentally discovered 
in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation.  In the 
same year Merino sheep were introduced by George III., who 
was a zealous farmer.  For a time this breed attracted much 
attention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that 
it would prove of national importance.  Its unfitness for the 
production of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing 
wool from other countries, soon led to its total rejection. 

In Scotland the opening up of the country by the construction 
of practicable roads, and the enclosing and subdividing 
of farms by hedge and ditch, was now in active progress.  
The former admitted of the general use of wheel-carriages, 
of the ready conveyance of produce to markets, and in 
particular of the extended use of lime, the application 
of which was immediately followed by a great increase of 
produce.  The latter, besides its more obvious advantages, 
speedily freed large tracts of country from stagnant water 
and their inhabitants from ague, and prepared the way 
for the underground draining which soon after began to be 
practised.  Dawson of Frogden in Roxburghshire is believed to 
have been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to any 
extent.  It is on record that as early as 1764 he had 100 acres 
of drilled turnips on his farm in one year.  An Act passed in 
1770, which relaxed the rigour of strict entails and afforded 
power to landlords to grant leases and otherwise improve their 
estates, had a beneficial effect on Scottish agriculture. 

The husbandry of the country was thus steadily improving, when 
suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars of 
the French Revolution.  In 1795, under the joint operation 
of a deficient harvest and the diminution in foreign supplies 
of grain owing to outbreak of war, the price of wheat, 
which, for the twenty preceding years, had been under 50s. a 
quarter, suddenly rose to 81s. 6d., and in the following year 
reached 96s. In 1797 the fear of foreign invasion led to a 
panic and run upon the banks, in which emergency the Bank 
Restriction Act, suspending cash payment, was passed, and 
ushered in a system of unlimited credit transactions.  Under 
the unnatural stimulus of these extra-ordinary events, every 
branch of industry extended with unexampled rapidity.  But 
in nothing was this so apparent as in agriculture; the high 
prices of produce holding out a great inducement to improve 
lands then arable, to reclaim others that had previously lain 
waste, and to bring much pasture-land under the plough.  Nor 
did this increased tillage interfere with the increase of 
live stock, as the green crops of the alternate husbandry 
more than compensated for the diminished pasturage.  This 
extraordinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 1814, the 
prices of produce even increasing towards the close of that 
period.  The average price of wheat for the whole period 
was 89s. 7d. per quarter; but for the last five years it was 
107s., and in 1812 it reached 126s. 6d. The agriculture 
of Great Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides 
during this period; but nowhere was the change so great as in 
Scotland.  Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty 
years, is probably without parallel in the history of any 
other country.  This is accounted for by a concurrence of 
circumstances.  Previous to this period the husbandry of 
Scotland was still in a backward state as compared with the 
best districts of England, where many practices, only of 
recent introduction in the north, had been in general use for 
generations.  This disparity made the subsequent contrast the 
more striking.  The land in Scotland was now, with trifling 
exceptions, let on leases for terms varying from twenty to 
thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size to employ at 
the least two or three ploughs.  The unlimited issues of 
government paper and the security afforded by these leases 
induced the Scottish banks to afford every facility to landlords 
and tenants to embark capital in the improvement of the 
land.  The substantial education supplied by the parish 
schools, of which nearly the whole population could then avail 
themselves, had diffused through all ranks such a measure of 
intelligence as enabled them promptly to dhscern and skilfully 
and energetically to take advantage of this spring-tide of 
prosperity, and to profit by the agricultural information now 
plentifully furnished by means of the Bath and West of England 
Society, established in 1777; the Highland Society, instituted 
in 1784; and the National Board of Agriculture, in 1793. 

1815 to 1875. 

The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of 
the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the beginning of another era in 
the history of agriculture.  The sudden return to peace-prices 
was followed by a time of severe depression, low wages, 
diminished rents and bad farming.  The fall in prices was 
aggravated, first by the unpropitious weather and deficient 
harvest of the years 1816, 1817, and still more by the passing 
in 1819 of the bill restoring cash payments, which, coming 
into operation in 1821, caused serious embarrassment to all 
persons who had entered into engagements at a depreciated 
currency, which had now to be met with the lower prices of 
an enhanced one.  The frequency of select-committees and 
commissions, which sat in 1814, 1821 and 1822, 1833 and 1836, 
testifies to the gravity of the crisis.  The years 1830-1833 
are especially memorable for a disastrous outbreak of sheep-rot 
and for agrarian outrages, caused partly by the dislike of 
the labourers to the introduction of agricultural machines. 

During this period of depression, which lasted till the 'forties, 
want of confidence prevented any general improvement in agricultural 
methods.  At the same time, certain developments destined 
to exercise considerable influence in later times are to be 
noted.  Before the close of the 18th century, and during the 
first quarter of the 19th, a good deal had been done in the 
way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James 
Elkington's system of deep covered drains.  In 1834 James Smith 
of Deanston promulgated his system of thorough draining and 
deep ploughing, the adoption of which immeasurably improved 
the clay lands of the country.  The early years of the reign 
of Queen Victoria witnessed the strengthening of the union 
between agriculture and chemistry.  The Board of Agriculture 
in 1803 had commissioned Sir Humphry Davy to deliver a course 
of lectures on the connexion of chemistry with vegetable 
physiology.  In 1840 the appearance of Chemistry in its 
Application to Agriculture and Physiology by Justus von 
Liebig set on foot a movement in favour of scientific husbandry, 
the most notable outcome of which was the establishment by 
Sir John Bennet Lawes in 1843 of the experimental station of 
Rothamsted.  Since Blith's time bone was the one new fertilizer 
that had come into use.  Nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano 
and superphosphate of lime in the form of bones dissolved 
by sulphuric acid were now added to the list of manures, and 
the practice of analysing soils became more general.  Manual 
labour in farming operations began to be superseded by the 
use of drills, hay-makers and horse-rakes, chaff-cutters and 
root-pulpers.  The reaping-machine, invented in 1812 by John 
Common, improved upon by the Rev. Patrick Bell in England 
and by Cyrus H. McCormick and others in America, and finally 
perfected about 1879 by the addition of an efficient self-binding 
apparatus, is the most striking example of the application 
of mechanics to agriculture.  Improvements in the plough, 
harrow and roller were introduced, adapting those implements 
to different soils and purposes.  The steam-engine first took 
the place of horses as a threshing power in 1803, but it was 
not until after 1850 that it was applied to the plough and 
cultivator.  The employment of agricultural machines 
received considerable impetus from the Great Exhibition of 
1851.  The much-debated Corn Laws, after undergoing various 
modifications, and proving the fruitful source of business 
uncertainty, social discontent and angry partisanship, were 
finally abolished in 1846, although the act was not consummated 
until three years later.  Several other acts of the legislature 
passed during this period exerted a beneficial influence on 
agriculture.  Of these, the first in date and importance 
is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836.  Improvement was also 
stimulated by the Public Money Drainage Acts 1846-1856, under 
which government was empowered to advance money on certain 
conditions for the improvement of estates.  Additional 
facilities were granted by the act passed in 1848 for 
disentailing estates, and for burdening such as are entailed 
with the share of the cost of certain specified improvements. 

Meanwhile much had been done in the organization of agricultural 
knowledge.  Mention has already been made of the institution 
of the Highland Society and the National Board of Agriculture.  
These institutions were the means of collecting a vast amount of 
statistical and general information connected with agriculture, 
and by their publications and premiums made known the practices 
of the best-farmed districts and encouraged their adoption 
elsewhere.  These associations were soon aided in their important 
labours by numerous local societies which sprang up in all 
parts of the kingdom.  After a highly useful career, under 
the presidency till 1813 of Sir John Sinclair, the Board of 
Agriculture was dissolved in 1819, but left in its statistical 
account, county surveys and other documents much interesting 
and valuable information regarding the agriculture of the 
period.  In 1800 the original Farmer's Magazine came into 
existence under the editorship of Robert Brown of Markle, 
the author of the well-known treatise on Rural Affairs.  
The Highland Society having early extended its operations 
to the whole of Scotland, by and by made a corresponding 
addition to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural 
Society of Scotland gradually extended its operations.  In 
1828, shortly after the discontinuance of the Farmers' 
Magazine, its Prize Essays and Transactions began to be 
issued statedly in connexion with the Quarterly Journal of 
Agriculture.  This society early began to hold a great show 
of live stock, implements, &c. In 1842 certain Midlothian 
tenant-farmers had the merit of originating an Agricultural 
Chemistry Association (the first of its kind), by which funds 
were raised for the purpose of conducting such investigations 
as the title of the society implies.  After a successful trial 
of a few years this association was dissolved, transferring 
its functions to the Highland and Agricultural Society. 

In England the Agricultural Society was founded in 1838, with 
the motto ``Practice with Science,'' and shortly afterwards 
incorporated by royal charter.  In 1845 the Royal Agricultural 
College at Cirencester was incorporated.  This era of revival 
was not, however, without its calamities.  The foot-and-mouth 
disease first appeared about 1840, having been introduced, 
as is supposed, by foreign cattle.  It spread rapidly over 
the country, affecting all domesticated animals except 
horses, and although seldom attended by fatal results, caused 
everywhere great alarm and loss.  It was soon followed by the 
more terrible lung-disease, or pleuro-pneumonia.  In 1865 the 
rinderpest, or steppe murrain, originating amongst the vast 
herds of the Russian steppes, had spread westward over Europe, 
until it was brought to London by foreign cattle.  Several 
weeks elapsed before the true character of the disease was 
known, and in this brief space it had already been carried 
by animals purchased in Smithfield market to all parts of the 
country.  After causing the most frightful losses, it 
was at last stamped out by the resolute slaughter of all 
affected animals and of all that had been in contact with 
them.  Severe as were the losses in flocks and herds from 
these imported diseases, they were eclipsed by the ravages 
of the mysterious potato blight, which, first appearing 
in 1845, pervaded the whole of Europe, and in Ireland 
especially proved the precursor of famine and pestilence. 

A short period of low prices followed the repeal of the Corn 
Laws, wheat averaging only 38s. 6d. a quarter in 1851, but 
the years from 1852 to 1875 were the most prosperous of the 
century.  The letters written by Sir James Caird to The 
Times during 1850, and republished in 1852 under the title 
English Agriculture in 1850-1851, give a general review of 
English agriculture at the time.  The scientific and mechanical 
improvements of the first half of the century were widely 
adopted, while the prices of the protectionist period showed 
little decline.  Amelioration in all breeds of domesticated 
animals was manifested, not so much in the production of 
individual specimens of high merit as in the diffusion of 
these and other good breeds over the country, and in the 
improved quality of live stock as a whole.  The fattening of 
animals was conducted on more scientific principles.  Increased 
attention was successfully bestowed on the improvement of field 
crops.  Improved varieties, obtained by cross-impregnation 
either naturally or artificially brought about, were carefully 
propagated and generally adopted, and increased attention was 
bestowed on the cultivation of the natural grasses.  The most 
important additions to the list of field crops were Italian 
rye-grass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot and alsike clover. 

Agriculture since 1875. 

The last quarter of the 19th century proved, however, a 
fateful period for British agriculture.  The great future 
that seemed to await the application of steam power to the 
tillage of the soil proved illusory.  The clay soils of 
England, the latent fertility of which was to be brought into 
play in a fashion that should mightily augment the home-grown 
supplies of food, remained intractable, and the extent of 
land devoted to the cultivation of corn crops, instead of 
expanding, diminished in a marked degree.  British farmers of 
long experience look back to 1874 as the last of the really 
good years, and consider that the palmy days of British 
agriculture began to dwindle at about that time.  The shadow 
of the approaching depression had already fallen upon the 
land before the year 1875 had run its course, and the outlook 
became ominous as the decade of the 'seventies neared its 
close.  One memorable feature was associated with 1877 in 
that this was the last year in which the dreaded cattle plague 
(rinderpest) made its appearance in England.  The same year, 
1877, was the last also in which the annual average price of 
English wheat (then 56s. 9d.) exceeded 50s. a quarter.  With 
declining prices for farm produce came that year of unhappy 
memory, 1879, when persistent rains and an almost sunless 
summer ruined the crops and reduced many farmers to a state of 
destitution.  Much of the grain was never harvested, whilst 
owing mainly to the excessive floods there commenced an 
outbreak of liver-rot in sheep, due to the ravages of the 
fluke parasite.  This continued for several years, and the 
mortality was so great that its adverse effects upon the ovine 
population of the country were still perceptible ten years 
afterwards.  A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of 
the agricultural distress, to inquire into which a royal 
commission was appointed in 1879, under the chairmanship 
of the duke of Richmond and Gordon.  Its report, published 
in 1882, testified to ``the great extent and intensity 
of the distress which has fallen upon the agricultural 
community.  Owners and occupiers have alike suffered from 
it.  No description of estate or tenure has been exempted.  
The owner in fee and life tenant, the occupier, whether of 
large or of small holding, whether under lease, or custom, or 
agreement, or the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings 
Act--all without distinction have been involved in a general 
calamity.'' The two most prominent causes assigned for the 
depression were bad seasons and foreign competition, aggravated 
by the increased cost of production and the heavy losses of live 
stock.  Abundant evidence was forthcoming as to the extent 
to which agriculture had been injuriously affected ``by an 
unprecedented succession of bad seasons.'' As regards the 
pressure of foreign competition, it was stated to be greatly 
in excess of the anticipations of the supporters, and of the 
apprehensions of the opponents of the repeal of the Corn Laws.  
Whereas formerly the farmer was to some extent compensated by 
a higher price for a smaller yield, in recent years he had had 
to compete with an unusually large supply at greatly reduced 
prices.  On the other hand, he had enjoyed the advantage of an 
extended supply of feeding-stuffs---such as maize, linseedcake 
and cotton-cake---and of artificial manures imported from 
abroad.  The low price of agricultural produce, beneficial 
though it might be to the general community, had lessened the 
ability of the land to bear the proportion of taxation which 
had heretofore been imposed upon it.  The legislative outcome 
of the findings of this royal commission was the Agricultural 
Holdings Act 1883, a measure which continued in force in 
its entirety till 1901, when a new act came into operation. 

The apparently hopeless outlook for corn-growing compelled 
farmers to cast about for some other means of subsistence, and to 
rely more than they had hitherto done upon the possibilities of 
stock-breeding.  It was in particular the misfortunes of the 
later 'seventies that gave the needed fillip to that branch of 
stock-farming concerned with the production of milk, butter and 
cheese, and from this period may be said to date the revival of 
the dairying industry, which received a powerful impetus through 
the introduction of the centrifugal cream separator, and was 
fostered by the British Dairy Farmers' Association (formed in 
1875).  The generally wet character of the seasons in 1879 
and the two or three years following was mainly responsible 
for the high prices of meat, so that the supplies of fresh 
beef and mutton from Australia which now began to arrive found 
a ready market, and the trade in imported fresh meat which 
was thus commenced has practically continued to expand ever 
since.  The great losses arising from spoilt hay crops served 
to stimulate experimental inquiry into the method of preserving 
green fodder known as ensilage, with the result that the 
system eventually became successfully incorporated in the 
ordinary routine of agricultural practice.  A contemporaneous 
effort in the direction of drying hay by artificial means 
led to nothing of practical importance.  By 1882 the cry as 
to land going out of cultivation became loud and general, 
and the migration of the rural population into the towns in 
search of work continued unchecked (see below, Agricultural 
Population) . In 1883 foot-and-mouth disease was terribly 
rampant amongst the herds and flocks of Great Britain, and 
was far more prevalent than it has ever been since.  It was 
about this time that the first experiments were made (in 
Germany) with basic slag, a material which had hitherto been 
regarded as a worthless by-product of steel manufacture.  A 
year or two later field trials were begun in England, with 
the final result that basic slag has become recognized as a 
valuable source of phosphorus for growing crops, and is now in 
constant demand for application to the soil as a fertilizer. 

In 1883 the veterinary department of the Privy Council--which 
had been constituted in 1865 when the country was ravaged by 
cattle plague---was abolished by order in council, and the 
``Agricultural Department'' was substituted, but no alteration was 
effected in the work of the department, so far as it related to 
animals.  In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for Great Britain) 
was formed under an act of parliament of that year (see 
AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF).  The election took place in the same 
year (1889) of the first county councils, and the allotment to 
them of various sums of money under the Local Taxation (Customs 
and Excise) Act 1890 enabled local provision to be made for 
the promotion of technical instruction in agriculture (see 
below, Agricultural Education.) It was about this time that 
the value of a mixture of lime and sulphate of copper (bouillie 
bordelaise), sprayed in solution upon the growing plants, came 
to be recognized as a check upon the ravages of potato disease. 

The general experience of the decade of the 'eighties 
was that of disappointing summers, harsh winters, falling 
prices, declining rents and the shrinkage of land values.  
It is true that one season of the series, that of 1887, was 
hot and droughty, but the following summer was exceedingly 
wet.  Nevertheless, the decade closed more hopefully than it 
opened, and found farmers taking a keener interest in grass 
land, in live stock and in dairying.  Cattle-breeders did 
well in 1889, but sheep-breeders fared better; on the other 
hand, owing to receding prices, corn growers were more 
disheartened than ever.  With the incoming of the last decade 
of the century there seemed to be some justifiable hopes of 
the dawn of better times, but they were speedily doomed to 
disappointment.  In 1891 excessively heavy autumn rains washed 
the arable soils to such an extent that the next season's 
corn crops were below average.  Wheat in particular was a 
poor crop in 1892, and the low yield was associated with 
falling prices due to large imports.  The hay crop was very 
inferior, and in some cases it was practically ruined.  This 
gave a stimulus to the trade in imported hay, which rose 
from 61,237 tons in 1892 to 263,050 tons in 1893, and despite 
some large home-grown crops in certain subsequent years (1897 
and 1898) this expansion has never since been wholly lost. 

The misfortunes of 1892 proved to be merely a preparation for the 
disasters of 1893, in which year occurred the most destructive 
drought within living memory.  Its worst effects were seen 
upon the light land farms of England, and so deplorable was 
the position that a royal commission on agricultural depression 
was appointed in September of that year under the chairmanship 
of Mr Shaw Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley).  Thus, within 
the last quarter of the 19th century--and, as a matter of 
fact, only fourteen years apart--two royal commissions on 
agriculture were appointed, the one in a year of memorable 
flood, 1879, and the other in a year of disastrous drought, 
1893.  The report of the commission of 1893 was issued in March 
1896.  Amongst its chief recommendations were those relating 
to amendments in the Agricultural Holdings Acts, and to 
tithe rent-charge, railway rates, damage by game, sale of 
adulterated products, and sale of imported goods (meat, 
for example) as home produce.  Two legislative enactments 
arose out of the work of this commission.  In the majority 
report it was stated ``that, in order to place agricultural 
lands in their right position as compared with other ratable 
properties, it is essential that they should be assessed 
to all local rates in a reduced proportion of their ratable 
value.'' The Agricultural Rates Act 1896 gave effect to this 
recommendation.  Its objects were to relieve agricultural 
land from half the local rates, and to provide the means of 
making good out of imperial funds the deficiency in local 
taxation caused thereby.  It was provided that the act should 
continue in force only till the 31st of March 1902, but a 
further act in 1901 extended the period by four years, and 
in 1905 its operation was extended to the 31st of March 
1910.  The other measure arising out of the report of the 
royal commission of 1893 was the Agricultural Holdings Act 
1900.  This was an amending act and not a consolidating act; 
consequently it had to be read as if incorporated into the 
already existing acts.  As affecting agricultural practice there 
were three noteworthy improvements in respect of the making 
of which, without the consent of or notice to his landlord, 
a tenant might claim compensation---(1) the consumption on 
the holding ``by horses, other than those regularly employed 
on the holding,'' of corn, cake or other feeding-stuff 
not produced on the holding; (2) the ``consumption on the 
holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than 
those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by 
satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on 
the holding''; (3) ``laying down temporary pasture with clover, 
grass, lucerne, sainfoin or other seeds sown more than two 
years prior to the determination of the tenancy.'' A further 
act was passed in 1906 (the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906) 
which improved the tenant's position in respect of freedom of 
cropping, disposal of produce and compensation for disturbance. 

After 1894, in which year the brilliant prospects of a bountiful 
harvest were ultimately extinguished by untimely and heavy 
rains, all the remaining seasons of the closing decade of 
the 19th century were dominated by drought.  A fact that was 
amply illustrated, moreover, is that the period of incidence 
of a drought is not less important than its duration, and 
the same is true of abnormal rainfall.  A spring drought, a 
summer drought, an autumn drought, each has its distinctive 
characteristics in so far as the effect upon the crops is 
concerned.  The hot drought of 1893 extended over the spring 
and summer months, but there was an abundant rainfall in the 
autumn; correspondingly there was an unprecedentedly bad yield 
of corn and hay crops, but a moderately fair yield of the main 
root crops (turnips and swedes).  In 1899 the drought became 
most intense in the autumn after the corn crops had been 
harvested, but during the chief period, of growth of the root 
crops; correspondingly the corn crops of that year rank very 
well amongst the crops of the decade, but the yield of turnips 
and swedes was the worst on record.  It is quite possible 
for a hot dry season to be associated with a large yield of 
corn, provided the drought is confined to a suitable period, 
as was the case in 1896 and still more so in 1898; the English 
wheat crops in those years were probably the biggest in yield 
per acre that had been harvested since 1868, which is always 
looked back upon as a remarkable year for wheat.  The drought 
of 1898 was interrupted by copious rains in June, and these 
falling on a warm soil led to a rapid growth of grass and, as 
measured by yield per acre, an exceedingly heavy crop of hay. 

With the exceptions of 1891 and 1894, every year in the period 
1891-1900 was stricken by drought.  The two meteorological 
events of the decade which will probably live longest in the 
recollection were, however, the terrible drought of 1893, 
resulting in a fodder famine in the succeeding winter, and 
the severe frost of ten weeks' duration at the beginning of 
1895.  Between these two occurrences came the disastrous 
decline in the value of grain in the autumn of 1894, when 
the weekly average price of English wheat fell to the record 
minimum of 17s. 6d. per imperial quarter.  As a consequence, 
the extent of land devoted to wheat in the British Isles 
receded in 1895 to less than 1 1/2 million acres.  The year 
1903 was memorable for a very heavy rainfall, comparable 
though not equal in its disastrous effects to that of 1879.  
Successful trials of sulphate of copper solution as a means 
of destroying charlock in corn crops took place in the years 
1898-1900.  Charlock is a most persistent cruciferous weed, 
but if sprayed when young with the solution named it is 
killed, the corn plants being uninjured.  In 1901 the formation 
of the Agricultural Organization Society marked the first 
systematic attempt to organize co-operation among the farmers 
of Great Britain.  In the subsequent years the principle, 
which had already made great progress in Ireland, began to 
obtain a hold in England and Wales, where, in 1906, there 
were 145 local co-operative societies with a turn-over of 

Amongst legislative measures of importance to agriculturists 
mention should be made, in addition to those that have been 
referred to, of the Tithe Rent-charge Recovery Act 1891, 
which transfers the liability for payment of tithe from 
the occupier to the owner.  In the same year was passed the 
Markets and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Act. The object of 
the Small Holdings Act 1892 was to facilitate the acquisition 
of small agricultural holdings.  It provided that a county 
council might acquire any suitable land, with the object of 
allotting from one to fifty acres, or, if more than fifty 
acres, of an annual value not exceeding L. 50, to persons who 
desired to buy, and would themselves cultivate, the holdings.  
If, owing to proximity to a town or otherwise, the prospective 
value were too high, the council might hire such land for the 
purpose of letting it. (See ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS 
for this and other acts.) The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs 
Act 1893 compelled sellers of fertilizers (i.e. manures), 
manufactured or imported, to state the percentage of the 
nitrogen, of the soluble and insoluble phosphates, and of 
the potash in each article sold, and this statement was to 
have the effect of a warranty.  Similar stringent conditions 
applied as regards the sale of feeding-stuffs for live 
stock.  The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1906, amending 
and re-enacting the act of 1893, provided for the compulsory 
appointment by county councils of official samplers.  It 
also provides penalties for breaches of duty by the seller, 
but grants him protection in cases where he is not morally 
responsible.  The Finance Act of 1894, with its great changes 
in the death duties, overshadowed all other acts of that 
year both in its immediate effects and in its far-reaching 
consequences.  The Copyhold Consolidation Act 1894 supersedes 
six previous copyhold statutes, but does not effect any 
alteration in the law concerning enfranchisement.  The 
Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided for the compulsory 
slaughter of imported live stock at the place of landing.  
The Light Railways Act and the Locomotives on Highways Act 
were added to the statute book in 1896, and various clauses 
in the Finance Act effected reforms in respect of the death 
duties, the land-tax, farmers' income-tax and the beer 
duty.  The Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897 is 
a measure very similar in its intention to the Threshing 
Machines Act 1878, and provides for the automatic prevention 
of accidents to persons in charge of chaff-cutting machines.  
The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899 has special reference 
in its earlier sections to the trade in dairy produce and 
margarine.  In 1899 was also passed the act establishing the 
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction in Ireland. 

The year 1900 saw the passing of a Workmen's Compensation Act, which 
extended the benefits of the act of 1807 to agricultural labourers. 

         Acreage and Yields of British Crops. 

The most notable feature in connexion with the cropping of 
the land of the United Kingdom between 1875 and 1905 was 
the lessened cultivation of the cereal crops associated with 
an expansion in the area of grass land.  At the beginning 
of the period the aggregate area under wheat, barley and 
oats was nearly 10 1/2 million acres; at the close it did 
not amount to 8 million acres.  There was thus a withdrawal 
during the period of over 2 1/2 million acres from cereal 
cultivation.  From Table I., showing the acreages at intervals 
of five years, it will be learnt that the loss fell chiefly 
upon the wheat crop, which at the close of the period 

TABLE 1.--Areas of Cereal Crops in the United Kingdom 
                       -- Acres

 
  YEAR.  WHEAT.      BARLEY.     OATS.       TOTAL.
  
  1875   3,514,088   2,751,362   4,176,177   10,441,627
  1880   3,065,895   2,695,000   4,191,716    9,952,611
  1885   2,553,092   2,447,169   4,282,594    9,282,855
  1890   2,483,595   2,300,994   4,137,790    8,922,379
  1895   1,456,042   2,346,367   4,527,899    8,330,308
  1900   1,901,014   2,172,140   4,145,633    8,218,787
  1905   1,836,598   1,872,305   4,137,406    7,846,309
 

occupied barely more than half the area assigned to it at the 
beginning.  If the land taken from wheat had been cropped with 
one or both of the other cereals, the aggregate area would 
have remained about the same.  This, however, was not the 
case, for a fairly uniform decrease in the barley area was 
accompanied by somewhat irregular fluctuations in the acreage of 
oats.  To the decline in prices of home-grown cereals the 
decrease in area is largely attributable.  The extent of this 
decline is seen in Table II., wherein are given the annual 
average prices from 1875 to 1905, calculated upon returns from 
the 190 statutory markets of England and Wales (Corn Returns Act 
1882).  These prices are per imperial quarter,---that is, 480 
lb. of wheat, 400 lb. of barley and 312 lb. of oats, representing 
60 lb, 50 lb. and 39 lb. per bushel respectively.  After 1883 
the annual average price of English wheat was never so high as 
40s. per quarter, and only twice after 1892 did it exceed 30s. 
In one of these exceptional years, 1898, the average rose to 
34s., but this was due entirely to a couple of months of inflated 
prices in the early half of the year, when the outbreak of 
war between Spain and the United States of America coincided 
with a huge speculative deal in the latter country.  The 

 TABLE II.--Gazette Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter 
  of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905.

 
 Year.  Wheat.   Barley.  Oats.
 
        s.  d.   s.  d.   s.  d. 
 1875   45   2   38   5   28   8
 1876   46   2   35   2   26   3
 1877   56   9   39   8   25  []
 1878   46   5   40   2   24   4
 1879   43  10   34   0   21   9
 1880   44   4   33   1   23   1
 1881   45   4   31  11   21   9
 1882   45   1   31   2   21  10
 1883   41   7   31  10   21   5
 1884   35   8   30   8   20   3
 1885   32  10   30   1   20   7
 1886   31   0   26   7   19   0
 1887   32   6   25   4   16   3
 1888   31  10   27  10   16   9
 1889   29   9   25  10   17   9
 1890   31  11   28   8   18   7
 1891   37   0   28   2   20   0
 1892   30   3   26   2   19  10
 1893   26   4   25   7   18   9
 1894   22  10   24   6   17   1
 1895   23   1   21  11   14   6
 1896   26   2   22  11   14   9
 1897   30   2   23   6   16  11
 1898   34   0   27   2   18   5
 1899   25   8   25   7   17   0
 1900   26  11   24  11   17   7
 1901   26   9   25   2   18   5
 1902   28   1   25   8   20   2
 1903   26   9   22   8   17   2
 1904   28   4   22   4   16   4
 1905   29   8   24   4   17   4
 

weekly average prices of English wheat in 1898 fluctuated 
between 48s. 1d. and 25s. 5d. per quarter, the former being 
the highest weekly average since 1882.  The minimum annual 
average was 22s. 10d. in 1894, in the autumn of which year 
the weekly average sank to 17s. 6d. per quarter, the lowest on 
record.  Wheat was so great a glut in the market that various 
methods were devised for feeding it to stock, a purpose 
for which it is not specially suited; in thus utilizing the 
grain, however, a smaller loss was often incurred than in 
sending it to market.  In 1894 the monthly average price for 
October, the chief month for wheat-sowing in England, was 
only 17s. 8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally shrank from 
seeding the land freely with a crop which could not be grown 
except at a heavy loss.  The result was that in the following 
year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was harvested 
upon the smallest area on record--less than 1 1/2 million 
acres.  In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price 
of English barley touch 40s. per quarter; it never reached 
30s. after 1885, whilst in 1895 it fell to so low a level 
as 21s. 11d. The same story of declining prices applies to 
oats.  An average of 20s. per quarter was touched in 1891 and 
1902, but with those exceptions this useful feeding grain 
did not reach that figure after 1885.  In 1895 the average 
price of 480 lb. of wheat, at 23s. 1d., was identical with that 
of 312 lb. of oats in 1880, and it was less in the preceding 
year.  The declining prices that have operated against the 
growers of wheat should be studied in conjunction with Table 
III., which shows, at intervals of five years, the imports of 

 TABLE III.--Imports into the United Kingdom of Wheat Grain, 
 and of Wheat Meal and Flour--Cwt.

 
 Year.  Wheat Grain.   Meal and Flour.    Total.
 
 1875   51,876,517      6,136,083          58,012,600
 1880   55,261,924     10,558,312          65,820,236
 1885   61,498,864     15,832,843          77,331,707
 1890   60,474,180     15,773,336          76,247,516
 1895   81,749,955     18,368,410         100,118,365
 1900   68,669,490     21,548,131          90,217,621
 1905   97,622,752     11,954,763         109,577,515
 

wheat grain and of wheat meal and flour into the United 
Kingdom.  The import of the manufactured product from 1875 to 
1900 increased at a much greater ratio than that of the raw 
grain, for whilst in 1875 the former represented less than 
one-ninth of the total, by 1900 the proportion had risen to 
nearly one-fourth.  The offal, which is quite as valuable as 
the flour itself, was thus retained abroad instead of being 
utilized for stock-feeding purposes in the United Kingdom.  
In the five subsequent years the proportion was fundamentally 
altered, so that with a greatly increased importation of 
grain, that of meal and flour was in the proportion of about 
one-ninth.  The highest and lowest areas of wheat, barley and 
oats in the United Kingdom during the period 1875-1905 were the 

 
 Wheat    .   3,514,088 acres in 1875; 1,407,618 acres in 1904.
 Barley   .   2,931,809 acres in 1879; 1,872,305 acres in 1905.
 Oats     .   4,527,899 acres in 1895; 3,998,200 acres in 1879.
 

These show differences amounting to 2,106,470 acres for 
wheat, 1,059,504 acres for barley, and 529,699 acres for 
oats.  The acreage of wheat, therefore, fluctuated the 
most, and that of oats the least.  Going back to 1869, 
it is found that the extent of wheat in that year was 
3,981,989 acres or very little short of four million acres. 

The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain crop is 
small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during the period 
1875-1905 having been 102,676 acres in 1894 and 47,937 acres in 
1880.  Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a green crop to be 
fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the spring months. 

Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both 
less cultivated than formerly.  In the period 1875-1905 
the area of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 
574,414 acres in 1875 and 230,429 acres in 1897, and that 
of peas between 318,410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acres in 
1901.  The area of peas (175,624 acres in 1905) shrank 
by nearly one-half, and that of beans (256,583 acres in 
1905) by more than one-half.  Taking cereals and pulse 
corn together, the aggregate areas of wheat, barley, oats, 
rye, beans and peas in the United Kingdom varied as follows 
over the six quinquennial intervals embraced in the period 

 
 Year.      Acres.   | Year.      Acres.
 1875 . . 11,399,030 | 1890 . . 9,574,249
 1880 . . 10,672,086 | 1895 . . 8,865,338
 1885 . . 10,014,625 | 1900 . . 8,707,602
                     | 1905 . . 8,333,770
 

Disregarding minor fluctuations, there was thus a loss of 
corn land over the 30 years of 3,065,260 acres, or 27%. 

The area withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found under the 
head of what are termed ``green crops.'' In 1905 the total area 
of these crops in the United Kingdom was 4,144,374 acres, made up 

 
      Crop.                             Acres.
 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,236,768
 Turnips and swedes . . . . . . . . . 1,879,384
 Mangel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   477,540
 Cabbage, kohl-rabi and rape  . . . .   225,315
 Vetches or tares . . . . . . . . . .   139,285
 Other green crops  . . . . . . . . .   186,082
 

The extreme aggregate areas of these crops during the 
thirty years were 5,057,029 acres in 1875 and 4,109,394 
acres in 1904.  At five-year intervals the areas 

 
 Year.      Acres.  | Year.      Acres.
 1875 . . 5,057,029 | 1890 . . 4,534,145
 1880 . . 4,746,293 | 1895 . . 4,399,949
 1885 . . 4,765,195 | 1900 . . 4,301,774
                    | 1905 . . 4,144,374
 

These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are 
used mainly for stock-feeding, have like the corn 
crops been grown on gradually diminishing areas. 

The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be 
still further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into 
the area devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under 
rotation.  The areas of five-year intervals are given in 
Table IV. Under the old Norfolk or four-course rotation 
(roots, barley, clover, wheat) land thus seeded with clover 
or grass seeds was intended to be ploughed up at the end of a 
year.  Labour difficulties, low prices of produce, bad seasons 
and similar causes provided inducements for leaving the land 
in grass for two years, or over three years or more, before 
breaking it up for wheat.  In many cases it would be decided 
to let such land remain under grass indefinitely, and thus 
it would no longer be enumerated in the Agricultural Returns 
as temporary grass land, but would pass into the category of 
permanent grass land, or what is often spoken of as ``permanent 
pasture.'' Whilst much grass land has been laid down with 
the intention from the outset that it should be permanent, 
at the same time some considerable areas have through stress 
of circumstances been allowed to drift from the temporary 
or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have thus 
still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion 
of the plough.  The column relating to permanent grass in 
Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became 


 
  TABLE IV.--Areas of Grass Land (excluding Heath and Mountain
                      Land) in the United Kingdom--Acres.
 
                                Permanent
 Year.   Temporary (i.e.   (i.e. not broken up         Total.
         under rotation).      in rotation).
 
 1875    6,337,953              23,772,602          30,110,555
 1880    6,389,232              24,717,092          31,106,324
 1885    6,738,206              25,616,071          32,354,277
 1890    6,097,210              27,115,425          33,212,635
 1895    6,061,139              27,831,117          33,892,256
 1900    6,025,025              28,266,712          34,291,737
 1905    5,779,323              28,865,373          34,644,696
 

more pastoral, while the figures already given demonstrate 
the extent to which they became less arable.  In the 
period 1875-1905 the extreme areas returned as ``permanent 
pasture''--a term which, it should be clearly understood, 
does not include heath or mountain land, of which there 
are in Great Britain alone about 13 million acres used for 
grazing---were 23,772,602 acres in 1875, and 28,865,373 acres in 
1905.  Comparing 1905 with 1875 the increase in permanent 
grass land amounted to over five million acres, or about 21%. 

On account of the greater humidity and mildness of its climate, 
Ireland is more essentially a pastoral country than Great Britain.  
The distribution between the two islands of such important crops 
of arable land as cereals and potatoes is indicated in Table V. 
The figures are those for 1905, but, though the absolute acreages 

 TABLE V.--Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in Great Britain 
 and Ireland in 1905.

 
                       Wheat.        Barley. 
 
                       Acres.         Acres.
 Great Britain .     1,796,993      1,713,664
 Ireland . . . .        37,860        154,645
 
 Total . . . . .     1,834,853      1,868,309
 
 
                       Oats.         Potatoes.
 Great Britain .     3,051,376        608,473
 Ireland . . . .     1,066,806        616,755
 
 Total . . . . .     4,118,182      1,225,228
 

vary somewhat from year to year, there is not much variation 
in the proportions.  The comparative insignificance of Ireland 
in the case of the wheat and barley crops, represented by 2 
and 8% respectively, receives some compensation when oats and 
potatoes are considered, about one-fourth of the area of the 
former and more than half that of the latter being claimed by 
Ireland.  It is noteworthy, however, that Ireland year by 
year places less reliance upon the potato crop.  In 1888 
the area of potatoes in Ireland was 804,566 acres, but it 
continuously contracted each year, until in 1905 it was only 
616,755 acres, or 187,811 acres less than 17 years previously. 

A similar comparison for the several sections of Great 
Britain, as set forth in Table VI., shows that to England 
belong about 95% of the wheat area, over 80% of the barley 
area, over 60% of the oats area, and over 70% of the potato 
area, and these proportions do not vary much from year to 
year.  The figures for cereals are important, as they 
indicate that it is the farmers of England who are the 
chief sufferers through the diminishing prices of corn; and 
particularly is this true of East Anglia, where corn-growing 
is more largely pursued than in any other part of the 

 TABLE VI.--Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in England, Wales 
 and Scotland, and in Great Britain, in 1905.

 
                       Wheat.        Barley. 
 
                       Acres.         Acres.
 England . . . .      1,704,281      1,410,287
 Wales . . . . .         44,073         91,243
 Scotland  . . .         48,641        212,134
 
 Great Britain .      1,796,995      1,713,664
 
                       Oats.         Potatoes.
 England . . . .      1,880,475        434,773
 Wales . . . . .        207,929         29,435
 Scotland  . . .        962,972        144,265
 
 Great Britain .      3,051,376        608,473
 

country.  Scotland possesses nearly one-third of the area 
of oats and nearly one-fourth of that of potatoes.  Beans 
are almost entirely confined to England, and this is even 
more the case with peas.  The mangel crop also is mainly 
English, the summer in most parts of Scotland being neither 
long enough nor warm enough to bring it to maturity. 

                The Produce of British Crops. 

Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the 
number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially 
collected in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates 
of the produce of the crops in the several sections of the 
kingdom do not extend back beyond 1885.  The practice is for 
the Board of Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report 
in the autumn as to the total production of the crops in the 
localities respectively assigned to them.  By dividing the 
total production, say of wheat, in each county by the number 
of acres of wheat as returned by the occupiers on June 4, the 
estimated average yield per acre is obtained.  It is important 
to notice that the figures relating to total production and 
yield per acre are only estimates, and it is not claimed 
for them that they are anything more.  The fact that much of 
the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the stack 
after the publication of the figures shows that the latter 
are essentially estimates.  The total produce of any crop in 
a given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst 
the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the 
character of the season.  In Table VII. are shown, in thousands 

 TABLE VII.--Estimated Annual Total Produce of Corn Crops in 
 the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 --Thousands of Bushels.

 
 Year.   Wheat.   Barley.  Oats.    Beans.   Peas.
 
 1890    75,994   80,794   171,295  11,860   6313
 1891    74,743   79,555   166,472  10,694   5777
 1892    60,775   76,939   168,181   7,054   5028
 1893    50,913   65,746   168,588   4,863   4756
 1894    60,704   78,601   190,863   7,198   6229
 1895    38,285   75,028   174,476   5,626   4732
 1896    58,247   77,825   162,860   6,491   4979
 1897    56,296   72,613   163,556   6,650   5250
 1898    74,885   74,731   172,578   7,267   4858
 1899    67,261   74,532   166,140   7,566   4431
 1900    54,322   68,546   165,137   7,469   4072
 1901    53,928   67,643   161,175   6,154   4017
 1902    58,278   74,439   184,184   7,704   5106
 1903    48,819   65,310   172,941   7,535   4812
 1904    37,920   62,453   176,755   5,901   4446
 1905    60,333   65,004   166,286   8,262   4446
 

of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the 
United Kingdom in the years 1890-1905.  The largest area 
of wheat in the period was that of 1890, and the smallest 
was that of 1904; the same two years are seen to have been 
respectively those of highest and lowest total produce.  It 
is noteworthy that in 1895 the country produced about half 
as much wheat as in any one of the years 1890, 1891 and 
1898.  The produce of barley, like that of oats, is less 
irregular than that of wheat, the extremes for barley 
being 80,794,000 bushels (1890) and 62,453,000 bushels 
(1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894) and 
161,175,000 bushels (1901).  Similar details for potatoes, 
roots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the 

 TABLE VIII.--Estimated Annual Total Produce of Potatoes, Roots 
 and Hay in the United Kingdom, 1890-1905--Thousands of
 Tons.

 
 Year.   Potatoes.   Turnips.   Mangels.   Hay.
 
 1890    4622        32,002       6709     14,466
 1891    6090        29,742       7558     12,671
 1892    5634        31,419       7428     11,567
 1893    6541        31,110       5225      9,082
 1894    4662        30,678       7310     15,699
 1895    7065        29,221       6376     12,238
 1896    6263        28,037       5875     11,416
 1897    4107        29,785       7379     14,043
 1898    6225        26,499       7228     15,916
 1899    5837        20,370       7604     12,898
 1900    4577        28,387       9650     13,742
 1901    7043        25,298       9224     11,358
 1902    5920        29,116     10,809     15,246
 1903    5277        23,523       8212     14,955
 1904    6230        28,033       8813     14,860
 1905    7186        26,563       9493     13,554
 

production of potatoes varies much from year to year.  The 
imports of potatoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some 
extend inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was 
accompanied by an increase of import from 3,921,205 cwt. 
in 1897 to 6,751,728 cwt. in 1898.  No very great reliance 
can be placed upon the figures relating to turnips (which 
include swedes), as these are mostly fed to sheep on the 
ground, so that the estimates as to yield are necessarily 
vague.  Mangels are probably more closely estimated, as these 
valuable roots are carted and stored for subsequent use for 
feeding stock.  Under hay are included the produce of closer, 
sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also that of permanent 
meadow.  The extent to which the annual production of the 
leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the table by the 
two consecutive years 1893 and 1894; from only nine million 
tons in the former year the production rose to upwards of 
fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over 70%. 

Turning to the average yields per acre, as ascertained by dividing 
the number of acres into the total produce, the results of a 
decade are collected in Table IX. The effects of a prolonged 

TABLE IX.--Estimated Annual Average Yield per Acre of Crops 
 in United Kingdom, 1895-1904.

 
 Year.     Wheat.  Barley.  Oats.   Beans.  Peas.   Potatoes.
 
           Bush.   Bush.    Bush.   Bush.   Bush.   Tons.
 1895      26.33   32.09    38.67   22.98   22.62   5.64
 1896      33.63   34.16    37.97   25.69   25.34   4.93
 1897      29.07   32.91    38.84   28.91   27.55   3.47
 1898      34.75   36.24    42.27   31.13   27.60   5.23
 1899      32.76   34.64    40.57   30.19   27.22   4.82
 1900      28.61   31.67    39.97   28.18   25.89   3.77
 1901      30.93   31.70    39.35   24.29   25.97   5.81
 1902      32.91   35.83    44.50   31.49   28.51   4.92
 1903      30.15   32.38    40.81   31.27   26.56   4.45
 1904      26.97   31.25    40.80   23.23   25.75   5.24
 
 Mean,
 10 Years  30.85   33.28    20.35   27.68   26.24   4.84
 
 1905      32.88   34.79    40.38   32.33   25.71   5.86
 
 
           Turnips
             and                 Hay,        Hay,
 Year.     Swedes.  Mangels.  Rotation.   Permanent.
 
           Tons.     Tons.       Cwt.        Cwt.
 1895      13.11     16.44      29.08       25.21
 1896      12.79     14.99      27.95       24.14
 1897      13.90     18.03      32.53       30.71
 1898      12.74     17.71      36.49       34.27
 1899       9.97     17.41      31.04       29.11
 1900      14.29     19.97      32.42       30.98
 1901      12.95     19.37      28.98       23.85
 1902      15.35     20.85      35.29       32.57
 1903      12.44     17.19      33.07       31.27
 1904      14.83     18.57      33.43       31.04
 
 Mean,
 10 Years  13.21     18.18      32.06       29.32
 
 1905      14.19     19.91      32.24       28.37
 

spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified 
in the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops 
all registered very low average yields that year, viz. wheat 
26.08 bushels, barley 29.30 bushels, oats 38.14 bushels, beans 
19.61 bushels, rotation hay 23.55 cwt., permanent hay 20.41 
cwt.  On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally 
favourable to cereals and to hay.  The effects of a prolonged 
autumn drought, as distinguished from spring and summer 
drought, are shown in the very low yield of turnips in 
1899.  Mangels are sown earlier and have a longer period of 
growth than turnips; if they become well established in the 
summer they are less susceptible to autumn drought.  The hay 
made from closer, sainfoin and grasses under rotation generally 
gives a bigger average yield than that from permanent grass 
land.  The mean values at the foot of the table--they are 
not, strictly speaking, exact averages--indicate the 
average yields per acre in the United Kingdom to be about 
31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley, 40 bushels of 
oats, 28 bushels of neams, 26 bushels of peas, 4 3/4 tons of 
potatoes, 13 1/4 tons of turnips and swedes, 18 1/4 tons of 
mangels, 32 cwt. of hay from temporary grass, and 29 cwt. of 
hay from permanenet grass.  Although enormous single crops of 

 TABLE X. Decennial Average Yields in Great Britain of Wheat, 
 Barley and Oats--Bushels per Acre.

 
 10-Year
 Periods.    Wheat.  Barley.  Oats.
 
 1885-1894   29.32   33.02    38.21
 1886-1895   28.81   32.68    38.23
 1887-1896   29.49   32.82    38.13
 1888-1897   29.19   32.97    38.51
 1889-1898   29.86   33.26    38.86
 1890-1899   30.15   33.50    38.81
 1891-1900   29.92   33.13    38.46
 1892-1901   29.83   32.80    38.26
 1893-1902   30.53   32.83    38.64
 1894-1903   30.95   33.16    39.05
 1895-1904   30.56   32.82    38.81
 1896-1905   31.21   33.04    38.92
 

mangels are sometimes grown, amounting occasionally to 100 
tons per acre, the general average yield of 18 1/4 tons is 
about 5 tons more than that of turnips and swedes.  Again, 
although from the richest old permanent meadow-lands very 
heavy crops of hay are taken season after season, the general 
average yield of permanent grass is about 3 cwt. of hay per 
acre less than that from clover, sainfoin and grasses under 
rotation.  The general average yields of the corn crops are 
not fairly comparable one with the other, because they are 
given by measure and not by weight, whereas the weight per 
bushel varies considerably.  For purposes of comparison it 
would be much better if the yields of corn crops were estimated 
in cwt. per acre.  This, indeed, is the practice in Ireland, 
and in order to incorporate the Irish figures with those for 
Great Britain so as to obtain average values for the United 
Kingdom, the Irish yields are calculated into bushels at 
the rate of 60lb to the bushel of wheat, of beans and peas, 
50lb to the bushel of barley and 39lb to the bushel of oats. 

The figure denoting the general average yield per acre of 
any class of crop need re-adjustment after every successive 
harvest.  If a decennial period be taken, then--for the 
purpose of the new calculation--the earliest year is omitted 
and the latest year added, the number of years continuing at 
ten.  Adopting this course in the case of the cereal crops 
of Great Britain the decennial averages recorded in Table 
X. are obtained, the period 1885-1894 being the earliest 
decade for which the official figures are available.  
It thus appears that the average yield of wheat in Great 
Britain, as calculated upon the crops harvested during the 
ten years (1896-1905), exceeded 31 bushels to the acre, 
whereas, for the ten years ended 1895, it fell below 29 
bushels.  A large expansion in the acreage of the wheat crop 
would probably be attended by a decline in the average yield 
per acre, for when a crop is shrinking in area the tendency 
is to withdraw from it first the land least suited to its 
growth.  The general average for the United Kingdom might then 
recede to rather less than 28 bushels of 60 lb. per bushel, 
which was for a long time the accepted average--unless, of 
course, improved methods of cultivating and manuring the 
soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding capacity.6 

                         Crops and Cropping. 

The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence 
to the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize 
the early years of the 20th century, rest upon a scientific 
basis.  Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the 
farmer as to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable 
him to see how best to meet these requirements in the case 
of field crops.  He cannot afford to ignore the results 
that have been gradually accumulated--the truths that have 
been slowly established--at the agricultural experiment 
stations in various parts of the world.  Of these stations 
the greatest, and the oldest now existing, is that at 
Rothamsted, Harpenden, Herts, England, which was founded in 
1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.).  The results of more 
than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were 
communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, 
Sir J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or reports, 
many of which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.7 

In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow 
some of the most important crops of rotation, each separately 
year after year, for many years in succession on the same 
land, (a) without manure, (b) with farmyard manure and 
(c) with a great variety of chemical manures; the same 
description of manure being, as a rule, applied year after 
year on the same plot.  Experiments on an actual course of 
rotation, without manure, and with different manures, have 
also been made.  Wheat, barley, oats, beans, clover and other 
leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet, mangels, potatoes and 
grass crops have thus been experimented upon.  Incidentally 
there have been extensive sampling and analysing of soils, 
investigations into rainfall and the composition of drainage 
waters, inquiries into the amount of water transpired by 
plants, and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen. 

Cereals--Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, 
not one of more universal interest than that in which wheat 
was grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without 
manure, (b) with farmyard manure and (c) with various 
artificial manures.  The results show that, unlike leguminous 
crops such as beans or clover, wheat may be successfully 
grown for many years in succession on ordinary arable land, 
provided suitable manures be applied and the land be kept 
clean.  Even without manure the average produce over forty-six 
years, 1852-1897, was nearly thirteen bushels per acre, or 
about the average yield per acre of the wheat lands of the whole 
world.  Mineral manures alone give very little increase, 
nitrogenous manures alone considerably more than mineral 
manures alone, but the mixture of the two considerably more 
than either separately.  In one case, indeed, the average 
produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was more 
than that by the annual application of farmyard manure; and 
in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were 
used the average yield per acre was from over two to over 
eight bushels more than the average yield of the United 
Kingdom (assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 
60 lb. per bushel) under ordinary rotation.  It is estimated 
that the reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the 
forty years, 1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without 
manure during the eight preceding years, was, provided it had 
been uniform throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth 
of a bushel from year to year due to exhaustion--that is, 
irrespectively of fluctuations due to season.  It is related 
that a visitor from the United States, talking to Sir John 
Lawes, said, ``Americans have learnt more from this field 
than from any other agricultural experiment in the world.'' 

Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years in 
succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in 
showing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger 
than that without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone give 
more produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures 
of mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than either 
used alone--generally twice, or more than twice, as much as 
mineral manures alone.  Of mineral constituents, whether used 
alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are 
much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and 
magnesia.  The average results show that, under all conditions 
of manuring--excepting with farmyard manure--the produce 
was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the 
experiments, an effect partly due to the seasons.  But the 
average produce over forty years of continuous growth of 
barley was, in all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures 
(containing phosphates) were used together, much higher than 
the average produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation 
in the United Kingdom, and very much higher than the average 
in most other countries when so grown.  The requirements of 
barley within the soil, and its susceptibility to the external 
influences of season, are very similar to those of its near ally, 
wheat.  Nevertheless there are distinctions of result dependent 
on differences in the habits of the two plants, and in the 
conditions of their cultivation accordingly.  In the British 
Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn on a heavier 
soil, and has four or five months in which to distribute its 
roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of soil and 
subsoil before barley is sown in the spring.  Barley, on the 
other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its 
short period for root-development, relies in a much greater 
degree on the stores of plant-food within the surface soil.  
Accordingly it is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface 
soil as to its nitrogenous, and especially as to its mineral 
supplies; and in the common practice of agriculture it is found 
to be more benefited by direct mineral manures, especially 
phosphatic manures, than is wheat when sown under equal soil 
conditions.  The exhaustion of the soil induced by both barley 
and wheat is, however, characteristically that of available 
nitrogen; and when, under the ordinary conditions of manuring 
and cropping, artificial manure is still required, nitrogenous 
manures are, as a rule, necessary for both crops, and, for 
the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also.  Although barley 
is appropriately grown on lighter soils than wheat, good 
crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier soils 
after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures, 
provided that the land is sufficiently clean.  Experiments 
similar to the foregoing were carried on for many years in 
succession at Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were 
in general accordance with those on the other cereal crops. 

Additional significance to the value of the above experiments 
on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same 
series, with but slight modifications, has also been carried 
out since 1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental 
farm of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the soil 
here being of light sandy character, and thus very different 
from the heavy soil of Rothamsted.  The results for the 
thirty years, 1877-1906, are in their general features 
entirely confirmatory of those obtained at Rothamsted. 

Root-Crops.--Experiments upon root-crops--chiefly white 
turnips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels--have resulted 
in the establishment of the following conclusions.  Both the 
quantity and the quality of the produce, and consequently 
its feeding value, must depend greatly upon the selection 
of the best description of roots to be grown, and on the 
character and the amount of the manures, and especially on 
the amount of nitrogenous manure employed.  At the same time, 
no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down concerning these 
points.  Independently of the necessary consideration of the 
general economy of the farm, the choice must be influenced 
partly by the character of the soil, but very much more 
by that of the climate.  Judgment founded on knowledge and 
aided by careful observation, both in the field and in the 
feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the guide of the practical 
farmer.  Over and above the great advantage arising from the 
opportunity which the growth of root-crops affords for the 
cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the root-crop 
in rotation are due (1) to the large amount of manure applied 
for its growth, (2) to the large residue of the manure left 
in the soil for future crops, (3) to the large amount of 
matter at once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) 
to the large amount of food produced, and (5) to the small 
proportion of the most important manurial constituents of 
the roots which is retained by store or fattening animals 
consuming them, the rest returning as manure again; though, 
when the roots are consumed for the production of milk, a much 
larger proportion of the constituents is lost to the manure. 

Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen.--The fact 
that the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves 
the soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of 
a grain crop--that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous 
crop is to a great extent equivalent to the application of a 
nitrogenous manure for the cereal crop--was in effect known ages 
ago.  Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the 
closing decade of the 19th century that the explanation of 
this long-established point of agricultural practice was 
forthcoming.  It was in the year 1886 that Hellriegel and 
Wilfarth first published in Germany the results of investigations 
in which they demonstrated that, through the agency of 
micro-organisms dwelling in nodular outgrowths on the roots 
of ordinary leguminous plants, the latter are enabled to 
assimilate the free nitrogen of the air.  The existence of 
the root nodules had long been recognized, but hitherto no 
adequate explanation had been afforded as to their function. 

Since Hellriegel's striking discovery farm crops have 
been conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and 
nitrogen-consuming.  To the former belong the ordinary leguminous 
crops--the clovers, beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin, 
lucerne, for example--which obtain their nitrogen from the air, 
and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures, 
whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which 
will ultimately become available for future crops of other 
kinds.  It is, in fact, fully established that these leguminous 
crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation 
of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of 
the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the higher 
plant.  The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize); 
the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage, kale, rape, mustard); 
the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodiaceous crops 
(mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have, 
so far as is known, no such power, and are therefore more 
or less benefited by the direct application of nitrogenous 
manures.  The field experiments on leguminous plants at 
Rothamsted have shown that land which is, so to speak, 
exhausted so far as the growth of one leguminous crop is 
concerned, may still grow very luxuriant crops of another 
plant of the same natural order, but of different habits of 
growth, and especially of different character and range of 
roots.  This result is doubtless largely dependent on the 
existence, the distribution and the condition of the appropriate 
microbes for the due infection of the different descriptions of 
plant, for the micro-organism that dwells symbiotically with one 
species is not identical with that which similarly dwells with 
another.  It seems certain that success in any system involving 
a more extended growth of leguminous crops in rotations must 
be dependent on a considerable variation in the description 
grown.  Other essential conditions of success will commonly 
include the liberal application of potash and phosphatic 
manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the leguminous 
crop.  As to how long the leguminous crop should occupy the 
land, the extent to which it should be consumed on the 
land, or the manure from its consumption be returned, and 
under what conditions the whole or part of it should be 
ploughed in--these are points which must be decided as 
they arise in practice.  It seems obvious that the lighter 
and poorer soils would benefit more than the heavier or 
richer soils by the extended growth of leguminous crops. 

Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished 
the explanation of a fact which had been empirically 
established by the husbandman long before, and had received 
most intelligent application when the old four-course (or 
Norfolk) rotation was devised.  But it gave some impetus to 
the practice of green manuring with leguminous crops, which 
are equally capable with such a crop as mustard of enriching 
the soil in humus, whilst in addition they bring into the 
soil from the atmosphere a quantity of nitrogen available 
for the use of subsequent crops of any kind.  In Canada and 
the United States this rational employment of a leguminous 
crop for ploughing in green is largely resorted to for the 
amelioration of worn-out wheat lands and other soils, the 
condition of which has been lowered to an unremunerative 
level by the repeated growth year after year of a cereal 
crop.  The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh (1861), 
``On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation with special 
reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate free or 
uncombined Nitrogen,'' answered the question referred to in the 
negative.  The attitude taken up later on with regard to this 
problem is set forth in the following words, which are quoted 
from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments, 1900 (p. 7):-- 

``Experiments were commenced in 1857, and conducted for several 
years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate 
free or uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral 
points.  Plants of the gramincous, the leguminous and of 
other families were operated upon.  The late Dr Pugh took a 
prominent part in this inquiry.  The conclusion arrived at 
was that our agricultural plants do not themselves directly 
assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by their leaves. 

``In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite 
a new aspect.  It now is--whether the free nitrogen of the 
atmosphere is brought into combination under the influence of 
micro-organisms, or other low forms, either within the soil or 
in symbiosis with a higher plant, thus serving indirectly as 
a source of nitrogen to plants of a higher order.  Considering 
that the results of Hellriegel and Wilfarth on this point were, 
if confirmed, of great significance and importance, it was 
decided to make experimenis at Rothamsted on somewhat similar 
lines.  Accordingly, a preliminary series was undertaken in 
1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889 and in 1890; 
and the investigation was continued up to the commencement 
of the year 1893.  Further experiments relating to certain 
aspects of the subject were begun in 1898.  The resuits have 
shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected 
with appropriate organisms, there is a development of the 
so-called leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, 
and, coincidenrly, increased growth and gain of nitrogen.'' 

The conclusions of Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been 
confirmed by the later experiences of Rothamsted, and since that 
time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical 
application of the discovery.  This has taken the form of 
inoculating the soil with the particular organism required by the 
particular kind of leguminous crop.  To this end the endeavour 
has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in 
portable form the organisms required by the several plants, and 
though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have been 
generally successful, the work done justifies hopes that the 
problem will eventually be solved in a practical direction. 

Grass.--Another field experiment of singular interest 
is that relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, 
for which seven acres of old grass land were set apart in 
Rothamsted Park in 1856.  Of the twenty plots into which 
this land is divided, two were left without manure from the 
outset, two received ordinary farmyard manure for a series 
of years, whilst the remainder each received a different 
description of artificial or chemical manure, the same being, 
except in special cases, applied year after year on the same 
plot.  During the growing season the field affords striking 
evidence of the influence of different manurial dressings.  
So much, indeed, does the character of the herbage vary 
from plot to plot that the effect may fairly be described as 
kaleidoscopic.  Repeated analyses have shown how greatly both 
the botanical constitution and the chemical composition of 
the mixed herbage vary according to the description of manure 
applied.  They have further shown how dominant is the influence of 
season.  Such, moreover, is the effect of different manures 
that the gross produce of the mixed herbage is totally different 
on the respective plots according to the manure employed, 
both as to the proportion of the various species composing 
it and as to their condition of development and maturity. 

                       The Rotation of Crops. 

The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of 
plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has 
exhausted it, and renders them less vigorous and more liable to 
disease.  The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a 
way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops. 

It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to 
which the different crops are put, that have to be considered 
in the case of rotation.  Thus the cereal crops, when grown 
in rotation, yield more produce for sale in the season of 
growth than when grown continuously.  Moreover, the crops 
alternated with the cereals accumulate very much more of 
mineral constituents and of nitrogen in their produce than do 
the cereals themselves.  By far the greater proportion of those 
constituents remains in circulation in the manure of the farm, 
whilst the remainder yields highly valuable products for sale 
in the forms of meat and milk.  For this reason these crops 
are known as ``restorative,'' cereals the produce of which 
is sold off the farm being classed as ``exhaustive.'' With 
a variety of crops, again, the mechanical operations of the 
farm, involving horse and hand labour, are better distributed 
over the year, and are therefore more economically performed.  
The opportunities which rotation cropping affords for the 
cleaning of the land from weeds is another distinct element of 
advantage.  Although many different rotations of crops are 
practised, they may for the most part be considered as little 
more than local adaptations of the system of alternating 
root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal crops, as exemplified 
in the old four-course rotation--roots, barley, clover, wheat. 

Under this system the clover is ploughed up in the autumn, the 
nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the 
nourishment of the cereal crop.  The following summer the wheat 
crop is harvested, and an opportunity is afforded for extirpating 
weeds which in the three previous years have received little 
check.  Or, where the climate is warm and the soil light, 
a ``catch-crop,'' i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some 
other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off 
or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing.  On heavy 
soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time 
necessary for thorough cultivation of the land.  The cleaning 
process is carried on through.the next summer by means of 
successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop.  As turnips or 
swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time 
is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as 
the latter is a shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is 
required.  Clover is sown at the same time or shortly 
after the cereal and thus occupies the land for two years. 

The rotations extending to five, six, seven or more years are, 
in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations 
of soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local 
conditions.  They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the 
description of the root-crop, and perhaps by the introduction 
of the potato crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may 
be more than one cereal consecutively; by the growth of some 
other leguminous crop than clover, since ``clover-sickness'' 
may result if that crop is grown at too short intervals, or 
the intermixture of grass seeds with the clover, and perhaps 
by the extension by one or more years of the period allotted 
to this member of the rotation.  Whatever the specific 
rotation, there may in practice be deviations from the plan of 
retaining on the farm the whole of the root-crops, the straw 
of the grain crops and the leguminous fodder crops (clover, 
vetches, sainfoin, &c;) for the production of meat or milk, 
and, coincidently, for that of manure to be returned to the 
land.  It is equally true that, when under the influence 
of special local or other demand--proximity to towns, easy 
railway or other communication, for example--the products 
which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported 
from it, the import of town or other manures is generally 
an essential condition of such practice.  This system of 
free sale, indeed, frequently involves full compensation by 
purchased manures of some kind.  Such deviations from the 
practice of merely selling grain and meat off the farm have 
much extended in recent years, and will probably continue to 
do so under the altered conditions of British agriculture, 
determined by very large imports of grain, increasing imports 
of meat and of other products of stock-feeding, and very 
large imports of cattle-food and other agricultural produce.  
More attention is thus being devoted to dairy produce, not 
only on grass farms, but on those that are mainly arable. 

The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well 
illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at 
Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may fairly 
be regarded as a self-supporting system.  Reference may first 
be made to the important mineral constituents of different 
crops of the four-course rotation.  Of phosphoric acid, the 
cereal crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops 
of the rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion 
thus taken up is lost to the farm in the saleable product--the 
grain.  The remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in 
the roots and the leguminous crops, is supposed to be retained 
on the farm, excepting the small amount exported in meat and 
milk.  Of potash, each of the rotation crops takes up very 
much more than of phosphoric acid.  But much less potash than 
phosphoric acid is exported in the cereal grains, much more 
being retained in the straw, whilst the other products of 
the rotation--the root and leguminous crops--which are also 
supposed to be retained on the farm, contain very much more 
potash than the cereals, and comparatively little of it is 
exported in meat and milk.  Thus the whole of the crops of 
rotation take up very much more of potash than of phosphoric 
acid, whilst probably even less of it is ultimately lost to the 
land.  Of lime, very little is taken up by the cereal 
crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash; more 
by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the clover 
especially, sometimes much more than by all the other crops 
of the rotation put together.  Very little of the lime of 
the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of 
the farm in the case of the self-supporting rotation under 
consideration.  Although, therefore, different, and sometimes 
very large, amounts of these typical mineral constituents 
are taken up by the various crops of rotation, there is no 
material export of any in the saleable products, excepting 
of phosphoric acid and of potash; and, so far at least 
as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience has shown that 
it may be advantageously supplied in purchased manures. 

Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less 
than any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding 
the circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically 
benefited by nitrogenous manures.  The root-crops, indeed, may 
contain two or more times as much nitrogen as either of the 
cereals, and the leguminous crops, especially the clover, much 
more than the root-crops.  The greater part of the nitrogen 
of the cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps 
not more than 10 or 15% of the of either the root-crop of 
the clover (or other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in 
the animal increase of in milk.  Most of the nitrogen is the 
straw of the cereals, and a very large proportion of that of 
the much more highly nitrogen-yielding crops, returns to the 
land as manure, for the benefit of future cereals and other 
crops.  As to the source of the nitrogren of the root-crops--the 
so-called ``restorative crops''--these are as dependent as any 
crop that is grown on available nitrogen within the soil, which 
is generally supplied by the direct application of nitrogenous 
manures, natural or artificial.  Under such conditions of 
supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as they are, 
and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding root 
within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity of 
the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in similar 
circumstances.  This result is partly due to their period 
of accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest.  When a 
full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at 
command, these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of 

 TABLE XI.--The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, 
 in lb. per Acre.

 
                             Weight of
                               Crop.       Total  Nitro Sul-              
 Crop.                     At              Pure   -gen. phur.  Potash.
                           Harvest.  Dry.  Ash.
 
 Wheat, grain, 30 bushels  1,800     1530   30     34    2.7     9.3
 Wheat, straw              3,158     2653  142     16    5.1    19.5
 
     Total crop            4,958     4183  172     50    7.8    28.8
 
 Barley, grain, 40 bushels 2,080     1747   46     35    2.9     9.8
 Barley, straw             2,447     2080  111     14    3.2    25.9
 
     Total crop            4,527     3827  157     49    6.1    35.7
 
 Oats, grain, 45 bushels   1,890     1625   51     34    3.2     9.1
 Oats, straw               2,835     2353  140     18    4.8    37.0
 
     Total crop            4,725     3978  191     52    8.0    46.1
 
 Maize, grain, 30 bushels  1,680     1500   22     28    1.8     6.5
 Maize, stalks, &c.        2,208     1877   99     15    ..     29.8
 
     Total crop            3,888     3377  121     43    ..     36.3
 
 Meadow hay, 1 1/2 ton     3,360     2822  203     49    5.7    50.9
 
 Red Clover hay, 2 tons    4,480     3763  258     98    9.4    83.4
 
 Beans, grain, 30 bushels  1,920     1613   58     78    4.4    24.3
 Beans, straw              2,240     1848   99     29    4.9    42.8
 
     Total crop            4,160     3461  157    107    9.3    67.1
 
 Turnip, root, 17 tons    38,080     3126  218     61   15.2   108.6
 Turnip, leaf             11,424     1531  146     49    5.7    40.2
 
     Total crop           49,504     4657  346    110   20.9   148.8
 
 Swedes, root, 14 tons    31,360     3349  163     70   14.6    63.3
 Swedes, leaf              4,704      706   75     28    3.2    16.4
 
     Total crop           36,064     4055  238     98   17.8(*) 79.7
 
 Mangels, root, 22 tons   49,280     5914  426     98    4.9   222.8
 Mangels, leaf            18,233     1654  254     51    9.1    77.9
 
     Total crop           67,513     7568  680    149   14.0   300.7
 
 Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons 13,440     3360  127     46    2.7    76.5
 
 
                                           Mag-   Phosph-   Chlor-
 Crop.                      Soda.  Lime.   nesia. ric Acid. ine.   Silica.
 Wheat, grain, 30 bushels    0.6    1.0    3.6    14.2       0.1     0.6
 Wheat, straw                2.0    8.2    3.5     6.9       2.4    96.3
 
     Total crop              2.6    9.2    7.1    21.1       2.5    96.9
 
 Barley, grain, 40 bushels   1.1    1.2    4.0    16.0       0.5    11.8
 Barley, straw               3.9    8.0    2.9     4.7       3.6    56.8
 
     Total crop              5.0    9.2    6.9    20.7       4.1    68.6
 
 Oats, grain, 45 bushels     0.8    1.8    3.6    13.0       0.5    19.9
 Oats, straw                 4.6    9.8    5.1     6.4       6.1    65.4
 
     Total crop              5.4   11.6    8.7    19.4       6.6    85.3
 
 Maize, grain, 30 bushels    0.2    0.5    3.4    10.0       0.2     0.5
 Maize, stalks, &c.           ..     ..     ..     8.0        ..      ..
 
     Total crop               ..     ..     ..    18.0        ..      ..
 
 Meadow hay, 1 1/2 ton       9.2   32.1   14.4    12.3      14.6    56.9
 
 Red Clover hay, 2 tons      5.1   90.1   28.2    22.9       9.8     7.0
 
 Beans, grain, 30 bushels    0.6    2.9    4.2    22.8       1.1     0.4
 Beans, straw                1.7   26.3    5.7     6.3       4.3     6.9
 
     Total crop              2.3   29.2    9.9    29.1       5.4     7.3
 
 Turnip, root, 17 tons      17.0   25.5    5.7    22.4      10.9     2.6
 Turnip, leaf                7.5   48.5    3.8    10.7      11.2     5.1
 
     Total crop             24.5   74.0    9.5    33.1      22.1     7.7
 
 Swedes, root, 14 tons      22.8   19.7    6.8    16.9       6.8     3.1
 Swedes, leaf                9.2   22.7    2.4     4.8       8.3     3.6
 
     Total crop             32.0   42.4    9.2    21.7      15.1     6.7
 
 Mangels, root, 22 tons     69.4   15.9   18.3    36.4      42.5     8.7
 Mangels, leaf              49.3   27.0   24.2    16.5      40.6     9.2
 
     Total crop            118.7   42.9   42.5    52.9      83.1    17.9
 
 Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons    3.8    3.4    6.3    21.5       4.4     2.6
 
                (*) Calculated from a single analysis only.
 

carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous 
food materials, a very large amount of the carbohydrate sugar, 
as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live stock of the 
farm.  The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, 
although not characteristically benefited by nitrogenous 
manures, nevertheless contribute much more nitrogen to the 
total produce of the rotation than any of the other crops 
comprised in it.  It is the leguminous fodder crops--especially 
clover, which has a much more extended period of growth, 
and much wider range of collection within the soil and 
subsoil, than any of the other crops of the rotation--that 
yield in their produce the largest amount of nitrogen per 
acre.  Much of this is, doubtless taken up as nitrate, yet the 
direct application of nitrate of soda has comparatively little 
beneficial influence on their growth.  The nitric acid is most 
likely taken up chiefly as nitrate of lime, but probably as 
nitrate of potash also, and it is significant that the high 
nitrogen-yielding clover takes up, or at least retains, very 
little soda.  Table XI., from Warington's Chemistry of the 
Farm, 19th edition (Vinton and Co.), will serve to illustrate 
the subjects that have been discussed in this section. 

For further information on the routine and details of 
farming, reference may be made to the articles under 
the headings of the various crops and implements. 

                       British Live Stock. 

The numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom are shown at 
five-yearly intervals in Table XII. Under horses are embraced only 
unbroken horses and horses used solely for agriculture (including 
mares kept for breeding).  The highest and lowest annual totals for 
the United Kingdom in the period 1875-1905 were the following:-- 


 
               Highest.            Lowest.       Difference
 
 Horses   2,116,800 in 1905   1,819,687 in 1875    295,113
 Cattle  11,674,019 in 1905   9,731,537 in 1877  1,942,482
 Sheep   33,642,808 in 1892  27,448,220 in 1882  6,194,588
 Pigs     4,362,040 in 1890   2,863,488 in 1880  1,498,552
 

After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 11,119,417, 
and sheep declined continuously for three years to the 
totals of 1895, the diminution being mainly the result 
of the memorable drought of 1803.  Sheep, which numbered 
32,571,018 in 1878, declined continuously to 27,448,220 in 
1882--a loss of over five million head in five years.  This 
was chiefly attributable to the ravages of the liver fluke 
which began in the disastrously wet season of 1879.  Pigs, 
being prolific breeders, fluctuate more widely in numbers 
than cattle or sheep, for the difference of 1,498,552 in their 
case represents one-third of the highest total, whereas the 
difference is less than one-seventh for horses. less than 
one-sixth for cattle, and less than one-fifth for sheep.  The 

 TABLE XII.--Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the 
 United Kingdom. 

 
 Year.    Horses.     Cattle.      Sheep.       Pigs.
 
 1875   1,819,687   10,162,787   33,491,948   3,495,167
 1880   1,929,680    9,871,533   30,239,620   2,865,488
 1885   1,909,200   10,868,760   30,086,200   3,686,628
 1890   1,964,911   10,789,858   31,667,195   4,362,040
 1895   2,112,207   10,753,314   29,774,853   4,238,870
 1900   2,000,402   11,454,902   31,054,547   3,663,669
 1905   2,116,800   11,674,019   29,076,777   3,601,659
 

relative proportions--as distinguished from the actual numbers 
--in which stock are distributed over the several sections 
of the United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to 
year.  Table XIII., in which the totals for the United 
Kingdom include those for the Channel Islands and Isle of 
Man, illustrates the preponderance of the sheep-breeding 
industry in the drier climate of Great Britain, and of the 
cattle-breeding industry in the more humid atmosphere of 
Ireland.  In Great Britain in 1905, for every head of 
cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas in 
Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep.  Again. whilst 
Great Britain possessed only half as many cattle more than 

 TABLE XIII.--Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the 
 United Kingdom in 1905.

 
 1905.             Horses.     Cattle.     Sheep.      Pigs.
 
 England         1,204,124    5,020,936  14,698,018  2,083,226
 Wales             161,923      738,789   3,534,967    211,479
 Scotland          206,386    1,227,295   7,024,211    130,214
 
 Great Britain   1,572,433    6,987,020  25,257,196  2,424,919
 
 Ireland           534,875    4,645,215   3,749,352  1,164,316
 
 United
 Kingdom8     2,116,800   11,674,019  29,076,777  3,601,659
 

Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep.  The cattle 
population of England alone slightly exceeded that of 
Ireland. but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of 
England than amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and 
Scotland. which are suitable for sheep.  Hence, whilst in 
England sheep were not three times as numerous as cattle, 
in Wales they were nearly five times, and in Scotland nearly 
six times as many.  Great Britain had twice as many pigs as 
Ireland, but the swine industry is mainly English and Irish, 
and England possessed more than six times as many pigs as 
Wales and Scotland together. the number in the last-named 
country being particularly small.  One English county alone, 
Suffolk, maintained more pigs than the whole of Scotland. 

         British Imports of Live Animals and Meat. 

The stock-breeders and graziers of the United Kinudom have, equally 
with the corn-growers, to face the brunt of foreign competition. 

Up tp 1896 store cattle were admitted into the United 
Kingdom for the purpose of being fattened, but under the 
Diseases of Animals Act of that year animals imported 
since then have to be slaughtered at the place of landing.  
The dimensions of this trade are shown in Table XIV. 

 TABLE XIV.--Numbers of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs Imported into the 
 United Kingdom, 1891-1905.

 
 Year.     Cattle.    Sheep.      Pigs.
 
 1891      507,407      344,504    542
 1892      502,237       79,048   3826
 1993      340,045       62,682    138
 1894      475,440      484,597      8
 1895      415,565    1,065,470    321
 1896      562,553      769,592      4
 1897      618,321      611,504     ..
 1898      569,066      663,747    450
 1899      503,504      607,755     ..
 1900      495,645      382,833     ..
 1901      495,635      383,594     ..
 1902      419,488      293,203     ..
 1903      522,546      354,241     ..
 1904      549,532      382,240     ..
 1905      565,139      183,084    150
 

The animals come mainly from the United States of America, Canada 
and Argentina, and the traffic in cattle is more uniform than that 
in sheep, whilst that in pigs seems practically to have reached 
extinction.  The quantities of dead meat imported increased 
with great rapidity from 1891 to 1905, a circumstance largely 
due to the rise of the trade in chilled and frozen meat.  Fresh 
beef in this form is imported chiefly from the United States 
and Australasia, fresh mutton from Australasia and Argentina. 

Table XV. shows how rapidly this trade expanded during the decade 
of the 'nineties.  The column headed bacon and hams indicates 
clearly enough that the imports of fresh meat did not displace 
those of preserved pig meat, for the latter expanded from 
4,715,000 cwt. to 7,784,000 cwt. during the decade.  The column 
for all dead meat includes not only the items tabulated, but also 

 TABLE XV.--Quantities of Dead Meat Imported into the United 
 Kingdom, 1891-1905--Thousands of Cwt.

 
 Year.   Fresh   Fresh     Fresh    Bacon          All
         Beef.   Mutton.   Pork.    and Hams.   Dead Meat.
 
 1891    1921    1663      128      4715           9,790
 1892    2080    1700      132      5135          10,300
 1893    1808    1971      182      4187           9,305
 1894    2104    2295      180      4819          10,610
 1895    2191    2611      288      5353          11,977
 1896    2660    2895      299      6009          13,347
 1897    3010    3193      348      6731          14,729
 1898    3101    3314      558      7684          16,445
 1899    3803    3446      669      7784          17,658
 1900    4128    3393      695      7444          17,912
 1901    4509    3608      792      7633          18,764
 1902    3707    3660      655      6572          16,971
 1903    4160    4017      706      6298          17,498
 1904    4350    3495      610      6696          17,517
 1905    5038    3811      506      6817          18,680
 

the following, the quantities stated being those for 1905:--Beef, 
salted, 142,806 cwt.; beef, otherwise preserved, 598,030 cwt.; 
preserved mutton, 30,111 cwt.; salted pork, 205,965 cwt.; 
dead rabbits, 656,078 cwt.; meat, unenumerated, 875,032 cwt.  
The quantities of these are relatively small, and, excepting 
rabbits from Australia, they show no general tendency to 
increase.  The extent to which these growing imports were 
associated with a decline in value is shown in Table XVI. 

The trend of the import trade in meat, live and dead (exclusive 
of rabbits), may be gathered from Table XVII., in which are 
given the annual average imports from the eight quinquennial 
periods embraced between 1866 and 1905.  An increase in live 
cattle accompanied a decrease in live sheep and pigs, but the 
imports of dead meat expanded fifteen-fold over the period, 

The rate at which the trade in imported frozen mutton 
increased as compared with the industry in home-grown mutton 
is illustrated in the figures published annually by Messrs 
W. Weddel and Company, from which those for 1885 and 1890 and 
for each year from 1895 to 1906 are given in Table XVIII.  The 
home-grown is the estimated dead weight of sheep and lambs 
slaughtered, which is taken at 40% of the total number of sheep 
and lambs returned each year in the United Kingdom.  In the 

 TABLE XVI.--Average Values of Fresh Meat, Bacon and Hams 
 Imported into the United Kingdom, 1891-1905--per Cwt.

 
 Year.    Fresh     Fresh     Fresh    Bacon.    Hams.
          Beef.     Mutton.   Pork.
 
          s.  d.    s.  d.    s.  d.   s.  d.    s.  d.
 
 1891     42   1    39   6    47   6   37  11    46   4
 1892     42   5    40   6    46  11   40  10    47   4
 1893     42   4    39   3    50   0   53   0    58   5
 1894     40   0    37  10    48   5   43  10    49   1
 1895     39   0    35   2    46   1   39   0    44  11
 1896     37  10    32   7    45  11   34   6    43   0
 1897     38   5    30   3    44   0   35   5    42   8
 1898     38   2    29   7    41  10   36   2    39   6
 1899     38   8    31   7    41  11   35  10    41   5
 1900     39   7    34   5    43   0   41   9    46  10
 1901     39   6    36   7    43   4   47   1    48   8
 1902     42   8    37   9    44   2   52   9    52   1
 1903     40   3    39   0    44   1   52  10    55   1
 1904     37   1    39   3    45   2   47   1    49  11
 1905     35   6    38   6    46   0   46   6    47   4
 

imported column is given the weight of fresh (frozen) mutton 
and lamb imported, plus the estimated dead weight of the 
sheep imported on the hoof for slaughter.  The quantity imported 
in 1899 was double that in 1890, and quadruple that in 1885.  
Moreover, in 1885 the imported product was only about one-seventh 

 TABLE XVII.--Average Annual Imports of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs, 
 and of Dead Meat, into the United Kingdom over eight 5-yearly
 periods.

 
 Period.     Cattle.    Sheep.    Pigs.  Dead Meat.
 
               No.       No.       No.     Cwt.
 1866-1870   194,947   610,300   64,827    1,155,867
 1871-1875   215,990   864,516   74,040    3,134,175
 1876-1880   272,745   938,704   44,613    5,841,913
 1881-1885   387,282   974,316   24,355    6,012,495
 1886-1890   438,098   800,599   19,437    7,681,729
 1891-1895   448,139   407,260      967   10,436,549
 1896-1900   549,818   607,086       91   15,785,354
 1901-1905   510,468   319,272       30   17,384,366
 

as much as the home-grown. whereas in 1890 it was more than 
one-fourth, and in 1906 close on two-thirds.  This large import 
trade in fresh meat, which sprang up entirely within the last 
quarter of the 19th century, has placed an abundance of cheap 
and wholesome food well within the reach of the great industrial 

 TABLE XVIII.--Home Product and Imports of Sheep and Mutton 
 into the United Kingdom--Thousands of Tons.

 
 Year.  Home-   Imported.       Year.  Home-   Imported.
        grown.                         grown.
 
 1885   322        47           1900   332       179
 1890   339        92           1901   330       191
 1895   319       157           1902   322       191
 1896   329       164           1903   318       2109
 1897   327       175           1904   311       185
 1898   333       182           1905   312       195
 1899   339       187           1906   313       207
 

populations of the United Kingdom.  At the same time it 
cannot. be gainsaid that it has opened the way to fraud.  
Butchers have palmed off upon their customers imported 
fresh meat as home-grown, and secured a dishonest profit 
by charging for it the prices of the latter, which are 
considerably in excess of those of the imported product. 

                 Sale of Cattle by Live Weight 

In connexion with the internal live stock trade of Great 
Britain attention must be directed to the Markets and Fairs 
(Weighing of Cattle) Act 1891.  The object of this measure 
is to replace the old-fashioned system of guessing at the 
weight of an animal by the sounder method of obtaining the 
exact weight by means of the weighbridge.  The grazier buys 
and sells cattle much less frequently than the butcher buys 
them, so that the latter is naturally more skilled in estimating 
the weight of a beast through the use of the eye and the 
hand.  The resort to the weighbridge should put both on an 
equality, and its use tends to increase.  Under the act, 
as supplemented by an order of the Board of Agriculture 
in 1905, there were in that year 26 scheduled places in 
England and 10 in Scotland, or 36 altogether, from which 
returns were obtained.  The numbers of cattle (both fat 
and store) weighed at scheduled places in 1893 and 190510 
were respectively 7.59 and 18% of those entering those 
markets.  The numbers for Scotland are greater throughout 
than those for England, 72% of the fat cattle entering the 
scheduled markets in Scotland in 1905 (2) having been weighed, 
while in England the proportion was only 20%. Little use is 
made of the weighbridge in selling store-cattle, sheep or 
swine.  As the main object of the act is to obtain records of 
prices, it follows that only in so far as statements of the 
prices realized, together with the description of the animals 
involved, are obtained, is the full advantage of the statute 
secured.  In 1905 the average price per cwt. for fat cattle in 
Great Britain was 32s. 11d. as compared with 35s. 2d. in 1900. 

                Food Values and Early Maturity. 

In the feeding experiments which have been carried on at 
Rothamsted it has been shown that the amount consumed both 
for a given live weight of animal within a given time, and for 
the production of a given amount of increase, is, as current 
food stuffs go, measurable more by the amounts they contain 
of digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents than 
by the amounts of the digestible and available nitrogenous 
constituents they supply.  The non-nitrogenous substance 
(the fat) in the increase in live weight of an animal is, 
at any rate in great part, if not entirely, derived from the 
non-nitrogenous constituents of the food.  Of the nitrogenous 
compounds in food, on the other hand, only a small proportion 
of the whole consumed is finally stored up in the increase of 
the animal--in other words, a very large amount of nitrogen 
passes through the body beyond that which is finally retained 
in the increase, and so remains for manure.  Hence it is 
that the amount of food consumed to produce a given amount 
of increase in live weight, as well as that required for 
the sustentation of a given live weight for a given time, 
should--provided the food be not abnormally deficient in 
nitrogenous substance--be characteristically dependent on 
its supplies of digestible and available non-nitrogenous 
constituents.  It has further been shown that, in the exercise 
of force by animals, there is a greatly increased expenditure 
of the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, but little, if 
any, Of the nitrogenous.  Thus, then, alike for maintenance, for 
increase, and for the exercise of force, the exigencies of the 
system are characterized more by the demand for the digestible 
non-nitrogenous or more specially respiratory and fat-forming 
constituents than by that for the nitrogenous or more specially 
flesh-forming ones.  Hence, as current fattening food-stuffs 
go--assuming, of course, that they are not abnormally low 
in the nitrogenous constituents--they are, as foods, more 
valuable in proportion to their richness in digestible and 
available non-nitrogenous than to that of their nitrogenous 
constituents.  As, however, the manure of the animals of the 
farm is valuable largely in proportion to the nitrogen it 
contains, there is, so far, an advantage in giving a food 
somewhat rich in nitrogen, provided it is in other respects 
a good one, and, weight for weight, not much more costly. 

The quantity of digestible nutritive matter in 1000 lb. of ordinary 
feeding-stuffs when supplied to sheep or oxen is shown in Table 
XIX. This table is taken from Warington's Chemistry of the 
Farm, 10th edition (Vinton and Co.), to which reference may 
be made for a detailed discussion of the feeding of animals. 

In the fattening of animals for the butcher the principle of 
early maturity has received full recognition.  If the sole 
purpose for which an animal is reared is to prepare it for 
the block--and this is the case with steers amongst cattle 
and with wethers amongst sheep--the sooner it is ready for 
slaughter the less should be the outlay involved.  During the 
whole time the animal is living the feeder has to pay what 
has been termed the ``life tax''--that is, so much of the 
food has to go to the maintenance of the animal as a living 
organism into what will subsequenctly be available in the 
form of beef or mutton.  If a bullock can be rendered fit 
for the butcher at the age of two or three years, will the 
animal repay another year's feeding? It has been proved at 
the Christmas fat stock shows that the older a bullock gets 
the less will he gain in weight per day as a result of the 
feeding.  With regard to this point the work of the Smithfield 
Club deserves recognition.  This body was instituted in 1798 
as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being 

 TABLE XIX.--Digestible Matter in 1000 lb. of Various Foods. 


 
                          Total  Nitrogeneaous         Soluble
                         Organic   Substances.    Fat. Carbo-   Fibre
                          Matter. Alba-   Amides,      hydrates
                                  minoids. etc.
 Cotton cake
     (decorticated)       691     374     18      128    158      13
     (undecorticated)     422     150     13       50    177      32
 Linseed cake             655     230     11      103    266      45
 Peas                     747     175     25       12    499      36
 Beans                    733     196     28       12    446      51
 Wheat11                786      92     13       15    656      10
 Oats                     600      81      7       45    441      26
 Barley                   715      70      4       19    607      15
 Maize                    786      73      6       44    651      12
 Rice meal                612      67     10      102    411      22
 Wheat bran               585      90     20       27    426      22
 Malt sprouts             681     114     71       11    379     106
 Brewers' grains          137      34      2       14     67      20
       '' (dried)         529     136      8       57    266      62
 Pasture grass            156      19     11        6     84      36
 Clover (bloom beginning) 123      17      8        5     63      30
 Clover hay (medium)      440      47     25       13    242     113
 Meadow hay (best)        511      60     18       13    269     151
          (medium)        485      40     12       12    269     152
            (poor)        460      29      5       10    242     174
 Maize silage             124       1      7        7     75      34
                                     \    /
 Bean straw               412          40           6    211     155
 Oat straw                381       7      5        7    163     199
 Barley straw             426       4      3        6    211     202
                                     \    /
 Wheat straw              351           4           4    150     193
 Potatoes                 213       5      9        1    195       3
 Mangels (large)           89       1      8      1/2     74       6
         (small)          109       2      6      1/2     96       5
 Swedes                    87       2      7      1/2     71       6
 Turnips                   68       1      5      1/2     56       5
 

changed to that of the Smithfield Club in 1802.  The original 
object--the supply of the cattle markets of Smithfield and 
other places with the cheapest and best meat--is still kept 
strictly in view.  The judges, in making their awards at the 
show held annually in December, at Islington, North London 
(since 1862), are instructed to decide according to quality of 
flesh, lightness of offal, age and early maturity, with no 
restrictions as to feeding, and thus to promote the primary 
aim of the club in encouraging the selection and breeding of 
the best and most useful animals for the production of meat, 
and testing their capabilities in respect of early maturity.  
At the first show, held at Smithfield in 1799, two classes 
were provided for cattle and two for sheep, the prizes offered 
amounting to L. 52 : 10s. In 1839 the classes comprised seven 
for cattle, six for sheep, and one for pigs, with prizes to 
the amount of L. 300.  By 1862 the classes had risen to 29 for 
cattle, 17 for sheep and 4 for pigs, and the prize money to 
L. 2072.  At the centenary show in 1898 provision was made for 
40 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 18 for pigs, and 7 for 
animals to be slaughtered, whilst to mark the importance of the 
occasion the prizes offered amounted to close upon L. 5000 in 
value.  In 1907 there were 38 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 
20 or pigs and 12 for carcase competitors, and the value of 
the prizes was L. 4113.  The sections provided for cattle are 
properly restricted to what may be termed the beef brands; 
in the catalogue order they are Devon, South Devon, Hereford, 
Shorthorn, Sussex, Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Welsh, 
Highland, Cross-bred, Kerry and Dexter, and Small Cross-bred. 

It will be noticed that such characteristically milking 
breeds as the Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey have no place 
here.  Provision is made, however, for all the well-known 
breeds of sheep and swine.  In the cattle classes, aged beasts 
of huge size and of considerably over a ton in weight used 
to be common, but in recent years the tendency has been to 
reduce the upper limit of age, and thus to bring out animals 
ripe for the butcher in a shorted time than was formerly the 
case.  An important step in this direction was taken in 1896, 
when the senior class for steers, viz. animals three to four 
years old, was abolished, the maximum age at which steers 
were allowed to compete for prizes being reduced to three 
years.  The cow classes were abolished in 1897, and in the 
schedule of the 1905 exhibition the classes for each breed 
of cattle were (1) for steers not exceeding two years old, 
(2) for steers above two years and not exceeding three years 
old, and (3) for heifers not exceeding three years old.  The 
single exception is provided by the slowly-maturing Highland 
breed of cattle, for which classes were allotted to (1) steers 
not exceeding three years old, (2) steers or oxen above three 
years old (with no maximum limit), and (3) heifers not 
exceeding four years old.  As illustrating heavy weights, 
there were in the 1893 show, out of 310 entries of cattle, 
four beasts which weighed over a ton.  They were all steers of 
three to four years old, one being a Hereford weighing 20 cwt. 
2 qr. 4 lb, and the others Shorthorns weighing respectively 
20 cwt. 2 qr., 20 cwt. 3 qr. 21 lb, and 22 cwt. 2 qr. 18 
lb.  In the 1895 show, out of 356 entries of cattle, there 
were seven beasts of more than a ton in weight.  They were 
all three to four years old, and comprised four Shorthorns 
(top weight 21 cwt. 1 qr. 18 lb), one Sussex (22 cwt. 3 
qr. 7 lb), and two cross-breds (top weight 20 cwt. 3 qr. 24 
lb).  In the 1899 show, with 311 entries of cattle, and the 
age limited to three years, no beast reached the weight of a 
ton, the heaviest animal being a crossbred (Aberdeen-Angus 
and Shorthorn) which, at three years old, turned the scale 
at 19 cwt. 1 qr. 5 lb.  Out of 301 entries in 1905 the top 
weight was 19 cwt. 1 qr. 25 lb in the case of a Shorthorn 
steer.  Useful figures for purposes of comparison are obtained 
by dividing the weight of a fat beast by the number of days 
in its age, the weight at birth being thrown in.  The average 
daily gain in live weight is thus arrived at, and as the animal 
increases in age this average gradually diminishes, until the 
daily gain reaches a stage at which it does not afford any 
profitable return upon the food consumed.  At the centenary 
show of the Smithfield Club in 1898 the highest average daily 
gains in weight amongst prize-winning cattle were providrd 
by a Shorthorn-Aberdeen cross-bred steer (age, one year seven 
months; daily gain 2.47 lb); a Shorthorn steer (age, one year 
seven months; daily gain, 2.44 lb); and an Aberdeen-Shorthorn 
cross-bred steer (age, one year ten months; daily gain, 2.33 
lb).  These beasts, it will be observed, were all under two years 
old.  Amongst prize steers of two and a half to three years 
old, on the same occasion, the three highest daily average 
gains in live weight were 2.07 lb. for an Aberdeen-Angus, 
1.99 lb. for a Shorthorn-Aberdeen cross-bred and 1.97 lb. for a 
Sussex.  In the sheep section of the Smithfield show the 
classes for ewes were finally abolished in 1898, and the 
classes restricted to wethers and wether lambs, whose function 
is exclusively the production of meat.  At the 1905 show, 
sheep of each breed, and also cross-breds, competed as (1) 
wether lambs under twelve months old, and (2) wether sheep 
above twelve and under twenty-four months old.  The only 
exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing Cheviot and 
mountain breeds, for which the second class was for wether 
sheep of any age above twelve months.  Of prize sheep at the 
centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0.77 lb. per 
head given by Oxford-Hampshire cross-bred wether lambs, aged 
nine months two weeks.  In the case of wether sheep, twelve 
to twenty-four months old, the highest daily increase was 
0.56 lb per head as yielded by Lincolns, aged twenty-one 
months.  Within the last quarter of the 19th century the 
stock-feeding practices of the country were much modified 
in accordance with these ideas of early maturity.  The 
three-year-old wethers and older oxen that used to be common 
in the fat stock markets are now rarely seen, excepting 
perhaps in the case of mountain breeds of sheep and Highland 
cattle.  It was in 1875 that the Smithfield Club first provided 
the competitive classes for lambs, and in 1883 the champion 
plate offered for the best pen of sheep of any age in the 
show was for the first time won by lambs, a pen of Hampshire 
Downs.  The young classes for bullocks were established in 
1880.  The time-honoured notion that an animal must have 
completed its growth before it could be profitably fattened is 
no longer held, and the improved breeds which now exist rival 
one another as regards the early period at which they may be 
made ready for the butcher by appropriate feeding and management. 

In 1895 the Smithfield Club instituted a carcase competition 
in association with its annual show of fat stock, and it 
has been continued each year since.  The cattle and sheep 
entered for this competition are shown alive on the first 
day, at the close of which they are slaughtered and the 
carcases hung up for exhibition, with details of live and dead 
weights.  The competition thus constitutes what is termed 
a ``block test,'' and it is instructive in affording the 
opportunity of seeing the quality of the carcases furnished by 
the several animals, and in particular the relative proportion 
and distribution of fat and lean meat.  The live animals are 
judged and subsequently the carcases, and, though the results 
sometimes agree, more often they do not.  Tables are constructed 
showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and the 
weight of the various parts that are separated from and not 
included with the carcase.  An abundance of lean meat and a 
moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better 
carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a 
carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent.  
To add to the educational value of the display, information 
as to the methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would 
then be possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the 
mode of its manufacture.  A point of high practical interest 
is the ratio of carcase weight to fasted live weight, and 
in the case of prize-winning carcases these ratios usually 
fluctuate within very narrow limits.  At the 1890 show, for 
example, the highest proportion of the carcase weight to 
live weight was 68% in the case of an Aberdeen-Angus steer 
and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest was 61%, afforded 
alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred heifer and a mountain 
lamb.  A familiar practical method of estimating carcase 
weight from live weight is to reckon one Smithfield stone 
(8 lb) of carcase for each imperial stone (14 lb) of live 
weight.  This gives carcase weight as equal to 57% of live 
weight, a ratio much inferior to the best results obtained 
at the carcase competition promoted by the Smithfield Club. 

                         Breed societies. 

A noteworthy feature of the closing decades of the 19th 
century was the formation of voluntary associations of 
stockbreeders, with the object of promoting the interests of 
the respective breeds of live stock.  As a typical example of 
these organizations the Shire Horse Society may be mentioned.  
It was incorporated in 1878 to improve and promote the breeding 
of the Shire or old English race of cart-horses, and to effect 
the distribution of sound and healthy sires throughout the 
country.  The society holds annual shows, publishes annually 
the Shire Horse Stud Book and offers gold and silver medals 
for competition amongst Shire horses at agricultural shows 
in different parts of the country, The society has carried 
on a work of high national importance, and has effected a 
marked improvement in the character and quality of the Shire 
horse.  What has thus voluntarily been done in England 
would in most other countries be left to the state, or would 
not be attempted at all.  It is hardly necessary to say 
that the Shire Horse Society has never received a penny of 
public money, nor has any other of the voluntary breeders' 
societies.  The Hackney Horse Society and the Hunters' 
Improvement Society are conducted on much the same lines as 
the Shire Horse Society, and, like it, they each hold a show 
in London in the spring of the year and publish an annual 
volume.  Other horsebreeders' associations, all doing useful 
work in the interests of their respective breeds, are the 
Suffolk Horse Society, the Clydesdale Horse Society, the 
Yorkshire Coach Horse Society, the Cleveland Bay Horse 
Society, the Polo Pony Society, the Shetland Pony Stud Book 
Society, the Welsh Pony and Cob Society and the New Forest Pony 
Association.  Thoroughbred race-horses are registered in the 
General Stud Book.  The Royal Commission on Horse Breeding, 
which dates from 1887, is, as its name implies, not a voluntary 
organization.  Through the commission the money previously 
spent upon Queen's Plates is offered in the form of ``King's 
Premiums'' (to the number of twenty-eight in 1907) of L. 150 each 
for thoroughbred stallions, on condition that each stallion 
winning a premium shall serve not less than fifty half-bred 
mares, if required.  The winning stallions are distributed 
in districts throughout Great Britain, and the use of these 
selected sires has resulted in a decided improvement in the 
quality of half-bred horses.  The annual show of the Royal 
Commission on Horse Breeding is held in London jointly. and 
concurrently with that of the Hunters' Improvement Society. 

Of organizations of cattle-breeders the English Jersey Cattle 
Society, established in 1878, may be taken as a type.  It 
offers prizes in butter-test competitions and milking trials 
at various agricultural shows, and publishes the English Herd 
Book and Register of Pure-Bred Jersey Cattle. This volume 
records the births in the herds of members of the society, 
and gives the pedigrees of cows and bulls, besides furnishing 
lists of prize-winners at the principal shows and butter-test 
awards, and reports of sales by auction of Jersey cattle.  
Other cattle societies, all well caring for the interest of 
their respective breeds, are the Shorthorn Society of Great 
Britain and Ireland, the Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn Association, 
the Hereford Herd Book Society, the Devon Cattle Breeders' 
Society, the South Devon Herd Book Society, the Sussex Herd 
Book Society, the Long-horned Cattle Society, the Red Polled 
Society, the English Guernsey Cattle Society, the English Kerry 
and Dexter Cattle Society, the Welsh Black Cattle Society, 
the Polled Cattle Society (for the Aberdeen-Angus breed), the 
English Aberdeen-Angus Cattle Association, the Galloway Cattle 
Society, the Ayrshire Cattle Herd Book Society, the Highland 
Cattle Society of Scotland and the Dairy Shorthorn Association. 

In the case of sheep the National Sheep Breeders' Association 
looks after the interests of flockmasters in general, whilst 
most of the pure breeds are represented also by separate 
organizations.  The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association 
may be taken as a type of the latter, its principal object being 
to encourage the breeding of Hampshire Down sheep at home and 
abroad, and to maintain the purity of the breed.  It publishes 
an annual Flock Book, the first volume of which appeared in 
1890.  In this book are named the recognized and pure-bred 
sires which have been used, and ewes which have been bred 
from, whilst there are also registered the pedigrees of such 
sheep as are proved to be eligible for entry.  Prizes are 
offered by the society at various agricultural shows where 
Hampshire Down sheep are exhibited.  Other sheep societies 
include the Leicester Sheep Breeders' Association, the 
Cotswold Sheep Society, the Lincoln Longwool Sheep Breeders' 
Association, the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association, 
the Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock Book 
Society, the Southdown Sheep Society, the Suffolk Sheep 
Society, the Border Leicester Sheep Breeders' Society, the 
Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock 
Book Society, the Incorporated Wensleydale Blue-faced Sheep 
Breeders' Association and Flock Book Society, the Kent Sheep 
Breeders' Association, the Devon Longwool Sheep Breeders' 
Society, the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, the Cheviot 
Sheep Society and the Roscommon Sheep Breeders' Association. 

The interests of pig-breeders are the care of the 
National Pig Breeders' Association, in addition to which 
there exist the British Berkshire, the Large Black Pig, 
and the Lincoln Curly-Coated White Pig Societies, and 
the Incorporated Tamworth Pig Breeders' Association. 

The addresses of the secretaries of the various 
live-stock societies in the United Kingdom are 
published annually in the Live Stock Journal Almanac. 

        The Maintenance of the Health of Live Stock. 

It was not till the closing decade of the 19th century that 
the stock-breeders of the United Kingdom found themselves in 
a position to prosecute their industry free from the fear of 
the introduction of contagious disease through the medium of 
store animals imported from abroad for fattening on the native 
pastures.  By the Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 & 60 Vict. 
c. 15) it was provided that cattle, sheep and pigs imported 
into the United Kingdom should be slaughtered at the place of 
landing.  The effect was to reduce to a minimum the risk 
of the introduction of disease amongst the herds and flocks 
of the country, and at the same time to confine the trade in 
store stock exclusively to the breeders of Great Britain and 
Ireland.  This arrangement makes no difference to the food-supply 
of the people, for dead meat continues to arrive at British 
ports in ever-increasing quantity.  Moreover, live animals are 
admitted freely from certain countries, provided such animals are 
slaughtered at the place of landing.  At Deptford, for example, 
large numbers of cattle and sheep which thus arrive--mainly 
from Argentina, Canada and the United States--are at once 
slaughtered, and so furnish a steady supply of fresh-killed 
beef and mutton.  The animals which are shipped in this way 
are necessarily of the best quality, because the freight 
on a superior beast is no more costly than on an inferior 
one, and the proportion of freight to sale price is therefore 
less.  With this superior description of butchers' stock all 
classes of home-grown stock--good, bad and indifferent--have, 
of course, to compete.  The Board of Agriculture has the power 
to close the ports of the United Kingdom against live animals 
from any country in which contagious disease is known to 
exist.  This accounts for the circumstance that so few 
countries--none of them in Europe--enjoy the privilege of 
sending live animals to British ports.  In 1900 the discovery 
early in the year of the existence of foot-and-mouth disease 
amongst cattle and sheep shipped from Argentina to the United 
Kingdom led to the issue of an order by which all British 
ports were closed against live animals from the country 
named.  This order came into force on the 30th of April, and 
the result was a marked decline in the shipments of live cattle 
and sheep from the River Plate, but a decided increase in the 
quantity of frozen meat sent thence to the United Kingdom. 

The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed an important 
change in the attitude of public opinion towards legislative 
control over the contagious diseases of animals.  When, after 
the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the 
proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter 
in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing 
its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with 
public indignation and denounced as barbarous.  Views have 
undergone profound modification since then, and the most 
drastic remedy has come to be regarded as the most effective, 
and in the long run the least costly.  The Cattle Diseases 
Prevention Act 1866 (29 & 30 Vict. c. 2) made compulsory the 
slaughter of diseased cattle, and permitted the slaughter 
of cattle which had been exposed to infection, compensation 
being provided out of the rates.  The Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 
125, 1867, is of historical interest, in that it contains 
the first mention of pleuro-pneumonia, and the exposure in 
any market of cattle suffering from that disease was made an 
offence.  The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 1869 (32 & 33 
Vict. c. 70) revoked all former acts, and defined disease to 
mean cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, 
sheep-pox, sheep-scab and glanders, together with any disease 
which the Privy Council might by order specify.  The principle 
of this act in regard to foreign animals was that of free 
importation, with power for the Privy Council to prohibit or 
subject to quarantine and slaughter, as circumstances seemed to 
require.  The act of 1869 was at that time the most complete 
measure that had ever been passed for dealing with diseases of 
animals.  The re-introduction of cattle plague into England 
in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 41 & 42 Vict. c. 74, 
1878, which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a 
principle the landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, 
though free importation or quarantine on the one hand and 
prohibition on the other were provided for in exceptional 
circumstances.  By an order of council which came into 
operation in December 1878, swine fever was declared to be 
a disease for the purposes of the act of that year.  It was 
not, however, till October 1886 that anthrax and rabies were 
officially declared to be contagious diseases for the purposes 
of certain sections of the act of 1878.  In 1884 the Act 47 
& 48 Vict. c. 13 empowered the Privy Council to prohibit the 
landing of animals from any country in respect of which the 
circumstances were not such as to afford reasonable security 
against the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease.  After one 
or two other measures of minor importance came the Act 53 & 
54 Vict. c. 14, known as the Pleuro-pneumonia Act 1890, which 
transferred the powers of local authorities to slaughter and 
pay compensation in cases of pleuro-pneumonia to the Board of 
Agriculture, and provided further for the payment of such 
compensation out of money specifically voted by parliament.  
This measure was regarded at the time as a marked step in 
advance, and was only carried after a vigorous campaign in its 
favour.  In 1892 by the Act 55 & 56 Vict. c. 47 power was given 
to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account 
of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing 
with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could 
order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in 
contact with these, and could pay compensation for animals so 
slaughtered.  Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases 
(Animals) Act 1893 (56 & 57 Vict. c. 43) swine fever in 
Great Britain was, from the 1st of November in that year, 
dealt with by the Board of Agriculture in the same way as 
pleuro-pneumonia, the slaughter of infected swine being 
carried out under directions from the central authority, and 
compensation allowed from the imperial exchequer.  In 1894 was 
passed the Diseases of Animals Act (57 & 58 Vict. c. 57), the 
word ``contagious'' being omitted from the title.  This was a 
measure to consolidate the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts 
1878-1893.  In it ``the expression `disease' means cattle 
plague (that is to say, rinderpest, or the disease commonly 
called cattle plague), contagious pleuro-pneumonia of 
cattle (in this act called pleuro-pneumonia), foot-and-mouth 
disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, or swine fever (that is to 
say, the disease known as typhoid fever of swine, soldier 
purples, red disease, hog cholera or swine plague).'' The 
Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 & 60 Vict. c. 15) rendered 
compulsory the slaughter of imported live stock at the place 
of landing, a boon for which British stock-breeders had 
striven for many years.  The ports in Great Britain at which 
foreign animals may be landed are Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, 
Hull, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  
Animals from the Channel Islands may be landed at Southampton. 

                     The Diseases of Animals. 

Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 weekly 
returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of 
anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy), 
pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties of 
Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab. 

Cattle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great 
Britain since 1877.  In that year there were 47 outbreaks 
distributed over five counties and involving 263 head of cattle. 

The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between 
1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the 

 TABLE XX.--Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Great Britain, 
 1877-1905.

 
                                   Animals attacked.
                    Out                                Other
 Year.  Counties.  Breaks.  Cattle.   Sheep.   Swine.  Animals.
 
 1877      55         858     5,640     7,405   2,099
 1878      45         235       912     8,609     245
 1879      29         137       261    15,681       5
 1880      38       1,461    20,918     9,572   1,886     2
 1881      49       4,833    59,484   117,152   6,330    80
 1882      49       1,970    23,973    11,412   2,564     1
 1883      75      18,732   219,289   217,492  24,332    32
 1884      55         949    12,186    14,174   1,860     1
 1885      10          30       354        34      30
 1886       1           1        10
 1892      15          95     1,248     3,412     107
 1893       2           2        30
 1894       3           3         7       261
 1900       9          21       214        50       2
 1901       3          12        43       626
 1902       1           1         2       118
 

years 1887 to 1891, 1895 to 1899 and 1903 to 1905 inclusive are 
omitted, because there was no outbreak during those periods.  The 
disease is seen to have attained its maximum virulence in 1883. 

Sheep-scab is a loathsome skin disease due to an acarian 
parasite.  Table XXI. shows the number of outbreaks and the 
number of counties over which they were distributed from 1877 to 
1905.  The recorded outbreaks were more numerous in the 
decade of the 'nineties than in that of the 'eighties, though 
possibly this may have been due to greater official activity 
in the later period.  The largest number of sheep attacked was 

 TABLE XXI.--Outbreaks of Sheep-Scab in Great Britain, 
 1877-1905.

 
 Year.  Counties.  Outbreaks.    Year.   Counties.  Outbreaks.
 
 1877       77       3214        1890       75        1506
 1880       70       1556        1895       88        3092
 1885       69       1512        1900       78        1939
                                 1905       73         918
 

68,715 (in 1877).  It is compulsory on owners to notify 
the authorities as to the existence of scab amongst their 
sheep.  By the Diseases of Animals Act(1903) powers to 
prescribe the dipping of sheep, irrespective of the presence 
or otherwise of sheep scab, were conferred upon the Board of 
Agriculture.  An inspector of the board or of the local 
authority was by the same act authorized to enter premises 
and examine sheep.  Each year the disorder runs a similar 
course, the outbreaks dwindling to a minimum in the summer 
months, June to August, and attaining a maximum in the winter 
months, December to February.  It is chiefly in the ``flying'' 
flocks and not in the breeding flocks that the disease is 
rife, and it is so easily communicable that a drove of 
scab-infested sheep passing along a road may leave behind 
them traces sufficient to set up the disorder in a drove of 
healthy sheep that may follow.  For its size and in relation 
to its sheep population Wales harbours the disease to a far 
greater extent than the other divisions of Great Britain. 

The fatal disease known as anthrax did not form the 
subject of official returns previous to the passing of 
the Anthrax Order of 1886.  Isolated outbreaks are of 
common occurrence, and from the totals for Great Britain 
given in Table XXII. it would appear that there is little 
prospect of the eradication of this bacterial disorder. 

Glanders (including farcy) was the subject during the twenty-four 
years 1877-1900 of outbreaks in Great Britain ranging between 
a minimum of 518 in 1877 and a maximum of 1657 in 1892; in 
the former year 758 horses were attacked, and in the latter 
3001.  A recrudescence of the disease marked the closing years 
of the 19th century, the outbreaks having been 748 in 1898, 
853 in 1899 and 1119 in 1900.  The counties of Great Britain 
over which the annual outbreaks have been distributed have 
ranged between 24 in 1890 and 52 in 1879.  As a matter of fact, 

 TABLE XXII.--Outbreaks of Anthrax in Great Britain, 
 1895-1905.

 
                                      Animals Attacked.
 Year.  Counties.   Outbreaks.  Cattle.  Sheep.  Swine.  Horses.
 
 1895       66          434       604     158     140      32
 1896       64          488       632      34     200      38
 1897       67          433       521      39     284      38
 1898       73          556       634      22     161      39
 1899       67          534       634      69     253      30
 1900       74          571       668      40     204      44
 1901       63          651       708      76     152      35
 1902       71          678       746      50     192      44
 1903       78          767       809      48     234      51
 1904       77         1049      1115      62     365      47
 1905       84          970      1001      53     210      53
 

however, the disease is strongly centred upon the 
metropolitan area, more than half of the outbreaks 
being reported from the county of London alone. 

The rabies order was passed in 1886, and the number of counties 
in Great Britain in which cases of rabies in dogs were reported 
in each subsequent year is shown in Table XXIII.  In addition 
there have been some cases of rabies in animals other than 
dogs.  The disease was very rife in 1895, but the extensive 
application of the muzzling restrictions of the Board of 
Agriculture was accompanied by so steady a diminution in the 

 TABLE XXIII.--Cases of Rabies in Dogs in Great Britain, 
   1887-1902.

 
 Year.   Counties.  Cases.      Year.   Counties.   Cases.
 
 1887       28       217        1895       29        672
 1888       19       160        1896       41        438
 1889       20       312        1897       30        151
 1890       20       129        1898       10         17
 1891       17        79        1899        4          9
 1892       12        38        1900        2          6
 1893       18        93        1901        1          1
 1894       17       248        1902        4         13
 

prevalence of the disease, that it was thought the latter had 
been extirpated.  The entire revocation of the muzzling order, 
which accordingly followed, proved, however, to be premature, 
and it became necessary to reimpose it in the districts where 
it had last been operative, namely, certain parts of South 
Wales.  No cases were reported in 1903, 1904 or 1905. 

Pleuro-pneumonia in Great Britain was dealt with by the 
local authorities up to the year 1890.  Between 1870 and 
1889 the annual outbreaks had ranged between a minimum 
of 312 in 1884 and a maximum of 3262 in 1874, the largest 
number of cattle attacked in any one year being 7983 in 
1872.  The largest number of counties over which thin outbreaks 
were distributed was 72 in 1873.  On the 1st of September 
1890 the Board of Agriculture assumed powers with respect to 
pleuro-pneumonia under the Diseases of Animals Act of that 
year.  Their administration was attended by success, for 
from 192 outbreaks in Great Britain in 1891 the total fell 
to 35 in 1892 and to 9 in 1893.  In the four subsequent 
years, 1894-1897, the outbreaks numbered 2, 1, 2, and 7 
respectively.  In January 1898 an outbreak was discovered 
in a London cow-shed.  This proved to be the last case in 
the 19th century of what at one time had been a veritable 
scourge to cattle-owners and a source of heavy financial loss. 

Between 1879 and 1892 inclusive, administration with regard to 
swine-fever was entrusted to local authorities.  The largest 
number of outbreaks neported in any one of those years was 7926 
in 1885, and the smallest 1717 in 1881.  In 1893 the Board of 
Agriculture took over the management, and Table XXIV. shows 
the number of counties in which swine-fever existed, the number 
of outbreaks confirmed and the number of swine slaughtered 
by order of the board in each year since.  The trouble with 
this disease has been mainly in England, the outbreaks in 
Wales and Scotland being comparatively few.  What are termed 
``swine-fever infected areas'' are scheduled by the board 
when and where circumstances seem to require, and the movement 

 TABLE XXIV.--Outbreaks of Swine Fever in Great Britain, 
 1894-1905.

 
                                   Swine slaughtered as
                    Outbreaks   diseased, or as having been
 Year.   Counties.  confirmed.     exposed to infection.
 
 1894       73         5682              56,296
 1895       73         6305              69,931
 1896       77         5166              79,586
 1897       74         2155              40,432
 1898       72         2514              43,756
 1899       71         2322              30,797
 1900       62         1940              17,933
 1901       71         3140              15,237
 1902       67         1688               8,263
 1903       63         1478               7,933
 1904       64         1196               5,603
 1905       58          817               3,876
 

of swine within such areas is prohibited, much inconvenience 
to trade resulting from restrictions of this kind.  Frequently, 
moreover, the exhibition of pigs at agricultural shows has to 
be abandoned in consequence of these swine-fever regulations. 

  The Trade in Live Stock Between Ireland and Great Britain. 

The compulsory slaughter at the place of landing does not 
extend to animals shipped from Ireland into Great Britain, 
and this is a matter of the highest importance to Irish 
stock-breeders, who find their best market close at hand 
on the east of St George's Channel.  Table XXV. shows the 
number of cattle, sheep and pigs shipped from Ireland into 
Great Britain in each of the fifteen years 1891-1905, the 
numbers of horses similarly shipped being also indicated.  
On the average rather more than half the total of cattle 
is made up of store animals for fattening or breeding 
purposes, the fattening of Irish stores being a business of 
considerable magnitude in Norfolk and other counties.  Calves 
constitute about one-twelfth of the total number of cattle. 

 TABLE XXV.--Imports of Live Stock from Ireland into Great 
 Britain, 1891-1905.

 
 Year.   Cattle.   Sheep.      Pigs.     Horses.
 
 1891    630,802     893,175   503,584   33,396
 1892    624,457   1,080,202   500,951   32,481
 1893    688,669   1,107,960   456,571   30,390
 1894    826,954     957,101   584,967   33,589
 1895    791,607     652,578   547,220   34,560
 1896    681,560     737,306   610,589   39,856
 1897    746,012     804,515   695,307   38,422
 1898    803,362     833,458   588,785   38,804
 1899    772,272     871,953   688,553   42,087
 1900    745,519     862,263   715,202   35,606
 1901    642,638     843,325   596,129   25,607
 1902    959,241   1,055,802   637,972   25,260
 1903    897,645     825,679   569,920   27,719
 1904    772,363     739,266   505,080   27,500
 1905    749,131     700,626   363,823   30,723
 

Most of the pigs sent from Ireland into Great Britain are fat, 
the store pigs accounting for less than one-tenth of the total 
number.  The returns from Ireland under the Diseases of Animals 
Acts 1894 and 1896 are less significant than those of Great 
Britain.  Thus, in the year ending June 1905, they included 
4 outbreaks of anthrax, 219 of swine-fever and 343 of 
sheep-scab, while there were no cases of rabies.  Compared 
with the export trade in live stock from Ireland to Great 
Britain the reciprocal trade from Great Britain to Ireland 
is small, and is largely restricted to animals for breeding 
purposes.  Owing to the reappearance of foot-and-mouth 
disease in Great Britain early in 1900 the importation of 
cattle, sheep, goats and swine therefrom into Ireland was 
temporarily suspended by the authorities in the latter country. 

         Exports of Animals from the United Kingdom. 

The general export trade of the United Kingdom in living animals 
represented an aggregate average annual value over the five 
years 1896-1900 of L. 1,017,000 as against L. 935,801 over the 
five years 1901-1905.  To these sums the value of horses alone 
contributed about three-fourths, Belgium taking more than half 
the number of exported horses.  The export trade in cattle, 
sheep and pigs is practically restricted to pedigree animals 
required for breeding purposes, and though its aggregate value 

 TABLE XXVI.--Quantities and Value of Home-bred Live Stock 
 Exported from the United Kingdom, 1900-1905.

 
                                                Other
 Year.   Horses.   Cattle.   Sheep.    Pigs.   Animals.
 
 1900    30,038    2,742     4,934     435     75,642
 1901    27,612    1,648     2,761     378     68,012
 1902    30,032    2,428     3,596     515     60,941
 1903    34,798    2,736     5,579     776     52,095
 1904    32,955    3,311     8,142     732     50,873
 1905    47,708    3,938     8,378     931     50,307
 
         pounds    pounds    pounds    pounds  pounds
 1900    681,927   118,337    53,306   3032    45,241
 1901    605,699    61,812    25,727   3437    45,476
 1902    635,661    96,153    29,069   5053    56,691
 1903    734,598   140,244    67,758   7053    48,335
 1904    581,339   146,210    88,421   7850    43,868
 1905    875,647   190,406   133,413   8024    41,061
 

is not large it is of considerable importance to stock-breeders, 
as it is a frequent occurrence for buyers for export--to 
Argentina, Australasia, Canada, the United States and 
elsewhere--to bid freely at the sale rings, and often to pay 
the highest prices, thus stimulating the sales and encouraging 
the breeding of the best types of native stock.  Details 
for the six years 1900-1905 are summarized in Table XXVI. 

                   Implements and Machinery. 

It is the custom of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 
to invite competitions at its annual shows in specified 
classes of implements, and an enumeration of these will 
indicate the character of the appliances which were thus 
brought into prominence in the latter years of the 19th and 
the early years of the 20th century.  These trials taking 
place, with few intermissions, year after year serve to direct 
the public mind to the development, which is continually 
in progress, of the mechanical aids to agriculture.  The 
awards here summarized are quite distinct from those of 
silver medals which are given by the society in the case 
of articles possessing sufficient merit, which are entered 
as ``new implements for agricultural or estate purposes.'' 

In 1875, at Taunton, special prizes were awarded for 
one-horse and two-horse mowing-machines, hay-making machines, 
horse-rakes (self-acting and not self-acting), guards to 
the drums of threshing-machines, and combined guards and 
feeders to the drums of threshing-machines.  In 1876, at 
Birmingham, the competitions were of self-delivery reapers, 
one-horse reapers and combined mowers and reapers without 
self-delivery.  In 1878, at Bristol, the special awards were 
all for dairy appliances --milk-can for conveying milk long 
distances, churn for milk, churn for cream, butter-worker for 
large dairies, butterworker for small dairies, cheese-tub, 
curd knife, curd mill, cheese-turning apparatus, automatic 
means of preventing rising of cream, milk-cooler and cooling 
vat.  A gold medal was awarded for a harvester and self-binder 
(McCormick's).  In 1879, at Kilburn, the competition was of 
railway waggons to convey perishable goods long distances 
at low temperatures.  In 1880 at Carlisle, and in 1881 at 
Derby, the special awards were for broadside steam-diggers 
and string sheaf-binders respectively.  In 1882, at Reading, 
a gold medal was given for a cream separator for horse 
power, whilst a prize of 100 guineas offered for the most 
efficient and most economical method of drying hay or corn 
crops artificially, either before or after being stacked, 
was not awarded.  In 1883, at York, a prize of L. 50 was 
given for a butter dairy suitable for not more than twenty 
cows.  In 1884, at Shrewsbury, a prize of L. 100 was awarded 
for a sheaf-binding reaper, and one of L. 50 for a similar 
machine.  In 1885, at Preston, the competitions were concerned 
with two-horse, three-horse and four-horse whipple-trees, 
and packages for conveying fresh butter by rail.  In 1886, 
at Norwich, a prize of L. 25 was awarded for a thatch-making 
machine.  In 1887, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, a prize of L. 200 went 
to a compound portable agricultural engine, one of L. 100 to 
a simple portable agricultural engine, and lesser prizes to 
a weighing-machine for horses and cattle, a weighing-machine 
for sheep and pigs, potato-raisers and one-man-power cream 
separators.  In 1888, at Nottingham, hay and straw presses for 
steam-power, horse-power and hand-power were the subjects of 
competition.  In 1889, at Windsor, prizes were awarded 
for a fruit and vegetable evaporator, a paring and coring 
machine, a dairy thermometer, parcel post butter-boxes to 
carry different weights. and a vessel to contain preserved 
butter.  In 1890, at Plymouth, competitions took place 
of light portable engines (a) using solid fuel, (b) 
using liquid or gaseous fuel, grist mills for use on a 
farm, disintegrators, and cider-making plant for use on a 
farm.  In 1891, at Doncaster, special prizes were given 
for combined portable threshing and finishing machines, and 
cream separators (hand and power).  In 1892, at Warwick, 
the competitions related to ploughs--single furrow (a) for 
light land, (b) for strong land, (c) for press drill and 
broad-cast sowing; two-furrow; three-furrow; digging (a) 
for light land, (b) for heavy land; and one-way ploughs.  In 
1893, at Chester, self-binding harvesters and sheep-shearing 
machines (power) were the appliances respectively in 
competition.  In 1894, at Cambridge, the awards were for fixed 
and portable oil engines, potato-spraying and tree-spraying 
machines, sheep-dipping apparatus and churns.  In 1895, at 
Darlington, the competitions were confined to hay-making 
machines and clover-making machines.  In 1896, at Leicester, 
prizes were awarded after trial to potato-planting machines, 
potato-raising machines and butter-drying machines.  In 1897, 
at Manchester, special awards were made for fruit baskets and 
milk-testers.  In 1898, at Birmingham, a prize of L. 100 was 
given for a self-moving vehicle for light loads, L. 100 and 
L. 50 for self-moving vehicles for heavy loads, and L. 10 for 
safety feeder to chaff-cutter, in accordance with the 
Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897.  In 1899, at 
Maidstone, special prizes were offered for machines for washing 
hops with liquid insecticides, cream separators (power and 
hand), machines for the evaporation of fruit and vegetables, 
and packages for the carriage of (a) soft fruit, (b) hard 
fruit.  In 1900, at York, the competitions were concerned 
with horse-power cultivators, self-moving steam diggers, 
milking machines and sheep-shearing machines (power and 
hand).  In 1901, at Cardiff, competition was invited in portable 
oil engines, agricultural locomotive oil engines and small 
ice-making plant suitable for a dairy.  In the years 1903 and 
1904 petrol motors adapted for ploughing and other agricultural 
operations formed a prominent feature of the exhibits. 

The progress of steam cultivation has not justified the hopes 
that were once entertained in the United Kingdom concerning 
this method of working implements in the field.  It was about 
the year 1870 that its advantages first came into prominent 
notice.  At that time, owing to labour disputes, the supply of 
hands was short and horses were dear.  The wet seasons that set 
in at the end of the 'seventies led to so much hindrance in the 
work on the land that the aid of steam was further called for, 
and it seemed probable that there would be a lessened demand 
for horse power.  It was found, however, that the steam work 
was done with less care than had been bestowed upon the horse 
tillage, and the result was that steam came to be regarded as 
an auxiliary to horse labour rather than as a substitute for 
it.  In this capacity it is capable of rendering most valuable 
assistance, for it can be utilized in moving extensive areas 
of land in a very short time.  Accordingly, when a few days 
occur early in the season favourable to the working of the 
land, much of it can be got into a forward condition, whilst 
horses are set free for the lighter operations.  The crops 
can then be sown in due time, which in wet years, and with 
the usual teams of horses kept on a farm, is not always 
practicable.  Much advantage arises from the steam working of 
bastard fallows in summer, and after harvest a considerable 
amount of autumn cultivation can be done by steam power, 
thus materially lightening the work in the succeeding 
spring.  On farms of moderate size it is usual to hire steam 
tackle as required, the outlay involved in the purchase of 
a set being justifiable only in the case of estates or of 
very big farms where, when not engaged in ploughing, or in 
cultivating, or in other work upon the land, the steam-engine 
may be employed in threshing, chaff-cutting, sawing and many 
similar operations which require power.  The labour question 
again became acute in the early years of the 20th century, 
when, owing to the scarcity of hands and the high rate of 
wages, self-binding harvesters were resorted to in England 
for the in-gathering of the corn crops to a greater extent 
than ever before.  For the same reason potato-planting and 
potato-lifting machines were also in greater requisition. 

           Agricultural Population and Wages. 

The last half of the 19th century witnessed a remarkable 
diminution of the British rural population.  The decrease 
has assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that 
date the supply of rural labour exceeded the demand.  A 
large number of agricultural labourers were thus only in 
partial employment, and their withdrawal from the land 
was of minor importance as compared with the shrinkage in 
the number of those permanently employed.  The following 
tables indicate the extent of rural depopulation:-- 

 Number of ``Persons Engaged in Agriculture'' in the United 
 Kingdom, 1851-1901.

 
 1851.      1861.      1871.      1881.      1891.      1901.
 
 3,453,500  3,080,500  2,744,000  2,573,900  2,394,500  2,262,600
 

The number of ``agricultural labourers and shepherds, which affords 
a more precise index, declined in a still more marked degree. 


 
 1851.      1861.      1871.    1881.    1891.    1901.
 
 1,110,311  1,098,261  923,332  830,452  756,557  609,105
 

The decrease in the demand for labour is attributable 
chiefly to the reduction of the cultivated area and the 
laying down to pasture of land once under the plough, and 
to the increasing use of agricultural machinery.  It may 
however, be noticed that the period was marked by a steady 
increase of the cash wages of the farm labourer, as indicated 
by the following table from the Report on the Earnings of 
Agricultural labourers issued by the Board of Trade in 1905. 

Average Weekly Cash Wages of Ordinary Agricultural 
Labourers Employed on Certain Farms in England and Wales. 


 
         England and Wales,   Eastern counties,
  Year.      69 Farms.             12 Farms.
  
              s.  d.                s.  d.
  1850        9   3 1/2             8   8
  1855       10  11 1/2            11   5
  1860       10  11                10   8
  1865       11   3                10   5
  1870       11  10 1/2            11   1 1/2
  1875       13   7                12  11 1/2
  1880       13   2 1/2            12   1
  1885       13   1                11   5
  1890       13   0 1/2            11   0 1/2
  1895       13   2 1/2            11   0
  1900       14   5 1/2            13   1 1/2
  1903       14   7                13   2 1/2
 

(See also ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS.) 

               Agricultural Education. 

In Great Britain agricultural education as a whole lacks 
the scope and co-ordination which it has in some continental 
countries.  Centres at which higher agricultural education 
is given are, however, numerous.  The chief are:-- 

    The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester 
   Aspatria Agricultural College, Carlisle.
   Tamworth Agricultural College.
  *Agricultural and Horticultural College, Uckfield, Sussex.
  *Agricultural and Horticultural College, Holme Chapel, Cheshire.
  *Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston, Derby.
  *Harper-Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop.
  *Lancashire County School, Harris Institute, Preston.
  *University College of North Wales, Bangor.
  *University of Leeds.
  *Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
  *Cambridge University.
  *University College, Reading.
  *South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.
  *University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
  *Agricultural Institute, Ridgmont (Bedfordshire County Council).
  *Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.
In the year 1904-1905 L. 10,600 was devoted by the Board of 
Agriculture to agricultural instruction and experiments.  Of 
this sum the greater part was divided amongst the institutions 
marked with an asterisk in the above list.  The first three 
named are private establishments.  The county councils also 
expend sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in 
dairy-work, poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, 
horticulture, agricultural experiments, agricultural lectures 
at various centres, scholarships at, and grants to, agricintural 
colleges and schools; the whole amount in 1904-1905 reaching 
L. 87,472.12 The sum spent by individual counties varies 
considerably.  In 1904-1905 Lancashire (L. 8510), Kent (L. 5922) and 
Cheshire (L. 4310) spent most in this direction.  In some 
instances colleges are supported entirely by one county, as 
is the Holmes Chapel College, Cheshire; in others a college 
is supported by several affiliated counties, as in the case 
of the agricultural department of the University College, 
Reading, which acts in connexion with the counties of Berks, 
Oxon, Hants and Buckingham.  The organization and supply of 
county agricultural instruction is often carried out through the 
medium of the institution to which the county is affiliated.  
In Scotland higher agricultural instruction is given at:- 

    Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College. 
   Edinburgh University, Agriculture Department.
   West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow.
   Aberdeen and North of Scotland Agricultural College.
   University of St. Andrews.
    A typical course at one of the higher colleges lasts for two 
years and includes instruction under the heads of soils and 
manure, crops and pasture, live stock, foods and feeding, 
dairy work, farm and estate management and farm bookkeeping, 
surveying, agricultural buildings and machinery, agricultural 
chemistry, agricultural botany, veterinary science and agricultural 
entomology.  Experimental farms are attached to the colleges. 

The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to those for 
higher agricultural education.  Schools for farmers' sons and 
daughters, and others, answering to the ecoles pratiques 
d'agriculture (see FRANCE), are few, the principal being 
the Dauntsey Agricultural School, Wiltshire, the Hampshire 
Farm School, Basing, and the Farm School at Newton Rigg, 
Penrith, Cumberland, maintained by the county councils of 
Cumberland and Westmorland.  Occasionally grammar schools 
have agricultural sides, and in evening continuation schools 
agricultural classes are sometimes held.  Both elementary 
day schools and continuation schools are in many cases 
provided with gardens in which horticultmal teaching is given. 

In Ireland agricultural education is under the supervision of 
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for 
Ireland, founded in 1899.  Higher education is given at the 
Royal College of Science, Dublin; the Albert Agricultural 
College, Glasnevin; and the Munster Institute, Cork, for female 
students, where dairying and poultry-keeping are prominent 
subjects.  Winter classes for boys over sixteen years of 
age are held at centres in some counties, and there are 
winter schools of agriculture at Downpatrick, Monaghan 
and Mount Bellew (Co. Galway); while lectures are given at 
farmers' meetings by itinerant instructors.  The Department 
carries on agricultural experiment-stations at Athenry 
(Co. Galway), Ballyhaise (Co. Cavan) and Clonakilty (Co. 
Cork), where farm apprentices are received and instructed. 

           Agriculture in the United States 

Agriculture has been the chief and most characteristic work 
of the American people, that in which they have achieved the 
greatest results in proportion to the resources at command, that 
in which their economic superiority has been most strikingly 
manifest.  In ten years from 1790, the mean population of the 
period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first time 
brought within the limits of settlement, crossed with roads and 
bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, much 
of it also cleared of primeval forest; and this in addition 
to keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous 
settlements, and building towns and cities, at a score of favoured 
points.  In the next decade, the mean number of inhabitants 
being about 6,500,000, population extended itself over 98,000 
sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an area eight times as 
large as Holland.  Between 1810 and 1820, besides increasing 
the density of population on almost every league of the older 
territory, besides increasing their manufacturing capital 
twofold, in spite of a three years' war, the people of the 
United States advanced their frontier to occupy 101,000 sq. 
m., the mean population being 8,250,000.  Between 1820 and 
1830, 124,000 sq. m. were brought within the frontier and made 
the seat of habitation and cultivation; between 1830 and 1840, 
175,000 sq. m.; between 1840 and 1850, 215,000 sq. m.  The Civil 
War, indeed, checked the westward flow of population, though 
it caused no refluence, but after 1870 great progress was 
made in the creation of new farms and the development of old. 

That which has allowed this great work to be done so rapidly 
and fortunately has been, first, the popular tenure of the soil, 
and, secondly, the character of the agricultural class.  At 
no time have the cultivators of the soil north of the Potomac 
and Ohio constituted a peasantry in the ordinary sense of that 
term.  They have been the same kind of men, out of precisely 
the same homes, generally with the same early training, as 
those who filled the learned professions or who were engaged 
in manufacturing or commercial pursuits.  Switzerland and 
Scotland have, in a degree, approached the United States in 
this particular; but there is no other considerable country 
where as much mental activity and alertness has been applied 
to the cultivation of the soil as to trade and manufactures. 

But even the causes which have been adduced would have failed 
to produce such effects but for the exceptional inventive 
ingenuity of the American.  The mechanical genius which 
has entered into manufacturing in the United States, the 
engineering skill which has guided the construction of the 
greatest works of the continent, have been far exceeded 
in the hurried ``improvements'' of the pioneer farm; in 
the housing of women, children and live stock and gathered 
crops against the storms of the first few winters; in 
the rough-and-ready reconnaissances which determined the 
``lay of the land'' and the capabilities of the soil; in 
the preparation for the thousand exigencies of primitive 
agriculture.  It is no exaggeration to say that the chief 
manufacture of the United States, prior to 1900, was the 
manufacture of 5,740,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres. 

The people of the United States, finding themselves on a 
continent containing an almost limitless extent of land 
of fair average fertility, having at the start but little 
accumulated capital and urgent occasions for the economy of 
labour, have elected to regard the land in the earliest 
stages of occupation as practically of no value, and to regard 
labour as of high value.  In pursuance of this view they 
have freely sacrificed the land, so far as was necessary, in 
order to save labour, systematically cropping the fields on 
the principle of obtaining the largest results with the least 
expenditure, limiting improvements to what was demanded for 
immediate uses, and caring little about returning to the 
soil an equivalent for the properties taken from it in the 
harvests of successive years.  But, so far as the northern 
states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged 
wasteful cultivation have in the main been applied, not to 
personal consumption, but to permanent improvements,--not 
indeed to improvements of the land, but to what were still 
more needed in the situation, namely, improvements upon the 
land.  The first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in 
forms which have vastly enhanced the productive power of the 
country.  The land, doubtless, as one factor of that productive 
power, became temporarily less efficient than it would have 
been under a conservative European treatment; but the joint 
product of the three factors--land, labour and capital--was 
for the time enormously increased.  Under this regimen 
the fertility of the land, of course, in time necessarily 
declined, sooner or later, according to the nature of the 
crops grown and to the degree of original strength in the 
soil.  Resort was then had to new fields farther west.  The 
granary of the continent moved first to western New York, 
thence into the Ohio valley, and then, again, to the banks 
of the Mississippi.  The north and south line dividing the 
wheat product of the United States into two equal parts was 
in 1850 drawn along the 82nd meridian (81 deg.  58 minutes 49 
seconds).  In 1860 that line was drawn along the 86th 
(86 deg.  1 minute 38 seconds), in 1870 along the 89th (88 deg.  
48 minutes 40 seconds), in 1880 along the 90th (90 deg.  30 
minutes 46 seconds), in 1890 along the 93rd (93 deg.  9 minutes 
18 seconds), and in 1900 along the 95th (94 deg.  59 minutes 23 
seconds).  Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the 
earlier settlements joined in the movement across the face 
of the continent.  As the grain centre passed on to the west 
they followed it, too restless by character and habit to 
find pleasure in the work of stable communities.  A second 
portion of the inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon 
limited areas, small crops, garden vegetables and orchard 
fruits, and in producing butter, milk, poultry and eggs, for 
the suoply of the cities and manufacturing towns which had 
been built up out of the abundant profits of the primitive 
agriculture.  Still another portion of the agricultural 
population gradually became occupied in the more careful and 
intense culture of the cereal crops upon the better lands, the 
less eligible fields being allowed to spring up in brush and 
wood.  Deep ploughing and thorough drainage were resorted to; 
fertilizers were employed to bring up and to keep up the soil; 
and thus began the serious systematic agriculture of the older 
states.  Something continued to be done in wheat, but not 
much.  New York raised 13 million bushels in 1850; thirty 
years later she raised 11 1/2 million bushels; and fifty years 
later 10 1/2 million bushels.  Pennsylvania raised 15 1/2 million 
bushels in 1850; in 1880 she raised 19 1/2 million bushels; and 
in 1900 20 1/2 million bushels.  More is done in Indian corn 
(maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American 
agriculture; still more is done relatively in buckwheat, 
barley and rye.  Pennsylvania, though the eleventh state in 
wheat production in 1905, stood first in rye and second in 
buckwheat (ninth in oats) New York was only twenty-first in 
wheat, but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), fourth in 
rye.  We do not, however, reach the full significance of 
the situation until we account for the fourth portion of the 
former agricultural population, in noting how naturally and 
fortunately commercial and manufacturing cities spring up 
in the sites which have been prepared for them by the lavish 
expenditure of the enormous profits of a primitive agriculture 
upon permanently useful improvements of a constructive 
character.  These towns are the gifts of agriculture. 

Besides the extension of cultivated area, very little was 
accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before 
1850.  With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation were 
substantially the same as those of colonial days, and were marked 
by crudeness, waste and a general adherence to rule-of-thumb 
principles.  The year 1850 roughly marks the beginning of a 
period of improvement and development.  The Irish famine of 
1846 and the German political troubles of 1848 were followed 
by an unprecedented emigration to America of highly desirable 
European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant 
lands.  The period from 1850 to 1870 was marked by a steady 
growth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by 
the Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amount 
of productive energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended 
at the same time to increase the value of farm labour and of 
farm products and to extend the use of machinery in order to 
offset the deficient labour supply.  Agricultural machinery 
had been employed before the war, but only to a very small 
extent.  In 1864, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, 
twice as many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to 
supply the demand.  Moreover, in the years 1860, 1861 and 1862 
the wheat crops of Great Britain and the European continent 
were failures, while those of the United States, far removed 
from the theatre of military operations, were unusually 
large.  The wheat exports to Great Britain in 1861 were three 
times as great as those of any previous year, and the strong 
demand from abroad was an additional stimulus to higher 
prices.  In 1864 agricultural prices were from 100 to 
200% higher than in 1861, while transportation charges had 
only slightly advanced and in some instances had actually 
decreased.  In the middle of the war the farmers' profits 
were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously.  
This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged 
in one of the world's most formidable wars has no counterpart 
in modern history.  In the decade from 1860 to 1870 there 
was a steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural 
products and in population.  The value of the farm lands in 
the northern states in 1870 exceeded that of 1860 by five 
dollars an acre.  On the other hand, the farm lands of the 
southern states had declined in value to an almost equal 
amount; but after 1870 these states also made substantial 
progress, and in 1880 they produced more cotton than in 1860, 
when the greatest crop under the slave system was grown. 

Since 1870 the most important factors in this development have 
been the employment of more scientific methods of production 
and the more extensive use of machinery.  The study of soils 
with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops and 
fertilizers; the increased attention given to diversified 
farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful 
growth of new plants (e.g. the date palm in Arizona and 
California, and tea in South Carolina); tile drainage; the 
ensilage of forage; more careful selection in breeding; 
the use of inoculation to prevent Texas fever in cattle and 
cholera in swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence 
of tuberculosis in cows, of organic ferments to hasten 
the progress of butter-making, of the ``Babcock test'' for 
ascertaining the amount of fat in milk, of fungicides and 
insecticides to destroy fruit and vegetable pests,--such are 
but a few manifestations of the spread of scientific knowledge 
among the farming population of the United States.  Nearly 
every county has some sort of agricultural society; in 1899 
there were about 1500 of these organizations, some of which, 
especially those holding annual fairs, received state aid. 

With the improvement in technical processes of production 
came the conquest of the arid regions of the western states.  
Irrigation was first employed in the west by the Mormons in 
1847; but as late as 1870 only about 20,000 acres had been 
irrigated.  In 1880 the irrigated area was approximately 
1,000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it 
increased from 3,631,381 to 7,539,545 acres, a gain of 
107.6%.  By 1902 there had been a still further increase to 
9,478,852 acres, a gain of 25.7% in three years.  As many 
of the streams available for irrigation purposes lie within 
more than one state, the control of water supply is a proper 
matter for federal jurisdiction, and in June 1902 Congress 
provided for an extensive system of irrigation works in 
thirteen states and three territories.  The cost of the work 
is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of government 
lands within the states and territories affected by the 
act.  The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on the 
lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor 
more than 160 acres, are required to make annual payments to 
the government in proportion to the water service they have 
received, until the original cost of the works has been 
met.  The first of these works, the so-called Truckee-Carson 
project, of Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the 
end of that year eight projects, in as many different states, 
were under construction; bids had been received for three 
more, and the seven others had received the approval of the 
secretary of the interior.  With these initial undertakings 
it was estimated that 1,000,859 acres could be reclaimed.  
In addition to supplying the soils with water, means have 
been found of ridding them of their alkali, or of rendering 
it harmless; and this is an element of reclamation hardly 
less important than irrigation itself.  A third step in the 
reclamation of desert lands is arid farming--that is, the 
adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount of 
moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent, 
of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region.  Experiments 
conducted in this direction in Utah produced promising results. 

The development of farming machinery has kept pace with the 
general progress in scientific agriculture.  Although numerous 
patents were issued for such machinery before 1850, its use, with 
the exception of the cotton gin, was very restricted before that 
date.  Even iron ploughs were not in general use until 1842, 
and a really scientific plough was practically unknown before 
1870.  Thirty years later the large farms of the Pacific 
states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a 
single operation by fifty-horse-power traction engines drawing 
ploughs, harrows and press drills.  Since 1850 there has 
been a transition from the sickle and the scythe to a machine 
that in one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the 
wheat, and in five minutes after touching the standing grain 
has it ready for the market.  Hay-stackers, potato planters 
and diggers, feed choppers and grinders, manure-spreaders, 
check-row corn planters and ditch-digging machines are some 
of the common labour-saving devices.  By the 28th of August 
1907 the United States Patent Office had issued patents for 
13,212 harvesting machines, 6352 threshers, 6680 harrows and 
diggers, 9649 seeders and planters, and 13,171 ploughs.  In the 
manufacture of agricultural machinery the United States leads the 
world.  The total value of the implements and machinery used 
by farmers of the United States in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 
1890 $494,247,467; in 1900 $761,261,550, a gain in this last 
decade of 54%. The total value of the implements and machinery 
manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in 1880 $68,640,486; in 
1890 $81,271,651; in 1900 $101,207,428.These figures, however, 
are a very poor indication of the actual use of machinery, 
on account of the rapid decrease in prices following its 
manufacture on a more extensive scale and by improved methods. 

The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the 
following figures: By the methods of 1830 it required 
64 hours and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3.71 to 
produce an acre of wheat; by the methods employed in 1896 
it required 2 hours and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 
cents.  To produce an acre of barley in 1830 required 63 hours 
of man-labour and cost $3.59; in 1896 it required 2 hours 
and 43 minutes and cost 60 cents.  An acre of oats produced 
by the methods of 1830 required 66 hours and 15 minutes of 
man-labour and cost $3.73; the methods of 1893 required only 
7 hours and 6 minutes and cost $1.07.  With the same unit of 
labour the average quantity of all leading crops produced by 
modern methods is about five times as great as that produced 
by the methods employed in 1850, and the cost of production 
is reduced by one half.  From 1880 to 1900 the average number 
of acres of leading crops per male worker increased from 
23.3 to 31.0, or 34%; the number of horses per worker from 
1.7 to 2.3, or 35%; and the value of agricultural product 
per person employed from $286.82 to $454.37, or 58.4%. 

There are numerous other factors that have operated to the 
benefit of the agriculturist.  Increased transportation 
facilities and lower freight charges have widened his market.  
The processes of canning, packing, preserving and refrigerating 
have produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means 
for the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise 
would be lost.  The utilization of by-products, as, for 
example, the conversion of cotton seed into oil, fertilizers 
and food for live stock, has become another source of profit. 

Great economic and social changes have resulted from this 
progress.  There has been a great division of labour in 
agriculture.  Makers of agricultural implements, of butter 
and cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now 
classed in the United States census reports as manufacturers, 
but all their work was once done on the farm.  The farmer 
is now more of a specialist and more dependent on other 
industries than formerly.  He has changed from a producer for 
home consumption or a local market to a producer for a world 
market.  Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic laws has 
lagged behind his progress in scientific agriculture.  The 
farming class at times have experienced periods of great 
depression, largely on account of their inability to adjust 
their crops to changing conditions in the world's markets, 
and in such cases have been prone to seek a remedy in radical 
legislation.  Periods of agricultural discontent at different times 
have been marked by the political activity of the ``Grangers'' 
and of the ``Farmers' Alliance.'' and even by the formation 
of new political parties such as the Greenback party in 1874 
and the Populist or People's party in 1892--whose strength 
lay mainly in the agricultural states.  The new industrial 
conditions that produced combinations among manufacturers 
were much slower in their effect upon the farming element, but 
gradually led to increasing co-operation and to the organization 
of the growers of various commodities for marketing their 
crops.  The fruit growers of California and the tobacco 
growers of Kentucky have furnished interesting examples of such 
organizations.  Under the improved conditions there is less 
drudgery on the farm; the farmer does more work, produces 
more, and yet has more leisure than formerly.  Better roads, 
rural free mail delivery, telephone and electric lines are 
removing the isolation of country life, and to some extent are 
diminishing the attractions of the cities for the rural population. 

Covering as it does the breadth of the North American continent, 
with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land surface, not including Alaska 
and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in farms 
and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing every 
variety of soil and all the climatic life zones of the world, 
except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United 
States affords an important subject of study in respect of 
agriculture.  Its cotton, wheat and meat are large factors 
in all markets,and its many other agricultural products are 
distributed throughout the civilized world.  To the student the 
equipment and methods of agriculture in the United States form 
as interesting a subject of examination as do its resources and 
production.  In quantity, distribution and inter-relation of heat 
and moisture --the chief factors in agricultural production--the 
United States is greatly blessed.  We find in this vast 
territory all the agricultural belts mapped by the biologist, 
producing all varieties of cereals, fruits and breeds of live 
stock, whilst all kinds of soils, adapted to different crops, 
are spread out at all altitudes from 8000 ft. down to sea-level. 

The story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United States 
can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by the 
Census, the Agricultural and other government departments. 

Farms. 

As a result of the great supply of available land the 
number of farms in the United States increased between 1850 
and 1900 from 1,449,073 to 5,739,657; their total acreage 
increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their 
improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414,793,191 
acres; and their unimproved13 acreage from 180,528,000 
to 426,408,355 acres.  Table XXVII. exhibits the increases 
of number of farms, total and improved acreage by decades. 

The largest percentage of increase of improved land was 50.7, 
from 1870 to 1880; the lowest was in the decade 1860 to 1870, 
the period of the Civil War, and was 15.8.  The chief cause 
of this wonderful development of agriculture is the large area 
of cheap public lands which has been available for immigrants 
and natives alike.  Up to 1906, under the Homestead Act of 
the 20th of May 1862, the number of entries, both final and 
pending, covered 185,385,000 acres.  Between 1875 and 1905 
the public and Indian lands sold for cash and under homestead 
and timber culture laws, as well as those allotted by scrip, 
granted to the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts and 
other institutions, and by military bounty land warrants, and 
selected by states and railroad corporations, covered about 
430,000,000 acres.  In addition to this, the states and railroad 
corporations sold a large amount of land to farmers of which 
we have no accurate record.  This vast territory, greater 

 TABLE XXVII.--Percentage of Increase of Number and Acreage of 
 Farms by Census Decades.

 
                      Number of         Acreage.
 The United States.     Farms.     Total.   Improved.
 
 1850 to 1860           41.1         38.7     44.3
 1860 to 1870           30.1          0.1     15.8
 1870 to 1880           50.7         31.5     50.7
 1880 to 1890           13.9         16.2     25.6
 1890 to 1900           25.7         35.0     16.0
 
 1850 to 1900          296.0        186.5    267.1
 

in extent than Germany and France combined, was added to 
the farms of the country in thirty years.  In many cases 
railroad building has made the settlement of the public 
lands possible for the first time, and the building of branch 
lines, by providing means for transporting products to 
market, has greatly facilitated the acquisition of other 
lands.  The mileage of railways increased 310.7% between 
1870 and 1905.  The interesting fact is that this increase 
corresponds geographically to the increase in farms. 

The agricultural statistics do not include any farm of less 
than three acres unless it produced at least $500 worth of 
products in the preceding year.  The census of 1900 showed 
that the average size of farms was 146 acres, or nine acres 
more than in 1890 and 57 acres less than in 1850.  This 
fact, however, does not indicate a general tendency toward 
the consolidation of holdings.  The increase in the average 
size of farms for the whole country is due to the extension 
of grazing lands in the Rocky Mountain region and in Texas, 
and to the enlargement of the wheat fields in the Mississippi 
valley.  On the other hand, in the southern states there 
has been a steady breaking up of holdings and decrease in 
the average size of farms since the close of the Civil War. 
In the New England states, where dairying has become the 
leading agricultural industry, there was an increase of 2 
acres in the size of farms during the decade 1890-1900.  
This increase was more than offset by the decrease in the 
Atlantic states from New York to Maryland inclusive (2.8 
acres), where there has been a subdivision of farms following 
the increased attention given to the growing of fruits and 
vegetables for cities.  The same tendency is noted in the 
states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois.  As will be seen from 
Table XXVIII., the average farm, which steadily diminished 
in size from 1850 to 1880, increased between 1880 and 1900. 

 TABLE XXVIII.--Average Acreage of Farms and Proportion of 
 Improved Land Therein.

 
                      Proportion of
        Whole Farm.   Improved Land.
 
 1850   202.6            38.5
 1860   199.2            40.1
 1870   153.3            46.3
 1880   133.7            53.1
 1890   136.5            57.4
 1900   146.6            49.3
 

The acreage of North Atlantic farms decreased from 112.6 
in 1850 to 95.3 in 1890, and increased in 1890-1900 to 96.5 
acres.  In the north Atlantic states the average was 376.4 acres 
in 1850, and there has been steady decrease, so that in 1900 
it was 108.4, or one-third less than the average for the entire 
country.  In the north central states the averages of 1850 
and 1900 were nearly the same (143.3 and 144.5 respectively), 
with the minimum (121.9 acres) in 1880.  The south central 
states averaged 291 acres in 1850, 321.3 in 1860, 144 in 
1890, and 155.4 in 1900.  The maximum decade for the western 
states was that ending in 1850 (694.9 acres), and the minimum 
1880 (312.9); and the average in 1900 was 386.1 acres. 

Table XXIX. gives the number of farms, together with their distribution, 
under different forms of tenure in the years 1880, 1890 and 1900. 

The steady drift towards farm tenancy of late is believed 
to be injurious to production; but it is impossible to prove 
this, so great has been the aggregate increase in products. 

The number of persons engaged in agriculture as a business 
in 1900 was 10,381,765, or 36% of all persons in gainful 
occupations.  It is interesting to note that 977,336 of 
these were women.  This is an increase of 2,667,890 persons 
over 1880.  Thus, if the farm family is the same size as 
that of the remainder of the population--it is probably 
slightly larger--the agricultural population would be 
36% of the whole.  Statisticians usually put it at 40%, 
and this is probably more nrealy correct (Table XXX.). 

The wages paid farm labourers, as ascertainted by the Department 
of Agriculture, are rather low compared with the average wages 
of labour, but not lower than the wages of other unskilled 
labour.  The average monthly wage of the agricultural labourer, 
without board, was $19.50 in 1870, $16.42 in 1880, $18.33 in 
1890, $17.70 in 1895, and $20.23 in 1899, when the maximum 
for any state was $45.10 in Nevada, the minimum $10.06 in 
South Carolina. the wages of the American farm labourer were 
at this last date named (1899) higher than for any other farm 
labourer save in Canada and the British colonies of Australasia; 
though lower than wages paid in American cities, they have 
greater purchasing power.  J.R. Dodge, in ``Farm Labour in the 
United States'' (vol. xi., Report of Industrial Commission on 
Agriculture, &c., 1901), says: ``In addition to wages the 
married labourer has a house free of rent, a garden, firewood, 
pasturage and other perquisites.  The enterprising labourer 
usually becomes a tenant and afterwards a farm-owner.'' 

Value of farms and products. 

The figures for farm capital and the value of agricultural 
products are so vast that it is extremely difficult to 
put them in an intelligible form.  The farm capital of 
the United States reported by the census of 1900 reached 
$20,514,002,000, a sum more than four times the capital 
invested in manufactures, the main classes being, in round 
numbers:--Land, fences and buildings, $16,674,690,000; machines 

 TABLE XXIX.--Number of Farms of Specified Tenure. 


 
                  Number of farms operated by
       Number of               Cash      Share
 Year.   Farms.   Owners. 14   Tenants.  Tenants. 15
 
 1880  4,008,907  2,984,306    322,357     702,244
 1890  4,564,641  3,269,728    454,659     880,254
 1900  5,737,372  3,712,408    751,665   1,273,299
 


 
       Percentage of farms
                Cash       Share
 Year. Owners.  Tenants.   Tenants.
 
 1880   74.5      8.0       17.5
 1890   71.6     10.0       18.4
 1900   64.7     13.1       22.2
 

and implements, $761,262,000; live stock $3,078,050,000.  The 
products of the farms in the census year 1899 were valued at 
$4,739,119,000.  Between 1850 and 1900 the aggregate farm capital 
increased 416%.  The greatest increase of farm capital was between 
1850 and 1860, 101%; the next was the decade 1880-1890, when the 
increase was 32%. Between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 28%. 

 TABLE XXX.--Number of Persons of Ten Years of Age and over in 
 the different Agricultural Pursuits in 1900.

 
 Occupation.                               Total Persons.
 
 Dairymen and women                            10,875
 Farmers and farm superintendents           5,674,875
 Farm labourers                             4,410,877
 Gardeners, nurserymen and viticulturists      61,788
 Lumbermen and raftsmen                        72,020
 Stock-raisers, herders, &c                    84,988
 Turpentine-farmers and labourers              24,737
 Wood-choppers                                 36,075
 Other pursuits                                 5,530
                                 Total     10,381,765
 

The growth of farm are and of capital invested in agriculture was 
followed by a proportionate increase in the chief crops (Table XXXI.). 

The distinguishing feature of the period 1870-1880 was 
the rate of increase of barley, Indian corn, wheat and 
oats.  Since 1870 the production of nearly all of the farm 
crops increased more rapidly than the population, the most 
absolute proof of the substantial prosperity of the people.  
The increase in population for the fifty years from 1840 to 
1890 was 267%; from 1870 to 1880, 30%; from 1880 to 1890, 
25%; from 1890 to 1900, 21%; but the food and other supplies 
far exceeded the demands of even this great population. 

 TABLE XXXI.--Production of Certain Farm Crops from 1870 to 1905 
 --Millions of Bushels.

 
         Indian Corn.   Wheat.   Oats.   Barley.
 1870      1094          235     247       26
 1880      1717          498     418       45
 1890      1489          399     523       67
 1900      2105          522     809       58
 1905      2707          693     953      136
 

Table XXXII. gives important facts with regard to the cereal 
production of the United States between 1870 and 1905. 

The average farm price of wheat declined, as is shown in that 
table, from $1.05 per bushel for the decade 1870-1880 to 
65.3 cents for the period 1890-1899.  The farm prices of the 
other cereals declined less during the thirty years.  Corn 
declined from an average farm price of 42.6 cents per bushel 
for 1870-1880 to 34.4. cents in 1890-1899.  The average 
production per acre shows nothing conclusice with regard to 
the fertility of the soil of the country.  The expansion of the 
crop area usually causes a lowering of the average yield per 
acre by distributing the culture, fertilizers, &c., over more 
surface.  Likewise the contraction of crop area will usually 
increase the average yield per acre of the entire country. 

 TABLE XXXII.--Average Yield and Value of Cereal Crops in the United 
  States, by  Periods of Years, 1870-1905.

 
                 Average     Average     Average    Average
                Farm Price  Yield Per  Farm Price  Yield Per
 Period.        per Bushel.   Acre.    per Bushel.   Acre.
 
                Dollars.    Bushels.   Dollars.    Bushels.
 
                     Indian Corn.             Wheat.
 1870 to 1880    0.426        27.1      1.05         12.4
 1880 to 1889     .393        24.1       .827        12.1
 1890 to 1899     .344        24.1       .653        13.1
 1900 to 1905     .440        24.9       .706        13.6
 
                       Barley.                 Rye.
 1870 to 1880    0.738        22.1      0.701        14.1
 1880 to 1889     .589        21.7       .622        11.9
 1890 to 1899     .433        23.3       .522        14.0
 1900 to 1905     .433        25.9       .570        15.7
 
                       Oats.
 1870 to 1880    0.353        28.4      0.715        17.7
 1880 to 1889     .309        26.6       .642        12.8
 1890 to 1899     .277        26.2       .507        16.8
 1900 to 1905     .318        30.7       .588        17.9
 

The average yield of wheat per acre was 12.4 bushels in the 
decade 1870-1880, and 13.1 in the period 1890-1899; of Indian 
corn, 27.1 in 1870-1880, and 24.1 in 1880-1899 continuously.  
Oats fell off from 28.4 in 1870-1880 to 26.2 bushels per acre 
in 1890- 1899.  The averages for the years 1900-1905 show an 
increase over the previous decade both in yields and (with the 
exception of the price of barley) in prices of all the cereals. 

The agricultural returns for 1890-1905 may be taken as 
an illustration of the cereal production of the United 
States.  The figures for wheat, oats and Indian corn 
are presented in Tables XXXIII., XXXIV. and XXXV. 

 TABLE XXXIII.--Acreage, Production, Value, Price and Exports of 
 Wheat in the United States in 1890-1905.

 
                                          Average
                   Average                Farm Price
                  Yield per               per Bushel,  Farm Value,
 Year.  Acreage.    Acre.   Production.   1st Dec.      1st Dec.
 
         Acres.    Bushels.   Bushels.     Cents.       Dollars.
 1890  36,087,154   11.1    399,262,000     83.8      334,773,678
 1891  39,916,897   15.3    611,780,000     83.9      513,472,711
 1892  38,554,430   13.4    515,949,000     62.4      322,111,881
 1893  34,629,418   11.4    396,131,725     53.8      213,171,381
 1894  34,882,436   13.2    460,267,416     49.1      225,902,025
 1895  34,047,332   13.7    467,102,947     50.9      237,938,998
 1896  34,618,646   12.4    427,684,346     72.6      310,602,539
 1897  39,465,066   13.4    530,149,168     80.8      428,547,121
 1898  44,055,278   15.3    675,148,705     58.2      392,770,320
 1899  44,592,516   12.3    547,303,846     58.4      319,545,259
 1900  42,495,385   12.3    522,229,505     61.9      323,515,177
 1901  49,895,514   15.0    748,460,218     62.4      467,350,156
 1902  46,202,424   14.5    670,063,008     63.0      422,224,117
 1903  49,464,967   12.9    637,821,835     69.5      443,024,826
 1904  44,074,875   12.5    552,399,517     92.4      510,489,874
 1905  47,854,079   14.5    692,979,489     74.8      518,372,727
 
          Domestic Exports,
          including Flour,
            Fiscal Years
 Year.   beginning 1st July.
 
             Bushels.
 1890      106,181,316
 1891      225,665,812
 1892      191,912,635
 1893      164,283,129
 1894      144,812,718
 1895      126,443,968
 1896      145,124,972
 1897      217,306,005
 1898      222,694,920
 1899      186,096,762
 1900      215,990,073
 1901      234,772,516
 1902      202,905,598
 1903      120,727,613
 1904       44,112,910
 1905          ..
 

The acreage and production of wheat have steadily 
increased.  The acreage in Indian corn, the great American 
crop, reached its highest in 1902, 94,043,613 acres, and its 
production its highest figure in 1905, 2,707,993,540 bushels. 

 TABLE XXXIV.--Acreage, Production, Value, Prices, Exports and Imports 
 of Oats in the United States in 1890-1905.

 
                                          Average
                   Average               Farm Price
                  Yield per              per Bushel,  Farm Value
 Year.  Acreage.    Acre.    Production.  1st Dec.     1st Dec.
 
         Acres.    Bushels.    Bushels.    Cents.      Dollars.
 1890  26,431,369   19.8     523,621,000    42.4     222,048,486
 1891  25,581,861   28.9     738,394,000    31.5     232,312,267
 1892  27,063,835   24.4     661,035,000    31.7     209,253,611
 1893  27,273,033   23.4     638,854,850    29.4     187,576,092
 1894  27,023,553   24.5     662,036,928    32.4     214,816,920
 1895  27,878,406   29.6     824,443,537    19.9     163,655,068
 1896  27,565,985   25.7     707,346,404    18.7     132,485,033
 1897  25,730,375   27.2     698,767,809    21.2     147,974,719
 1898  25,777,110   28.4     720,906,643    25.5     186,405,364
 1899  26,341,380   30.2     796,177,713    24.9     198,167,975
 1900  27,364,795   29.6     809,125,989    25.8     208,669,233
 1901  28,541,476   25.8     736,808,724    39.9     293,658,777
 1902  28,653,144   34.5     987,842,712    30.7     303,584,852
 1903  27,638,126   28.4     784,094,199    34.1     267,661,665
 1904  27,842,669   32.1     894,395,552    31.3     279,900,013
 1905  28,046,746   34.0     953,216,197    29.1     277,047,537
 
            Domestic Exports,
            including Oatmeal,        Imports during
              Fiscal Years             Fiscal Years
 Year.     beginning 1st July.       beginning 1st July.
 
                Bushels.                  Bushels.
 1890          1,382,836                  41,848
 1891         10,586,644                  47,782
 1892          2,700,793                  49,433
 1893          6,290,229                  31,759
 1894          1,708,824                 330,317
 1895         15,156,618                  66,602
 1896         37,725,083                 893,908
 1897         73,880,307                  25,093
 1898         33,534,264                  28,098
 1899         45,048,857                  54,576
 1900         42,268,931                  32,107
 1901         13,277,612                  38,978
 1902          8,381,805                 150,065
 1903          1,960,740                 183,983
 1904          8,394,692                  55,699
 1905              ..                       ..
 

Producing as the United States does so much more 
than its people can consume, its exports form a large 
percentage of some of the crops, as Table XXXVI. shows. 

Large portions of some of these crops, like Indian corn and 
oats, are exported in the form of animals and animal products 
(meats, lard, hides, &c.).  The hay crop is almost entirely 
used in this way, and the tendency is to convert more and 
more of these crops into these higher-priced products.  Still, 
the time is far distant when domestic consumption will come 
anywhere near overtaking domestic production, especially of 
wheat and the other cereals.  The certain extension of acreage 
with the growth of demand and price, the increased use of 
agricultural implements, and the improvement of methods will 
be sure to keep up a large surplus for export for many years to 
come.  The Department of Agriculture has found that for 
home use there were required per head 5.5 bushels of wheat, 
28.6 bushels of Indian corn, and 10.7 bushels of oats, the 
computations being made from the figures for population, 
production and exports for 1888-1892; in 1905, 6.15 bushels 
of wheat and wheat-flour, 28.59 bushels of Indian corn and 
corn-meal.  The following number of acres in these crops 
was required, therefore, to supply the home demand for 
1888-1892:--0.43 of an acre in wheat, 1.1.5 acre in corn, and 
0.43 acre in oats per head of the population.  Taking the year 

 TABLE XXXV.--Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Indian 
 Corn in the United States in 1890-1905.

 
                                              Average
                    Average                  Farm Price
                   Yield per                 per Bushel,
 Year.  Acreage.     Acre.    Production.      1st Dec.
 
         Acres.    Bushels.    Bushels.        Cents.
 1890  71,970,763   20.7     1,489,970,000      50.6
 1891  76,204,515   27.0     2,060,154,000      40.6
 1892  70,626,658   23.1     1,628,464,000      39.4
 1893  72,036,465   22.5     1,619,496,131      36.5
 1894  62,582,269   19.4     1,212,770,052      45.7
 1895  82,075,830   26.2     2,151,138,580      25.3
 1896  81,027,156   28.2     2,283,875,165      21.5
 1897  80,095,051   23.8     1,902,967,933      26.3
 1898  77,721,781   24.8     1,924,184,660      28.7
 1899  82,108,587   25.3     2,078,143,933      30.3
 1900  83,320,872   25.3     2,105,102,516      35.7
 1901  91,349,928   16.7     1,522,519,891      60.5
 1902  94,043,613   26.8     2,523,648,312      40.3
 1903  88,091,993   25.5     2,244,176,925      42.5
 1904  92,231,581   26.8     2,467,480,934      44.1
 1905  94,011,369   28.8     2,707,993,540      41.2
 
                             Domestic Exports,
                             including Corn-
           Farm Value        Meal, Fiscal Years
 Year.       1st Dec.        beginning 1st July.
 
             Dollars.             Bushels.
 1890       754,433,451          32,041,529
 1891       836,439,228          76,602,285
 1892       642,146,630          47,121,894
 1893       591,625,627          66,489,529
 1894       554,719,162          28,585,405
 1895       544,985,534         101,100,375
 1896       491,006,967         178,817,417
 1897       501,072,952         212,055,543
 1898       552,023,428         117,255,046
 1899       629,210,110         213,123,412
 1900       751,220,324         181,405,473
 1901       921,555,768          28,028,688
 1902     1,017,017,349          76,639,261
 1903       952,868,801          58,222,061
 1904     1,087,461,440          90,293,483
 1905     1,116,696,738             ..
 

1890 as an illustration, this gave a surplus area in wheat of 11,264,478 
acres, of 2,648,404 acres in Indian corn, and of 238,162 acres in oats. 

 TABLE XXXVI.--Percentage of Crops Exported.  Averages for Period 
 1878-1905.

 
                              Annual Average.
 Crop.       1878-1882.  1888-1892.   1894-1896.   1896-1904.   1905.
 
 Wheat         27.84       17.68        15.96         29.9      7.99
 Indian Corn    4.82        3.49         5.39          6.4      3.66
 Rye           10.30         ..         12.21         19.5       ..
 Oats            .37         .80         2.22          3.7       ..
 Barley         1.55         ..         12.96         12.15      ..
 Potatoes        .37         ..           .30          0.31      ..
 Cotton        72.80       66.79        73.60         66.31    61.55
 

Tables XXXVII. and XXXVIII. give the number, total value and 
average price of farm animals in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1906. 

 TABLE XXXVII.--Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 
 1880-1906.

 
 January 1         Horses.                   Mules.
            Number.       Value.       Number.     Value.
 
 1880     11,201,800    $613,296,611  1,729,500 $105,948,319
 1890     14,213,837     978,516,562  2,331,027  182,394,099
 1900     13,537,524     603,696,422  2,086,027  111,717,092
 1906     18,718,578   1,510,889,906  3,404,061  334,680,520 
 
                Milch Cows.              Other Cattle.
 January 1  Number.      Value.       Number.      Value.
 
 1880     12,027,000  $279,899,420  21,231,000  $341,761,154
 1890     15,952,883   352,152,133  36,849,024   560,625,137
 1900     16,292,360   514,812,106  27,610,054   689,486,260
 1906     19,793,866   582,788,592  47,067,656   746,171,709
 
                  Sheep.                    Swine.
 January 1  Number.     Value.        Number.   Value.
 
 1880     40,765,900  $90,230,537   34,034,100  $145,781,515
 1890     44,336,072  100,659,761   51,602,780   243,418,336
 1900     41,883,065  122,665,913   37,079,356   185,472,321
 1906     50,631,619  179,056,144   52,102,847   321,802,571
 
                Total Value of
 January 1       Farm Animals.
 
 1880           $1,576,917,556
 1890            2,418,766,028
 1900            2,228,123,134
 1906            3,675,389,442
 

 TABLE XXXVIII.--Average Value of Farm Animals in the 
 United States on 1st January, 1880-1906.

 
                        Milch   Other
 Year. Horses.  Mules.  Cows.   Cattle.  Sheep.  Swine.
 
 1880  $54.76   $61.26  $23.27  $16.10   $2.21   $4.28
 1890   68.84    78.25   22.14   15.21    2.27    4.72
 1900   44.61    53.56   31.60   24.97    2.93    5.00
 1906   80.72    98.31   29.44   15.85    3.54    6.18
 

After the Civil War the number of horses increased and prices 
declined.  In 1893 the number of horses reached 16,206,802 (an 
increase of over 5,005,002 or 44.6% over the number in 1880), 
and in 1906, 18,718,578.  The average farm price of horses 
increased from $54.75 in 1880 to $74 in 1884, after which there 
was a decrease to $31.51 in 1896, followed by rise to $80.72 in 
1906.  The extension of street-car lines, and the substitution 
of cable and electric power for that of horses, the use of 
bicycles and, later, of automobiles, and the improvement of 
farm-machinery, in which horses are less and less used as 
power-producers and steam is more common, have been factors 
in decreasing the demand for these animals.  The fluctuation 
in prices of mules has been parallel to that for horses. 

The returns for milch cows show an increase throughout 
the period 1880-1899 in every year, with the exception of 
1895-1899, after which there was a steady rise in numbers.  
For the first ten years the numbers increase 32.6%, and from 
1890 to 1899, 2%. The total value of milch cows increased each 
year until 1884, then decreased until 1891, with a gradual 
increase until the end of the period.  The farm price of milch 
cows rose from $23.27 in 1880 to $31.37 in 1884, then fell 
to $21.40 in 1892, after which there was a steady increase 
to $31.60 in 1899, and afterwards a slight fall, $29.44 
being the average farm value on the 1st of January 1906. 

No marked changes in the numbers of sheep have taken place.  
During the period 1880-1890 there was an increase in numbers 
amounting to about 8.8%.  After 1893 there was a rather steady 
decrease, with fluctuations amounting to a marked depression 
after 1894.  This industry is very susceptible to adverse 
influences, and felt keenly a depression in the price of 
wool.  The increase began again in 1898, and in 1903 the 
figure of 63,964,876 was reached; in 1906 it was 50,631,619, 

The numbers and values of swine constantly fluctuate with the 
movement and value of the Indian corn crops.  The returns for 
1890 (51,602,780) showed a numerical increase of 51.6% over 
those of 1880; then followed a steady decrease in numbers 
down to 1900 (57,079,156), since which time there has been 
considerable increase, so that in 1906 there were 52,102,847--the 
maximum excepting 1901, when there were 56,982,142 swine on 
farms.  The movement in values was similar to that in 
numbers.  From $4.28 in 1880, the average farm price of hogs 
increased steadily to $6.73 in 1885.  The lowest figure, 
$4.15, was reached in 1891, and after numerous fluctuations it 
became $4.40 in 1899 and $7.78 in 1903; in 1906 it was $6.18. 

The total value of farm animals showed a steady increase from 
1880 to 1890, with slight variations in 1885 and 1886.  Following 
1890 there was a steady decrease with the exception of slight 
increases in 1892 and 1893.  In 1880 the total value of farm 
animals in the United States was $1,576,917,556.  In 1890 it 
had increased to $2,418,766,028, or 53.4%.  In 1896 the value 
had dimished to $1,727,926,084--a decrease of 28.6% from the 
1890 values, and an increase of 9.6% over those of 1880.  The 
value in 1906 showed an increase of 133% over that of 1880. 

The exports of live stock and its products have increased 
enormously in recent years, both in quantity and value.  
This is a especially true of the exportation of beef, cattle 
and meat products.  The exports of cattle increased from 
182,750 in 1880 to 331,720 in 1895, or 81 1/2%, and to 567,806 
in 1905 or 210% over 1880, and values from $13,340,000 in 
1880 to $30,600,000 in 1895, an increase of 129%, and to 
$40,590,000 in 1905 or 204%.  The average value of cattle 
exported increase from $19 in 1870 to $73 in 1880 and $92 
in 1895, decreasing to $71.50 in 1905.  Only the best and 
heaviest cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding 
a much higher price than the average of the country. 

The total value of farm animals exported from the United 
States has flucuated greatly.  On the whole, however, the 
value increased from $16,000,000 in round numbers in 1880 to 
$46,500,000 in 1905, or 190%.  Table XXXIX. shows the number 
and value of live animals exported between 1880 and 1905. 

 TABLE XXXIX.--Number and Value of Farm Animals Exported from the 
 United States, 1880-1905.

 
 Year
 ending
 30th             Horses.                   Mules.
 June.      Number.     Value.       Number.     Value. 
 
 1880         3,060       $675,139    5,198       $532,362
 1885         1,947        377,692    1,028        127,580
 1890         3,501        680,410    3,544        447,108
 1894         5,246      1,108,995    2,063        240,961
 1895        13,984      2,209,298    2,515        186,452
 1900 16     64,722      7,612,616   43,369      3,919,478
 1901 16     82,250      8,873,845   34,405      3,210,267
 1902 16    103,020     10,048,046   27,586      2,692,298
 1903        34,007      3,152,159    4,294        521,725
 1904        42,001      3,189,100    3,658        412,971
 1905        34,822      3,175,259    5,826        645,464
 
 Year
 ending
 30th           Cattle.                Sheep.
 June.    Number.      Value.     Number.   Value.
 
 1880     182,756   $13,344,195   209,137   $892,647
 1885     135,890    12,906,690   234,509    512,563
 1890     394,836    31,261,131    67,521    243,077
 1894     359,278    33,461,922   132,370    852,763
 1895     331,722    30,603,796   405,748  2,630,686
 1900 16  397,286    30,635,153   125,772    733,477
 1901 16  459,218    37,566,980   297,925  1,933,000
 1902 16  392,884    29,902,212   358,720  1,940,060
 1903     402,178    29,848,936   176,961  1,067,860
 1904     593,409    42,256,291   301,313  1,954,604
 1905     567,806    40,598,048   268,365  1,687,321
 
 Year
 ending
 30th           Swine.
 June.   Number.    Value.     Total Value.
 
 1880     83,434    $421,089   $15,865,432
 1885     55,025     579,183    14,503,713
 1890     91,148     909,042    33,540,768
 1894      1,553      14,753    35,659,394
 1895      7,130      72,424    35,702,656
 1900 16  51,180     394,813    43,295,537
 1901 16  22,318     238,465    51,822,557
 1902 16   8,368      88,330    44,670,946
 1903      4,031      40,923    34,631,603
 1904      6,345      53,780    47,866,746
 1905     44,495     414,692    46,520,784
 

Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production 
of fruit and vegatables.  Local market gardens are numerous 
in the vicinity of all cities, and highly specialized ``truck 
gardening,'' that is, the growing of early fruits and vegatables 
for transportation to distant markets where the seasons 
are later, has made rapid progress in the South Atlantic 
states.  The census reports of 1900 use the potato acreage in 
these states as an index of the rate of development of truck 
gardening; the southern potato being largely a truck garden 
crop.  In seven counties of Virginia the increase in acreage 
from 1889 to 1899 was 100%; in eleven counties of North 
Carolina, 314%; in five counties of South Carolina, 134%; in 
nine counties of Georgia, 111%; in six counties of Florida, 309%; 
in five counties of Alabama, 277%.  Irish and sweet potatoes 
are the most important vegatables raised; the North Central 
state leading in the production of the former and the South 
Atlantic states in the production of the latter.  The growth 
of the Irish potato industry is shown by the following table:-- 


 
 Year.  Acreage.   Yield (bushels).
 
 1870  1,325,119   114,775,000
 1880  1,842,510   167,659,570
 1890  2,651,579   148,289,696
 1900  2,611,054   210,926,897
 1905  2,996,757   260,741,294
 

The production of sweet potatoes, as 
reported in census years, was as follows:-- 


 
 Year.  Acreage.   Yield (bushels).
 
 1869     ..       21,709,824
 1879   444,817    33,378,693
 1889   524,588    43,950,261
 1899   537,447    42,526,606
 

The total acreage in vegetables reported in 1899 was 
5,758,191 or 2% of the acreage in all crops; the value of 
the yield was $242,170,148 or 8.3% of the value of all crops. 

The value of the fruit crop of 1899 was $131,423,517; 
the value of orchard fruits was $83,751,840; of grapes, 
$14,000,937; of small fruits, $25,030,877; of sub-tropical 
fruits, $8,549,863.  The development of fruit-growing during 
the decade 1889-1899 appears from the following table:- 


 
                         Yield (bushels).
 Crop.                1889.            1899.
 
 Apples            143,105,689     175,397,626
 Apricots            1,001,482       2,642,128
 Cherries            1,476,719       2,873,499
 Peaches            36,367,747      15,433,62317
 Pears               3,064,375       6,625,417
 Plums and Prunes    2,554,392       8,764,032
 

In 1899 California contributed 21.5% of the fruit crop; New 
York, 12.1%; Pennsylvania, 7.5%; Ohio, 6.8%; and Michigan 4.5% 

                 Agricultural Education. 

The agricultural schools of the United States owe their 
origin to the movement against the old classical school and 
in favour of technical education which began in most civilized 
nations about the middle of the 19th century.  A rapidly 
growing country with great natural resources needed men 
educated in the sciences and arts of life, and this want was 
first manifested in the United States by a popular agitation 
on behalf of agricultural schools.  A number of so-called 
agricultural schools were started between 1850 and 1860 in the 
eastern and middle states, where the movement made itself most 
felt, but without trained teachers and suitable methods they 
accomplished very little.  They were only ordinary schools 
with farms attached.  The second constitution of the state 
of Michigan, adopted in 1850, provided for an agricultural 
school, and this was the first one established in the United 
States.  The General Assembly of the state of Pennsylvania 
incorporated the Farmers' High School, now the State College, in 
1854.  Maryland incorporated her agricultural college in 1856, 
and Massachusetts chartered a school of agriculture in the same 
year.  The agitation, which finally reached Congress, led 
to the establishment of the so-called ``land-grant'' or 
agricultural colleges.  The establishment of these colleges 
was due chiefly to the wisdom and foresight of Justin S. 
Morrill, who introduced the first bill for their endowment 
in the House of Representatives on the 14th of December 1857, 
saw the latest one approved by the president on the 30th of 
August 1890, and is justly known, therefore, as the father 
of the American agricultural colleges.  The first act for 
the benefit of these colleges, passed in 1862, was entitled 
``An Act donating public lands to the several states and 
territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts,'' and granted to each state 
an amount of land equal to 30,000 acres for each senator and 
representative in Congress to which the state was entitled 
at that time.  The object of the grant was stated to be ``the 
endowment, support and maintenance of at least one college'' 
(in each state), ``where the leading object shall be, without 
excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including 
military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are 
related to agriculture and the mechanic arts . . . in order to 
promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial 
classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.'' 
The total number of acres of land granted to the states under 
this act was 10,320,843, of which by far the greater part is 
sold.  This grant has produced an endowment fund amounting to 
$12,045,629.  The land still unsold in 1905 amounted to 844,164 
acres, valued at $4,168,746.  The invested land-grant funds 
yielded these colleges a total annual income of $855,083 in 
1905.  Including the United States appropriation under a 
supplementary act of 1890, commonly known as the Second 
Morrill Act, which now gives each college $25,000 a year, 
the interest on the land-grant and all other invested funds, 
all state appropriations and other sources of revenue, these 
colleges had in 1904-1905 a total income of $11,659,955.  
Sixty-six institutions had been organized under this act up to 
1905, of which sixty-three maintain courses in agriculture; 
twenty-one are departments of agriculture and engineering 
in state universities; twenty-seven are separate colleges of 
agriculture and mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized 
in various other ways.  Separate schools for persons of African 
descent had been established under this act in sixteen southern 
states.  These colleges take students prepared in the common 
schools and give them a course of from two to four years in 
the sciences pertaining to agriculture.  Many of them offer 
short courses, varying from four to twelve weeks in length, in 
agriculture, horticulture, forestry and dairying, which are largely 
attended.  Agricultural experiment stations are connected 
with all the colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' 
institutes, farmers' reading clubs and correspondence classes. 

The agricultural experiment stations of the United States grew 
up in connexion with the agricultural colleges.  Several of the 
colleges early attempted to establish separate departments for 
research and practical experiments, on the plan of the German 
stations.  The act establishing the Agricultural College of 
Maryland required it to conduct ``a series of experiments 
upon the cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted 
to the latitude and climate of the state of Maryland.'' 
This was the first suggestion of an experiment station in 
America, but resulted in little.  The first experiment station 
was established at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1875, partly 
under state aid, partly through a gift from Orange Judd, 
partly in connexion with the Sheffield Scientific School, 
which from 1863 to 1892 was the College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts for the state of Connecticut, and partly under 
control of Wesleyan University, which contributed the use 
of its chemical laboratory; in 1877 it was removed to New 
Haven.  The state of Connecticut made in 1875 an appropriation 
of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum) for this school--the 
first state appropriation of the kind.  The state of 
North Carolina established, on the 12th of March 1877, an 
agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in 
connexion with its state university.  The Cornell University 
experiment station was organized by that institution in 
1879.  The New Jersey station was organized in 1880 and the 
station of the University of Tennessee in 1882.  From these 
beginnings the experiment stations multiplied until, when 
Congress passed the National (or Hatch) Experiment Station 
Act in 1887, there were seventeen already in existence.  The 
Hatch Experiment Station Act, so called from the fact that 
its leading advocate was William Henry Hatch (1833-1896) of 
Missouri, appropriated $15,000 a year to each agricultural 
college for the purpose of conducting an agricultural experiment 
station.  The object of the stations was declared to be, 
``to conduct original researches or verify experiments on the 
physiology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they 
are severally subject, with the remedies for the same; the 
chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages 
of growth; the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as 
pursued under a varying series of crops; the capacity of new 
plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils and water; 
the chemical composition of manures, natural or artificial, 
with experiments designed to test their comparative effects on 
crops of different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses 
and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the 
different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific 
and economic questions involved in the production of butter 
and cheese; and such other re-searches or experiments bearing 
directly on the agricultural industry of the United States 
as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to 
the varying conditions and needs of the respective states or 
territories.'' The stations were authorized to publish annual 
reports and also bulletins of progress for free distribution 
to farmers.  The franking privilege was given to these 
publications.  The office of experiment stations, in the 
Department of Agriculture, was established in 1888 to be the 
head office and clearing-house of these stations.  Agricultural 
experiment stations are now in operation in all the states and 
territories, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and the 
Philippines.  Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, New Jersey and 
New York each maintain separate stations, supported wholly 
or in part by state funds; Louisiana has a station for sugar, 
and Missouri for fruit experiments.  Excluding all branch 
stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United 
States is sixty, and of these fifty-five receive the national 
appropriation.  The total income of the stations during 1904 was 
$1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national 
government and the remainder was derived from societies, 
fees for analyses of fertilizers, sale of products, &c. The 
stations employed 795 persons in the work of administration 
and re-search; the chief classes being--directors, 71; 
chemists, 163; agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 41; besides 
numerous horticulturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, 
bacteriologists, dairymen, weather observers and irrigation 
experts.  The stations publish annual reports and bulletins, 
besides a large number of ``press'' bulletins, which are 
reproduced in the agricultural and county papers.  They act 
as bureaus of information on all farm questions, and carry 
on an extensive correspondence covering all conceivable 
questions.  Their mailing lists aggregate half a million 
names.  In addition to the experiment stations there is in 
nearly every state an officer or a special board whose duty is 
to look after its agricultural interests.  Eighteen states, one 
territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands have a single 
official, usually called the Commissioner of Agriculture.  
Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii, have Boards of 
Agriculture.  Information concerning the Agricultural Department 
of the United States will be found under AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. 

See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also CATTLE, 
HORSE, PIG, SHEEP, &c.; DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, 
HORTICULTURE, FRUIT AND FLOWER-FARMING, POULTRY AND 
POULTRY FARMING; SOIL, GRASS AND GRASSLAND, MANURE, 
DRAINAGE OF LAND, IRRIGATION, SOWING, REAPING, 
HAY AND HAY MAKING, PLOUGH, HARROW, THRESHING. 

LITERATURE.---Besides the contemporary works cited in the 
text, see the article ``Agricultural'' in Smith's Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), and the article 
``Agriculture'' in J. A. Parral's Dictionnaire d'Agriculture 
(1885-1892); R. E. Prothero, Pioneers and Progress of English 
Farming (1888); sections on agriculture by W.J. Corbett, 
R. E. Prothero and W. E. Bear in Traill's Social England 
(1901-1904); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture and 
Prices in England from 1259 to 1793 (7 vols., 1866-1902); 
W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce 
During The Early and Middle Ages (2 vols., 1905 and 
1907); D. M`Donald, Agricultural Writers from Sir Walter of 
Henley to Arthur Young, 1200-1800 (London, 1908); H. Rider 
Haggard, Rural England, 2 vols. (1902); Encyclopedia of 
Agriculture, ed. by C. E. Green and D. Young (Edinburgh, 
1907-1908); Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture, ed. 
by L. H. Bailey (New Yorkand London, 1907-1908); W. S. 
Harwood, The New Earth (New York, 1906); T. B. Collins, 
The New Agriculture (New York, 1906); Journals of the 
Royal Agricultural Society of England and other agricultural 
societies.  Amongst general works on practical agriculture the 
following may be mentioned:--Stephens's Book of the Farm, 5 
vols., revised by J. Macdonald (Edinburgh, 1908).; William 
Fream, Elements of Agriculture (London, 1905); Rural Science 
Series, ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York and London, 1895, 
&c.); Morton's Handbooks of the Farm (London); R. Wallace, 
Farm Livestock of Great Britain (Edinburgh, 1907); Youatt's 
Complete Grazier, rewritten by W. Fream (London, 1900); E. 
V. Wilcox, Farm Animals (New York, 1907). (W. Fr.; R. Tr.) 

1 Translation by Clement-Mullet (Paris, 1864). 

2 Walter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory crop. 

3 This process of enclosure must be distinguished from that of enclosing 
the arable common fields which, though advocated by Fitzherbert in 
a passage quoted below, proceeded slowly until the 18th century. 

4 During the 16th century wheat had risen in price, 
and between 1606 and 1618 never fell below 30s. a 
quarter.  At the same time wages remained low. 

5 Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732. 

6 The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the 19th 
century appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing 
seasons.  The yields in the experimental wheat-field at 
Rothamsted--where there is no change either of land or of 
treatment--indicate this.  The following figures show the 
average yields per acre of the selected plots at Rothamsted 
over six 8-yearly periods from 1852 to 1899, and afford evidence 
that the higher yield of later years is due to the seasons:-- 


 
                                                Bushels (of 60lb)
             Averages of---                            per acre.
             8  years 1852-1859 . . . . . . . . 28 3/8
             8  years 1860-1867 . . . . . . . . 28 7/8
             8  years 1868-1875 . . . . . . . . 27 1/8
             8  years 1876-1883 . . . . . . . . 25 1/4
             8  years 1884-1891 . . . . . . . . 29 7/8
             8  years 1892-1899 . . . . . . . . 30
             ------------------               --------
             32 years 1852-1883 . . . . . . . . 27 3/8
             16 years 1884-1899 . . . . . . . . 30
             ------------------               --------
             48 years 1852-1899 . . . . . . . . 28 1/4
 

The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 
27 3/8 bushels per acre, of the last sixteen years 30 
bushels, and of the whole forty-eight years 28 1/4 bushels. 

7 See J.B. Lawes and J.H. Gilbert, Rothamsted Memoirs on 
Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1899); 
A. D. Hall, Books of the Rothamsted Experiments (1905). 

8 including Channel islands and Isle of Man. 

9 In 1903 two of the principal sources of supply of mutton shipped 
in excess of their exportable surplus, for which they suffered 
severely in 1904--hence the somewhat irregular movements after 1903. 

10 Returns for only ten months were available for this year. 

11 In the absence of experiments it is assumed that 
wheat is digested like other foods of the same class. 

12 This sum was furnished out of a total of L. 693,851, forming 
the residue grant allocated for the purposes of education 
to the various county councils of England and Wales 
under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890. 

13 ``Unimproved'' land includes land which has never 
been ploughed, mown or cropped and also land once 
cultivated but now overgrown with trees or shrubs. 

14Includes farms operated by owners, part-owners and tenants, and managers. 

15Tenants of farms rented for a share of the products. 

16 The demand for horses for the British 
troops in South Africa affected these years. 

17 Decrease due to a severe frost in the winter of 
1898-1899, which destroyed the peach crop in most of the states 

AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. The Board of Agriculture andFisheries, 
in England, owes its foundation to the establishment of a 
veterinary department of the privy council in 1865, when the 
Country was ravaged by cattle plague.  An order in council 
abolished the name ``veterinary department'' in 1883 and 
substituted that of ``agricultural department,'' but no 
alteration was effected in the work of the department, so far 
as it related to animals.  In 1889 the Board of Agriculture 
(for Great Britain) was formed under an act of parliament 
of that year, and the immediate control of the agricultural 
department was transferred from the clerk of the privy council 
to the secretary of the Board of Agriculture, where it remains. 

A minister of agriculture had for years been asked for in the 
interests of the agricultural community, and the functions 
of this Office are discharged by the president of the 
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, whose appointment is a 
political one, and may or may not carry with it a seat in the 
cabinet.  The board consists of the lord president of the 
council, the five principal secretaries of state, the first 
lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, the 
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the secretary for 
Scotland.  The establishment consists of a president, secretary, 
assistant secretaries, &c. The salary of the president is 
L. 2000 a year, and that of the secretary L. 1500 a year. 

The Board of Agriculture on its establishment took over from the 
privy council the responsibilities of the Contagious Diseases 
(Animals) Acts, besides the comprehensive duties of the Land 
Commission.  The board, through its intelligence division, 
collects and prepares statistics relating to agriculture and 
forestry, and in 1904 appointed a number of honorary agricultural 
correspondents throughout the country for the purpose of bringing 
to the notice of the board any special circumstances affecting 
the practice of agriculture, horticulture and forestry, or 
the transport of farm, garden and forrest produce in their 
districts.  The land division of the board prepares the annual 
agricultural and produce returns, and the three divisions, the 
animals, intelligence and land, take proceedings under the 
following acts:--the Diseases of Animals Acts, the Markets 
and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Acts, the Sale of Food and 
Drugs Acts 1875 to 1800, the Merchandise Marks Acts 1887 to 
1905, the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1893, the Tithe 
Acts 1836 to 1891, the Copyhold Act 1894, the Inclosure Acts 
1845 to 1899, the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883 to 1900, 
the Drainage and Improvement of Land Acts, the Universities 
and College Estates Acts 1858 to 1898, the Glebe Lands Act 
1888, &c. The board also has charge of the inspection of 
schools (not being public elementary schools) in which 
technical instruction is given in agriculture or forestry, 
and institutes such experimental investigations as may be 
deemed conducive to the progress of agriculture and forestry. 

The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom is under the 
control of the board, as well as the arrangements for the 
advertisement and sale of the publications of the Geological 
Survey.  In 1903 the powers and duties formerly vested in the 
commissioners of the Office of Works, relating to the Royal 
Botanic Gardens, Kew, were transferred to the board.  The 
various departments of the board are (1) chief clerk's branch 
and indoor branch of animals division; (2) outdoor branch of 
the animals division; (3) veterinary department; (4) fisheries 
branch; (5) intelligence department; (6) educational branch; 
(7) accounts branch; (8) inclosure and common branch; (9) 
copyhold and tithe branch; (10) statistical branch; (11) law 
branch; (12) survey, land improvement and land drainage branch. 

In 1903, in pursuance of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries 
Act 1903, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the 
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regulation 
Acts and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were 
transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture, 
and its name was changed to its present form.  The Department 
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers 
much the same ground.  The Annual report of the proceedings 
of the Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Acts 
for 1902 contains a full account of its powers and duties. 

In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are 
looked after in New South Wales, by an under-secretary 
for mines and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of 
the executive council who holds the portfolio of lands 
and agriculture; in Queensland, by an under-secretary for 
agriculture; in New Zealand, by a minister for lands and 
agriculture; in Canada (see, for more detail, the article 
Canada, Canadian Agriculture), by a minister for agriculture 
(the various provinces have also departments of agriculture).  
The government of India has a secretary of revenue and 
agriculture.  Cape Colony has a secretary for agriculture, a 
member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony the director 
of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal, the 
minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council, 
and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a 
director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a 
conservator of forests.  Cyprus has a director of agriculture. 

United States--The Department of Agriculture dates its rank as 
an executive department from 1889.  It was first established as 
a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commissioner in 
charge.  In addition to the commissioner there were appointed 
a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintendent 
of a propagatory and experimental farm.  Its scope was then 
somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the 
appointment of a botanist in 1868, a microscopist in 1871, 
the creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of 
animal industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural 
experiment stations throughout the country in 1887.  In 1889 
the department became an executive department, the principal 
official being designated Secretary of Agriculture, with 
a seat in the president's cabinet.  His salary is $8000 a 
year.  The secretary is now charged with the supervision 
of all business relating to the agricultural and productive 
industries.  The fisheries have a separate bureau, and 
the public lands and mining interests are cared for in the 
Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions, all 
the productive interests are looked after by the Department of 
Agriculture.  The department now comprises (1) the weather 
bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the 
issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals 
for the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the 
gauging and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature 
and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and 
other interests; the display of frost and cold waves signals; 
and the distribution of meteorological information in the 
interest of agriculture and commerce; (2) the bureau of animal 
industry, which makes investigations as to the existence of 
contagious pleuro-pneumonia and other dangerous and communicable 
diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their 
extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature 
and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the conditions 
and means of improving the animal industries of the country; 
(3) the bureau of plant industry, which studies plant life 
in all its relations to agriculture.  Its work is classified 
under the general subjects of pathological investigations, 
physiological investigations, taxonomic investigations, 
agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and 
seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest 
service, which is occupied with experiments, investigations 
and reports dealing with the subject of forestry, and with 
the dissemination of information upon forestry matters; (5) 
the bureau of chemistry, which investigates methods proposed 
for the analysis of plants, fertilizers and agricultural 
products, and makes such analyses as pertain in general to 
the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of soils, which 
is entrusted with the investigation, survey and mapping of 
soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the 
rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils; and the 
investigation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation 
of tobacco in the different tobacco districts; (7) the bureau 
of entomology, which obtains and disseminates information 
regarding insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of 
biological survey, which studies the geographic distribution 
of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the 
country; it also investigates the economic relations of birds 
and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of 
beneficial, and the destruction of injurious, species; (9) the 
division of accounts and disbursements; (10) the division of 
publications; (11) the bureau of statistics, which collects 
information as to the condition, prospects and harvests of 
the principal crops, and of the number and status of farm 
animals.  It records, tabulates and co-ordinates statistics 
of agricultural production, distribution and consumption, and 
issues monthly and annual crop reports for the information 
of producers and consumers.  The section of foreign markets 
makes investigations and disseminates information concerning 
the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign markets 
for the agricultural products of the United States; the bureau 
also makes investigations of land tenures, cost of producing 
farm products, country life education, transportation and 
other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the 
office of experiment stations which represents the department 
in its relations to the experiment stations which are now in 
operation in all the states; it collects and disseminates general 
information regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations, 
and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at home 
and abroad; it also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, 
aids in the conduct of co-operative experiments, reports upon 
their expenditures and work, and in general furnishes them with 
such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes 
for which they were established; it conducts investigations 
relative to irrigation and drainage; (14) the office of public 
roads, which collects information concerning systems of road 
management, conducts investigations regarding the best method 
of road-making, and prepares publications on this subject. 

In the following countries there are state departments of 
agriculture:---Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture 
and public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture), Denmark, 
France, Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy, Japan 
(agriculture and commerce), Prussia (agriculture, woods and 
forests), Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden. 

AGRIGENTUM (Gr. `Akragas mod. Girgenti (q.v.)), 
an ancient city on the south coastof Sicily, 2 1/2m. from the 
sea.  It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian 
settlement) by colonists from Gela about 582 B.C., and, 
though the lastest city of importance founded by the Greeks in 
Sicily, soon acquired a position second to that of Syracuse 
alone, owing to its favourable situation for trade with Carthage 
and to the fertility of its territory.  Pindar (Pyth. xii. 
2) calls it kallista brotean polion. The buildings for 
which it is famous all belong to the first two centuries of its 
existence.  Phalaris, who is said to have roasted his enemies 
to death in a brazen bull (Pindar, Pyth.. i. 184), ruled as 
tyrant from 570 to 554. What form of government was established 
after his fall is uncertain; we know only that, after a 
long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473); but his son 
Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war with Hiero 
in 472 and a democracy established.  In the struggle between 
Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the city remained absolutely 
neutral.  Its prosperity continued to increase (its population 
is given at over 200,000) until in 405 B.C., despite the 
help of the Siceliot cities, it was captured and plundered 
by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely 
re-covered.  It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with 
settlers from Veha in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant 
Phintias (289-279) it had regained some of its power.  In the 
First Punic War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and 
the Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War 
by the Romans (210).  But it still retained its importance as 
a trading and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period, 
exporting not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and 
sulphur.  In the local museum are tiles used for stamping 
cakes of sulphur, which show that the mines, at any rate from 
the 3rd century, were imperial property leased to contractors. 

The site is one of great natural strength and remarkable 
beauty, though quite unlike that of other Greek cities in 
Sicily.  The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge 
with two summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by 
the modern town (985 ft.), while the easternmost, which is 
slightly higher, bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its 
identification in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as 
described by Polybius, who places upon it the temple of Zeus 
Atabyrius (the erection of which was attributed to the half 
mythical Phalaris) and that of Athena.1 It must be confessed 
that the available space (about 70 X 20 yds.) on the eastern 
summit (where there are some remains of ancient buildings) is 
so small that there would be only room for a single temple, 
which must have been occupied by the two deities jointly, 
if the new theory is correct (see Notizie degli scavi, 
1902, 387 and reff.).  In the modern town, on the other hand, 
the remains of one temple are to be seen in the church of S. 
Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally supposed to have 
occupied the site of the cathedral, though no traces of it are 
visible.  But whichever of these two summits was the acropolis 
proper2 it is certain that both were included in the circuit 
of the city walls.  On the north both summits are defended 
by cliffs; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat 
abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on which 
the town stood, while the western summit is separated from 
this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas 
[mod. drago], the deep ravine of which forms the western 
boundary and defence of the city.  On the east of the city is 
the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio], from which the 
city took its name and which, though shallower than that of 
the Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack, 
and the two unite a little way to the south of the town; at 
the mouth was the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned. 

The most famous remains of the ancient city are the temples, 
the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs 
at the south end of the city.  All are built in the Doric 
style, of the local porous stone, which is of a warm red 
brown colour, full of fossil shells and easily corroded 
when exposed to the air.  It should be noted that their 
traditional names, with the exception of that of Zeus and 
that of Asclepius, have no foundation in fact, while the 
attribution of the temple in antis, into the cella of 
which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain.3 
They are described in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die 
griechishen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1890), 
138-184.  Of all these temples the oldest is probably that 
of Heracles, while the best preserved are those of Hera and 
Concordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter, 
indeed, lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation 
to its conversion into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory II., 
bishop of Girgenti.  Both temples belong to the best period 
of the Doric style and are among the finest in existence.  
In front of the former, as in front of those of Heracles and 
Zeus, stood a huge altar for burnt offerings, as long as the 
facade of the temple itself.  The cella of the temple of 
Heracles underwent considerable modifications in Roman times, 
and the discovery in it of a statue of Asclepius seems to 
show that the cult of this deity superseded the original one. 

In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures 
of Atlas), 25 ft. in height, are noticeable.  They seem to 
have stood in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside 
wall and to have supported the epistyle.  The collapse both 
of this temple and of that of Heracles must be attributed 
to an earthquake; many fallen blocks of the former were 
removed in 1756 for the construction of the harbour of Porto 
Empedocle.  The four columns erected on the site of the temple 
of Castor and Pollux are a modern (and incorrect) restoration 
in which portions of two buildings have been used.  Of that of 
Hephaestus only two columns remain, while of that of Asclepius, 
a mile to the south of the town, an anta and two pillars are 
preserved.  It was in the latter temple that the statue of 
the god by Myron stood; it had probably been carried off to 
Carthage, was given to the temple by P. Scipio Africanus from 
the spoils of that city and aroused the cupidity of Verres. 

The other remains within the city walls are of surprisingly 
small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Nicolo 
is the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the 2nd 
century B.C., 27 1/4 ft. long (including the porch) by 23 1/3 
ft. wide; and not far off on the east is a large private house 
with white tesselated pavements, probably pre-Roman in origin 
but slightly altered in the Roman period (R. P. Jones and 
E. A. Gardner in JOURNAL OF HELLENIC STUDIES, xxvi., 1906, 
207).  Foundations of other buildings are to be seen in other 
parts of the site, but of little interest.  The huge fishpond, 
spoken of by Diodorus as being 7 stadia in circumference (xi. 
25), is to be seen at the south-west corner of the city; it is 
an enormous excavation in the rock with drains in its sides, at 
the bottom of which there is now a flourishing orange garden. 


 
                   Demeter     Hera      Con-
                  (Acragas?)  Lacinia.  cordia.  Heracles.  Zeus.
 
 Length excluding
   steps4           90?       125       129 1/4   220        361
 Breadth             40 1/2     55 1/2    55 1/2    83        173 1/2
 Length of cella     ..         93        96 1/4   156        332
 Breadth of cella    ..         32 1/2    31 1/2    45 3/4    144 1/4
 Height of columns
   with capital      ..         21        22        33         62 1/2?
 Diameter of
   columns at
   bottom            ..          4 1/2     4 1/2     6 1/2     14
 Original number
   of columns        ..         34        34        38         38
 Class             In antis.   Perip-    Perip-    Perip-    Pseudo
                               teros     teros     teros    Peripteros
                               hexa-     hexa-     hexa-      hexa-
                               stylos.   stylos.   stylos.   stylos.
 Approximate date  450 B.C.   480-440   440-420    500 B.C.   450 B.C.
                                B.C.      B.C.
 
                            Unnamed
                   Castor  near Castor
                    and       and      Hephae-
                   Pollux.   Pollux.    scus.    Asclepius.  Athena.
 
 Length excluding
   steps (1)         ..         ..        ..        ..         ..
 Breadth             ..         67 1/4    57 1/2    30 1/2     45
 Length of cella     91         ..        ..        ..         ..
 Breadth of cella    33         ..        ..        ..         ..
 Height of columns
   with capital      19 1/2     ..        ..        ..         ..
 Diameter of
   columns at
   bottom             4         ..         5         3 1/3      4 2/3
 Original number
   of columns        34         ..        ..        ..         ..
 Class              Perip-      ..      Perip-    Prostylos    Perip-
                    teros               teros      pseudo      teros
                    hexa-               hexa-      perip-
                    stylos.             stylos.    teros.
 Approximate date   338-210.    ..      after 338 before 210  488-472
                      B.C.      B.C.      B.C.      B.C.        B.C.   
 

The line of the city walls can be distinctly traced for 
most of the circuit, but the actual remains of them are 
inconsiderable.  On the east and west the ravines already 
mentioned afforded, in the main, a sufficient protection, 
so that a massive wall was unnecessary, while near the 
south-eastern angle a breastwork was formed by the excavation 
of the natural rock,5 which in later times was honeycombed with 
tombs.  E. A. Freeman attributes the southern portion of the 
walls to Theron (Hist. of Sic. ii. 224), but the question 
depends upon the date of the temple of Heracles; and if 
Koldewey and Puchstein are right in dating it so early as 500 
B.C., it is probable that the wall was in existence by that 
time.  Close to this temple on the west is the site of the 
gate known in later times as the porta aurea, through 
which the modern road passes, so that no traces now remain. 

Tombs of the Greek period have mainly been found on the west of 
the town, outside the probable line of the walls, between the 
Hypsas and a small tributary, the latter having been spanned by 
a bridge, now called Ponite dei Morti, of which one massive 
pier, 45 ft. in width, still exists.  Just outside the south 
wall is a Roman necropolis, with massive tombs in masonry, and 
a Christian catacomb, and a little farther south a tomb in two 
stories, a mixture of Doric and Ionic architecture, belonging 
probably to the 2nd century B.C., though groundlessly called 
the Tomb of Theron.  A village of the Byzantine period has 
been explored at Balatizzo, immediately to the south of the 
modern town (Notizie degli scavi, 1900, 511-520).  The walls 
of the dwellings are entirely cut out of the natural rock. 

See J. Schubring, Historische Topographie von Akragas 
(Leipzig, 1570); R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, op. cit.; C. 
Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Encyclopadie, i. 1187. (T. As.) 

1 E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891), i. 438, 
accepts the name ``Rock of Athena'' and yet puts the acropolis on 
the site of the modern town, arguing further that the cathedral 
hill was an acropolis within an acropolis (II. and XVII.). 


2 Some writers place Kamikos, the city of the mythical Sican 
Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears 
to have lain to the north-west, possibly at Caltabellotta, 10m. 
north-east of Sciacca.  We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a 
fortified post of Acragas (E. A. Freeman, Hist. of Sic. i. 495). 

3 The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery 
of votive terra-cottas, representing Demeter and Kore 
in the neighbourhood, while the conjecture that it was 
dedicated to the river-god Acragas rests on its position 
above the river, in the valley of which, indeed, a 
statue which may represent the deity has been discovered. 

4 Dimensions in English feet. 

5 Polybius ix. 27 keitai to teixos epi petras akrotomon kai 
perirrogos e men autofnous e de xeiropoieton. 

AGRIMONY (from the Lat. agrimonia, a transformation of 
argemone, a word of unknown etymology), a slender perennial 
herb (botanical name, agrimonia eupatoria, natural order 
Rosaceae), 1 1/2 to 3 ft. high, growing in hedge-banks, copses and 
borders of fields.  The leafy stem ends in spikes of small yellow 
flowers.  The flower-stalk becomes recurved in the fruiting 
stage, and the fruit bears a number of hooks which enable it 
to cling to rough objects, such as the coat of an animal, thus 
ensuring distribution of the seed.  The plant is common in 
Britain and widely spread through the north temperate region.  
The underground woody stem is astringent and yields a yellow dye. 

The name has been unsystematically given to several 
other plants; for instance: bastard, Dutch, hemp or 
water agrimony (eupatorium cannabinum); noble or 
three-leaved agrimony (anemone hellalica); water agrimony 
(bideus); and wild agrimony (potentilla anserina.) 

AGRIONIA, an ancient Greek festival, which was celebrated 
annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere, in honour 
of Dionysus Agrionius, by women and priests at night.  The 
women, after playfully pretending for some time to search for 
the god, desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the 
Muses.  The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas, king of 
Orchomenus, having despised the rites of the god, were seized 
with frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children.  At this 
festival it was originally the custom for the priest of the god 
to pursue a woman of the Minyan family with a drawn sword and 
kill her. (Plutarch, Quaest.  Rom. 102, Quaest.  Graecae 38.) 

AGRIPPA, a sceptical philosopher, whose date cannot 
be accurately determined.  He must have lived later than 
Aenesidemus, who is generally said to have been a contemporary of 
Cicero.  To him are ascribed the five tropes pente tropoi 
which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude 
of the later ancient sceptics.  The first trope emphasizes 
the disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points; 
knowledge comes either from the senses or from reason.  Some 
thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense; 
others that the things of reason alone are known; and so 
on.  It follows that the only wise course is to be content 
with an attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to 
deny.  The second trope deals with the validity of proof; 
the proof of one so-called fact depends on another fact which 
itself needs demonstration, and so on ad infinitum.  The 
third points out that the data of sense are relative to the 
sentient being, those of reason to the intelligent mind; that in 
different conditions things themselves are seen or thought to be 
different.  Where, then, is the absolute criterion? Fourthly, 
if we examine things fairly, we see that in point of fact all 
knowledge depends on certain hypotheses, or facts taken for 
granted.  Such knowledge is fundamentally hypothetical, 
and might well be accepted as such without the labour of a 
demonstration which is logically invalid.  The fifth trope 
points out the impossibility of proving the sensible by 
the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to establish the 
intelligible in its turn by the sensible.  Such a process is 
a vicious circle and has no logical validity.  A comparison 
of these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article 
AENESIDEMUS shows that scepticism has made an advance into 
the more abtruse questions of metaphysics.  The first and the 
third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes, and 
the other three systematize the more profound difficulties 
which new thinkers had developed.  Aenesidemus was content 
to attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa goes 
further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever.  
His reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons 
which by their very nature are not susceptible of disproof. 

See Diogenes Laertius x. 88, and Zeller's Greek 
Philosophy.  Also the articles SCEPTICISM; AENESIDEMUS. 

AGRIPPA, HEROD, I. (c. 10 B.C.-A.D. 44), king of Judea, 
the son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the 
Great, was born about 10 B.C. His original name was Marcus 
Julius Agrippa.  Josephus informs us that, after the murder 
of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court 
of Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and 
placed him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon 
won.  On the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly 
extravagant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with 
debt.  After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle, 
who had married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos 
(Overseer of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with 
a large sum of money; but his uncle being unwilling to 
continue his support, Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon 
after returned to Rome, where he was welcomed by Tiberius 
and became the constant campanion of the emperor Gaius 
(Caligula), then a popular favourite.  Agrippa being one 
day overheard by Eutyches, a slave whom he had made free, 
to express a wish for Tiberius' death and the advancement of 
Gaius, was betrayed to the emperor and cast into prison.  
In A.D. 37 Caligula, having ascended the throne, heaped 
wealth and favours upon Agrippa, set a royal diadem upon his 
head and gave him the tetrarchy of Batanaea and Trachonitis, 
which Philip, the son of Herod the Great, had formerly 
possessed.  To this he added that held by Lysanias; and Agrippa 
returned very soon into Judea to take possession of his new 
kingdom.  In A.D. 39 he returned to Rome and brought 
about the banishment of Herod Antipas, to whose tetrarchy he 
succeeded.  On the assassination of Caligula (A.D. 41) 
Agrippa contributed much by his advice to maintain Claudius 
in possession of the imperial dignity, while he made a show 
of being in the interest of the senate.  The emperor, in 
acknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the 
kingdom of Chalcis in Lebanon was at his request given to 
his brother Herod.  Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest 
princes of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in 
extent that held by Herod the Great.  He returned to Judea 
and governed it to the great satisfaction of the Jews.  His 
zeal, private and public, for Judaism is celebrated by 
Josephus and the rabbis; and the narrative of Acts xii. gives 
a typical example of it.  About the feast of the Passover 
A.D. 44, James the elder, the son of Zebedee and brother 
of John the evangelist, was seized by his order and put to 
death.  He proceeded also to lay hands on Peter and imprisoned 
him.  After the Passover he went to Caesarea, where he had 
games performed in honour of Claudius, and the inhabitants of 
Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue for peace..  According to 
the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gorgeously arrayed, received 
them in the theatre, and addressed them from a throne, while 
the audience cried out that his was the voice of a god.  But 
``the angel of the Lord smote him,'' and shortly afterwards 
he died ``eaten of worms.'' The story in Acts differs slightly 
from that in Josephus, who describes how in the midst of 
his elation he saw an owl perched over his head.  During his 
confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been interpreted as 
portending his speedy release, with the warning that should 
he behold the same sight again he would die within' five 
days.  He was immediately smitten with violent pains, and 
after a few days died.  Josephus says nothing of his being 
``eaten of worms,'' but the discrepancies between the two 
stories are of slight moment.  A third account omits all the 
apocryphal elements in the story and says that Agrippa was 
assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power. 

See articles in Ency, Bibl. (W. J. Woodhouse), 
Jewish Ency. (M. Brann), with further relerences; N. 
S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa (New York, 2nd ed., 
1898); Gratz, Geschchte d.  Juden, iii. 318-361. 

AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and 
like him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about 
A.D. 27, and received the tetrarchy of Chalcis and the 
oversight of the Temple on the death of his uncle Herod, 
A.D. 48. In A.D. 53 he was deprived of that kingdom by 
Claudius, who gave him other provinces instead of it.  In 
the war which Vespasian carried on against the Jews Herod 
sent him 2000 men, by which it appears that, though a Jew in 
religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the Romans, whose 
assistance indeed he required to secure the peace of his own 
kingdom.  He died at Rome in the third year of . Trajan, 
A.D. 100. He was the seventh and last king of the family of 
Herod the Great.  It was before him and his sister Berenice 
(q.v., B.2) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts 
xxvi.).  He supplied Josephus with information for his history. 

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 P.C.), Roman statesman and 
general, son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augustus, 
was of humble origin.  He was of the same age as Octavian 
(as the emperor was then called), and was studying with him 
at Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44) 
arrived.  By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome.  
Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius, . 
brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia 
(40).  Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitallians 
in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the 
Germans.  On his return he refused a triumph but accepted 
the consulship (37).  At this time Sextus Pompeius, with whom 
war was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of 
Italy.  Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour 
for his ships, which he accomplished by cutting through the 
strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the 
sea, thus forming an outer harbour; an inner one was also 
made by joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius 
xlviii. 49; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 24). About this time 
Agrippa married Pomponia, daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius 
Atticus.  Having been appointed naval commander-in-chief he 
put his crews through a course of training, until he felt 
in a position to meet the fleet of Pompeius.  In 36 he was 
victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and received the honour 
of a naval crown for his services.  In 33 he was chosen 
aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting great 
improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building 
aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constructing 
baths and porticos, and laying out gardens.  He also first 
gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art.  
The emperor's boast that he had found the city of brick but 
left it of marble (``marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam 
accepisset,'' Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety 
have been uttered by Agrippa.  He was again called away to 
take command of the fleet when the war with Antony broke 
out.  The victory at Actium (31), which gave the mastery of 
Rome and the empire of the world to Octavian, was mainly due to 
Agrippa.  As a token of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon 
him the hand of his niece Marcella (28).  We must suppose 
that his wife Pomponia was either dead or divorced.  In 27 
Agrippa was consul for the third time, and in the following 
year the senate bestowed upon Octavian the emperial title of 
Augustus.  Probably in commemoration of the battle of Actium, 
Agrippa built and dedicated the Pantheum still in existence as La 
Rotonda.  The inscription on the portico states that it was 
erected by him during his third consulship.  His friendship 
with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of 
his father-in-law Marcellus, which was probably fomented by 
the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of Augustus, who feared 
his influence with her husband.  The result was that Agrippa 
left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of Syria 
--a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact he only 
sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at 
Lesbos.  On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a 
year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could 
not dispense with his services.  It is said that by the advice 
of Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely 
to him by making him his son-in-law.  He accordingly induced 
him to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia (21), 
the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty 
and abilities and her shameless profligacy.  In 19 Agrippa 
was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in 
Spain.  He was appointed governor of Syria a second time 
(17), where his just and prudent administration won him the 
respect and good-will of the provincials, especially the Hebrew 
population.  His last public service was the bloodless 
suppression of an insurrection in Pannonia (13).  He died 
at Campania in March of the year following his fifty-first 
year.  Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral. 

Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on 
geography.  Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design 
of having a complete survey of the empire made was carried 
out.  From the materials at hand he constructed a circular 
chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards 
placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla.  Amongst 
his writings an autobiography, now lost, is referred 
to.  Agrippa left several children; by Pomponia, a daughter 
Vipsania, who became the wife of the emperor Tiberius; by Julia 
three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus, and 
two daughters, Agrippina the elder, afterwards the wife of 
Germanicus, and Julia, who married Lucius Aemihus Pauilus. 

See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv.; Suetonius, Augustus; Velleius 
Paternulus ii.; Josephus, Antiq.  Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2; 
Turnbull, Three Dissertations, one of the characters of 
Horace, Augustus and Agrippa (1740); Frandsen, Marcus 
Vipsanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Etude sur Marcus 
Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e suoi 
tempi (1901); D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung und 
Bedeutung der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen, 
Augustus und seine Zeit, vol. i. 762 foll., ii. 432 foll. 

AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486-1535) German 
writer, soldier, physician, and by common reputation a magician, 
belonged to a family many members of which had been in the 
service of the house of Habsburg, and was born at Cologne on 
the 14th of September 1486.  The details of his early life are 
somewhat obscure, but he appears to have obtained a knowledge 
of eight languages, to have studied at the university of 
Cologne and to have passed some time in France.  When quite 
young he entered the service of the German king, Maximilian 
I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enterprise in 
Catalonia.  He probably served Maximilian both as soldier 
and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was not 
satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take 
a lively interest in theosophy and magic.  In 1509 he went to 
the university of Dole, where he lectured on John Reuchlin's 
De Verbo Mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges 
of heresy to be brought against him, and he was denounced 
by a monk named John Catilinet in lectures delivered at 
Ghent.  As a result Agrippa was compelled to leave Dole; 
proceeding to the Netherlands he took service again with 
Maximilian.  In 1510 the king sent him on a diplomatic mission 
to England, where he was the guest of Colet, dean of St Paul's, 
and where he replied to the accusations brought against him by 
Catilinet.  Returning to Cologne he followed Maximilian to 
Italy in 1511, and as a theologian attended the council of 
Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in opposition to a 
council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in Italy for 
seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis of 
Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Savoy, 
probably occupied in teaching theology and practising medicine. 

In 1515 he lectured at the university of Pavia on the Pimander 
of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly 
terminated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of 
France.  In 1518 the efforts of one or other of his patrons 
secured for Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator, 
or syndic, at Metz.  Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon 
brought him into collision with the monks, and his defence 
of a woman accused of witchcraft involved him in a dispute 
with the inquisitor, Nicholas Savin.  The consequence of 
this was that in 1520 he resigned his office and returned to 
Cologne, where he stayed about two years.  He then practised 
for a short time as a physician at Geneva and Freiburg, 
but in 1524 went to Lyons on being appointed physician to 
Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I. In 1528 he gave up this 
position, and about this time was invited to take part in 
the dispute over the legality of the divorce of Catherine 
of Aragon by Henry VIII.; but he preferred an offer made by 
Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent of the Netherlands, and 
became archivist and historiographer to the emperor Charles 
V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened his position, and the 
publication of some of his writings about the same time aroused 
anew the hatred of his enemies; but after suffering a short 
imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived at Cologne and 
Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of Wied, archbishop of 
Cologne.  By publishing his works he brought himself into 
antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop 
the printing of De occulta philosophia. He then went to 
France, where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for 
some disparaging words about the queen-mother; but he was 
soon released, and on the 18th of February 1535 died at 
Grenoble.  He was married three times and had a large 
family.  Agrippa was a man of great ability and undoubted 
courage, but he lacked perseverance and was himself responsible 
for many of his misfortunes.  In spite of his inquiring 
nature and his delight in novelty, he remained a Catholic, and 
had scant sympathy with the teaching of the reformers.  His 
memory was nevertheless long defamed in the writings of the 
monks, who placed a malignant inscription over his grave.  
Agrippa's work, De occulta philosophia, was written about 
1510, partly under the influence of the author's friend, John 
Trithemius, abbot of Wurzburg, but its publication was delayed 
until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp.  It is a defence 
of magic, by means of which men may come to a knowledge of 
nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea of the universe 
with its three worlds or spheres.  His other principal work, 
De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum et Artium Atque 
Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, was written about 1527 
and published at Antwerp in 1531.  This is a sarcastic attack 
on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned 
men.  In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown 
up around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes 
for a return to the primitive belief of the early Christian 
church.  He also wrote De Nobilitate et Praecellentia Deminei 
Sexus, dedicated to Margaret of Burgundy, De Matrimonii 
Sacramento and other smaller works.  An edition of his 
works was published at Leiden in 1550 and they have been 
republished several times.  See H. Morley, Life of H. C. 
Agrippa (London, 1856); A. Prost, Les Sciences at les arts 
occultes au xvi.  Siecle: Corneille Agrippa sa vie et ses 
oeuvres (Paris, 1881); A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Paris, 1856). 

AGRIPPINA, the ``elder,'' daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 
by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of Augustus 
and the wife of Germanicus.  She accompanied her husband to 
Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted after the 
death of Augustus (A.D. 14). Three years later she was in 
the East with Germanicus (q.v.), who died at Antioch in 
19, poisoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso, 
governor of Syria.  Eager to avenge his death, she returned 
to Rome and boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus.  
To avoid public infamy Piso committed suicide.  Tiberius and 
his favourite Sejanus feared that her ambition might lead 
her to attempt to secure the throne for her children, and 
she was banished to the island of Pandataria off the coast of 
Campania, where she died on the 18th of October 33, starved 
to death by herself, or, according to some, by order of 
Tiberius.  Two of her sons, Nero and Drusus, had already 
fallen victims to the machinations cf Sejanus.  Agrippina 
had a large family by Germanicus, several of whom died young, 
while only two are of importance-- Agrippina the ``younger'' 
and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded Tiberius under the name of 
Caligula.  It is remarkable that, although Tiberius had 
ordored the execution of his elder brothers, by his will he 
left Caligula one of the heirs of the empire.  Agrippina was 
a woman of the highest character and exemplary morality.  
There is a portrait of her in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, 
and a bronze medal in the British Museum representing the 
bringing back of her ashes to Rome by order of Caligula. 

See Tac. Ann. i.-vi.; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius 
lvii. 6, lviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs 
of the Life of Agrippina (1804): Burkhard, Agrippina, des 
Agrippa Tochter (1846); Stahr, Romische Kaiserfrauen (1880). 

AGRIPPINA, the ``younger'' (A.D. 16-59), daughter of 
Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and 
mother of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the Rhine, 
afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae (mod.  
Cologne).  Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy.  
By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was the 
mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was Passienus 
Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning.  Assisted by 
the influential freedman Tallas, she induced her uncle the 
emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina, 
and adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of 
Britannicus.  Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured 
the throne for her son, with the intention of practically 
ruling on his behalf.  Being alarmed at the influence of 
the freedwoman Acte over Nero, sbe threatened to support 
the claims of the rightful heir Britannicus.  Nero thereupon 
murdered the young prince and decided to get rid of his 
mother.  Pretending a reconciliation, he invited her to 
Baiae, where an attempt was made to drown her on a vessel 
especially constructed to founder.  As this proved a failure, 
he had her put to death at her country house.  Agrippina 
wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by Tacitus (Ann. 
iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's Britannicus. 

See Tac.Ann. xii., xiii., xiv.; Dio Cassius lix.-lxi.; Suetonius, 
NERO, 34; Stahr, Agrippina. die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die 
Memoiren der Kaiserin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson, The Life 
and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903); also article NERO. 


AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near 
Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotera, in fulfilment of 
a vow made by the city, before the battle of Marathon, 
to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that 
of the Persians slain in the conflict.  The number being 
so great, it was decided to offer 100 goats yearly. 

See Plutarch, De Malignitate Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab. iii. 2. 
12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; Schol. on Aristophanes, Equites, 660. 

AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity 
of the W. coast of Porto Rico.  Pop. (1899) 6425.  It has 
a fairly good and safe anchorage, and is the commercial 
outlet for a very fertile agricultural district.  The town 
is attractively situated and well built, and is connected 
by railway with Mayaguez, 20 m. distant, and also with 
Ponce and San Juan.  The neighbouring district produces 
sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle, cocoanuts, oranges and lemons.  
The bay is supposed to have been first visited by Columbus 
(November 1493), though the town was not founded until 1775. 

AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis de Las Marismas del 
Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1784-1842), Spanish 
banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on the 29th 
of June 1784.  He began life as a soldier, fighting with 
distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side 
of Joseph Bonaparte.  After the battle of Baylen (1808) he 
entered the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and 
aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult.  He was exiled in 1815, and 
immediately started business as a commission-agent in Paris, 
where, chiefly through his family connexions in Havana and 
Mexico, he acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable 
him to undertake banking.  The Spanish government gave him 
full powers to negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 
1831; and Ferdinand VII. rewarded him with the title of 
marquis, the decorations of several orders and valuable mining 
concessions in Spain.  Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 
1834.  In 1828, having become possessed of large estates in 
France, including the chateau Margaux, famous for its wine, 
he was naturalized as a French citizen.  He died at Gijon in 
Spain on the 14th of April 1842, leaving a fortune computed 
at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid collection of pictures 
which at his death was bought by the French government. 

AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N., E. 
and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco.  Pop. 
(est. 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census 
years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m.  The state occupies 
an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra 
Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de Laurel, eastward 
to the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern 
districts.  It is well watered by numerous small streams and 
one larger river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has 
a mild healthy climate with a moderate rainfall.  The fertile 
valleys of the north and west are devoted to agriculture 
and the plains to stockraising.  Indian corn, flour, cattle, 
horses, mules and hides are exported to the neighbouring 
states.  Mining industries are still undeveloped, but considerable 
progress has been made in manufactures, especially of textile 
fabrics.  The state has good railway communications and a 
prosperous trade.  The capital, Aguascalientes, named from 
the medicinal hot springs near it, is a flourishing commercial 
and manufacturing city.  Pop. (est. 1900) 35,052.  It has 
cotton factories, smelting works, potteries. tanneries, 
distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories.  It is a station 
on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north-west of 
the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico on 
the Gulf of Mexico.  The city is well built, has many fine 
churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric 
lights.  The surrounding district is well cultivated and 
produces an abundance of fruit and vegetables.  Other prominent 
towns of the state are Rincon de Romos (or Victoria de 
Calpulalpam), Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first 
having more and the others less than 5000 inhabitants. 

AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc. febris, fever), the 
common name given to a form or stage of malarial disease; 
the ague fit is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the 
word is also loosely used for any such paroxysm.  Simple 
ague is of much the same type whether in temperate or 
tropical climates, and may take various forms (quotidian, 
tertian, quartan), passing into ``remittent fever.'' The 
symptoms are discussed, together with causation, &c., in 
the article MALARIA.  For ``brow-ague'' see NEURALGIA. 

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D' (1668-1751), chancellor of 
France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents, 
was born at Limoges, of a family of the magistrature.  His 
father, Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the 
parlement of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth 
of view who, after holding successively the posts of intendant 
of Limousin, Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to 
Paris as councillor of state, appointed director-general of 
commerce and manufactures in 1695, president of the council of 
commerce in 1700 and a member of the council of the regency for 
finance.  By him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into 
affairs and brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with 
Jansenism.  He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is 
apparent in both the legal writings and legislative work of the 
chancellor.  When little more than twenty-one years of age he 
was, through his father's influence with the king, appointed 
one of the three advocates-general to the parlement of Paris; 
and the eloquence and learning which he displayed in his first 
speech gained him a very high reputation.  D'Aguesseau was in 
fact the first great master of forensic eloquence in France. 

In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and in this 
office, which he filled for seventeen years, he gained 
the greatest popularity by his defence of the rights of 
the Gallican Church in the Quietist troubles and in those 
connected with the bull Unigenitus (see JANSENISM.) In 
February 1717 he was made chancellor by the regent Orleans; 
but was deprived of the seals in January of the following 
year and exiled to his estate of Fresnos in Brie, on account 
of his steady opposition to the projects of the famous John 
Law, which had been adopted by the regent and his ministers.  
In June 1720 he was recalled to satisfy public opinion; and 
he contributed not a little by the firmness and sagacity of 
his counsels to calm the public disturbance and repair the 
mischief which had been done.  Law himself had acted as the 
messenger of his recall; and it is said that d'Aguesseau's 
consent to accept the seals from his hand greatly diminished his 
popularity.  The parlement continuing its opposition to the 
registering of the bull UNIGENITUS, d'Aguesseau, fearing 
a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaume 
Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force 
the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile 
of the magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the 
power of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement 
alone.  The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base 
compliance with the favourite.  He certainly opposed Dubois 
in other matters; and when Dubois became chief minister 
d'Aguesseau was deprived of his office (March 1, 1722). 

He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which 
he always spoke with delight.  The Scriptures, which he read 
and compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence 
of his own and other countries, formed the subjects of his 
more serious studies; the rest of his time was devoted to 
philosophy, literature and gardening.  From these occupations 
he was recalled to court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in 
1727, and on the 15th of August was named chancellor for the 
third time, but the seals were not restored to him till ten 
years later.  During these years he endeavoured to mediate 
in the disputes between the court and the parlement.  When 
he was at last reinstated in office, he completely withdrew 
from all political affairs, and devoted himself entirely 
to his duties as chancellor and to the achievement of those 
reforms which had long occupied his thoughts.  He aimed, 
as others had tried before him, to draw up in a single code 
all the laws of France, but was unable to accomplish his 
task.  Besides some important enactments regarding donations, 
testaments and successions, he introduced various regulations 
for improving the forms of procedure, for ascertaining 
the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater 
uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several 
provinces.  These reforms constitute an epoch in the 
history of French jurisprudence, and have placed the name 
of d'Aguesseau in the same rank with those of L'Hopital and 
Lamoignon.  As a magistrate also he was so conscientious 
that the duc de Saint-Simon in his Memoirs complained that 
he spent too much time over the cases that came before him. 

In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau 
retired from the duties without giving up the rank of 
chancellor.  He died on the 9th of February of the following year. 

His grandson, HENRI CARDIN JEAN BAPTISTE, MARQUIS D'AGUESSEAU 
(1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parlement of Paris 
and deputy in the Estates-General.  Under the Consulate he 
became president of the court of appeal and later minister at 
Copenhaaen.  He was elected to the French Academy in 1787. 

Of d'Aguesseau's works the most complete edition is that 
of the eminent lawyer Jean Marie Pardessus, published in 16 
vols. (1818-1820); his letters were edited separately by Rives 
(1823); a selection of his works, OEuvres Choisies, was 
issued, with a biographical notice, by E. Falconnet in 2 vols. 
(Paris, 1865).  The far greater part of his works relate to 
matters connected with his profession, hut they also contain 
an elaborate treatise on money; several theological essays; 
a life of his father, which is interesting from the account 
which it gives of his own early education; and Metaphysical 
Meditations, written to prove that, independently of 
all revelation and all positive law, there is that in the 
constitution of the human mind which renders man a law to himself. 

See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et les ouvrages de 
chancelier d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le 
Chancelier d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1860; 2nd ed., 1863); Charles 
Butler, Mem. of Life of H. F. d'Aguesseau, &c. (1830). 

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter of 
a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 1816.  Her works 
consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The Vale of 
Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847).  She also wrote, 
in defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of 
Judaism (1842) and other works.  Her services were acknowledged 
gratefully by the ``women of Israel'' in a testimonial which 
they presented shortly before her death, which took place 
at Frankfort-on-the-Main on the 16th of September 1847. 

AGUILAR, or AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern 
Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river 
Cabra, and on the Cordova-Malaga railway.  Pop. (1900) 
13,236.  Aguilar ``of the Frontier'' was so named in the 
middle ages from its position on the border of the Moorish 
territories, which were defended by the castle of Anzur, now 
a ruin; but the spacious squares and modern houses of the 
existing town retain few vestiges of Moorish dominion.  The 
olives and white wine of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain, 
although the wine, which somewhat resembles sherry, is known 
as Montilla, from the adjacent town of that name.  Salt 
springs exist in the neighbourhood, and to the south there 
are two small lakes, Zonar and Rincon, which abound in fish. 

AGUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of 
Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a railway from 
Huercal-Overa.  Pop. (1900) 15,868.  Aguilas is built on the 
landward side of a small peninsula, between two bays--the Puerto 
Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west, and the Puerto 
Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to shipping in rough 
weather, on the north-east.  It is the chief outlet for the 
Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron ore and other 
mineral products of the neighbourhood.  It has also some trade 
in fruit and grain.  The imports consist chiefly of coal.  In 
1904, 296 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this port. 

AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet, was born in 
1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine.  He removed 
to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won considerable 
popularity with a collection of poems entitled Ecos Nacionales 
(1849).  His Elegias y armonias (1863) was no less 
successful, but his Satiras (1874) and Estaciones del ano 
(1879) showed that his powers were declining.  He wrote under 
the obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of 
liberalism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in 
force, leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming 
personality.  He became director of the national archaeological 
museum at Madrid, where he died on the 1st of July 1881. 

AGUILLON (AGUILONIUS), FRANCOIS D, (1566-1617), Flemish 
mathematician.  Having entered the Society of Jesus in 
1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douai 
and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp.  He wrote a 
treatise on optics in six books (Antwerp, 1613), notable 
for containing the principles of stereographic projection. 

AHAB (in Heb. ``father's brother''), king of Israel, the son 
and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about 875 B.C. 
(1 Kings xvi. 29-34).  He married Jezebel, the daughter of 
the king of Sidon, and the alliance was doubtless the means 
of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury 
in their train.  We read of his building an ivory palace and 
founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the 
flourishing commerce of Phoenicia.1 The material prosperity 
of his reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a 
century before, was overshadowed by the religious changes 
which his marriage involved.  Although he was a worshipper of 
Yahweh, as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5 
seq.), his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the 
Tyrian Baal, Melkart, and led by her he gave a great impulse 
to this cult by building a temple in honour of Baal in 
Samaria.  This roused the indignation of those prophets 
whose aim it was to purify the worship of Yahweh (see 
ELIJAH.) During Ahab's reign Moab, which had been conquered 
by his father, remained tributary; Judah, with whose king, 
Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage, was probably his 
vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have had strained 
relations.  The one event mentioned by external sources is the 
battle at Karkar (perhaps Apamea), where Shalmaneser II. of 
Assyria fought a great confederation of princes from Cilicia, 
N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian desert 
(854 B.C..) Here Ahabbu Sir'lai (Ahab the Israelite) with 
Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are 
allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being 
reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men.  The numbers are 
comparatively large and possibly include forces from Tyre, 
Judah, Edom and Moab.  The Assyrian king claimed a victory, 
but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 
and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to 
show that he met with no lasting success.  According to the 
Old Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had 
previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, who 
had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year 
obtained a remarkable victory over him at Aphek, probably in 
the plain of Sharon (1 Kings xx.) . A treaty was made whereby 
Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from 
Ahab's father (i.e. Omri, but see xv. 20, 2 Kings xiii. 
25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were 
granted.  A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii. 
33-xiii. 34) condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the 
destruction of the king and his land.  Three years later, war 
broke out on the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of 
Judah went to recover Ramoth-Gilead and was mortally wounded 
(xxii.).  He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram). 

It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order 
of these events (LXX. places 1 Kings xxi. immediately after 
xix.).  How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to 
fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and 
Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent 
writers.  The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from 
the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe 
wrote ``Ahab'' for his son ``Jehoram'' (Kamphausen, Chronol. d. 
hebr.  Kon., Kittel), and that the very identification of 
the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned (Horner, 
Proc.  Soc. Bibl.  Arch., 1898, p. 244).2 Whilst the above 
passages in 1 Kings view Ahab not unfavourably, there are 
others which give a less friendly picture.  The tragic murder 
of Naboth (see JEZEBEL), an act of royal encroachment, 
stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused 
the opposition of certain of the prophets.  The latter found 
their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic 
teaching of more than one age. (See KINGS.) His denunciation 
of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the 
worship of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a 
period which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in 
which Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure. 

The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab 
in Mic. vi. 16 may point to legislative measures of these 
kings, and the reference to the incidents at the building 
of Jericho (1 Kings xvi. 34) may be taken to show that 
foundation sacrifices, familiar in nearly all parts of the 
world, were not unknown in Israel at this period.3 This 
has in fact been confirmed by excavation in Palestine. 

Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the 
time of the Babylonian exile (Jer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.) 

1 Ahab's ivory palace found its imitators (1 Kings xxii. 39; 
Am. iii. 15). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenicians 
from Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor. 

2 See the discussions by Cheyne, Ency.  Bib. 
col. 91 seq., and by Whitehouse, Dict Bib. i. 53. 

3 See Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 46 sqq.; 
Haddon, Study of Man, pp. 347 sqq.; P. Sartori, 
Zeitschr. fur Ethnologie, 1898, pp. 1 seq. 

'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown.  
He was author of Quaestiones (Sheiltoth), a collection 
of homilies (at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and 
ethics.  This is recorded to have been the first work written 
by a Jewish scholar after the completion of the Talmud. 

AHASUERUS (the Latinized form of the Hebrew shin vav resh 
tsareh vav shvah shin patach heth patach aleph; in LXX. 
`Assoueros, once in Tobit `Asueros)), a royal Persian or 
Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old Testament 
and in one of the books of the Apocrypha.  In every case the 
identification of the person named is a matter of controversy. 

In Dan. ix. 1 Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede, 
who ``was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans'' after 
the conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar.  Who this 
Darius was is one of the most difficult questions in ancient 
history.  Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately 
succeeded by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire.  
Darius may possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of 
Babylon, but this view is not favoured by Dan. vi. 1, vi. 
25, for Darius (v. 31) is said to have been sixty-two 
years old at the time (638 B.C.) . This would make him 
contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which agrees with Tob. xiv. 
15, where we read ``of the destruction of Nineveh, which 
Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus took captive.'' As a matter of 
fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were the conquerors 
of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of Nebuchadrezzar.  
Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon, appoint a 
governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas, the son of 
Mardonius.  The truth is, no doubt, as Prof.  Sayce points 
out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly 
historical.  As Prof.  Driver says, ``tradition, it can 
hardly be doubted, has here confused persons and events in 
reality distinct'' (Literature of the Old Test. (6) p. 500). 

In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to 
whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing 
the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem.  Here the sequence 
of the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane 
historians-- in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius; 
in the other, Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius--led in the past 
(Ewald, &c.) to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses 
(529--522 B.C.), son of Cyrus.  The name Khshayarsha, 
however, has been found in Persian inscriptions, and has been 
thought to be equivalent to the Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) of the 
Greeks.  On Babylonian tablets both the forms Khishiarshu 
and Akkashiarshi occur amongst others.  Modern scholars, 
therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of Ezra with Xerxes. 

In the book of Esther the king of Persia is called Ahasuerus 
(rendered in LXX. ``Artaxerxes'' throughout).  The identification 
of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, the son and successor 
of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus, deserves little 
consideration.  Most students are agreed that he must be a 
monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than Artaxerxes 
I.; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes and 
Xerxes.  In support of the former view it is alleged, among 
other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom 
it could be said, as in Esther i. 1, that he ``reigned from 
India even unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty 
provinces''; and that it was also the distinction of Darius 
that (Esther x. 1) he laid ``a tribute upon the land and upon 
the isles of the sea'' (cf. Herod. iii. 89). In support of 
the identification with Xerxes it is alleged (1) that the 
Hebrew Ahashverosh is the natural equivalent of the old 
Persian Khshayarsha, the true name of Xerxes; (2) that 
there is a striking similarity of character between the Xerxes 
of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus of Esther; (3) that certain 
coincidences in dates and events corroborate this identity, 
as, e.g., the feast in the king's third year (cf. Esther 
i. 3 with Herod. vii. 8), the return of Xerxes to Susa in 
the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of Ahasuerus 
at Shushan in the same year of his.  To this it may be added 
that the interval of four years between the divorce of Vashti 
and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the 
intervention of an important series of events fully occupying 
the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece. 

See articles ``Ahasuerus'' in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, 
Hastings' Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedis; S. 
R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit. of the Old Test.; 
Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer Bibellexikon (1893). 

AHAZ (Heb. for ``[Yahweh] holds''), son of Jotham, grandson 
of Uzziah or Azariah and king of Judah.  After the death of 
Menahem, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun), king of 
Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid siege to 
Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets upon the 
throne.  At the same time the Edomites recovered Elath on the 
Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also 2 Chron. 
xxviii. 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated.  Notwithstanding 
the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. 1-17), Ahaz lost heart and 
used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser 
IV., who after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power 
of Syria, taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah, 
which led to further despoliation of the temple.  It was as 
a vassal that Ahaz presented himself to the Assyrian king at 
Damascus, and he brought back religious innovations (2 Kings 
xvi. 10 sqq.; for the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new 
ideas to which he proceeded to give effect.  His buildings 
are referred to in 2 Kings xx. 11, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps 
Jer. xxii. 15: ``art thou a true king because thou viest with 
Ahaz'' (see the LXX.).  Ahaz was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. 

On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith, 
Relig. of Semites (2), pp. 485 sqq.; and on his reign, idem, 
Prophets of Israel (2), pp. 415 sqq.  On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (cf. 
2 Chron. xxviii. 3) see Moloch.  See further Isaiah and Jews. 

AHAZIAH (``he whom Yahweh sustains''), the name of two 
kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (1) 
Ahaziah, 8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of 
Ahab, and reigned for less than two years.  On his accession 
the Moabites refused any longer to pay tribute.  Ahaziah lost 
his life through a fall from the lattice of an upper room in 
his palace, and it is stated that in his illness he sent to 
consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron; his messengers, 
however, were met by Elijah, who bade them return and tell the 
king he must die (e Kings i. 2-17; cf.  Luke ix. 54-56). (2) 
Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son cf Jehoram and Ahab's 
daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year.  He is described as 
a wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu, son of 
Nimshi.  He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah. 

AHENOBARBUS (``brazen-bearded''), the name cf a plebeian 
Roman family of the gens Domitia.  The name was derived 
from the red beard and hair by which many of the family were 
distinguished.  Amongst its members the following may be mentioned:-- 

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, tribune of the people 104 B.C., 
brought forward a law (lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis) by which 
the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by 
the people in the comitia tributa (seventeen of the tribes 
voting) instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by 
Sulla, revived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed 
by Marcus Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria, 
ii. 7; Suetonius, Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex 
maximus in 103, consul in 96 and censor in 92 with Lucius 
Licinius Crassus the orator, with whom he was frequently at 
variance.  They took joint action, however, in suppressing 
the recently established Latin rhetorical schools, which they 
regarded as injurious to public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. 11). 

LUCIUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, husband of 
Porcia the sister of Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and 
enemy of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratical 
party.  At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided 
with him against Caesar.  He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49 
he was appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of 
Gaul.  After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the 
Pompeian troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender.  
Although treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred 
up Massilia (Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against 
him.  After its surrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was 
slain in the flight after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he 
commanded the right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bellum Civile, 
i., ii., iii.; Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82). 

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, accompanied his 
father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been pardoned by 
Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's assassination 
he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in 43 was 
condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated in the 
plot.  He obtained considerable naval successes in the 
Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the 
mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony, 
who made him governor of Bithynia.  He took part in Antony's 
Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke out 
between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony, 
but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over 
to Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31).  He 
died soon afterwards (Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell.  
Civ. iv., v.).  His son was married to Antonia, daughter 
of Antony, and became the grandfather of the emperor Nero. 

See Drumann, Geschichte Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe,vol. iii. pp.14 ff. 

AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for ``brother of foolishness,'' i.e. 
foolish!), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's 
bodyguard.  He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheiba (see 
2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to 
have some bearing on his policy.  He was one of David's most 
trusted advisers, and his counsel was ``as though one inquired 
of the word of God.'' He took a leading part in Absalom's 
revolt, and his defection was a severe blow to the king, who 
prayed that God would bring his counsel to ``foolishness.'' 

The subsequent events are rather obscure.  At Ahithophel's 
advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his 
claim to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf. 
ABNER.) The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested; 
the advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows 
that the king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan 
(2 Sam. xvi. 20-23, xvii. 1-4, 22). Inconsistent with 
this is the account of the intervention of Hushai, whose 
counsel of delay (in order to gather all Israel ``from Dan 
to Beersheba''), in spite of popular approbation, was not 
adopted, and with this episode is connected the tradition 
that the sagacious counsellor returned to his home and, 
having disposed of his estate, hanged himself.  Instances of 
suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. SAUL), and it 
is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not 
refused. (See further ABSALOM; DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.) 

AHMAD IBN HANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily and 
after his death, of the Hanbalite school of canon law, was 
born at Bagdad in A.H. 164 (A.D. 780) of parents from Merv 
but of Arab stock.  He studied the Koran and its traditions 
(hadith, sunna) there and on a student journey through 
Mesopotamia, Arabia and Syria.  After his return to Bagdad he 
studied under ash-Shafi'i between 195 and 198, and became, 
for his life, a devoted Shafi-'ite.  But his position in both 
theology and law was more narrowly traditional than that of 
ash-Shafi'i; he rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox 
or heretical in its conclusions, and stood for acceptance on 
tradition (naql) only from the Fathers. (See further on this, 
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) In consequence, 
when al-Ma'mun and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-Wathio 
tried to force upon the people the rationalistic Mo'tazihte 
doctrine that the Koran was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most 
prominent and popular theologian who stood for the old view, 
suffered with others grievous imprisonment and scourging.  
In 234, under al-Motawakkil, the Koran was finally decreed 
uncreated, and Ibn Hanbal, who had come through this trial 
better than any of the other theologians, enjoyed an immense 
popularity with the mass of the people as a saint, confessor and 
ascetic.  He died at Bagdad in 241 (A.D. 855) and was buried 
there.  There was much popular excitement at his funeral, and his 
tomb was known and visited until at least the 14th century A.D. 

On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty 
thousand selected traditions, see Goldzther in ZDMG, l. 463 
ff.  For his life and works generally see W. M. Patten, Ahmed 
ibn Hanbal and the Mihna; C. Browkelmann, Geschichte der 
Arab.  Lit. i. 181 ff.; F Wustenfeld, Schfai'iten, 55 ff.; 
M`G. de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan, i. 44 ff.; Macdonald, 
Development of Muslim Theology, 110, 157, index. (D. B. MA.) 

AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty in 
Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary chief of 
the Abdali tribe.  While still a boy Ahmad fell into the hands 
of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept prisoner at 
Kandahar.  In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who 
soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of cavalry 
composed chiefly of Abdalis.  On the assassination of Nadir in 
1747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the Persian 
treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily persuaded 
the native tribes to assert their independence and accept him 
as their sovereign.  He was crowned at Kandahar in October 1747, 
and about the same time he changed the name of his tribe to 
Durani.  Two things may be said to have contributed greatly 
to the consolidation of his power.  He interfered as little 
as possible with the independence of the different tribes, 
demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute and 
military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged 
in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest.  Being possessed 
of the Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to 
intercept a consignment of treasure on its way to the shah 
of Persia, he had all the advantages which great wealth can 
give.  He first crossed the Indus in 1748, when he took 
Lahore; and in 1751, after a feeble resistance on the part 
of the Mahommedan viceroy, he became master of the entire 
Punjab.  In 1750 he took Nishapur, and in 1752 subdued 
Kashmir.  His great expedition to Delhi was undertaken in 
1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great Mogul for the 
recapture of Lahore.  Ahmad entered Delhi with his army in 
triumph, and for more than a month the city was given over to 
pillage.  The shah himself added to his wives a princess of 
the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his son Timur 
Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and Sirhind.  As his 
viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom he had all 
confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus when the 
Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city, killed the 
Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a tool of his 
own, upon the throne.  The Mahratta chiefs availed themselves 
of these circumstances to endeavour to possess themselves of the 
whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more than once to cross 
the Indus in order to protect his territory from them and the 
Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his garrisons.  In 1758 
the Mahrattas obtained possession of the Punjab, but on the 
6th of January 1761 they were totally routed by Ahmad in the 
great battle of Panipat.  In a later expedition he inflicted 
a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten westward 
immediately afterwards in order to quell an insurrection in 
Afghanistan.  Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmad 
was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the command 
of the Punjab.  After lengthened suffering from a terrible 
disease, said to have been cancer in the face, he died in 
1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had founded. 

AHMED I. (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, was the son of 
Mahommed III., whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first 
Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his 
majority.  He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he 
showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who 
eventually succeeded him.  In the earlier part of his reign 
he gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by 
his subsequent conduct.  The wars which attended his accession 
both in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for 
Turkey, and her prestige received its first check in the 
peace of Sitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual 
tribute paid by Austria was abolished.  Ahmed gave himself 
up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which 
ended in 1617, and demoralization and corruption became 
as general throughout the public service as indiscipline 
in the ranks of the army.  The use of tobacco is said to 
have been introduced into Turkey during Ahmed I.'s reign. 

AHMED II. (1643-1695), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan 
Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman II. in 1691.  
His chief merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand 
vizier.  But a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained 
a crushing defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under 
Prince Louis of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during 
the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster, 
and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow. 

AHMED III. (1637-1736), sultan of Turkey, son of Mahommed 
IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of 
his brother Mustafa II. He cultivated good relations with 
England, in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude.  
He afforded a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden, 
after his defeat at Poltava (1709).  Forced against his 
will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish 
sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern 
rival, whom his Grand Vizier Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded 
in completely surrounding near the Pruth (1711).  In the 
treaty which Russia was compelled to sign Turkey obtained 
the restitution of Azov, the destruction of the forts built 
by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar should abstain 
from future interference in the affairs of the Poles or the 
Cossacks.  Discontent at the leniency of these terms was 
so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a 
renewal of the war.  In 1715 the Morea was taken from the 
Venetians.  This led to hostilities with Austria, in which 
Turkey was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands 
of Austria (1717).  Through the mediation of England and 
Holland the peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718), by 
which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but 
lost Hungary.  A war with Persia terminated in disaster, 
leading to a revolt of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed 
in September 1730.  He died in captivity some years later. 

AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD, a city and district of British 
India in the northern division of Bombay.  The city was once 
the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it 
still ranks next to Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent 
of its architectural remains.  It was founded by Ahmad Shah 
in A.D. 1411 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had 
preceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of 
marble, brought from a distance.  The Portuguese traveller 
Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in A.D. 1511 and 1514, described 
Ahmedabad as ``very rich and well embellished with good streets 
and squares supplied with houses of stone and cement.'' In Sir 
Thomas Roe's time, A.D. 1615, ``it was a goodly city as large 
as London.'' During the course of its history it has passed 
through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of 
revival.  From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1512 
to 1572 it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat; 
from 1572 to 1709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul 
emperors; from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with their decline; and 
from 1818 onwards it has again increased under British rule. 

The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that 
Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan and Jain 
architecture.  Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples in order 
to build his mosques with the material.  The Jama Masjid 
itself, which he built in A.D. 1424, with its three hundred 
pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted 
into a mosque (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Plate III., fig. 
15). One of the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of 
Hathi Singh outside the Delhi gate, which was built only in 
1848, and is a standing monument to the endurance of Jain 
architectural art The external porch, between two circular 
towers, is of great magnificence, most elaborately ornamented, 
and leads to an outer court, with sixteen cells on either 
side.  In the centre of this court is a domed porch of the 
usual form with twenty pillars.  The court leads to an inner 
porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories in height.  This 
inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary.  James Fergusson 
wrote of this temple that ``each part increases in dignity 
to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its courts or 
from outside, it possesses variety without confusion, and an 
appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which it was 
intended.'' But perhaps the most unique sight in Ahmedabad 
is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree marble 
work.  The design is an imitation of twining and interlaced 
branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer 
than anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi. 

The modern city of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank 
of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by walls 
enclosing an area of about 2 sq. m.  Its population in 1901 was 
185,889.  It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda railway, 
309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge into Kathiawar 
and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both trade and 
manufacture.  Its native bankers, shopkeepers and workers are all 
strongly organized in gilds.  It has cotton mills for spinning 
and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories for ginning 
and pressing cotton.  Other industries include the manufacture 
of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery, paper and 
shoes.  The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native proverb, 
hangs on three threads--silk, gold and cotton; and though 
its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly, they 
are still moderately flourishing.  The military cantonment, 
3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the 
northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal. 

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDABAD lies at the head of the Gulf of 
Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar.  Area 3816 sq. m.  The 
river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east 
to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal 
streams that water the district.  The north-eastern portion is 
slightly elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually 
sink into a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western 
extremity.  With the exception of this latter portion, the 
soil is very fertile, and some parts of the district are 
beautifully wooded.  The population in 1901 was 795,967, 
showing a decrease of 14% in the decade, due to the effects of 
famine.  The principal crops are millets, cotton, wheat and 
pulse.  The district is traversed by the Bombay and Baroda 
railway, and has two seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of 
which has given its name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool 
market.  It suffered severely in the famine of 1899-1900. 

AHMEDNAGAR, or AHMADNAGAR, a city and district of British 
India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank of 
the river Sina.  The town is of considerable antiquity, having 
been founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a 
more ancient city, Bhingar.  This Ahmad established a new 
monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 
1636.  In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the 
place by bribing the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it 
was ceded by the Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao 
Sindhia.  During the war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar 
was invested by a British force under General Wellesley and 
captured.  It was afterwards restored to the Mahrattas, 
but again came into the possession of the British in 1817, 
according to the terms of the treaty of Poona.  The town has 
rapidly advanced in prosperity under British rule.  Several 
mosques and tombs have been converted to the use of British 
administration.  The old industries of carpet-weaving and 
paper-making have died out; but there is a large trade in 
cotton and silk goods, and in copper and brass pots, and there 
are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.  Ahmednagar 
is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian Peninsula 
railway, 218 m. from Bombay, and a military cantonment, 
being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th division of 
the western army corps.  The population in 1901 was 43,032. 

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDNACAR is a comparatively barren tract 
with a small rainfall.  The area is 6586 sq. m.  The population 
in 1901 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade, 
due to the results of famine.  The bulk of the population 
consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the 
agriculturists.  On the north the district is watered by the 
Godavari and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the 
north-east by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on 
the east by the Sephani, which flows through the valley below 
the Balaghat range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and 
its tributary the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the 
Bhima, flows through the Nagar and Karjat talukas.  The principal 
crops are millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat.  The district 
suffered from drought in 1896-1897, and again in 1899-1900. 

AHMED TEWFIK, PASHA (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist, 
was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha.  He was at first in the 
army, but left the service in 1862; four years later he 
entered the diplomatic service, being employed at various 
European capitals.  He became minister at Athens in 
1883 and ambassador in Berlin in 1884.  He was appointed 
minister for foreign affairs (Kharijie Naziri) in 1896. 

AHMED VEFIK, PASHA (1819-1891), Turkish statesman and 
man of letters, was born in Stambul in 1819.  He was the 
son of Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge d'affaires in 
Paris, an accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore, 
attached, in the capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid 
Pasha's diplomatic mission to Paris in 1834.  Reshid took Ahmed 
with him and placed him at school, where he remained about 
five years and completed his studies.  He then returned to 
Constantinople, and was appointed to a post in the bureau 
de traduction of the ministry for foreign affairs.  While 
thus employed he devoted his leisure to the translation 
of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to the compilation of 
educational books--dictionaries, historical and geographical 
manuals, &c.--for use in Turkish schools, with the object of 
promoting cultivation of the French language among the rising 
generation.  In 1847 he brought out the first edition of 
the Salnameh, the official annual of the Ottoman empire.  
Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in 
the Danubian principalities, and held that office till early 
in 1851 when he was sent to Persia as ambassador--a post 
which suited his temperament, and in which he rendered good 
service to his goverment for more than four years.  Recalled 
in 1855, he was sent on a mission to inspect the eastern 
frontiers, and on his return was appointed member of the 
Grand Council of Justice, and was entrusted with the revision 
of the penal code and the code of procedure.  This work 
occupied him until the beginning of 1860, when he was sent 
as ambassador to Paris, for the special purpose of averting 
the much-dreaded intervention of France in the affairs of 
Syria.  But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frankness, irascibility 
and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for European 
diplomacy.  He offended the French government; his mission 
failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861.  None the less 
his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated 
in Paris.  On his return he was appointed minister of the 
evkaj, but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for 
a few months.  He was then for a brief period president 
of the Board of Audit, and subsequently inspector of the 
Anatolian provinces, where he was engaged for more than three 
years.  His next appointment was that of director-general of 
customs, whence he was removed to the office of musteshar 
of the grand vizierate, and in the following year entered the 
cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of public instruction, 
but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of State 
and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented 
Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St 
Petersburg.  He was president of the short-lived Turkish 
parliament during its first session--March 19 to June 28, 
1877--and at its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where 
he rendered invaluable aid to the Red Cross Society.  On his 
recall, at the beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of 
public instruction in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and 
on the abolition of the grand vizierate (February 5, 1878) he 
became prime minister and held office till about the middle 
of April, when he resigned.  Early in the following year he 
was appointed vali of Brusa, where he remained nearly four 
years, and rendered admirable services to the province.  The 
drainage of the pestilent marshes, the water-supply from the 
mountains, the numerous roads, the suppression of brigandage, 
the multiplication of schools, the vast development of the silk 
industry through the substitution of mulberry plantations for 
rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral springs of Chitli, 
the introduction of rose-trees and the production of attar 
of roses--all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he became 
so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was thought 
advisable that he should be taken away secretly by night from 
the konak in Brusa and brought to his private residence 
on the Bosporus.  A few days after his return he was again 
appointed prime minister (December 1, 1882), but Ahmed Vefik 
demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that 
he should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that 
a number of persons in the sultan's entourage should be 
dismissed.  Upon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December, 
revoked the irade of the 1st of December, and appointed 
Said Pasha prime minister.  For the rest of his life Ahmed 
Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was practically a prisoner in 
his own house; and eventually he died, on the 1st of April 
1891, of a renal complaint from which he had long been a 
sufferer.  Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist.  He spoke and 
wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English, 
German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian.  From all these 
languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote 
no original work.  His splendid library of 15,000 volumes 
contained priceless manuscripts in many languages.  In his 
lifetime he appreciably aided the progress of education; 
but, as he had no following, the effects of his labour and 
influence in a great measure faded away after his death.  
In all his social and family relations Ahmed Vefik was most 
exemplary.  His charity knew no bounds.  He was devoted to his 
aged mother and to his one wife and children.  To his friends 
and acquaintances he was hospitable, courteous and obliging; 
his conversation was intellectual and refined, and in every 
act of his private life he manifested the spirit of a true 
gentleman.  At home his habits, attire and mode of life 
were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in 
European society; he had strong English proclivities, and 
numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate 
friends.  In public life his gifts were almost sterilized 
by peculiarities of temperament and incompatibility with 
official surroundings; and his mission as ambassador to 
Persia and his administration of Brusa were his only thorough 
successes.  But his intellectual powers, literary erudition 
and noble character made him for the last forty years of 
his life a conspicuous figure in eastern Europe. (E. W.*) 

AHOM, or AHAM, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the 
Assam Valley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the 
commencement of the 19th century, the dominant race in that 
country.  The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and 
Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai 
race.  The name is believed to be a corruption of the word 
``A-sam,'' the latter part of which is identical with 
``Shan'' (properly ``Sham'') and with ``Siam.'' Under their 
king Su-ka-pha they invaded Assam (q.v.) from the East in 
the year A.D. 1228, giving their name to the country.  For 
a century and a half from 1228 the successors of Su-ka-pha 
appear to have ruled undisturbed over a small territory in 
Lakkimpur and Sibsagar districts.  The extension of their 
power westward down the valley of the Brahmaputra was very 
gradual, and its success was by no means uniform.  In the 
time of Aurangzeb the Ahom kings held sway over the entire 
Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya to near Goalpara, and from the 
skirts of the southern hills to the Bhutia frontier on the 
north.  The dynasty attained the height of its power under Rudra 
Singh, who is said to have ascended the throne in 1695.  In 
the following century the power of the Ahoms began to decay, 
alike from internal dissensions and the pressure of outside 
invaders.  The Burmese were called in to the assistance of one 
of the contending factions in 1810.  Having once obtained a 
foothold in the country, they established their power over the 
entire valley and ruled with merciless barbarity, until they 
were expelled by the British in 1824-1825.  In the census of 
1901 the total Ahom population in Assam was returned at 178,049. 

The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar 
to the Shan tribes, which may he briefly described as an 
organized system of personal service in lieu of taxation.  
Their religion was pagan, being quite distinct from Buddhism; 
but in Assam they gradually became Hinduized, and their 
kings finally adopted Hindu names and titles.  They believed 
that there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or 
earth, only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a 
formless Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape 
as a huge crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the 
waters.  In turn other animals took shape, the last being 
two golden spiders from whose excrement the earth gradually 
rose above the surrounding ocean.  Pha then formed a female 
counterpart of himself, who laid four eggs, from which were 
hatched four sons.  One of these was appointed to rule the 
earth, but died and became a spirit.  His son also died 
and became the national household deity of the Ahoms.  The 
origin of mankind is connected with a flood legend.  The 
only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagration that 
followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed.  From the 
latter there grew a gigantic gourd.  This was split open by 
a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save the 
lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the 
progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishes 
and plants.  The kings claimed independent divine origin. 

The religion and language have both died out, being only 
preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among them 
the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has been 
lost.  The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of 
which is still in existence.  Their historic sense was very 
fully developed, and many priests and nobles maintained 
bu-ran-jis (i.e. ``stores of instruction for the 
ignorant''), or chronicles, which were carefully written up 
from time to time.  A few of these have been translated, but 
as yet no European scholar possesses knowledge sufficient to 
enable him to study these valuable documents at first hand. 

The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch of 
the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any 
record.  It bears much the same relationship to Siamese 
and Shan that Latin does to Italian.  It is more nearly 
related to modern Siamese than to modern ahan, but possesses 
many groups of consonants which have become simplified in 
both.  It is a language of the isolating class, in which every 
word is a monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun 
or as a verb according to its context and its position in a 
sentence.  In the order of words, the genitive follows the 
norm it governs, and, as usual in such cases, the relations 
of time and place are indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes.  
The meanings of the monosyllables were differentiated, as 
in the other Tai languages and in Chinese, by a system of 
tones, but these were rarely indicated in writing, and the 
tradition regarding them is lost.  The language had an alphabet 
of its own, which was clearly related to that of Burmese. 

See E. A. Gait, A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906).  
For the language see The Linguistis Survey of India, vol. 
ii. (Calcutta, 1906) (contains grammar and vocabulary); 
G. A. Grierson, ``Notes on Ahom,'' in the Zeitschrift 
der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellshaft, vol. lvi., 
1902, pp. 1 ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary, with 
specimens), and ``An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation and 
a vocabulary of the Ahom language,'' in the Journal of the 
Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. 181 ff. (G. A. GR.) 

AHR, a river of Germany.  It is a left-bank tributary of the 
Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel 
mountains, and having a total length of 55 m.  It flows at first 
through rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its 
course, from the village of Altenahr, over which tower rhe ruins 
of the castle of Ahr, or Are (10th century), is full of romantic 
beauty.  It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities 
of the lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality. 

AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1809-1881), German 
philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June 
1809.  After studying at Gottingen (1826-1829) under K. O. 
Muller and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational 
appointments, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director 
of the Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great 
success for thirty years.  He died on the 25th of September 
1881.  His most important work is De Graecae Linguae 
Dialectis (1839-1843, new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889), 
which, although unfortunately incomplete, dealing only with 
Aeolic and Doric, and in some respects superseded by modern 
research, will always remain a standard treatise on the 
subject.  He also published Bucolicorum Graecorum Reliquiae 
(1855-1859); studies on the dialects of Homer and the Greek 
lyrists; on Aeschylus; and some excellent school-books.  A 
volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was published in 
1891, which also contains a complete list of his writings. 

AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Areimanios in Aristotle, or in Agathias; in 
the Avesta, Angro Mainyush--``the Destructive Spirit''), 
the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine of 
Zoroaster.  The name does not occur in the Old Persian 
inscriptions.  In the Avesta he is called the twin-brother 
of the Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit 
of Ormazd or with Ormazd himself.  He is the all destroying 
Satan, the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd, 
exists since the beginning of the world.  Eventually, in the 
great world catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and 
disappear.  The later sect of the Zervanites held that 
both were visible manifestations of the primeval principle 
Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time). (See ZOROASTER.) 

AHRWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 
on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of railway.  Pop. 
5000.  It is a town of medieval aspect and is surrounded 
by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates in good 
repair.  There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245).  A 
convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature On 
a hill to the south.  The trade is almost exclusively confined 
to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district. 

AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American 
Indians of the Wakashan stock.  They are settled on the west 
Coast of Vancouver, British Columbia.  The chief tribes included 
are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht, 
Ahansaht and Ehatishaht.  The confederacy numbers some 3500. 

AHTENA (``ice people''), the name of an Athapascan tribe of 
North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River, Alaska. 

See Handbook of American Indians, ed.  F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907). 

AHVAZ, a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on 
the left bank of the river Karun, 48 m.  S. of Shushter, in 
31 deg.  18' N., 49 deg.  E. It has been identified with the Aginis of 
Nearchus, 500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what 
was once an extensive and important city.  Of this ancient 
city vast remains are left, extending several miles along the 
bank of the river.  Among the most remarkable are the ruins of 
a bridge and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals 
and watermills, which tell of former commercial activity.  
There are also the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great 
strength, which was thrown across the river for the purposes of 
irrigation.  The band was 1150 yds. in length and had a diameter 
of 24 ft. at its base.  Remains of massive structure are still 
visible, and many single blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in 
thickness.  Ahvaz reached the height of its prosperity in the 
12th and 13th centuries and is now a collection of wretched 
hovels, with a small rectangular fort in a state of ruin, 
and an Arab population of about 400. Since the opening of the 
Karun to foreign commerce in October 1888, another settlement 
called Benderi Nassiri, in compliment to the Shah Nassir 
ed din (d. 1896), has been established on a slight elevation 
overlooking the river at the point below the rapids where 
steamers come to anchor, about one mile below Ahvaz.  It has 
post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some mercantile 
firms, a British vice-consul (since 1904) and a Russian 
consular agent (since 1902) are established there.  The new 
caravan road to Isfahan, opened for traffic in 1900, promised, 
if successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance. 

AI [Sept. 'Aggai, 'Aggai Gai, Vulg. Hai], a small royal 
city of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel.  The meaning of the name 
may be ``the stone heap''; but it is not necessarily a Hebrew 
word.  Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and Bethel (Gen. 
xii. 8, xiii. 3); but it is chiefly noted for its capture 
and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-4. viii. 1-20). who made 
it ``a heap for ever, even a desolation.'' It is mentioned 
by Isaiah (x. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii. 
28; Neh. vii. 32), but then probably was not more than a 
village.  In the later Hebrew writings the name sometimes 
has a feminine form, Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31). 
The definite article is usually prefixed to the name in 
Hebrew.  The site was known, and some scanty ruins still 
existed, in the time of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast., s.v. 
'Aggai.) Dr E. Robinson was unable to discover any certain 
traces of either name or ruins.  He remarks, however (Bib. 
Researches, ed. 1856, i. p. 443), that it must have been close 
to Bethel on account of Biblical narrative (Josh. viii. 17) 
. A little to the south of a village called Deir Diwan, and 
one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of an 
ancient place called Khirbet Haiyan indicated by reservoirs 
hewn in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn 
stone.  This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with 
all the intimations as to its position.  It has also been 
identified with a mound now called Et-Tell (``the heap''), 
but though the name of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is 
suggestive, it is in the wrong direction from Bethel.  In this 
view recent authorities, such as G. A. Smith, generally coincide. 

See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123; 
1874, p. 62; 1878, pp. 10, 132, 194, 1881, p. 254. (R. A. S. M.) 

AIBONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of 
Guayama, Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan and 
Ponce, 25 m.  E.N.E. of the latter.  It is the capital of 
a municipal district of the same name.  Pop. (1899) of the 
town, 2085; of the district, 8596.  The town is about 2200 
ft. above sea level, and owing to its cool climate and 
freedom from malaria it has been chosen as an acclimatizing 
station and sanatorium for foreigners.  It is surrounded 
by coffee plantations, and tobacco of excellent quality 
is raised in the vicinity.  The town was considerably 
damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of August 1899. 

AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848- ), French poet and 
dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February 1848.  His 
father, Jean Aicard, was a journalist of some distinction, and 
the son early began his career in 1867 with Les Rebellions 
et les apaistments (1871); Poemes de Provence (1874), and 
La Chanson de l'Enfant (1876), both of which were crowned 
by the Academy; Miette et Nore (1880), a Provencal idyll; 
Le Livre d'heures de l'amour (1887); Jesus (1896), 
&c. Of his plays the most successful was Le Pere Lebonnard 
(1890), which was originally produced at the Theatre Libre.  
Among his other works are the novels, Le Roi de Camargue 
(1890), L'Ame d'un enfant (1898) and Talas (1901), 
Benjamine (1906) and La Venus de Milo (1874), an account 
of the discovery of the statue from unpublished documents. 

AICHINGER, GREGOR (c. 1565-1628), one of the greatest German 
composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the Fugger family 
of Augsburg in 1584.  In 1599 he went for a two years' visit to 
Rome.  This was for musical and not for ecclesiastical reasons, 
though he had taken orders before his appointment under Fugger.  
Proske, in the preface to vol. ii. of his Musica Divina, 
calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give him 
the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.  
Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful 
and somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology. 

AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared in 
London in 1765 as Dick Amlet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy 
at Drury Lane.  He acted there, and at Covent Garden, until 
1792.  His repertory consisted of over eighty characters, 
and among his best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and 
Jaques in As You Like It. His success in impassioned 
declamatory roles obtained for him the nickname of ``Tyrant.'' 

His younger brother James AICHIN (d. 1803) was playing leading 
parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre, 
when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the 
discharge of a fellow-actor.  He therefore went to London, 
and from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drury Lane Company 
and for some years a deputy manager.  He quarrelled with John 
Philip Kemble, with whom, in 1792, he fought a bloodless duel. 

AIDAN (d. 606), king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada, 
was the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after 
the death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at 
Iona by St Columba.  He refused to allow his kingdom to remain 
in dependence on the Irish Dairiada, but coming into collision 
with his southern neighbours he led a large force against 
AEthelfrith, king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated 
at a place called Daegsanstane, probablv in Liddesdale. 

See Bede, Historiae Ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum, 
edited by O'. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita 
S. Columbae, edited by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894). 

AIDAN, or AEDAN, first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk 
of Hii (Iona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria, 
at the request of King Oswald, A.D. 634-635.  He restored 
Christianity, and in accordance with the traditions of Irish 
episcopacy chose the island of Lindisfarne, close to the royal 
city of Bamborough, as his see.  Although he retained the Irish 
Easter, his character and energy in missionary work won him 
the respect of Honorius and Felix.  He survived Oswald, and 
died shortly after the murder of his friend Oswine of Deira, 
on the 31st of August 651, in the 17th year of his episcopate. 

See Bede, Hist.  Eccl. (ed. Plummer), iii. 3, 5, 17, 25. 

AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or, perhaps, 
field-assistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general, 
who acts as his confidential secretary in routine matters.  In 
Great Britain the office of aide-de-camp to the king is given 
as a reward or an honorary distinction.  In many foreign armies 
the word adjutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant 
general for a royal aide-de-camp.  The common abbreviation 
for aide-de-camp in the British service is ``A.D.C.,'' and 
in the United States ``aid.'' Civil governors, such as the 
lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also, as a rule, officers on 
their staffs with the title and functions of aides-de-camp. 

AIDIN. (1) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including 
the ancient Lydia, Ionia, Carla and western Lycia.  It derives 
its name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the 
richest and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey.  The 
seat of government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the 
valley of the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m.  E.S.E. of 
Smyrna.  It is called also Guzel Hissar from the beauty of 
its situation on the lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along 
the course of the ancient Eudon.  It is the capital of a 
sanjak.  It was taken by the Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh, 
late in the 13th century, and about 1390, when ruled by Isa 
Bey, a descendant of the first-named, acknowledged Ottoman 
suzerainty.  In the Seljuk period it was a secondary city under 
the provincial capital, Tireh (q.v.) In the 17th century it 
came under the power of the Karasmans of Manisa and remained 
so till about 1820.  Aidin is on the Smyrna-Dineir railway, has 
large tanneries and sweetmeat manufactories, and exports figs, 
cotton and raisins.  It was greatly damaged by an earthquake in 
1899.  On a neighbouring height are to be seen the ruins 
of the ancient Tralles (q.v.), the site to which the 
name Guzel Hissar was particularly given by the Seljuks.  
Aidin is the seat of a British consular agent.  As there are 
considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and Jews among the 
inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and 
synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.) 

AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta.  
From the town of Caltanisetta it is 22 m.  E.S.E. direct (18 
m.  S.S.W. of the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41 
m.  W. of Catania).  Pop. (1901) 8548.  There are some 
interesting churches of the 14th century (see E. Mauceri in 
L'Arte, 1906, 17). On the Serra Orlando, a mountain not 
far off, are the extensive remains of an unknown city, the 
finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering destruction 
from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized excavations. 

See P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso di 
Scienze Storiche, vol. v 178 Rome, 1904). 

AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the 
service due to a lord from his men, and appear to have been 
based upon the principle that they ought to assist him in 
special emergency or need.  The occasions for demanding 
them and the amount to be demanded would thus be matters of 
dispute, while the loose use of the term to denote many 
different payments increases the difficulty of the subject. 

Both in Normandy and in England, in the 12th century, the 
two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could 
demand ``aid,'' were (1) the knighting of his eldest son, (2) 
the marriage of his eldest daughter; but while in England the 
third occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in Normandy, his 
payment of ``relief'' on his succession, it was, according to 
the Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from captivity.  
By its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an ``aid'' 
from his barons on these three occasions alone--and then only 
a ``reasonable'' one--except by ``the common counsel'' of his 
realm.  Enormous importance has been attached to this provision, 
as establishing the principle of taxation by consent, but its 
scope was limited to the barons (and the city of London), and 
the word ``aids'' was omitted from subsequent issues of the 
charter.  The barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from 
their feudal tenants only the above three customary aids.  The 
last levy by the crown was that of James I. on the knighting of 
his eldest son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter (1613). 

From at least the days of Henry I. the term ``aid'' was also 
applied (1) to the special contributions of boroughs to the 
king's revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military 
service due from the crown's knights.  Both these occur 
on the pipe roll of 1130, the latter as auxilium militum 
(and possibly as auxilium comitatus.) The borough ``aids'' 
were alternatively known as ``gifts'' (dona), resembling 
in this the ``benevolences'' of later days.  When first met 
with, under Henry I., they are fixed round sums, but under 
Henry II. (as the Dialogue of the Exchequer explains) they 
were either assessed on a population basis by crown officers 
or were sums offered by the towns and accepted by them as 
sufficient.  In the latter case the townsfolk were collectively 
responsible for the amount.  The Great Charter, as stated 
above, extended specially to London the limitation on baronial 
``aids,'' but left untouched its liability to tallage, a lower 
and more arbitrary form of taxation, which the towns shared 
with the crown's demesne manors, and which London . resisted in 
vain.  The two exactions, although distinct, have to be studied 
together, and when in 1296-1297 Edward I. was forced to his 
great surrender, he was formerly supposed by historians to 
have pledged himself, under De tallagio non concedendo, 
to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of his 
people.  It is now held, however, that he limited this 
concession to ``aides, mises,'' and ``prises,'' retaining 
the right to tallage.  Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it 
was provided that the nation should not be called upon ``to 
make any common aid or sustain charge'' except by consent of 
parliament.  The aids spoken of at this period are of yet 
another character, namely, the grant of a certain proportion 
of all ``movables'' (i.e. personal property), a form of 
taxation introduced about 1188 and now rapidly increasing in 
importance.  These subsidies were conveniently classed under 
the vague term ``aids,'' as were also the grants made by 
the clergy in convocation, the term covering both feudal and 
non-feudal levies from the higher clergy and proportions not 
only of ``movables'' but of ecclesiastical revenues as well. 

The ``knight's aid'' of 1130 spoken of above is probably 
identical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest 
custumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent 
what was known in England as ``scutage.'' Even in England 
the phrase ``quando Rex accipit auxilium de militibus'' 
occurs in 1166 and appears to be loosely used for scutage. 

The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand 
``aid'' from their tenants on various grounds, such as their 
indebtedness to the Jews, as is well seen in the Norfolk 
fragments of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs (1170). 

Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature paid 
in early days to the sheriff for his service.  It was the 
subject of a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1163. 

AUTHORITIES.--Stubbs' Constitutional History and 
Select Charters; M'Kechnie's Magna Carta; Pollock and 
Maitland's History of English Law; Maitland's Domesday 
Book and Beyond; Dialogus de Scaccario (Oxford, 1892); 
Madox's History of the Exchequer; Round's Feudal 
England and The Commune of London; The Pipe Rolls 
(Record Commission and Pipe Roll Society). (J. H. R.) 

AIGRETTE (from the Fr. for egret, or lesser white heron), 
the tufted crest, or head-plumes of the egret, used for 
adorning a woman's head-dress, the term being also given 
to any similar ornament, in gems, &c. An aigrette is also 
worn by certain ranks of officers in the French army.  By 
analogy the word is used in various sciences for feathery 
excrescences of like appearance, as for the tufts on the heads 
of insects, the feathery down of the dandelion, the luminous 
rays at the end of electrified bodies, or the luminous rays 
seen in solar eclipses, diverging from the moon's edge. 

AIGUES-MORTES, a town of south-eastern France, in the 
department of Gard 25 m.  S.S.W. of Nimes, on a branch 
line of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway.  Pop. (1906) 
3577.  Aigues-Mortes occupies an isolated position in the 
marshy plain at the western extremity of the Rhone delta, 
2 1/2 m. from the Golfe du Lion.  It owes its celebrity to the 
medieval fortifications of remarkable completeness with which 
it is surrounded.  They form a parallelogram 596 yds. long 
by 149 yds. broad, and consist of crenellated walls from 25 
to 36 ft. in height, dominated at intervals by towers.  Of 
these, the Tour de Constance, built by Louis IX., is the 
most interesting; it commands the northwestern angle of the 
ramparts, and contains two circular, Vaulted chambers, used as 
prisons for Protestants after the revocation of the edict of 
Nantes.  The remainder of the fortifications were built in 
the reign of Philip III. Aigues-Mortes is the meeting-place 
of several canals connecting it with Beaucaire, with Cette, 
with the Lesser Rhone and with the Mediterranean, on which 
it has a small port.  Fishing and the manufacture of soda are 
the chief industries with which the town is connected.  It 
has trade in coal, oranges and other fruits, and in wine.  In 
the surrounding country there are important vineyards, which 
are preserved from disease by periodical submersion.  There 
is a statue in the town in memory of Louis IX. who embarked 
from Aigues-Mortes in 1248 and 1270 for the seventh and eighth 
crusades.  To further the prosperity of the town a most liberal 
charter was granted to it, and in addition the trade of the port 
was artificially fostered by a decree requiring that every vessel 
navigating within sight of its lights should put in there.  
This ordinance remained in force till the reign of Louis XIV. 

AIGUILLE (Fr. for needle), the sharp jagged points above 
the snow-line, standing upon the massif of a mountain split 
by frost action along joints or planes of cleavage with 
sides too steep for snow to rest upon them.  Aiguilles are 
thus the forms remaining from the splitting up of the high 
ridges with houseroof structure into detached pinnacles. 

AIGUILLETTE (Fr. diminutive of AIGUILLE, a needle; the 
obsolete English form is ``aglet''), originally a tag of 
metal, often made of precious metals and richly chased, 
attached to the end of a lace or ribbon, and pointed, so 
as to pass more easily through eyelet holes.  The term 
was, in time, applied to any bright ornament or pendant 
for the dress made of metal, and is now specially used of 
ornamental cords and tags of gold and silver lace, worn on 
naval and military uniforms.  The aiguillette is fastened 
to the shoulder, the various cords hanging down therefrom 
being fastened at their other end on the front of the coat. 

AIGUILLON, EMMANUEL ARMAND DE WIGNEROD DU PLESSIS DE 
RICHELIEU, DUC D' (1720-1782), French statesman, nephew 
of the marechal de Richelieu, was born on the 31st of July 
1720.  He entered the army at the age of seventeen, and 
at the age of nineteen was made colonel of the regiment of 
Brie.  He served in the campaigns in Italy during the War of 
the Austrian Succession, was seriously wounded at the siege 
of Chateau-Dauphin (1744), was taken prisoner (1746) and 
was made marechal de camp in 1748.  His marriage in 1740 
with Louise Felicite de Brehan, daughter of the comte de 
Plelo, coupled with his connexion with the Richelieu family, 
gave, him an important place at court.  He was a member of 
the so-called parti devot, the faction opposed to Madame de 
Pompadour, to the Jansenists and to the parlement, and his 
hostility to the new ideas drew upon him the anger of the 
pamphleteers.  In 1753 he was appointed commandant (governor) 
of Brittany and soon became unpopular in that province, which 
had retained a large number of privileges called ``liberties.'' 
He first came into collision with the provincial estates on the 
question of the royal imposts (1758), but was then blamed for 
his inertia in the preparation of a squadron against England 
(1759), and finally alienated the parlement of Brittany by 
violating the privileges of the province (1762).  In June 1764 
the king, at the instance of d'Aiguillon, quashed a decree of 
the parlement forbidding the levying of new imposts without the 
consent of the estates, and refused to receive the remonstrances 
of the parlement against the duke.  On the 11th of November 
1765 La Chalotais, the procureur of the parlement, was 
arrested, but whether at the instigation of d'Aiguillon is not 
certain.  The conflict between d'Aiguillon and the Bretons 
lasted two years.  In the place of the parlement, which had 
resigned, d'Aiguillon organized a tribunal of more or less 
competent judges, who were ridiculed by the pamphleteers 
and ironically termed the bailliage d'Aiguillon. In 1768 
the duke was forced to suppress this tribunal, and returned 
to court, where he resumed his intrigue with the parti 
devot and finally obtained the dismissal of the minister 
Choiseul (December 24, 1770).  When Louis XV., acting on 
the advice of Madame Dubarry, reorganized the government 
with a view to suppressing the resistance of the parlements, 
d'Aiguillon was made minister of foreign affairs, Maupeou 
and the Abbe Terray (1715-1778) also obtaining places in the 
ministry.  The new ministry, albeit one of reform, was very 
unpopular, and was styled the ``triumvirate.'' All the failures 
of the government were attributed to the mistakes of the 
ministers.  Thus d'Aiguillon was blamed for having provoked 
the coup d'etat of Gustavus III., king of Sweden, in 1772, 
although the instructions of the comte de Vergennes, the 
French ambassador in Sweden, had been written by the minister, 
the duc de la Vrilliere.  D'Aiguillon, however, could do 
nothing to rehabilitate French diplomacy; he acquiesced in 
the first division of Poland, renewed the Family Compact, 
and, although a supporter of the Jesuits, sanctioned the 
suppression of the society.  After the death of Louis XV. 
he quarrelled with Maupeou and with the young queen, Marie 
Antoinette, who demanded his dismissal from the ministry 
(1774).  He died, forgotten, in 1782.  In no circumstances 
had he shown any special ability.  He was more fitted for 
intrigue than for government, and his attempts to restore 
the status of French diplomacy met with scant success. 

See Memoires du ministere du duc d'Aiguillon (3rd ed., 
Paris and Lyons, 1792), probably written by J. L. Soulavie.  
On d'Aiguillon's governorship of Brittany see Carre, La 
Chalotais et le duc d'Aiguillon (Paris, 1893); Marion, La 
Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon (Paris, 1898); and Barthelemy 
Pocquet, Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais (Paris, 
1901--1902).  The three last have full biblioaraphies.  See also 
Flammermont, Le Chancelier Maupeou et les parlements (Paris, 
1883); Frederic Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis (Paris, 1884). 

AIGUILLON, MARIE MADELEINE DE WIGNEROD DU PONT DE COURLAY, 
DUCHESSE D' (1604-1675), daughter of Cardinal Richelieu's 
sister.  In 1620 she married a nephew of the constable de 
Luynes, Antoine de Beauvoir du Roure, sieur de Combalet, who 
died in 1622.  In 1625, through her influence, she was made 
a lady-in-waiting (dame d'atour) to Ihe queen-mother, and 
in 1638 was created duchess of Aiguihon.  She did not marry 
a second time, although Richelieu wished to marry her to 
a prince--either to the comte de Soissons or to the king's 
brother.  After the death of the cardinal (1642) she retained 
her honours and titles, but withdrew from the court, and 
devoted herself entirely to works of charity.  She entered into 
relations with Saint Vincent de Paul and helped him to establish 
the hospital for foundlings.  She also took part in organizing 
the General Hospital and several others in the provinces.  
She died on the 17th of April 1675.  She was the patroness of 
Corneille, who in 1636 dedicated to her his tragedy of The Cid. 

See E. Flechier, Oraison funebre de Mme. Marie de 
Wignerod, duchesse d'Aiguillon; Bonneau-Avenant, 
La duchesse d'Aiguillon (1879); M.emoires de 
Saint-Simon, ed. by A. de Boislisle (1879 et seq..) 

AIGUN, or AIHUN (also Sakhalyan-ula-khoto), a town of 
China, province Hei-lung-kiang, in northern Manchuria, situated 
on the right bank of the Amur, in a fertile and populous 
region, 20 m. below Blagovyeshchensk, where it occupies 
nearly 2 m. on the bank of the river.  There is a palisaded 
fort in the middle of the town, inside of which is the house 
of the fu-tu (governor).  Its merchants carry on an active 
local trade in grain, mustard, oil and tobacco, and some of 
its firms supply the Russian administration with grain and 
flour.  During the ``Boxer'' rising of 1900 it was, for a few 
weeks, the centre of military action directed against the 
Russians.  The population, of some 20,000, includes a few hundred 
Mussulmans.  The town was founded first on the left bank of 
the Amur, below the mouth of the Zeya, but was abandoned, and 
the present town was founded in 1684.  It was here that Count 
Muraviev concluded, in May 1857, the Aihun treaty, according 
to which the left bank of the Amur was conceded to Russia. 

AIKEN, a city and the county-seat of Aiken county, South 
Carolina, U.S.A., 17 m.  E.N.E. of Augusta, Georgia.  Pop. 
(1890) 2362; (1900) 3414 (2131 of negro descent); (1910) 
3911.  It is served by the Southern railway, and by an electric 
line connecting with Augusta.  Aiken is a fashionable winter 
resort, chiefly frequented by Northerners, and is pleasantly 
situated about 500 ft. above sea level in the heart of the 
famous sand-hill and pine-forest region of the state.  The dry 
and unusually equable temperature (mean for winter 50 deg.  F., 
for spring 57 deg.  F., and for autumn 64 deg.  F.) and the balmy air 
laden with the fragrance of the pine forests have combined to 
make Aiken a health and pleasure resort; its climate is said 
to be especially beneficial for those afflicted with pulmonary 
diseases.  There are fine hotels, club houses and cottages, 
and the Palmetto Golf Links near the city are probably the 
finest in the southern states; fox-hunting, polo, tennis 
and shooting are among the popular sports.  There are some 
excellent drives in the vicinity.  The city is the seat of 
the Aiken Institute (for whites) and the Schofield Normal 
and Industrial School (for negroes).  There are lumber mills, 
cotton mills and cotton-gins; and cotton, farm products 
and artificial stone are exported.  Considerable quantities 
of aluminium are obtained from the kaolin deposits in the 
vicinity.  The city's water supply is obtained from artesian 
wells.  Aiken was settled in the early part of the 19th century, 
but was not incorporated until 1835, when it was named in 
honour of William Aiken (1806-1887), governor of the state in 
1844--1847, and a representative in Congress in 1851-1857. 

AIKIN, ARTHUR (1773-1854), English chemist and mineralogist, 
was born on the 19th of May 1773, at Warrington in Lancashire.  
He studied chemistry under Priestley and gave attention to 
the practical applications of the science.  To mineralogy 
he was likewise attracted, and he was one of the founders 
of the Geological Society of London, 1807, and honorary 
secretary, 1812-1817.  To the transactions of that society 
he contributed papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire 
coalfield, &c. Later he became secretary of the Society of 
Arts, and in 1841 treasurer of the Chemical Society.  In 
early life he had been for a short time a Unitarian minister.  
He was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgment and wide 
knowledge.  He died in London on the 15th of April 1854. 

PUBLICATIONS.--Journal of a Tour through North Wales and part 
of Shropshire with observations in Mineralogy and other branches 
of Natural History (London, 1797); A Manual of Mineralogy 
(1814; ed. 2, 1815); A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy 
(with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814). 

AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822), English doctor and writer, was 
born at Kibworth-Harcourt, and received his elementary 
education at the Noncomformist academy at Warrington, where 
his father was tutor.  He studied medicine in the university 
of Edinburgh, and in London under Dr Wilham Hunter.  He 
practised as a surgeon at Chester and Warrington.  Finally, 
he went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D. (1780), and in 
1784 established himself as a doctor in Yarmouth.  In 1792 
he removed to London, where he practised as a consulting 
physician.  But he concerned himself more with the advocacy 
of liberty of conscience than with his professional duties, 
and he began at an early period to devote himself to literary 
pursuits.  In conjunction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld 
(q.v.), he published a popular series of volumes entitled 
Evenings at Home (6 vols., 1792-1795), excellently adapted 
for elementary family reading, which were translated into 
almost every European language.  In 1798 Dr Aikin retired 
from professional life and devoted himself with great industry 
to various literary undertakings, among which his General 
Biography (10 vols., 1799-1815) holds a conspicuous place.  
Besides these, he published Biog.  Memoirs of Medicine 
(1780); Lives of John Selden and Archbishop Usher (1812) 
and other works.  He edited the Monthly Magazine from 1796 
to 1807, and conducted a paper called the Athenaeum from 
1807 to 1809, when it was discontinued.  Aikin died in 1822. 

His daughter, LUCY AIKIN (1781-1864), born at Warrington 
on the 6th of November 1781, had some repute as a historical 
writer.  After producing various books for the young, and a 
novel, Lorimer (1814), she published in 1818 her Memoirs of 
the Court of Queen Elizabeth, which passed through several 
editions.  This was followed by Memoirs of the Court of James 
I. (1822), Memoirs of the Court of Charles I. (1833) and a 
Life of Addison (1843).  Miss Aikin died at Hampstead, where 
she had lived for forty years, on the 29th of January 1864. 

See a Memoir of John Aikin, with selections of his miscellaneous 
pieces (1823), by his daughter; and the Memoirs, Miscellanies 
and Letters of William Ellery Channing, edited by P. H. Le Breton. 

AIKMAN, WILLIAM (1682-1731), British portrait-painter, was 
born at Cairney, Forfarshire.  He was intended by his father 
for the bar, but followed his natural bent by becoming a 
pupil under Sir John Medina, the leading painter of the day in 
Scotland.  In 1707 he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three 
years, afterwards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and 
in 1712 returned home.  In Edinburgh, where he practised as 
a portrait-painter for some years, he enjoyed the patronage 
of the duke of Argyll; and on his removal to London in 1723 
he soon obtained many important commissions.  Perhaps his 
most successful work was the portrait of the poet Gay. He 
also painted portraits of himself, Fletcher of Saltoun, 
William Carstares and Thomson the poet.  The likenesses were 
generally truthful and the style was modelled very closely 
upon that of Sir Godfrey Kneller.  Aikman held a good position 
in literary society and counted among his personal friends 
Swift, Pope, Thomson, Allan Ramsay, Somervile and Mallet. 

AILANTHUS (more correctly ailantus, from ailanto, an 
Amboyna word probably meaning ``Tree of the Gods,'' or ``Tree 
of Heaven''), a genus of trees belonging to the natural order 
Simarubaceae.  The best known species, A. glandulosa, Chinese 
sumach or tree of heaven, is a handsome, quick-growing tree 
with spreading branches and large compound leaves, resembling 
those of the ash, and bearing numerous pairs of long pointed 
leaflets.  The small greenish flowers are borne on branched 
panicles; and the male ones are characterized by having a 
disgusting odour.  The fruits are free in clusters, and each 
is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle.  
The wood is fine grained and satiny.  The tree, which is a 
native of China and Japan, was introduced into England in 
1751 and is a favourite in parks and gardens.  A silk spinning 
moth, the ailanthus moth (Bombyx or Philosamia cynthia), 
lives on its leaves, and yields a silk more durable and 
cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and 
gloss.  This moth is common near many towns in the eastern United 
States; it is about 5 in. across, with angulated wings, and 
in colour olive brown, with white markings.  Other species of 
ailanthus are: A. imberbifiora and A. punctata, important 
Australian timber-trees; and A. excelsa, common in India. 

AILLY, PIERRE D, (1350-1420), French theologian, was 
born at Compiegne in 1350 of a bourgeois family, and 
studied in Paris at the celebrated college of Navarre.  
He became a licentiate of arts in 1367, procurator of 
the French ``nation'' in 1372, bachelor of theology in 
1372, and licentiate and doctor in that faculty in 1381. 

Since 1378 Western Christendom, in consequence of the election 
of the two popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., had been divided 
into two obediences.  In the spring of 1379 Pierre d'Ailly, 
in anticipation even of the decision of the university of 
Paris, had carried to the pope of Avignon the ``role'' of 
the French nation, but notwithstanding this prompt adhesion 
he was firm in his desire to put an end to the schism, and 
when, on the 20th of May 1381, the university decreed that 
the best means to this end was to try to gather together a 
general council, Pierre d'Ailly supported this motion before 
the king's council in the presence of the duke of Anjou.  
The dissatisfaction displayed shortly after by the government 
obliged the university to give up this scheme, and was probably 
the cause of Pierre d'Ailly's temporary retirement to Noyon, 
where he held a canonry.  There he continued the struggle for 
his side in a humorous work, in which the partisans of the 
council are amusingly taken to task by the demon Leviathan. 

After his return to Paris, where from 1384 onwards he 
filled the position of master of the college of Navarre, and 
took part in a violent campaign against the chancellor of 
Notre-Dame, he was twice entrusted with a mission to Clement 
VII. in 1388 to defend the doctrines of the university, and 
especially those concerning the Immaculate Conception of the 
Virgin, against the preaching friar Jean de Montson, and in 
1389 to petition in the name of the king for the canonization 
of the young cardinal Peter of Luxemburg.  The success which 
attended his efforts on these two occasions, and the eloquence 
which he displayed, perhaps contributed to his choice as the 
king,s almoner and confessor.  At the same time, by means 
of an exchange, he obtained to the highest dignity in the 
university, becoming chancellor of Notre-Dame de Paris. 

When in 1394 Benedict XIII. succeeded Clement VII. at Avignon, 
Pierre d'Ailly was entrusted by the king with a mission of 
congratulation to the new pontiff.  His obsequious language 
on this occasion, and the favours with which it was rewarded, 
formed a too violent contrast to the determined attitude of 
the university of Paris, which, tired of the schism, was even 
then demanding the resignation of the two pontiffs.  Pierre 
d'Ailly himself had not long before taken part in the drawing 
up of a letter to the king in which the advantages of this 
double abdication were set forth, but since then his zeal 
had seemed to cool a little.  None the less, on his return 
from Avignon, he again in the presence of the king enlarged 
upon the advantages offered by the way which the university 
commended.  But the suspicions aroused by his conduct found 
further confirmation when he caused himself--or allowed 
himself--to be nominated bishop of Le Puy by Benedict XIII. 
(April 2, 1395 ). The great number of benefices which he 
held left room for some doubt as to his disinterestedness.  
Henceforward he was under suspicion at the university, and was 
excluded from the assemblies where the union was discussed. 

Some time afterwards Pierre d'Ailly became bishop of Cambrai 
(March 19, 1397) by the favour of the pope, who had yielded no 
whit, and, by virtue of this position, became also a prince 
of the empire.  In order to take possession of his new see, 
he had to brave the wrath of the duke of Burgundy, override 
the resistance of the clergy and bourgeoisie, and even 
withstand an armed attack on the part of several lords; but his 
protector, the duke of Orleans, had his investiture performed by 
Wenceslaus, king of the Romans.  The latter, though a partisan 
of the pope of Rome, took the opportunity of enjoining on 
Pierre d'Ailly to go in his name and argue with the pope of 
Avignon, a move which had as its object to persuade Benedict 
XIII. to an abdication, the necessity of which was becoming 
more and more evident.  However, the language of the bishop 
of Cambrai seems on this occasion to have been lacking in 
decision; however that may be, it led to no felicitous result. 

France next tried to bring violent pressure to bear to 
conquer the obstinacy of Benedict XIII. by threatening a 
formal withdrawal from his obedience.  Pierre d'Ailly, who, 
in spite of his attachment to the pope, had been carried away 
by the example of the kingdom, was among the first who, in 
1403, after experience of what had happened, counselled and 
celebrated the restoration of obedience.  He was sent by 
Charles VI. on an embassy to Benedict XIII. and seized this 
opportunity of lavishing on the pontiff friendly congratulations 
mingled with useful advice.  Two years later, before the same 
pontiff, he preached in the city of Genoa a sermon which 
led to the general institution, in the countries of the 
obedience of Avignon, of the festival of the Holy Trinity. 

At the ecclesiastical council which took place at Paris 
in 1406 Pierre d'Ailly made every effort to avert a new 
withdrawal from the obedience and, by order of the king, 
took the part of defender of Benedict XIII., a course 
which yet again exposed him to attacks from the university 
party.  The following year he and his disciple Gerson formed 
part of the great embassy sent by the princes to the two 
pontiffs, and while in Italy he was occupied in praiseworthy 
but vain efforts to induce the pope of Rome to remove himself 
to a town on the Italian coast, in the neighbourhood of his 
rival, where it was hoped that the double abdication would 
take place.  Discouraged by his failure to effect this, 
he returned to his diocese of Cambrai at the beginning of 
1408.  At this time he was still faithful to Benedict 
XIII., and the disinclination he felt to joining the members 
of the French clergy who were on the point of ratifying 
the royal declaration of neutrality excited the anger of 
Charles VI.'s government, and a mandate, which was however 
not executed, ordered the arrest of the bishop of Cambrai. 

It was not till after the cardinals of the two colleges had 
led to the convocation of the general council of Uisa that 
Tierre d'Aiily renounced the support of Benedict XIII., and, 
for want of a better policy, again allied himself with the 
cause which he had championed in his youth.  In the council lay 
now, to judge from his words, the only chance of salvation; 
and, in view of the requirements of the case, he began to argue 
that, in case of schism, a council could be convoked by any one 
of the faithful, and would have the right to judge and even to 
depose the rival pontiffs.  This was, in fact, the procedure of 
the council of Pisa, in which Pierre d'Ailly took part.  After 
the declaration of the deposition of Gregory XII. and Benedict 
XIII. it went on to the election of Alexander V. (June 26th, 
1409), This pope reigned only ten months; his successor, John 
XXIII., raised Pierre d'Ailly to the rank of cardinal (June 
6, 1411), and furtuer, to indemnify him for the loss of the 
bishopric of Cambrai, conferred upon him the administration 
of that of Limoges (November 3, 1412), which was shortly after 
exchanged for the bishopric of Orange.  He also nominated 
Pierre d'Ailly as his legate in Germany (March 18, 1413). 

Forgetting these benefits, the cardinal of Cambrai was one of 
the most formidable adversaries of John XXIII. at the council of 
Constance.  Convinced as he was of the necessity for union and 
reform, he contributed more than any one to the adoption of 
the principle that, since the schism had survived the council 
of Pisa, it was necessary again to take up the work for a 
fundamental union, without considering the rights of John 
XXIII. any more than they had those of Gregory XII. and Benedict 
XIII.  From this point of view Pierre d'Ailly, together with 
his compatriot Cardinal Fillastre, took the preponderating part 
during the first few months.  Afterwards, seeing the trend of 
events, he showed some uneasiness and hesitation.  He refused, 
however, to undertake the defence of John XXIII., and only 
appeared in the trial of this pope to make depositions against 
him, which were sometimes of an overwhelming character. 

Among the important matters which claimed his attention at 
Constance may be mentioned also the condemnation of the errors 
of Wycliffe and the trial of John Huss.  The reading in public 
of his two treatises De Potestate ecclesiastica and De 
Reformalione Ecclesiae revealed, besides ideas very peculiar 
to himself on the reform and constitution of the church, his 
design of reducing the power of the English in the council by 
denying them the right of forming a separate nation (October 
1-November 1, 1416).  By this campaign, which exposed him 
to the worst retaliation of the English, he inaugurated his 
role of ``procurator and defender of the king of France.'' 

When at last the question arose of giving the Christian world 
a new pope, this time sole and uncontested, Pierre d'Ailly 
defended the right of the cardinals, if not to keep the election 
entirely in their own hands, at any rate to share in the election, 
and he brought forward an ingenious system for reconciling 
the pretensions of the council with the rights of the Sacred 
College.  In this way was elected Pope Martin V. (November 11, 
1417), and the task of Pierre d'Ailly was at last finished. 

The predominance of the Anglo-Burgundians in France having 
made it impossible for him to stay there, he went to 
Avignon to end his days in melancholy calculations arising 
from the calamities of which he had been the witness, and 
the astrological reckonings, in which he found pleasure, 
of the chances for and against the world coming to an end 
in the near future.  He died on the 9th of August 1420. 

Pierre d'Ailly's written works are numerous.  A great part of 
them was published with the works of Gerson (by Elhes du Pin, 
Antwerp, 1706); another part appeared in the 15th century, 
probably at Brussels, and there are many treatises and sermons 
still unpublished.  In philosophy he was a nominalist.  Many 
questions in science and astrology, such as the reform of the 
calendar, attracted his attention.  His other works consisted 
of theological essays, ascetic or exegetic, questions of 
ecclesiastical discipline and reform, and of various polemical 
writings called forth for the most part by the schism. 

Whatever reservations may be made as to a certain 
interested or ambitious side of his character, Pierre 
d'Ailly, whose devotion to the cause of union and reform 
is incontestable, remains one of the leading spirits of 
the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--P.  Tschackert, Peter van Ailli (Gotha, 1877); 
L. Salembier, Petrus de Alliaco (Lille, 1886); H. Denifle 
et Em. Chatelain, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, t. 
iii. (Paris, 1894); N. Valois, La France et le Grand Schisme 
d'Occident (Paris, 4 vols., 1896-1902); and Bibliotheque de 
l'ecole des chartes, vol. lxv., 1904, pp. 557-574. (N. V.) 

AILSA CRAIG, an island rock at the mouth of the Firth of 
Clyde, 10 m.  W. of Girvan, Ayrshire, Scotland.  It is of 
conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises 
abruptly to a height of 1114 ft.  The only side from which the 
rock can be ascended is the east; the other sides being for 
the most part perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty 
columnar forms, though not so regular as those of Staffa.  This 
island is composed of micro-granite with riebeckite, of great 
interest on account of the rare occurrence of this type in 
Britain.  It is comparatively fine-grained and of a greyish 
colour.  Its essential constituents are felspar, quartz and 
riebeckite--a soda amphibole.  The last of these minerals 
occurs in small irregular patches between the idiomorphic 
felspars which Dr J. J. H. Tean has found to be a soda 
orthoclase.  The rock is allied to paisanite described by 
C. A. Osann and has been termed ailsite by Professor M. F. 
Heddle.  It forms part of an intrusive mass which, on the 
south and west cliffs of the island, has a columnar arrangement 
and is traversed by dykes of dolerite, most of which run in 
a north-west direction.  The age of this mass is uncertain, 
as its relations to other rocks are not visible in the 
island.  As riebeckite-granophyre has been found in Skye it 
may be of Tertiary age.  The rock is a favourite material for 
curling-stones, about three-fourths (according to estimate) 
of those in use in the countries where the game obtains being 
made of it.  On this account curling-stones are popularly 
known as ``Ailsas'' or ``Ailsa Craigs.'' A columnar cave 
exists towards the northern side of the island, and on the 
eastern are the remains of a tower, with several vaulted 
rooms.  Two springs occur and some scanty grass affords 
subsistence to rabbits, and, on the higher levels, to 
goats.  The precipitous parts are frequented by large 
flocks of solan geese and other sea birds.  The lighthouse 
on the southern side shows a flashing light visible for 13 
m.  In 1831 the twelfth earl of Cassillis became first marquis 
of Ailsa, taking the title from the Craig, which was his 
property.  When John Keats was in Girvan during his Scottish 
tour in 1818 he apostrophized the rock in a fine sonnet. 

AIMAK, or EIMAK (Mongolian for ``clan,'' or section of a 
tribe), the name given to certain nomadic or semi-nomadic 
tribes of Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west 
Afghan highlands immediately to the north of Herat.  They 
were originally known as ``chahar (the four) Eimaks,'' 
because there were four principal tribes: the Taimani 
(the predominating element in the population of Ghur), the 
Ferozkhoi, the Jamshidi and, according to some authorities, the 
Hazara.  The Aimak peoples number upwards of a quarter of a 
million, and speak a dialect said to be closely related to 
the Kalmuck.  They are Sunnite Mahommedans in distinction 
from the Hazara who are Shiites.  They are predominantly 
of Iranian or quasi-Iranian blood, while the Hazara are 
Turanian.  They are a bold, wild people and renowned fighters. 

AIMARD, GUSTAVE, the pen-name of OLIVIER GLOUX (1818-1883), 
French novelist, who was born in Paris on the 13th of September 
1818.  He made use of the materials collected in a roving 
and adventurous youth and early manhood in numerous romances 
in the style of J. Fenimore Cooper.  Among the best of 
them are: Les Trappeurs de l'Arkansas (1858); La Grande 
flibuste (1860); Nuits mexicaines (1863); La Foret 
vierge (1870).  He died in Paris on the 20th of June 
1883.  Many of his novels have been translated into English. 

AIMOIN (c. 960-c. 1010), French chronicler, was born 
at Villefranche de Longchapt about 960, and in early life 
entered the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and 
passed the greater part of his life.  His chief work is a 
Historia Francorum, or Libri v. de Gestis Francorum, 
which deals with the history of the Franks from the earliest 
times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the 
middle of the 12th century.  It was much in vogue during 
the middle ages, but its historical value is now regarded as 
slight.  It has been edited by G. Waitz and published in 
the Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores, Band xxvi. 
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).  He also wrote a Vita 
Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives 
of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of 
Abbo, have been lost.  This has been published by J. Mabillon 
in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 
1668-1701).  Aimoin's third work was the composition of books 
ii. and iii. of the Miracula sancti Benedicti, the first 
book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named 
Adrevald.  This also appears in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti 
Benedicti.  Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished 
from Aimoin, a monk of St Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De 
mircalis sancti Germani, and a fragment De Normanorum 
gestis circa Parisiacam urbem et de divine in eos ultione 
tempore Caroli calvi.  Both of these are published in the 
Historiae Francorum Scriptores, Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649). 

See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869). 

AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, formed 
in 1790 from Bresse, the Pays de Gex, Bugey, Dombes and 
Valromey, districts of Burgundy.  It is bounded N. by the 
departments of Jura and Saone-et-Loire, W. by Saone-et-Loire 
and Rhone, S. by Isere, and E. by the departments of 
Savoie and Haute-Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and 
Vaud.  Pop. (1906) 345,856.  Area 2248 sq. m.  The department 
takes its name from the river Ain, which traverses its centre 
in a southerly direction and separates it roughly into two 
well-marked physical divisions--a region of mountains to 
the east. and of plains to the west.  The mountainous region 
is occupied by the southern portion of the Jura, which is 
divided into parallel chains running north and south and 
decreasing in height from east to west.  The most easterly 
of these chains, that forming the Pays de Gex in the extreme 
north-east of the department, contains the Cret de la Neige 
(6653 ft.) and other of the highest summits in the whole 
range.  The district of Bugey occupies the triangle formed 
by the Rhone in the south-east of the depart- . ment.  West 
of the Ain, with the exception of the district covered by the 
Revermont, the westernmost chain of the Jura, the country is 
flat, consisting in the north of the south portion of the 
Bresse, in the south of the marshy Dombes.  The chief rivers of 
the eastern region are the Valserine and the Seran, right-hand 
tributaries of the Rhone, which forms the eastern and southern 
boundary of the department; and the Albarine and Oignin, 
left-hand aflluents of the Ain. The Bresse is watered by the 
Veyle and the Reyssouze, both flowing into the Saone, which 
washes the western limit of the department.  The climate is 
cold in the eastern and central districts of Ain, but it is on 
the whole healthy, except in the Dombes.  The average rainfall 
is about 38 in.  The soil in the valleys and plains of the 
department, especially in the Bresse, is fertile, producing 
large quantities of wheat, as well as oats, buckwheat and 
maize.  East of the Ain, forests of fir and oak abound on the 
mountains, the lower slopes of which give excellent pasture for 
sheep and cattle, and much cheese is produced.  Horse-raising 
is carried on in the Dombes.  The pigs and fowls of the 
Bresse and the geese and turkeys of the Dombes are largely 
exported.  The vineyards of Bugey and Revermont yield good 
wines.  The chief mineral product is the asphalt of the mines 
of Seyssel on the eastern frontier, besides which potter's 
clay, building stone, hydraulic lime and cement are produced 
in the department.  There are many corn and saw mills and 
the wood-working industry is important.  Silk fabrics, coarse 
woollen cloth, paper and clocks are manufactured.  Live-stock 
and agricultural products are exported; the chief imports 
are wood and raw silk.  The department is within the judicial 
circumscription of the appeal court of Lyons and the educational 
circumscription (academie) of Lyons.  It forms part of the 
archiepiscopal province of Besancon.  The Rhone and the Saone 
are navigable for considerable distances in the department; 
the chief railway is that of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee 
Company, whose line from Macon to Culoz traverses the 
department.  Ain is divided into five arrondissements--those 
of Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and those of Gex, Nantua 
and Belley in the east; containing in all 36 cantons and 455 
communes.  Bourg is the capital and Belley is the seat of a 
bishop.  Jujurieux, in the arrondissement of Nantua, has the most 
important silk factory in the department, occupying over 1000 
workpeople.  Bellegarde on the eastern frontier is an industrial 
centre; it has a manufactory of wood-pulp, and saw and flour 
mills, power for which is obtained from the waters of the 
Rhone, Oyonnax and its environs, north of Nantua, are noted 
for the production of articles in wood and horn, especially 
combs.  St Rambert, in the arrondissement of Belley, besides 
being of industrial importance for its manufactures of silk and 
paper, possesses the remains of a Benedictine abbey, powerful 
in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries.  The Gothic church 
of Ambronay in the arrondissement of Belley, the church of 
St Paul de Varax (about 9 m.  S.W. of Bourg), a building in 
the Romanesque style of Burgundy, and that of Nantua (12th 
century), are of architectural interest.  Ferney, 4 m.  S.W. of 
Gex, is famous as the residence of Voltaire from 1758-1778. 

AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904), English divine and man of letters, 
was born in London on the 9th of February 1837, the son of an 
architect.  He was educated at King's College, London, and 
at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained in 1860 to a 
curacy at Alrewas, near Rugeley.  There he remained until 1864, 
when he became an assistant master at the Sheffield Collegiate 
School.  His connexion with the Temple church, in London, 
began in 1866, when he was appointed reader; and in 1894 he 
succeeded Dr Vaughan as master.  In 1887 he was presented to a 
canonry in Bristol cathedral, and he was chaplain-in-ordinary 
to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. He died on the 8th 
of February 1904.  Canon Ainger's gentle wit and humour, his 
generosity and lovable disposition, endeared him to a wide 
circle.  In literature his name is chiefly associated with 
his sympathetic appreciation of Charles Lamb and Thomas 
flood.  His works include: Charles Lamb (1882) and Crabbe 
(1903) in the ``English Men of Letters'' series; editions 
of Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883) and of his Letters 
(1888; 2nd ed., 1904), of the Poems (1897) of Thomas Hood, 
with a biographical introduction; The Life and Works of 
Charles Lamb (12 vols., 1899-1900), articles on Tennyson 
and Du Maurier in the Dictionary of National Biography; 
The Gospel and Human Life (1904), sermons; Lectures and 
Essays (2 vols., 1905), edited by the Rev. H. C. Beeching. 

See also Edith Sichel, The Life and Letters of Canon Ainger (1906). 

AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL (1807-1870), German artist 
and glass-painter, was born at Munich on the 14th of February 
1807.  By the advice of Gartner, director of the royal 
porcelain manufactory, he devoted himself to the study of 
glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an art, 
and in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded 
royal painted-glass manufactory at Munich.  The method 
which he gradually perfected there was a development of the 
enamel process adopted in the Renaissance, and consisted 
in actually painting the design upon the glass, which was 
subjected, as each colour was laid on, to carefully-adjusted 
heating.  The earliest specimens of Ainmuller's work are 
to be found in the cathedral of Regensburg.  With a few 
exceptions, all the windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his 
hand.  Specimens may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral, and 
Peterhouse, Cambridge, and Cologne cathedral contains some 
of his finest productions.  Ainmuller had considerable skill 
as an oil-painter, especially in interiors, his pictures 
of the Chapel Royal at Windsor and of Westminster Abbey 
being much admired.  He died on the 9th of December 1870. 

AINSWORTH, HENRY (1571-1622), English Nonconformist divine 
and scholar, was born of yeoman stock in 1570/1 at Swanton 
Morley, Norfolk.  He was for four years from December 1587 a 
scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associating 
with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the 
Separatists.  Driven abroad about the year 1593, he found a 
home in ``a blind lane at Amsterdam.'' He acted as ``porter'' 
to a scholarly bookseller in that city, who, on discovering 
his skill in the Hebrew language, made him known to his 
countrymen.  When part of the London church, of which 
Francis Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in 
Amsterdam, Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher.  
In 1596 he took the lead in drawing up a confession of their 
faith, which he reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to 
the various universities of Europe (including St Andrews, 
Scotland).  Johnson joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he 
and Ainsworth composed An Apology or Defence of such true 
Christians as are commonly but unjustly called Brownists.  The 
task of organizing the church was not easy and dissension was 
rife.  Of Ainsworth it may be said that, though often embroiled 
in controversy, he never put himself forward; yet he was 
the most steadfast and cultured champion of the principles 
represented by the early Congregationalists.  Amid all the 
strife of controversy, he steadily pursued his rabbinical 
studies.  The combination was so unique that many, like the 
encyclopaedists L. Moreri and J. H. Zedler, have made two 
Henry Ainsworths--one Dr Henry Ainsworth, a learned biblical 
commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, an arch-heretic and ``the 
ringleader of the Separatists at Amsterdam.'' Some confusion 
has also been occasioned through his not unfriendly controversy 
with one John Ainsworth, who abjured the Anglican for the Roman 
church.  In 1608 Ainsworth answered Richard Bernard's The 
Separatist Schisme. But his ablest and most arduous minor 
work in controversy was his reply to John Smyth (commonly 
called ``the Se-Baptist''), entitled a Defence of Holy 
Scripture, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches 
separated from Antichrist, against the Challenges, Cavils 
and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609).  In 1610 he was 
forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of their 
church, from F. Johnson and those who adhered to him.  For 
some time a difference of principle, as to the church's right 
to revise its officers' decisions, had been growing between 
them, Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. (See 
CONGREGATIONALISM.) But in spirit he remained a man of 
peace.  His memory abides through his rabbinical learning.  The 
ripe fruit of many years' labour appeared in his Annotations--on 
Genesis (1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers 
(1619); Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical 
version, 1612); Song of Solomon (1623).  These were collected 
in folio in 1627, and again in 1639, and later in various 
forms.  From the outset the Annotations took a commanding 
place, especially among continental scholars, and he 
established for English nonconformity a tradition of culture and 
scholarship.  There is no probability about the narrative 
given by Neal in his History of the Puritans (ii. 47) that 
he was poisoned by certain Jews.  He died in 1622, or early 
in 1623, for in that year was published his Seasonable 
Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, 
in which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy. 

LITERATURE.--John Worthington's Diary (Chetham 
Society), by Crossley, i. 263-266; works of John Robinson 
(1851); H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last 
Three Hundred Years (1880); W. E. A. Axon, H. Ainsworth, 
the Puritan Commentator (1889); F. J. Powicke, Henry 
Barrow and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam (1900), J. H. 
Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (1906). 

AINSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), English schoolmaster and 
author, was born at Eccles, near Manchester, in September 
1660.  After teaching for some time at Lever's Grammar 
School in Bolton, he removed to London, where he conducted a 
boarding-school, first at Bethnal Green and then at Hackney.  
He soon made a moderate fortune which gave him leisure to 
pursue his classical studies.  Ainsworth's name is associated 
with his Latin-English Dictionary, begun in 1714, and published 
in 1736 as Thesaurus linguae Latinae compendiarius. It was 
long extensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the 
later editions being revised and enlarged by other hands, 
but it is now superseded.  Ainsworth was also the author of 
some useful works on classical antiquities, and a sensible 
treatise on education, entitled The most Natural and Easy 
Way of Institution (1698), in which he advocates the teaching 
of Latin by conversational methods and deprecates punishment 
of any sort.  He died in London on the 4th of April 1743. 

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882), English novelist, 
son of Thomas Ainsworth, solicitor, was born at Manchester 
on the 4th of February 1805.  He was educated at Manchester 
Grammar School and articled to the firm of which his father 
was a member, proceeding to London in 1824 to complete his 
legal training at the Inner Temple.  At the age of twenty-one 
he married a daughter of John Ebers the publisher, and started 
in his father-in-law's line of business.  This, however, 
soon proved unprofitable and he decided to attempt literary 
work.  A novel called Sir John Chiverton, in which he appears 
to have had a share, had attracted the praise of Sir Walter 
Scott, and this encouragement decided him to take up fiction 
as a career.  In 1834 he published Rookwood, which had an 
immediate success, and thenceforth he was always occupied 
with the compilation of ``historical'' novels.  He published 
about forty such stories, of which the best-known are 
Jack Sheppard (1839), The Tower Oglondon (1840), Guy 
Fawkes (1841), Old St Paul's (1841) and Windsor Castle 
(1843).  He edited Bentley's Miscellany, in which Jack 
Sheppard was published as a serial, and in 1842 he became 
proprietor of Ainsworth's Magazine. In 1853 it ceased to 
appear, and Ainsworth bought the New Monthly Magazine. He 
continued his literary activity until his death, but his later 
stories were less striking than the earlier ones.  He died at 
Reigate on the 3rd of January 1882 and was buried at Kensal 
Green.  Ainsworth had a lively talent for plot, and his books 
have many attractive qualities.  The glorification of Dick 
Turpin in Rookwood, and of Jack Sheppard in the novel that 
bears his name, caused considerable outcry among straitlaced 
elders.  In his later novels Ainsworth confined himself to 
heroes less open to criticism.  His style was not without 
archaic affectation and awkwardness, but when his energies were 
aroused by a striking situation he could be brisk, vigorous 
and impressive.  He did a great deal to interest the less 
educated classes in the historical romances of their country, 
and his tales were invariably instructive, clean and manly. 

AINTAB (anc. Doliche), a town in the vilayet of Aleppo 
and ancient Cyrrhestica district of N. Syria.  Pop. 45,000, 
two-thirds Moslem.  The site of Doliche, famous for its 
worship of Baal (Zeus Dolichenus), adopted by the Seleucids 
and eventually spread all over the Roman empire, lies at 
Duluk, two hours N.W.; but nothing is to be seen there except a 
mound.  The place was probably of Hittite origin and does not 
appear to have been settled by Greeks.  The bazaars of Aintab 
are a great centre for ``Hittite'' antiquities, found at 
various sites from Sakchegozu on the west to Jerablus on the 
east.  The modern town lies in the open treeless valley of 
the Sajur, a tributary of the Euphrates, and on the right 
bank, 65 m. north-east of Aleppo, with which it is connected 
by a chaussee, passing through Kulis.  This road proceeds 
east to the great crossing of Euphrates at Birejik, and thus 
Aintab lies on the highway between N. Syria and Urfa-Mosul 
and has much transit trade and numerous khans. In the middle 
ages its strong castle (Hamtab) was an important strategic 
point, taken by Saladin about A.D. 1183; and it supplied the 
last base from which Ibrahim Pasha marched in 1839 to win his 
decisive victory over the Turksat Nezib, about 25 m. distant 
north-east.  Lying high (3500 ft.) and swept by purifying 
winds, Aintab is a comparatively clean and healthy spot, 
though not free from ophthalmia and the ``Aleppo button,'' 
and it has been selected by the American Mission Board as its 
centre for N. Syria ``Central Turkey College,'' educational 
and medical, lies on high ground west.  It was burnt down in 
1891, but rebuilt; it has a dependency for girls within the 
town.  Thanks to its presence the Armenian protestants are a 
large and rich community, which suffered less in the massacre 
of 1895 than the Gregorians.  There is a small Episcopalian 
body, which has a large unfinished church, and a schismatic 
``catholicos,'' who has vainly tried to gain acceptance into 
the Anglican communion.  There is also a flourishing Franciscan 
mission.  Striped cloths and pekmez, a sweet paste made 
from grapes, are the principal manufactures; and tobacco 
and cereals the principal cultures.  The town is unusually 
well and solidly built, good stone being obtained near at 
hand.  The Moslem inhabitants are mainly of Turkoman origin, 
and used to owe fealty to chieftains of the family of Chapan 
Oglu, whose headquarters were at Yuzgat in Cappadocia. (D. G. H.) 

AINU (``man''), a race inhabiting the northernmost islands 
of Japan.  Little definite is known about their earliest 
history, but it is improbable that they are, as has been 
urged, the aborigines of Japan.  The most accurate researches 
go to prove that they were immigrants, who reached Yezo 
from the Kuriles, and subsequently crossing Tsugaru 
strait, colonized a great part of the main island of Japan, 
exterminating a race of pit-dwellers to whom they gave the 
name of koro-pok-guru (men with sunken places).  These 
koro-pok-guru were of such small stature as to be considered 
dwarfs.  They wore skins of animals for clothing, and that 
they understood the potter's art and used flint arrow-heads 
is clearly proved by excavations at the sites of their 
pits.  The Ainu, on the contrary, never had any knowledge of 
pottery.  Ultimately the Ainu, coming into contact with the 
Japanese, who had immigrated from the south and west, were 
driven northward into the island of Yezo, where, as well as 
in the Kuriles and in the southern part of Sakhalin, they are 
still found in some numbers.  When, at the close of the 18th 
and the beginning of the 19th century, Russian enterprises 
drew the attention of the Japanese government to the northern 
districts of the empire, the Tokugawa shoguns adopted towards 
the Ainu a policy of liberality and leniency consistent with 
the best principles of modern colonization.  But the doom 
of unfitness appears to have begun to overtake the race long 
ago.  History indicates that in ancient times they were 
fierce fighters, able to offer a stout resistance to the 
incomparably better armed and more civilized Japanese.  
To-day they are drunken, dirty, spiritless folk, whom it is 
difficult to suppose capable of the warlike role they once 
played.  Their number, between 16,000 and 17,000, is virtually 
stationary.  The Ainu are somewhat taller than the Japanese, 
stoutly built, well proportioned, with dark-brown eyes, high 
cheek-bones, short broad noses and faces lacking length.  
The hairiness of the Ainu has been much exaggerated.  They 
are not more hairy than many Europeans.  Never shaving after 
a certain age, the men have full beards and moustaches, but 
the stories of Ainu covered with hair like a bear are quite 
unjustified by facts.  Men and women alike cut their hair 
level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, but trim 
it semicircularly behind.  The women tattoo their mouths, 
arms, and sometimes their foreheads, using for colour the 
smut deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark.  
Their original dress is a robe spun from the bark of the elm 
tree.  It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is 
folded round the body and tied with a girdle of the same 
material.  Females wear also an undergarment of Japanese 
cloth.  In winter the skins of animals are worn, with leggings 
of deerskin and boots made from the skin of dogs or salmon.  
Both sexes are fond of ear-rings, which are said to have been 
made of grape-vine in former times, but are now purchased from 
the Japanese, as also are bead necklaces, which the women prize 
highly.  Their food is meat, whenever they can procure 
it--the flesh of the bear, the fox, the wolf, the badger, the 
ox or the horse--fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, herbs and 
roots.  They never eat raw fish or flesh, but always either 
boil or roast it.  Their habitations are reed-thatched huts, 
the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a 
fireplace in the centre.  There is no chimney, but only a 
hole at the angle of the roof; there is one window on the 
eastern side and there are two doors.  Public buildings do 
not exist, whether in the shape of inn, meeting-place or 
temple.  The furniture of their dwellings is exceedingly 
scanty.  They have no chairs, stools or tables, but sit on 
the floor, which is covered with two layers of mats, one of 
rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, 
hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for 
coverlets.  The men use chop-sticks and moustache-lifters 
when eating; the women have wooden spoons.  Uncleanliness is 
characteristic of the Ainu, and all their intercourse with the 
Japanese has not improved them in that respect.  The Rev. John 
Batchelor, in his Notes on the Ainu, says that he lived in 
one Ainu habitation for six weeks on one occasion, and for 
two months on another, and that he never once saw personal 
ablutions performed, or cooking or eating utensils washed. 

Not having been at any period acquainted with the art of 
writing, they have no literature and are profoundly ignorant.  
But at schools established for them by the Japanese in recent 
times, they have shown that their intellectual capacity is not 
deficient.  No distinct conception of a universe enters 
into their cosmology.  They picture to themselves many 
floating worlds, yet they deduce the idea of rotundity from 
the course of the sun, and they imagine that the ``Ainu 
world'' rests on the back of a fish whose movements cause 
earthquakes.  It is scarcely possible to doubt that this fancy 
is derived from the Japanese, who used to hold an identical 
theory.  The Ainu believe in a supreme Creator, but also in a 
sun-god, a moon-god, a water-god and a mountain-god, deities 
whose river is the Milky Way, whose voices are heard in 
the thunder and whose glory is reflected in the lightning.  
Their chief object of actual worship appears to be the bear.  
Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop) writes: ``The peculiarity 
which distinguishes their rude mythology is the worship 
of the bear, the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his 
species.  But it is impossible to understand the feelings 
by which this cult is prompted, for although they worship 
the animal after their fashion and set up its head in their 
villages, yet they trap it, kill it, eat it and sell its 
skin.  There is no doubt that this wild beast inspires more 
of the feeling which prompts worship than the inanimate 
forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished as 
bear-worshippers, and their greatest religious festival or 
saturnalia as the Festival of the Bear....  Some of their rude 
chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest eulogy on 
a man is to compare him to a bear.'' They have no priests by 
profession.  The village chief performs whatever religious 
ceremonies are necessary; ceremonies confined to making libations 
of wine, uttering short prayers and offering willow sticks 
with wooden shavings attached to them, much as the Japanese 
set up the well-known gohei (sacred offerings) at certain 
spots.  The Ainu gives thanks to the gods before eating, and 
prays to the deity of fire in time of sickness.  He thinks 
that his spirit is immortal, and that it will be rewarded 
hereafter in heaven or punished in hell, both of which places 
are beneath the earth, hell being the land of volcanoes; 
but he has no theory as to a resurrection of the body or 
metempsychosis.  He preserves a tradition about a flood 
which seems to be the counterpart of the Biblical deluge, and 
about an earthquake which lasted a hundred days, produced the 
three volcanoes of Yezo and created the island by bridging 
the waters that had previously separated it into two parts. 

The Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by 
Japanese tribunals, but in former times their affairs were 
administered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, 
and for administrative purposes the country was divided into 
three districts, Saru, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the 
ultimate control of Saru, though the relations between their 
respective inhabitants were not close and intermarriages were 
avoided.  The functions of judge were not entrusted to these 
chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat 
in judgment upon its criminals.  Capital punishment did not 
exist, nor was imprisonment resorted to, beating being 
considered a sufficient and final penalty, except in the 
case of murder, when the nose and ears of the assassin were 
cut off or the tendons of his feet severed.  Little as the 
Japanese and the Ainu have in common, intermarriages are 
not infrequent, and at Sambutsu especially, on the eastern 
coast, many children of such marriages may be seen.  
Doenitz, Hilgendorf and Dr B. Scheube, arguing from a minute 
investigation of the physical traits of the Ainu, have concluded 
that they are Mongolians; according to Professor A. H. Keane 
the Ainu ``are quite distinct from the surrounding Mongolic 
peoples, and present several remarkable physical characters 
which seem to point to a remote connexion with the Caucasic 
races.  Such are a very full beard, shaggy or wavy black or 
dark-brown hair, sometimes covering the back and chest; a 
somewhat fair or even white complexion, large nose, straight 
eyes and regular features, often quite handsome and of European 
type.  They seem to be a last remnant of the Neolithic 
peoples, who ranged in prehistoric times across the northern 
hemisphere from the British Isles to Manchuria and Japan.  
They are bear-worshippers, and have other customs in common 
with the Manchurian aborigines, but the language is entirely 
different, and they have traditions of a time when they were 
the dominant people in the surrounding lands.'' It should be 
noted finally that the Ainu are altogether free from ferocity or 
exclusiveness, and that they treat strangers with gentle kindness. 

See Rev. John Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore 
(London, 1901); Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan 
(Washington, 1892); H. von Siebold, Uber die Aino 
(Berlin, 1881); Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop), Korea and her 
Neighbours (1898); Basil Hall Chamberlain, Language, 
Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in 
the Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895). 

AIR, or ASBEN, a country of West Africa, lying between 
15 deg.  and 19 deg.  N. and 6 deg.  and 10 deg.  E. It is within the 
Sahara, of which it forms one of the most fertile regions.  
The northern portion of the country is mountainous, some 
of the peaks rising to a height of 5000 ft.  Richly wooded 
hollows and extensive plains are interspersed between the 
hills.  The mimosa, the dum palm and the date are abundant.  
Some of the plains afford good pasturage for camels, asses, 
goats and cattle; others are desert tablelands.  In the less 
frequented districts wild animals abound, notably the lion 
and the gazelle.  The country generally is of sandstone or 
granite formation, with occasional trachyte and basaltic 
ranges.  There are no permanent rivers; but during the rainy 
season, from August to October, heavy floods convert the 
water-courses in the hollows of the mountains into broad and 
rapid streams.  Numerous wells supply the wants of the people 
and their cattle.  To the south of this variegated region 
lies a desert plateau, 2000 ft. above sea-level, destitute of 
water, and tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich and the 
giraffe.  Still farther south is the fairly fertile district of 
Damerghu, of which Zinder is the chief town.  Little of the 
soil is under cultivation except in the neighbourhood of the 
villages.  Millet, dates, indigo and senna are the principal 
productions.  The great bulk of the food supplies is brought from 
Damerghu, and the materials for clothing are also imported.  A 
great caravan annually passes through Air, consisting of several 
thousand camels, carrying salt from Bilma to the Hausa states. 

Air was called Asben by the native tribes until they were 
conquered by the Berbers.  The present inhabitants are for 
the most part of a mixed race, combining the finer traits 
of the berbers with negro characteristics.  The sultan of 
Air is to a great extent dependent on the chiefs of the 
Tuareg tribes inhabiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the 
north-west.  A large part of his revenue is derived from 
tribute exacted from the salt caravans.  Since 1890 Air has 
been included in the French sphere of influence in West Africa. 

Agades, the capital of the country, which has a circuit of 3 1/2 
m., is built on the edge of a plateau 2500 ft. high, and is 
supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a 
secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhoi 
empire.  The language of the people is a dialect of Songhoi.  
In former times Agades was a place of great traffic, and had 
a population of about 50,000.  Since the beginning of the 16th 
century the prosperity of the town has, however, gradually 
declined.  F. Foureau, who visited Agades in 1899, stated that 
more than half the total area was deserted and ruinous.  The 
houses, which are built of clay, are low and flat-roofed; 
and the only buildings of importance are the chief mosque, 
which is surmounted by a tower 95 ft. high, and the sultan's 
residence, a massive two-storied structure pierced with small 
windows.  The chief trade is grain.  The great salt caravans 
pass through it, as well as pilgrims on their way to Mecca. 

AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning ``breathe,'' ``blow''), 
the atmosphere that surrounds the earth; aer, the lower thick 
air, being distinguished from aither, With the development 
of analytical and especially of pneumatic chemistry, the air 
was recognized not to be one homogeneous substance, as was 
long supposed, and different ``airs,'' or gases, came to be 
distinguished.  Thus oxygen gas, at the end of the 18th 
century, was known as dephlogisticated air, nitrogen or 
azote as phlogisticated air, hydrogen as inflammable air, 
carbonic acid gas as fixed air.  The name is now ordinarily 
restricted to what is more accurately called atmospheric 
air--the air we breathe--the invisible elastic fluid which 
surrounds the earth (see ATMOSPHERE.) Probably the sense 
of atmosphere or environment led (though this is disputed 
by etymologists) to the further use of the word ``air'' to 
mean ``manner'' or ``appearance''; and so to its employment 
(cf. Lat. modus) in music for ``melody.'' (See ARIA.) 

AIRAY, HENRY (1560?-1616), English Puritan divine, was 
born at Kentmere, Westmorland, but no record remains of the 
date of either birth or baptism.  He was the son of William 
Airay, the favourite servant of Bernard Gilpin, ``the apostle 
of the North,'' whose bounty showed itself in sending Henry 
and his brother Evan (or Ewan) to his own endowed school, 
where they were educated ``in grammatical learning,'' and 
were in attendance at Oxford when Gilpin died.  From Wood's 
Athenae we glean the details of Airay's college attendance. 
``He was sent to St Edmund's hall in 1579, aged nineteen or 
thereabouts.  Soon after he was translated to Queen's 
College, where he became pauper puer serviens; that is, a 
poor serving child that waits on the fellows in the common 
hall at meals, and in their chambers, and does other servile 
work about the college.'' His transference to Queen's is 
perhaps explained by its having been Gilpin's college, and 
by his Westmorland origin giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's 
foundation.  He graduated B.A. on the 19th of June 1583, 
M.A. on the 15th of June 1586, B.D. in 1504 and D.D. on 
the 17th of June 1600--all in Queen's College. ``About the 
time he was master'' (1586) ``he entered holy orders, and 
became a frequent and zealous preacher in the university.'' 
His Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (1618, 
reprinted 1864) is a specimen of his preaching before his 
college, and of his fiery denunciation of popery and his 
fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford in common 
with all England then prized.  In 1598 he was chosen provost 
of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor of the 
university.  In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's duties 
he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early was 
manifesting his antagonism to the prevailing Puritanism. 

He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a living 
which involved him in a trying but successful litigation, 
whereof later incumbents reaped the benefit.  He died on 
the 6th of October 1610.  His character as a man, preacher, 
divine, and as an important ruler in the university, will be 
found portrayed in the Epistle by John Potter, prefixed to 
the Commentary. He must have been a fine specimen of the 
more cultured Puritans --possessed of a robust common-sense 
in admirable contrast with some of his contemporaries. 

AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born at Bowden, 
Roxburghshire, on the 28th of August 1802.  He was educated at 
Edinburgh University, where he made the acquaintance of Carlyle 
and James Hogg, and he decided to devote himself to literary 
work.  He published Martzoufie, a Tragedy, with other Poems 
(1826), a volume of essays, and a long narrative poem in 
several cantos, The Captive of Fez (1830).  For a year he 
edited the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and for twenty-eight 
years the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald. In 1848 he 
published a collected edition of his poems, which met with much 
favour.  Carlyle said that he found in them ``a healthy breath 
as of mountain breezes.'' Among Aird's other friends were De 
Quincey, Lockhart, Stanley (afterwards dean of Westminster) and 
Motherwell.  He died at Dumfries on the 25th of April 1876. 

AIRDRIE, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, 
Scotland.  Pop. (1901) 22,228.  It is situated 11 m.  E. of 
Glasgow by the North British railway, and also communicates with 
Glasgow by the Monkland Canal (which passes within 1 m. of the 
town), as well as by the Caledonian railway via Coatbridge and 
Whiffiet.  The canal was constructed between 1761 and 1790, 
and connects with the Forth and Clyde Canal near Maryhill.  
Airdrie was a market town in 1695, but owes its prosperity to 
the great coal and iron beds in its vicinity.  Other industries 
include iron and brass foundries, engineering, manufactures 
of woollens and calicoes, silk-weaving, paper-making, oil and 
fireclay.  The public buildings comprise the town hall, county 
buildings, mechanics' institute, academy, two fever hospitals 
and free library, the burgh having been the first town in 
Scotland to adopt the Free Library Act. Airdrie unites with 
Falkirk.  Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow in sending one member to 
parliament.  The parish of New Monkland, in which Airdrie 
lies, was formed (with Old Monkland)in 1640 out of the ancient 
barony of Monkland, so named from the fact that it was part 
of the lands granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks of Newbattle. 

AIRE, a town of south-western France, in the department 
of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 22 m.  S.E. of 
Mont-de-Marsan on the Southern railway between Morcenx and 
Tarbes.  Pop. (1906) 2283.  It is the seat of a bishopric, and 
has a cathedral of the 12th century and an episcopal palace of 
the 11th, 17th and 18th centuries.  Both have undergone frequent 
restoration.  They are surpassed in interest by the church 
of St Quitterie in Mas d'Aire, the suburb south-west of the 
town.  The latter is a brick building of the 13th and 14th 
centuries, with a choir in the Romanesque style, and a fine 
western portal which has been much disfigured.  The crypt 
contains several Gallo-Roman tombs and the sarcophagus (5th 
century) of St Quitterie.  Aire has two ecclesiastical seminaries. 

Aire (Atura, Vicus Julii) was the residence of the kings of 
the Visigoths, One of whom, Alaric II. (q.v.), there drew 
up his famous code.  The bishopric dates from the 5th century. 

AIRE, a town of northern France, on the river Lys, in the 
department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 m.  S.S.E. of St Omer by 
rail.  Pop. (1906) 4258.  The town lies in a low and 
marshy situation at the junction of three canals.  The 
chief buildings are the church of St Pierre (15th and 16th 
centuries), which has an imposing tower and rich interior 
decoration; a hotel de ville of the 18th century; and the 
Bailliage (16th century), a small building in the Renaissance 
style.  Aire has flour-mills, leather and oil works, and 
nail manufactories, and trade in agricultural produce. 

In the middle ages Aire belonged to the counts of Flanders, 
from whom in 1188 it received a charter, which is still 
extant.  It was given to France by the peace of Utrecht 1713. 

AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air for 
their working substance, that is to say for the substance which 
is caused alternately to expand and contract by application 
and removal of heat, this process enabling a portion of the 
applied heat to be transformed into mechanical work.  Just 
as the working substance which alternately takes in and gives 
out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a 
part of the action into steam), so in the air-engine it is 
air.  The practical drawbacks to employing air as the working 
substance of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very 
limited.  Such attempts as have been made to design air-engines 
on a large scale have been practical failures, and are now 
interesting only as.steps in the historical development of 
applied thermodynamics.  In the form of motors for producing 
very small amounts of power air-engines have been found 
convenient, and within a restricted field they are still met 
with.  But even in this field the competition of the 
oil-engine and the gas-engine is too formidable to leave to 
the air-engine more than a very narrow chance of employment. 

One of the chief practical objections to air-engines is the 
great bulk of the working substance in relation to the amount 
of heat that is utilized in the working of the engine.  To 
some extent this objection may be reduced by using the air 
in a state of compression, and therefore of greater density, 
throughout its operation.  Even then, however, the amount of 
operative heat is very small in comparison with that which 
passes through the steam-engine, per cubic foot swept through 
by the piston, for the change of state which water undergoes 
in its transformation into steam involves the taking in of 
much more heat than can be communicated to air in changing its 
temperature within such a range as is practicable.  Another 
and not less serious objection is the practical difficulty 
of getting heat into the working air through the walls of the 
containing vessel.  The air receives heat from an external 
furnace just as water does in the boiler of a steam-engine, 
by contact with a heated metallic surface, but it takes up 
heat from such a surface with much less readiness than does 
water.  The waste of heat in the chimney gases is accordingly 
greater; and further, the metallic shell is liable to be 
quickly burned away as a result of its contact at a high 
temperature with free oxygen.  The temperature of the shell 
is much higher than that of a steam boiler, for in order to 
secure that the working air will take up a fair amount of 
heat, the upper limit to which its temperature is raised 
greatly exceeds that of even high-pressure steam.  This 
objection to the air-engine arises from the fact that the 
heat comes to it from external combustion; it disappears 
when internal combustion is resorted to; that is to say, 
when the heat is generated within the envelope containing 
the working air, by the combustion there of gaseous or other 
fuel.  Gas-engines and oil-engines and other types of engine 
employing internal combustion may be regarded as closely 
related to the air-engine.  They differ from it, however, in 
the fact that their working substance is not air, but a mixture 
of gases--a necessary consequence of internal combustion.  It 
is to internal combustion that they owe their success, for it 
enables them to get all the heat of combustion into the working 
substance, to use a relatively very high temperature at the 
top of the range, and at the same time to escape entirely 
the drawbacks that arise in the air-engine proper through the 
need of conveying heat to the air through a metallic shell. 

A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the 
Rev. R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the 
earliest application of what is known as the ``regenerative'' 
principle, the principle namely that heat may be deposited 
by a substance at one stage of its action and taken up again 
at another stage with but little loss, and with a great 
resulting change in the substance's temperature at each of the 
two stages in the operation.  The principle has since found 
wide application in metallurgical and other operations.  In 
any heat-engine it is essential that the working substance 
should be at a high temperature while it is taking in heat, 
and at a relatively low temperature when it is rejecting 
heat.  The highest thermodynamic efficiency will be reached 
when the working substance is at the top of its temperature 
range while any heat is being received and at the bottom while 
any heat is being rejected--as is the case in the cycle of 
operations of the theoretically imagined engine of Carnot. 

(See THERMODYNAMICS and STEAM-ENGINE.) In Carnot's cycle 
the substance takes in heat at its highest temperature, then 
passes by adiabatic expansion from the top to the bottom of 
its temperature range, then rejects heat at the bottom of the 
range, and is finally brought back by adiabatic compression 
to the highest temperature at which it again takes in heat, 
and so on.  An air-engine working on this cycle would be 
intolerably bulky and mechanically inefficient.  Stirling 
substituted for the two stages of adiabatic expansion and 
compression the passage of the air to and fro through a 
``regenerator,'' in which the air was alternately cooled 
by storing its heat in the material of the regenerator and 
reheated by picking the stored heat up again on the return 
journey.  The essential parts of one form of Stirling's engine 
are shown in fig. 1. There A is the externally fired heating 
vessel, the lower part of which contains hot air which is 
taking in heat from the furnace beneath.  A pipe from the 
top of A leads to the working cylinder (B). At the top of 
A is a cooler (C) consisting of pipes through which cold 
water is made to circulate.  In A there is a displacer (D) 
which is connected (by parts not shown) with the piston in 
such a manner that it moves down when the piston has moved 
up.  The air-pressure is practically the same above and 
below D, for these spaces are in free communication with 
one another through the regenerator (E), which is an annular 
space stacked loosely with wire-gauze.  When D moves down, 
the hot air is driven up through the regenerator to the upper 
part of the containing vessel.  It deposits its heat in the 
wire-gauze, becoming lowered in temperature and consequently 
reduced in pressure.  The piston (B) descends, and the air, 
now in contact with the cooling pipes (C), gives up heat to 
them.  Then the displacer (D) is raised.  The air passes down 
through its regenerator, picking up the heat deposited there, 
and thereby having its temperature restored and its pressure 
raised.  It then takes in heat from the furnace, expanding in 
volume and forcing the piston (B) to rise, which completes the 
cycle.  The engine was double-acting, another heating vessel 
like A being connected with the upper end of the working cylinder 
at F. The stages at which heat is taken from the furnace and 
rejected to the cooler (C) are approximately isothermal at the 
upper and lower limits of temperature respectively, and the cycle 
accordingly is approximately ``perfect'' in the thermodynamic 
sense.  The theoretical indicator diagram is made up of two 
isothermal lines for the taking in and rejection of heat, and 
two lines of constant volume for the two passages through the 
regenerator.  This engine was the subject of two patents 
(by R. and S. Stirling) in 1827 and 1840.  A double-acting 
Stirling engine of 50 horse-power, using air which was 
maintained by a pump at a fairly high pressure throughout the 
operations, was used for some years in the Dundee Foundry, 
where it is oredited with having consumed only 1.7 lb. of coal 
per hour per indicated horse-power.  The coal consumption per 
brake-horse-power was no doubt much greater.  It was finally 
abandoned on account of the failure of the heating vessels. 

The type survives in some small domestic motors, an example of 
which, manufactured under the patent of H. Robinson, is shown 
in fig. 2. In this there is no compressing pump, and the main 
pressure of the working air is simply that of the atmosphere.  
The whole range of pressure is so slight that no packing is 
required.  Here A is the vessel in which the air is heated 
and within which the displacer works.  It is heated by a small 
cokefire or by a gas flame in C. It communicates through a 
passage (D) with the working cylinder (B) . The displacer (E) 
which takes its motion through a rod (I) from a rocking lever 
(F) connected by a short link to the crank-pin, is itself the 
regenerator, its construction being such that the air passes 
up and down through it as in one of the original Stirling 
forms.  The cooler is a water vessel (G) through which water 
circulates from a tank (H). Ylessrs.  Hayward and Tyler's 
``Rider'' engine may be mentioned as another small hot-air 
motor which follows nearly the Stirling cycle of operations. 

An attempt to develop a powerful air-engine was made in 
America about 1833 by John Ericsson, who applied it to marine 
propulsion in the ship ``Caloric,'' but without permanent 
success.  Like Stirling, Ericsson used a regenerator, but with 
this difference that the pressure instead of the volume of the air 
remained constant while it passed in each direction through the 
regenerator.  Cold air was compressed by a. pump into a receiver, 
where it was kept cool during compression and from which it 
passed through a regenerator into the working cylinder.  In 
so passing it took up heat and expanded.  It was then allowed 
to expand further, taking in heat from a furnace under the 
cylinder and falling in pressure.  This expansion was continued 
till the pressure of the working air fell nearly to that of the 
atmosphere.  It was then discharged through the regenerator, 
depositing heat for the next charge of air in turn to take 
up.  The indicator diagram approximated to a form made up 
of two isothermal lines and two lines of constant pressure. 

In the transmission of power by compressed air (see POWER 
TRANSMISSION) the air-driven motors are for the most part 
machines resembling steam-engines in the general features of 
their pistons, cylinders, valves and so forth.  Such machines 
are not properly described as air-engines since their function 
is not the conversion of heat into work.  Incidentally, 
however, they do in some cases partially discharge that 
function, namely, when what is called a ``preheater'' is used 
to warm up the compressed air before it enters in the motor 
cylinder.  The object of this device is not, primarily, to 
produce work from heat, but to escape the inconveniences 
that would otherwise arise through extreme cooling of the 
air during its expansion.  Without preheating the expanding 
air becomes so cold as to be liable to deposit snow from 
the moisture held in suspension, and thereby to clog the 
valves.  With preheating this is avoided, and the amount 
of work done by a given quantity of air is increased by the 
conversion into work of a part of the supplementary energy 
which the preheater supplies in the form of heat. (J. A. E.) 

AIREY, RICHARD AIREY, BARON (1803-1881), British general, 
was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir George Airey (1761-1833) 
and was born in 1803.  He entered the army in 1821, became 
captain in 1825, and served on the staff of Sir Frederick 
Adam in the Ionian Islands (1827-1830) and on that of Lord 
Aylmer in North America (1830-1832).  In 1838 Airey, then a 
lieutenant-colonel, went to the Horse Guards, where in 1852 
he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief, Lord 
Hardinge.  In 1854 he was given a brigade command in the 
army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was 
immediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post 
of quartermaster-general to Lord Raglan, in which capacity 
he served through the campaign in the Crimea.  He was made 
a major-general in December 1854, and it was universally 
recognized in the army that he was the best soldier on Lord 
Raglan's staff.  He was made a K.C.B., and was reported upon 
most favourably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and Sir J. 
Simpson.  Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older 
sense of the word, i.e. a chief of the general staff, but a 
different view of the duties of the office was then becoming 
recognized.  Public opinion held him and his department 
responsible for the failures and mismanagement of the 
commissariat.  Airey demanded an inquiry on his return to 
England and cleared himself completely, but he never recovered 
from the effects of the unjust persecution of which he 
had been made the victim, though the popular view was not 
shared by his military superiors.  He gave up his post at 
the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at 
home.  In 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and 
from 1865 to 1870 he was governor of Gibraltar, receiving 
the G.C.B. in 1867.  In 1870 he became adjutant-general 
at headquarters, and in 1871 attained the full rank of 
general.  In 1876, on his retirement, he was created a 
peer, and in 1879-1880 he presided over the celebrated Airey 
commission on army reform.  He died at the house of Lord 
Wolseley, at Leatherhead, on the 14th of September 1881. 

AIR-GUN, a gun in which the force employed to propel the 
bullet is the elasticity of compressed atmospheric air.  
It has attached to it, or constructed in it, a reservoir of 
compressed air, a portion of which, liberated into the space 
behind the bullet when the trigger is pulled, propels the 
bullet from the barrel by its expansion.  The common forms of 
air-gun, which are merely toys, are charged by compressing a 
spiral spring, one end of which forms a piston working in a 
cylinder; when released by a pull on the trigger, this spring 
expands, and the air forced out in front of it propels the 
bullet.  Air-guns of this kind are sometimes made to 
resemble walking-sticks and are then known as air-canes. 

AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892), British Astronomer 
Royal, was born at Alnwick on the 27th of July 1801.  
He came of a long line of Airys who traced their descent 
back to a family of the same name residing at Eentmere, in 
Westmorland, in the 14th century; but the branch to which 
he belonged, having suffered in the Civil wars, removed to 
Lincolnshire, where for several generations they lived as 
farmers.  George Airy was educated first at elementary 
schools in Hereford, and afterwards at Colchester Grammar 
School.  In 1819 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a 
sizar.  Here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have 
been almost immediately recognized as the leading man of his 
year.  In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the 
following year he graduated as senior wrangler and obtained 
first Smith's prize.  On the 1st of October 1824 he was 
elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was appointed 
Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to Thomas 
Turton.  This chair he held for little more than a year, being 
elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy and 
director of the new Cambridge observatory.  Some idea of his 
activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects 
during these early years may be gathered from the fact that 
previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than 
three important memoirs to the Philisophical Transactions of 
the Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical 
Society.  At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon gave evidence 
of his remarkable power of organization.  The only telescope 
erected in the establishment when he took it in charge was 
the transit instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted 
himself.  By the adoption of a regular system of work, 
and a careful plan of reduction, he was able to keep his 
observations reduced practically up to date, and published 
them annually with a degree of punctuality which astonished his 
contemporaries.  Before long a mural circle was installed, 
and regular observations were instituted with it in 1833.  
In the same year the duke of Northumberland presented the 
Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of 12 in. 
aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs 
and under his superintendence, although the erection was 
not completed until after his removal to Greenwich in 
1835.  Airy's writings during this time are divided between 
mathematical physics and astronomy.  The former are for the 
most part concerned with questions relating to the theory of 
light, arising out of his professorial lectures, among which 
may be specially mentioned his paper ``On the Diffraction of 
an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture.'' In 1831 the Copley 
medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him for these 
researches.  Of his astronomical writings during this period 
the most important are his investigation of the mass of 
Jupiter, his report to the British Association on the progress 
of astronomy during the 19th century, and his memoir On an 
Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the Earth and Venus. 

One of the sections of his able and instructive report 
was devoted to ``A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy 
in England with that in other Countries,'' very much 
to the disadvantage of England.  This reproach was 
subsequently to a great extent removed by his own labours. 

Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of 
Venus and the earth is in some respects his most remarkable 
achievement.  In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar 
tables he had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by 
their constructor.  The cause of this he did not long seek in 
vain.  Eight times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal 
to thirteen times that of the earth that the difference amounts 
to only the 1/240th of the earth's mean motion, and from the 
fact that the term depending on this difference, although very 
small in itself, receives in the integration of the differential 
equations a multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to 
infer the existence of a sensible inequality extending over 
240 years (Phil.  Trans. cxxii. 67). The investigation that 
brought about this result was probably the most laborious 
that had been made up to Airy's time in planetary theory, and 
represented the first specific improvement in the solar tables 
effected in England since the establishment of the theory of 
gravitation.  In recognition of this work the medal of 
the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1833. 

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succession 
to John Pond, and thus commenced that long career of wisely 
directed and vigorously sustained industry at the national 
observatory which, even more perhaps than his investigations 
in abstract science or theoretical astronomy, constitutes 
his chief title to fame.  The condition of the observatory 
at the time of his appointment was such that Lord Auckland, 
the first lord of the Admiralty, considered that ``it ought 
to be cleared out,'' while Airy admitted that ``it was in 
a queer state.'' With his usual energy he set to work at 
once to reorganize the whole management.  He remodelled the 
volumes of observations, put the library on a proper footing, 
mounted the new (Sheepshanks) equatorial and organized a new 
magnetic observatory.  In 1847 an altazimuth was erected, 
designed by Airy to enable observations of the moon to be 
made not only on the meridian, but whenever she might be 
visible.  In 1848 Airy invented the reflex zenith tube to 
replace the zenith sector previously employed.  At the end 
of 1850 the great transit circle of 8 in. aperture and 11 ft. 
6 in. focal length was erected, and is still the principal 
instrument of its class at the observatory.  The mounting in 
1859 of an equatorial of 13 in. aperture evoked the comment 
in his journal for that year, ``There is not now a single 
person employed or instrument used in the observatory which 
was there in Mr Pond's time''; and the transformation was 
completed by the inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 
and of the photographic registration of sun-spots in 1873. 

The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated planetary 
observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 was already 
in progress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer 
Royal.  Shortly afterwards he undertook the further laborious 
task of reducing the enormous mass of observations of the moon 
made at Greenwich during the same period under the direction, 
successively, of J. Bradley, N. Bliss, N. Maskelyne and John 
Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of money was 
allotted by the Treasury.  As the result, no less than 8000 
lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, in 
1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form 
that they could be used directly for comparison with the 
theory and for the improvement of the tables of the moon's 
motion.  For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial 
from the Royal Astronomical Society, and it at once led to 
the discovery by P. A. Hansen of two new inequalities in the 
moon's motion.  After completing these reductions, Airy made 
inquiries, before engaging in any theoretical investigation 
in connexion with them, whether any other mathematician was 
pursuing the subject, and learning that Hansen had taken 
it in hand under the patronage of the king of Denmark, but 
that, owing to the death of the king and the consequent lack 
of funds, there was danger of his being compelled to abandon 
it, he applied to the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the 
necessary sum.  His request was immediately granted, and 
thus it came about that Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune 
were dedicated to La Haute Amiraute de sa Majeste la 
Reine de la Grande Bretagne et d'Irlande. One of the most 
remarkable of Airy's researches was his determination of the 
mean density of the earth.  In 1826 the idea occurred to him 
of attacking this problem by means of pendulum experiments at 
the top and bottom of a deep mine.  His first attempt, made 
in the same year at the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, failed in 
consequence of an accident to one of the pendulums; a second 
attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, 
and many years elapsed before another opportunity presented 
itself.  The experiments eventually took place at the Harton 
pit near South Shields in 1854.  Their immediate result was 
to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded that 
at the top by 1/19286th of its amount, the depth being 1256 
ft.  From this he was led to the final value of 6.566 for 
the mean density of the earth as compared with that of water 
(Phil.  Trans. cxlvi. 342).  This value, although considerably 
in excess of that previously found by different methods, was 
held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the 
observations were carried out and discussed, to be ``entitled 
to compete with the others on, at least, equal terms.'' 

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory 
in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on 
the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed.  A general 
description of his method will be found in the Monthly 
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv.  No. 
3. It consisted essentially in the adoption of Delauny's final 
numerical expressions for longitude, latitude and parallax, 
with a symbolic term attached to each number, the value of 
which was to be determined by substitution in the equations of 
motion.  In this mode of treating the question the order of the 
terms is numerical, and though the amount of labour is such as 
might well have deterred a younger man, yet the details were 
easy, and a great part of it might be entrusted to a mere 
computer.  The work was published in 1886, when its author was 
eighty-five years of age.  For some little time previously he 
had been harassed by a suspicion that certain errors had crept 
into the computations, and accordingly he addressed himself 
to the task of revision.  But his powers were no longer what 
they had been, and he was never able to examine sufficiently 
into the matter.  In 1890 he tells us how a grievous error 
had been committed in one of the first steps, and pathetically 
adds, ``My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never 
heartily proceeded with it since.'' In 1881 Sir George Airy 
resigned the office of Astronomer Royal and resided at the 
White House, Greenwich, not far from the Royal Observatory, 
until his death, which took place on the 2nd of January 1892. 

A complete list of Airy's printed papers, numbering no less 
than 518, will be found in his Autobiography, edited in 
1890 by his son, Wilfrid Airy, B. A., M. Inst.  C.E. Amongst 
the most important of his works not already mentioned may be 
named the following:--Mathematical Tracts (1826) on the Lunar 
Theory, Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and 
Calculus of Variations, to which, in the second edition 
of 1828, were added tracts on the Planetary Theory and 
the Undulatory Theory of Light; Experiments on Iron-built 
Ships. instituted for the purpose of discovering a correction 
for the deviation of the compass produced by the Iron of 
the Ships (1839); On the Theoretical Explanation of an 
apparent new Polarity in Light (1840); Tides And Waves 
(1842).  He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 
1836, its president in 1871, and received both the Cooley 
and Royal medals.  He was five times president of the 
Royal Astronomical Society, was correspondent of the French 
Academy and belonged to many other foreign and American 
societies.  He was D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge and 
Edinburgh.  In 1872 he was made K.C.B.  In the same year 
he was nominated a Grand Cross in the Imperial Order of the 
Rose of Brazil; he also held the Prussian Order ``Pour le 
Merite,'' and belonged to the Legion of Honour of France 
and to the Order of the North Star of Sweden and Norway. 

See also Proc.  Roy. Society, li. 1 (E. J. Routh); Month.  Notices 
Roy. Astr.  Society, lii. 212; Observatory, xv. 74 (E. Dunkin); 
Nature, 31st of Oct. 1878 (A. Winnecke), 7th of Jan. 1892; The 
Times, 5th of Jan. 1892; R. Grant's Hist. of Phys.  Astronomy; 
R. P. Graves's life of Sir W. Rowan Hamilton. (A. A. R.*) 

AISLABIR, JOHN (1670-1742), English politician, was born at 
Goodramgate, York, on the 7th of December 1670.  He was the 
fourth son of George Aislabie, principal registrar of the 
archiepiscopal court of York.  In 1695 he was elected member 
of parliament for Ripon.  In 1712 he was appointed one of the 
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, 
and in 1714 became treasurer of the navy, being sworn in two 
years later as a member of the privy council.  In March 1718 
he became chancellor of the exchequer.  The proposal of the 
South Sea Company to pay off the national debt was strenuously 
supported by Aislabie, and finally accepted in an amended form 
by the House of Commons.  After the collapse of that company a 
secret committee of inquiry was appointed by the Commons, and 
Aislabie, who had in the meantime resigned the seals of his 
office, was declared guilty of having encouraged and promoted 
the South Sea scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, 
and was expelled the House.  Though committed to the Tower he 
was soon released, and was allowed to retain the property he 
possessed before 1718, including his country estate, to which 
he retired to pass the rest of his days.  He died in 1742. 

AISLE (from Lat. ALA, a wing), a term which in its primary 
sense means the wing of a house, but is generally applied in 
architecture to the lateral divisions of a church or large 
building.  The earliest example is that found in the basilica 
of Trajan, which had double aisles on either side of the 
central area; the same number existed in the original church 
of St Peter's at Rome, in the basilica at Bethlehem, and 
according to Eusebius in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at 
Jerusalem.  The aisles are divided from the nave or central area 
by colonnades or arcades, and may flank also the transept or 
choir, being distinguished as nave-aisles, transept-aisles or 
choir-aisles.  If the choir is semi-circular, and the 
aisles, carried round, give access to a series of chapels, 
the whole arrangement is known as the chevet.  As a rule 
in Great Britain there is only one aisle on each side of 
the nave, the only exceptions being Chichester and Elgin 
cathedrals, where there are two.  Many European cathedrals 
have two aisles on each side, as those of Paris, Bourges, 
Amiens, Troyes, St Sernin, Toulouse, Cologne, Milan, Seville, 
Toledo; and in those of Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Bourges, 
Seville and Toledo, double aisles flank the choir on each 
side.  The cathedral at Antwerp has three aisles on each 
side.  In some of the churches in Germany the aisles are of 
the same height as the nave.  These churches are known as 
HALLENKIRCHEN, the principal examples being St Stephen's, 
Vienna, the Weissekirche at Soest.  St Martin's, Landshut, 
Munich cathedral, and the Marienkirche at Danzig. (R. P. S.) 

AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France, 
formed in 1790 from portions of the old provinces of 
Ile-de-France and Picardy.  Area 2866 sq. m.  Pop. (1906) 
534,495.  It is bounded N. by the department of Nord and 
the kingdom of Belgium, E. by the department of Ardennes, 
S.E. by that of Marne, S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and W. 
by those of Oise and Somme.  The surface of the department 
consists of undulating and well-wooded plains, intersected 
by numerous valleys, and diversified in the north-east by 
hilly ground which forms a part of the mountain system of the 
Ardennes.  Its general slope is from north-east, where the 
culminating point (930 ft.) is found, to south-west, though 
altitudes exceeding 750 ft. are also found in the south.  
The chief rivers are the Somme, the Escaut and the Sambre, 
which have their sources in the north of the department; the 
Oise, traversing the north-west, with its tributaries the 
Serre and the Aisne, the latter of which joins it beyond the 
limits of the department; and the Marne and the Ourcq in the 
south.  The climate is in general cold and humid, especially 
in the north-east.  Agriculture is highly developed; 
cereals, principally wheat and oats, and beetroot are the 
chief crops; potatoes, flax, hemp, rape and hops are also 
grown.  Pasturage is good, particularly in the north-east, 
where dairy-farming flourishes.  Wine of medium quality is 
grown on the banks of the Marne and the Aisne.  Bee-farming 
is of some importance.  Large tracts of the department are 
under wood; the chief forests are those of Nouvion and St 
Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre, and 
Villers-Cotterets in the south.  The osiers grown in the 
vicinity of St Quentin supply an active basket-making industry. 

Though destitute of metals Aisne furnishes abundance of 
freestone, gypsum and clay.  There are numerous tile and 
brick works in the department.  Its most important industrial 
establishments are the mirror manufactory of St Gobain and the 
chemical works at Chauny, and the workshops and foundries of 
Guise, the property of an association of workpeople organized 
on socialistic lines and producing iron goods of various 
kinds.  The manufacture of sugar is very important; brewing, 
distilling, flour-milling, iron-founding, the weaving and 
spinning of cotton, wool and silk, and the manufacture of iron 
goods, especially agricultural implements, are actively carried 
on.  Aisne imports coal, iron, cotton and other raw material 
and machinery; it exports cereals, live-stock and agricultural 
products generally, and manufactured goods.  The department 
is served chiefly by the lines of the Northern railway; in 
addition, the main line of the Eastern railway to Strassburg 
traverses the extreme south.  The Oise, Aisne and Marne are 
navigable, and canals furnish 170 m. of waterway.  Aisne is 
divided into five arrondissements--St Quentin and Vervins in the 
north, Laon in the centre, and Soissons and Chateau-Thierry 
in the south-and contains 37 cantons and 841 communes.  
It forms part of the educational division (academie) 
of Douai and of the region of the second army corps, its 
military centre being at Amiens, where also is its court of 
appeal.  Laon is the capital, and Soissons the seat of a 
bishopric of the province of Reims.  Other important places 
are Chateau-Thierry, St Quentin and Coucy-le-Chateau.  La 
Forte-Milon has remains of an imposing chateau of the 14th 
and 15th centuries with interesting fortifications.  The 
ruined church at Longpont (13th century) is the relic of an 
important Cistercian abbey; Urcel and Mont-Notre-Dame have 
fine churches, the first entirely in the Romanesque style, 
the second dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, to which 
period the church at Braisne also belongs.  At Premontre 
the buildings of the abbey, which was the cradle of the 
Premonstratensian order, are occupied by a lunatic asylum. 

AISSE [a corruption of HAIDEE], MADEMOISELLE (c. 
1694-1733), French letter-writer, was the daughter of a 
Circassian chief, and was born about 1694.  Her father's palace 
was pillaged by the Turks, and as a child of four years old 
she was sold to the comte de Ferriol, the French ambassador at 
Constantinople.  She was brought up in Paris by Ferriol's 
sister-in-law with her own sons, MM. d'Argental and Pont de 
Veyle.  Her great beauty and romantic history made her the 
fashion, and she attracted the notice of the regent, Philip, 
duke of Orleans, whose offers she had the strength of mind to 
refuse.  She formed a deep and lasting attachment to the 
Chevalier d'Aydie, by whom she had a daughter.  She died in 
Paris on the 13th of March 1733.  Her letters to her friend 
Madame Calandrini contain much interesting information with 
regard to contemporary celebrities, especially on Mme. du 
Deffand and Mme. de Tencin, but they are above all of interest 
in the picture they afford of the writer's own tenderness and 
fidelity.  Her Lettres were edited by Voltaire (1787), 
by J. Ravenel, with a notice by Sainte-Beuve (1846) 
and by Eugene Asse (1873).  Mlle.  Aisse has been the 
subject of three plays: by A. de Lavergne and P. Woucher 
(1854), by Louis Bouilhet (1872) and by Dejoux (1898). 

See also Courteault, Une Idylle au XVIIIe siecle, Mlle.  
Aisse et le Chevalier d'Aydie (Macon, 1900); and notices 
prefixed to the editions of 1846 and 1873.  There is an 
interesting essay by E. Gosse in his French Profiles (1905). 

AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793), Scottish botanist, was born 
near Hamilton in 1731.  Having been regularly trained to the 
profession of a gardener, he travelled to London in 1754, 
and became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent 
of the Physic Garden at Chelsea.  In 1759 he was appointed 
director of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, 
where he remained until his death on the 2nd of February 
1793.  He effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 
he published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants there 
cultivated.  A second and enlarged edition of the Hortus was 
brought out in 1810-1813 by his eldest son, WILLIAM TOWNSEND 
AITON (1766-1849), who succeeded him at Kew and was commissioned 
by George IV. to lay out the gardens at the Pavilion, Brighton. 

AITZEMA, LIEUWE (LEO) VAN (1600-1669), Dutch historian 
and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19th 
of November 1600.  In 1617 he published a volume of Latin 
poems under the title of Poemata Juvenilia, of which a 
copy is preserved in the British Museum.  He made a special 
study of politics and political science and was for thirty 
years resident for the towns of the Hanseatic League at the 
Hague, where he died on the 23rd of February 1669.  His most 
important work was the Saken van Staet in Oorlogh in ende 
omtrent de Vereenigte Nederlanden (14 Vols. 4to, 1655-1671), 
embracing the period from 1621 to 1668.  It contains a large 
number of state documents, and is an invaluable authority 
on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history. 

Four continuations of the history, by the poet and 
historian Lambert van den Bos, were published successively 
at Amsterdam in 1683, 1688, 1698 and 1699.  The Derde 
Vervolg Zinde het vierde Stuck van het vervolgh op 
de historie, &c., brings the history down to 1697. 

AIVALI (Gr. Kydonia), a prosperous town on the W. 
coast of Asia Minor, opposite the island of Mitylene.  Pop. 
21,000.  It stands near the site of the Aeolian Heraclea, on 
rising ground at the end of a bay which is separated from the 
Gulf of Adramyttium, and protected from the prevailing winds 
by the Moschonisi Islands (Hecatonnesoi.) In 1821 it was 
burned to the ground during a fight between the Turks and the 
Greeks, and a large number of its Greek population killed or 
enslaved.  It is one of the most thriving towns in the 
Levant, with a purely Greek population distinguished for its 
commercial, industrial and maritime enterprise.  The exports 
are olive oil, grain and wood, and a fleet of fishing-boats 
supplies Constantinople and Smyrna with fish; the exports 
in 1902 were valued at L. 987,070, and the imports at 

AIWAN, the reception-hall or throne-room of a Parthian or Sassanian palace. 

AIX, a city of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement 
in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 18 m.  N. of Marseilles 
by rail.  Pop. (1906) 19,433.  It is situated in a plain 
overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the 
river.  The Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted 
with double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses 
and decorated by three fountains, divides the town into two 
portions.  The new town extends to the south, the old town 
with its wide but irregular streets and its old mansions 
dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries lies to the 
north.  Aix is an important educational centre, being the 
seat of the faculties of law and letters of the university of 
Aix-Marseille, and the north and east quarter of the town, 
where the schools and university buildings are situated, is 
comparable to the Latin Quarter of Paris.  The cathedral of St 
Sauveur, which dates from the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, 
is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a rich 
portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and 
is flanked on the north by an uncompleted tower.  The interior 
contains tapestry of the 16th century and other works of 
art.  The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin 
the cathedral on its south side.  The church of St Jean de 
Malto, dating from the 13th century, contains some valuable 
pictures.  The hotel de ville, a building in the classical style 
of the middle of the 17th century, looks on to a picturesque 
square.  It contains some fine wood-work and a large library 
which includes many valuable MSS. At its side rises a handsome 
clock-tower erected in 1505.  Aix possesses many beautiful 
fountains, one of which in the Cours Mirabeau is surmounted 
by a statue of Rene, count of Provence, who held a brilliant 
court at Aix in the 15th century.  Aix has thermal springs, 
remarkable for their heat and containing lime and carbonic 
acid.  The bathing establishment was built in 1705 near the 
site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which vestiges still 
remain.  The town, which is the seat of an archbishop and 
court of appeal, and the centre of an academie (educational 
circumscription), numbers among its public institutions 
a Court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, and a chamber of arts and manufactures.  It also has 
training-colleges, a lycee, a school of art and technics, 
museums of antiquities, natural history and painting, 
and several learned societies.  The industries include 
flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery, iron-ware 
and hats, and the distillation of olive-oil.  Trade is in 
olive-oil, almonds and stone from the neighbouring quarries. 

Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded in 123 B.C. by the 
Roman consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its 
springs.  In 102 B.C. its neighbourhood was the scene of 
the defeat inflicted on the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius.  
In the 4th century it became the metropolis of Narbonensis 
Secunda.  It was occupied by the Visigoths in 477, in the 
succeeding century was repeatedly plundered by the Franks 
and Lombards, and was occupied by the Saracens in 731. Aix, 
which during the middle ages was the capital of the county 
of Provence, did not reach its zenith until after the 12th 
century, when, under the houses of Aragon and Anjou, it became 
an artistic centre and seat of learning.  With the rest of 
Provence, it passed to the crown of France in 1487, and in 
1501 Louis XII. established there the parlement of Provence 
which existed till 1789.  In the 17th and 18th centuries 
the town was the seat of the intendance of Provence. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Ger. Aachen, Dutch Aken), a city and 
spa of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, situated in a 
pleasant valley, 44 m.  W. of Cologne and contiguous to the 
Belgian and Dutch frontiers, to which its municipal boundaries 
extend.  Pop. (1885) 95,725; (1905) including Burtscheid, 
143,906.  Its position, at the centre of direct railway 
communications with Cologne and Dusseldorf respectively on 
the E. and Liege-Brussels and Maestricht-Antwerp on the W., 
has favoured its rise to one of the most prosperous commerical 
towns of Germany.  The city consists of the old inner town, the 
former ramparts of which have been converted into promenades, 
and the newer outer town and suburbs.  Of the ancient gates 
but two remain, the Ponttor on the N.W. and the Marschiertor 
on the S. Its general appearance is that rather of a spacious 
modern, than of a medieval city full of historical associations. 

Of the cluster of buildings in the centre, which are conspicuous 
from afar, the town hall (Rathaus) and the cathedral are 
specially noteworthy.  The former, standing on the south 
side of the market square, is a Gothic structure, erected in 
1353-1370 on the ruins of Charlemagne's palace.  It contains 
the magnificent coronation hall of the emperors (143 ft. 
by 61 ft.), in which thirty-five German kings and eleven 
queens have banqueted after the coronation ceremony in the 
cathedral.  The two ancient towers, the Granusturm to the 
W. and the Glockenturm to the E., both of which to a large 
extent had formed part of the Carolingian palace, were all 
but destroyed in the fire by which the Rathaus was seriously 
damaged in 1883.  Their restoration was completed in 
1902.  Behind the Rathaus is the Grashaus, in which Richard 
of Cornwall, king of the Romans, is said to have held his 
court.  It was restored in 1889 to accommodate the municipal 
archives.  The cathedral is of great historic and architectural 
interest.  Apart from the spire, which was rebuilt in 1884, it 
consists of two parts of different styles and date.  The older 
portion, the capella in palatio, an octagonal building 
surmounted by a dome, was designed on the model of San Vitale 
at Ravenna by Udo of Metz, was begun under Charlemagne's 
auspices in 796 and consecrated by Pope Leo III. in 805. 
After being almost entirely wrecked by Norman raiders it was 
rebuilt, on the original lines, in 983, by the emperor Otto 
III. It is surrounded on the first story by a sixteen-sided 
gallery (the Hochmunster) adorned by antique marble and 
granite columns, of various sizes, brought by Charlemagne's 
orders from Rome, Ravenna and Trier.  These were removed by 
Napoleon to Paris, but restored to their original positions 
after the peace of 1815.  The mosaic representing Christ 
surrounded by ``the four-and-twenty elders,'' which originally 
lined the cupola, had almost entirely perished by the 19th 
century, but was re-stored in 1882 from a copy made in the 17th 
century.  Interesting too are the magnificent west doors, 
cast in bronze by native workmen in 804. Underneath the dome, 
according to tradition, was the tomb of Charlemagne, which, on 
being opened by Otto III. in 1000, disclosed the body of the 
emperor, vested in white coronation robes and seated on a marble 
chair.  This chair, now placed in the gallery referred to, 
was used for centuries in the imperial coronation ceremonies.  
The site of the tomb is marked by a stone slab, with the 
inscription Carlo Magno; and above it hangs the famous bronze 
chandelier presented by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in 
1168.  Charlemagne's bones are preserved in an ornate shrine in 
the Hungarian Chapel, lying to the north of the octagon.  The 
casket was opened in 1906, at the instance of the emperor William 
II., and the draperies enclosing the body were temporarily 
removed to Berlin, with a view to the reproduction of similar 
cloth.  The Gothic choir, forming the more modern portion 
of the cathedral, was added during the latter half of the 
14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and contains the 
tomb of the emperor Otto III. The cathedral possesses many 
relics, the more sacred of which are exhibited only once every 
seven years, when they attract large crowds of worshippers. 

Of the other thirty-three churches in the city those of St 
Foillan (founded in the 12th century, but twice rebuilt, 
in the 15th and 17th centuries, and restored in 1883) and 
St Paul, with its beautiful stained-glass windows, are 
remarkable.  In addition to those already mentioned, 
Aix-la-Chapelle possesses several fine secular buildings: 
the Suermondt museum, containing besides other miscellaneous 
exhibits the fine collection of pictures by early German, Dutch 
and Flemish masters, presented to the town by Bartholomaus 
Suermondt (d. 1887); the public library; the theatre; the 
post-office; and the fine new central railway station.  
Among the schools may be mentioned the magnificently equipped 
Rhenish-Westphalian Polytechnic School (built 1865-1870) 
and the school of mining and electricity, founded in 1897. 

There are many fine streets and squares and some handsome 
public monuments, notably among the last the fountain on 
the market square surmounted by a statue of Charlemagne, the 
bronze equestrian statue of the emperor William I. facing the 
theatre, the Kriegerdenkmal (a memorial to those who fell in 
the war of 1870) and the Kongress-Denkmal, a marble hall in 
antique style erected in 1844 on the Adalberts-Steinweg to 
commemorate the famous congress of 1818 (see below).  Of the 
squares, the principal is the Friedrich-Wilhelmplatz, on 
which lies the Elisenbrunnen with its colonnade and garden, 
the chief resort of visitors taking the baths and waters. 

The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle were known to the 
Romans and have been celebrated for centuries as specific 
in the cure of rheumatism, gout and scrofulous disorders.  
There are six in all, of which the Kaiserquelle, with a 
temperature of 136 deg.  F., is the chief.  In the neighbouring 
Burtscheid (incorporated in 1897 with Aix-la-Chapelle) are 
also springs of far higher temperature, and this suburb, which 
has also a Kurgarten, is largely frequented during the season. 

In respect of trade and industry Aixda-Chapelle occupies a 
high place.  Its cloth and silk manufactures are important, 
and owing to the opening up of extensive coalfields in the 
district almost every branch of iron industry is carried 
on.  It has some large breweries and manufactories of 
chemicals, and does a considerable trade in cereals, 
leather, timber and wine.  It is also an important banking 
centre and has several insurance societies of reputation. 

The country immediately surrounding Aix-la-Chapelle presents 
many attractive features.  From the Lousberg and the Salvatorberg 
to the north, the latter crowned by a chapel, magnificent views 
of the city are obtained; while covering the hills 2 m. west 
stretches the Stadtwald, a forest with charming walks and drives. 

History.---Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum of the Romans, 
named after Apollo Granus, who was worshipped in connexion 
with hot springs.  As early as A.D. 765 King Pippin had a 
``palace'' here, in which it is probable that Charlemagne was 
born.  The greatness of Aix was due to the latter, who between 
777 and 786 built a magnificent palace on the site of that of 
his father, raised the place to the rank of the second city 
of the empire, and made it for a while the centre of Western 
culture and learning.  From the coronation of Louis the Pious 
in 813 until that of Ferdinand I. in 1531 the sacring of the 
German kings took place at Aix, and as many as thirty-two 
emperors and kings were here crowned.  In 851, and again in 
882, the place was ravaged by the Northmen in their raids up the 
Rhine.  It was not, however, till late in the 12th century 
(1172-1176) that the city was surrounded with walls by order of 
the emperor Frederick I., to whom (in 1166) and to his grandson 
Frederick II. (in 1215) it owed its first important civic 
rights.  These were still further extended in 1250 by the 
anti-Caesar William of Holland, who had made himself master of 
the place and of the imperial regalia, after a long siege, in 
1248.  The liberties of the burghers were, however, still 
restrained by the presence of a royal advocatus (Vogt) and 
bailiff.  In 1300 the outer ring of walls was completed, 
the earlier circumvallation being marked by the limit of the 
Altstadt (old city).  In the 14th century Aix, now a free city 
of the Holy Roman Empire, played a conspicuous part, especially 
in the league which, between 1351 and 1387, kept the peace 
between the Meuse and the Rhine.  In 1450 an insurrection 
led to the admission of the gilds to a share in the municipal 
government.  In the 16th century Aix began to decline in 
importance and prosperity.  It lay too near the French frontier 
to be safe. and too remote from the centre of Germany to 
be convenient, as a capital; and in 1562 the election and 
coronation of Maximilian II. took place at Frankfort-on-Main, 
a precedent followed till the extinction of the Empire.  The 
Reformation, too, brought its troubles.  In 1580 Protestantism 
got the upper hand; the ban of the empire followed and was 
executed by Ernest of Bavaria, archbishop-elector of Cologne in 
1598.  A relapse of the city led to a new ban of the emperor 
Matthias in 1613, and in the following year Spinola's Spanish 
troops brought back the recalcitrant city to the Catholic 
fold.  In 1656 a great fire completed the ruin wrought by the 
religious wars.  By the treaty of Luneville (1801) Aix was 
incorporated with France as chief town of the department of the 
Roer.  By the congress of Vienna it was given to Prussia.  The 
contrast between the new regime and the ancient tradition of 
the city was curiously illustrated in 1818 by a scene described 
in Metternich's Memoirs, when, before the opening of the 
congress, Francis I., emperor of Austria, regarded by all Germany 
as the successor of the Holy Roman emperors, knelt at the tomb 
of Charlemagne amid a worshipping crowd, while the Protestant 
Frederick William III. of Prussia, the new sovereign of the 
place, stood in the midst, ``looking very uncomfortable.'' 

See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt Aachen (1841): Pick, Aus Aachens 
Vergangenheit (Aachen, 1895); Bock, Karls des grossen Pfalzkapelle 
(Cologne, 1867); and Beissel, Aachen als Kurort (1889). 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESSES OF. Three congresses have been held at 
Aix-la-Chapelle: the first in 1668, the second in 1748, the third in 1818. 

1. The treaty of the 2nd of May 1668, which put an end to 
the War of Devolution, was the outcome of that of St Germain 
signed on the 15th of April by France and the representatives 
of the powers of the Triple Alliance.  The treaty of 
Aix-la-Chapelle left to France all the conquests made in 
Flanders during the campaign of 1667, with all their ``
appartenances, dependances et annexes.'' a vague provision 
of which, after the peace of Nijmwegen (1680), Louis XIV. took 
advantage to occupy a number of villages and towns adjudged 
to him by his Chambres de reunion as dependencies of the 
cities and territories acquired in 1668.  On the other hand, 
France restored to Spain the cities of Cambrai, Aire and 
Saint-Omer, as well as the province of Franche Comte.  The 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was placed under the guarantee of 
Great Britain, Sweden and Holland, by a convention signed 
at the Hague on the 7th of May 1669, to which Spain acceded. 

See Jean du Mont, baron de Carlscroon, Corps 
universel diplomatique (Amst., 1726-1731). 

2. On the 24th of April 1748 a congress assembled at 
Aix-la-Chapelle for the purpose of bringing to a conclusion 
the struggle known as the War of Austrian Succession.  Between 
the 30th of April and the 21st of May the preliminaries were 
agreed to between Great Britain, France and Holland, and to 
these Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, the kings 
of Sardinia and Spain, the duke of Modena, and the republic 
of Genoa successively gave their adhesion.  The definitive 
treaty was signed on the 18th of October, Sardinia alone 
refusing to accede, because the treaty of Worms was not 
guaranteed.  Of the provisions of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
the most important were those stipulating for (1) a general 
restitution of conquests, including Cape Breton to France, 
Madras to England and the barrier towns to the Dutch; (2) the 
assignment to Don Philip of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and 
Guastalla; (3) the restoration of the duke of Modena and the 
republic of Genoa to their former positions; (4) the renewal 
in favour of Great Britain of the Asiento contract of the 16th 
of March 1713, and of the right to send an annual vessel to 
the Spanish colonies; (5) the renewal of the article of the 
treaty of 1718 recognizing the Protestant succession in the 
English throne; (6) the recognition of the emperor Francis and 
the confirmation of the pragmatic sanction, i.e. of the right 
of Maria Theresa to the Habsburg succession; (7) the guarantee 
to Prussia of the duchy of Silesia and the county of Glatz. 

Spain having raised objections to the Asiento clauses, the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by that of Madrid 
(5th of October 1750), by which Great Britain surrendered 
her claims under those clauses in return for a sum of 
L. 100,000.  II.See A. J. H. de Clercq, Recueil des traites 
de la France; F. A. Wenk, Corpus juris gentium recentissimi, 
1735-1772, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1786), p. 337; Comte G. de 
Garden, Hist. des traites de paix, 1848-1887, iii p. 373. 

3. The congress or conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, held in the 
autumn of 1818, was primarily a meeting of the four allied 
powers--Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia--to decide 
the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from 
France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced 
in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards 
each other, and collectively towards France.  The congress, 
of which the first session was held on the 1st of October, 
was attended by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, the 
emperor Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of 
Prussia, in person.  Great Britain was represented by Lord 
Castlereagh and the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince 
Metternich, Russia by Counts Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode, 
Prussia by Prince Hardenberg and Count Bernstorff.  The duc de 
Richelieu, by favour of the allies, was present on behalf of 
France.  The evacuation of France was agreed to in principle 
at the first session, the consequent treaty being signed on 
the 9th of October.  The immediate object of the conference 
being thus readily disposed of, the time of the congress was 
mainly occupied in discussing the form to be taken by the 
European alliance, and the ``military measures,'' if any, to 
be adopted as a precaution against a fresh outburst on the 
part of France.  The proposal of the emperor Alexander I. 
to establish a ``universal union of guarantee'' on the broad 
basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke down on 
the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and the main 
outcome of the congress was the signature, on the 15th of 
November, of two instruments: (1) a secret protocol confirming 
and renewing the quadruple alliance established by the treaties 
of Chaumont and Paris (of the 20th of November 1815) against 
France; (2) a public ``declaration'' of the intention of the 
powers to maintain their intimate union. ``strengthened by the 
ties of Christian brotherhood,'' of which the object was the 
preservation of peace on the basis of respect for treaties.  
The secret protocol was communicated in confidence to Richelieu; 
to the declaration France was invited publicly to adhere. 

Besides these questions of general policy, the congress concerned 
itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the hurried 
winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had arisen 
since.  Of these the most important were the questions as to 
the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the slave 
trade and the Barbary pirates.  In neither case was any 
decision arrived at, owing (1) to the refusal of the other 
powers to agree with the British proposal for a reciprocal 
right of search on the high seas; (2) to the objection of 
Creat Britain to international action which would have involved 
the presence of a Russian squadron in the Mediterranean.  In 
matters of less importance the congress was more unanimous.  
Thus, on the urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of 
Sweden (Bernadotte) received a peremptory summons to carry out 
the terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector 
of Hesse to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected; 
and measures were taken to redress the grievances of the 
German mediatized princes.  The more important outstanding 
questions in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after 
consideration reserved for a further conference to be called at 
Frankfort.  In addition to these a great variety of questions 
were considered, from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St 
Helena, to the grievances of the people of Monaco against 
their prince and the position of the Jews in Austria and 
Prussia.  An attempt made to introduce the subject of the 
Spanish colonies was defeated by the opposition of Great 
Britain.  Lastly, certain vexatious questions of diplomatic 
etiquette were settled once for all (see DIPLOMACY.) The 
congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of 
historical importance mainly as marking the highest point 
reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an international 
committee of the powers.  The detailed study of its proceedings 
is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable 
obstacles to any really effective international system. 

AUTHORITIES.--- F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent, 
Aix-la-Chapelle, To and from Viscount Castlereagh): State 
Papers: (3) F.. de Martens, Nouveau recueil de traites, 
&c. (Gottingen, 1817-1842); F. de Martens, Recueil des 
traites conclus par la Russie, &c. 1874 in progr.); F. von 
Gentz, Deleches inedites, &c., ed.  Baron Prokesch-Osten, 
3 vols. (1876-1877); Metternich, Memoirs; Wellington, 
Suppl.  Despatches; Castlereagh, Correspondence, &c. 

AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of Savoie, 
near the Lac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chambery.  Pop. 
(1901) 4741.  It is 846 ft. above the level of the sea.  It was a 
celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquae Gratianae, 
in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerous ancient 
remains.  The hot springs, which are of sulphureous quality, 
and have a temperature of from 109 deg.  to 113 deg.  F., are still much 
frequented, attracting annually many thousands of visitors.  
They are used for drinking as well as for bathing purposes. 

AIYAR, SIR SHESHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of Mysore, 
India, was the son of a Brahman of Palghat in the district of 
Malabar.  He was educated at the provincial school at Calicut 
and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the government 
service as a translator.  In 1868 he was transferred to Mysore 
under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled various 
offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to native 
rule in 1881, he became personal assistant to Runga Charlu, whom 
he succeeded as diwan in 1885 . For the next seventeen years 
he laboured assiduously to promote the economic and industrial 
development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the 
Maharaja Chamarajendra.  By means of railway, irrigation and 
mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and 
put it on a sound financial footing.  He retired in 1900, was 
made K.C.S.I. in 1893 and died on the 13th of September 1901. 

AIYAR, SIR TIRUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895), native Indian 
judge of the high court of Madras, was born of poor parents in 
the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the 28th of January 
1832.  His widowed mother was forced by poverty to remove with 
Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar, where the former learnt 
Tamil, and soon set to work under the village accountant at a 
monthly salary of one rupee.  About this time he lost his mother, 
whose memory he cherished with reverence and affection to the 
last.  His duty took him to the court-house of the tehsildar, Mr 
Naiken, who soon remarked his extraordinary intelligence and 
industry.  There was an English school at Tiruvarar, where 
Mutuswamy managed to pick up an elementary knowledge of the English 
language.  Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's 
school at Madras, as a companion to his nephew, and there he 
won prizes and scholarships year after year.  In 1854 he won 
a prize of 500 rupees offered to the students of the Madras 
presidency by the council of education for the best English 
essay.  This success brought him to the notice of Sir 
Alexander Arbuthnot and Mr Justice Holloway.  He was offered 
help to proceed to England and compete for the civil service, 
but being a Brahman and married, he declined to cross the 
ocean.  Instead he entered the subordinate government service, 
and was employed in such various posts as school-teacher, 
record-keeper in Tanjore, and in 1856 deputy-inspector of 
schools.  At this time the Madras authorities instituted the 
examination for the office of pleaders, and Mutuswamy came out 
first in the first examination, even beating Sir T. Madhavarao, 
his senior by many years.  Mutuswamy was then appointed in 
succession district munsiff at Tranquebar, deputy-collector 
in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of south Kanara in 1865, and 
a magistrate of police at Madras in 1868.  While serving in 
the last post he passed the examination for the degree of 
bachelor of laws of the local university.  He was next employed 
as a judge of the Madras small causes court, until in 1878 
he was raised to the bench of the high court, which office 
he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen 
years, sometimes acting as the chief justice.  He attended by 
invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in 
1877.  In 1878 he received the honour of C.I.E. and in 1893 
the K.C.I.E. was conferred on him.  But he did not live long 
to enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895.  Mutuswamy was 
too devoted to his official work to give much time to other 
pursuits.  Still he took his full share in the affairs of 
the Madras university, of which he was nominated a fellow 
in 1872 and a syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with 
English law, literature and philosophy.  He was through 
life a staunch Brahman, devout and amiable in character, 
with a taste for the ancient music of India and the study 
of the Vedas and other departments of Sanskrit literature. 

AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the 
island, 210 m.  S.E. of Marseilles.  Pop. (1906) 19,021.  
Ajaccio occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded 
hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio.  The 
harbour, lying to the east of the town, is protected on the 
south by a peninsula which carries the citadel and terminates 
in the Citadel jetty; to the south-west of this peninsula 
lies the Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly 
by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the 
town.  Apart from one or two fine thoroughfares converging to 
the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean and narrow and the 
town has a deserted appearance.  The house in which Napoleon 
I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and his associations 
with the town are everywhere emphasized by street-names and 
statues.  The other buildings, including the cathedral of the 
16th century, are of little interest.  The town is the seat 
of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century and of a 
prefect.  It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, 
training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; 
the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch. founded 
by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.  Ajaccio 
has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and similar 
products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing and 
coral-fishing.  Its exports include timber, citrons, skins, 
chestnuts and gallic acid.  The port is accessible by the largest 
ships, but its accommodation is indifferent.  In 1904 there 
entered 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 
608 vessels with a tonnage of 202,502.  The present town of 
Ajaccio lies about two miles to the south of its original 
site, from which it was transferred by the Genoese in 1492.  
Occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the 
Genoese after the treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter 
year.  The town finally passed to the French in 1768.  Since 
1810 it has been capital of the . department of Corsica. 

AJAIGARH, or ADJYGURH, a native state of India, in 
Bundelkhand, under the Central India agency.  It has an 
area of 771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236.  
The chief. who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai 
maharaja.  He has an estimated revenue of about L. 15,000, and 
pays a tribute of L. 460.  He resides at the town of Naushahr, 
at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the 
state takes its name.  This fort is situated on a very steep 
hill, more than 800 ft. above the town of the same name; 
and contains the ruins of temples adorned with elaborately 
carved sculptures.  It was captured by the British in 
1809.  The town is subject to malaria.  The state suffered 
severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again in 1896-1897. 

AJANTA (more properly AJUJNTHI), a village in the 
dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India (N. lat. 20 deg.  32' 
by E. long. 75 deg.  48'), celebrated for its cave hermitages and 
halls.  The caves are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 3 1/2 
m. from the village.  Along the bottom of the ravine runs the 
river Wagura, a mountain stream, which forces its way into 
the valley over a bluff on the east, and forms in its descent 
a beautiful waterfall, or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft. 
high, the sound of which must have been constantly audible to 
the dwellers in the caves.  These are about thirty in number, 
excavated in the south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine, 
and vary from 35 to 110 ft. in elevation above the bed of the 
torrent.  The caves are of two kinds---dwelling-halls and 
meeting-halls.  The former, as one enters from the pathway 
along the sides of the cliff, have a broad verandah, its roof 
supported by pillars, and giving towards the interior on to 
a hall averaging in size about 35 ft. by 20 ft.  To left and 
right, and at the back, dormitories are excavated opening 
on to this hall, and in the centre of the back, facing the 
entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands in a niche.  
The number of dormitories varies according to the size of the 
hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof on all 
three sides, forming a sort of cloister running round the 
hall.  The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as far 
as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 94 1/2 ft. from 
the verandah to the back, and 41 1/4 ft. across, including the . 
cloister.  They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings 
of the Buddhist Order.  The caves are in three groups, the 
oldest group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D. 
200, the second group belonging, approximately, to the 
6th, and the third group to the 7th century A.D. Most of 
the interior walls of the caves were covered with fresco 
paintings, of a considerable degree of merit, and somewhat 
in the style of the early Italian painters.  When first 
discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair state of 
preservation, but they have since been allowed to go hopelessly to 
ruin.  Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay, especially 
under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in colours 
a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared, 
and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been 
made.  These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence 
we now have of pictorial art in India before the rise of 
Hinduism.  The expression ``Cave Temples'' used by Anglo-Indians 
of such halls is inaccurate.  Ajanta was a kind of college 
monastery.  Hsuan Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the 
celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author 
of well-known books on logic, resided there.  In its prime 
the settlement must have afforded accommodation for several 
hundreds, teachers and pupils combined.  Very few of the 
frescoes have been identified, but two are illustrations 
of stones in Arya Sura's Jataka Mala, as appears 
from verses in Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath them. 

See J. Burgess and Bhagwanlal lndraji, Inscriptions from 
the Cave Temples of Western India (Bombay, 1881); J. 
Fergusson and L. Burgess, Cave Temples of India (London, 
1880); J. Griffiths, Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples 
of Ajanta (London, 2 vols., 1896--1897). (T. W. R. D.) 

AJAX (Gr. Aias), a Greek hero, son of Oileus, king of 
Locris, called the ``lesser'' or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish 
him from Ajax, son of Telamon.  In spite of his small stature, 
he held his own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was 
brave, next to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous 
for throwing the spear.  But he was boastful, arrogant and 
quarrelsome; like the Telamonian Ajax, he was the enemy of 
Odysseus, and in the end the victim of the vengeance of Athene, 
who wrecked his ship on his homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv. 
499).  A later story gives a more definite account of the offence 
of which he was guilty.  It is said that, after the fall of 
Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force from the statue of 
the goddess at which she had taken refuge as a suppliant, and 
even violated her (Lycophron, 360, Quintus Smyrnaeus xiii. 
422).  For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm on the coast 
of Euboea, and he himself was struck by lightning (Virgil, 
Aen. i. 40). He was said to have lived after his death in the 
island of Leuke.  He was worshipped as a national hero by the 
Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always left 
a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when drawn 
up in battle array.  He was the subject of a lost tragedy by 
Sophocles.  The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently 
represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest 
of Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works. 

AJAX, son Of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of 
ancient Greece.  To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Oileus, 
he was called the ``great'' or Telamonian Ajax.  In Homer's 
Iliad he is described as of great stature and colossal 
frame, second only to Achilles in strength and bravery, and 
the ``bulwark of the Achaeans.', He engaged Hector in single 
combat and, with the aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles 
from the hands of the Trojans.  In the competition between 
him and Odysseus for the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at 
the instigation of Athene, awarded the prize to Odysseus.  
This so enraged AJax that it caused his death (Odyssey, xi. 
541).  According to a later and more definite story, his 
disappointment drove him mad; he rushed out of his tent and 
fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp under the impression 
that they were the enemy on coming to his senses, he slew 
himself with the sword which he had received as a present from 
Hector.  This is the account of his death given in the Ajax 
of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. 1). From 
his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, 
which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name 
AI, also expressive of lament (Pausanias i. 35. 4). His ashes 
were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory 
at the entrance of the Hellespont.  Like Achilles; he is 
represented as living after his death in the island of Leuke 
at the mouth of the Danube (Pausanias iii. 19. 11). Ajax, 
who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of 
Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero 
of the island of.Salamis, where he had a temple and an image, 
and where a festival called Aianteia was celebrated in his 
honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this festival a couch was set up, 
On which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which 
recalls the Roman lectisternium. The identification of Ajax 
with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned 
the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, 
on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in 
the Iliad (ii. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting 
the Athenian claim to the island.  Ajax then became an Attic 
hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the 
market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name. 

Many illustrious Athenians---Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades, 
the historian Thucydides---traced their descent from Ajax. 

See D. Bassi, La Leggenda di Aiace Telamonio (1890); P. 
Girard, ``Ajax, fils de Telamon,'' 1905, in Revue des 
etudes grecques, tome 18; J. Vurtheim, De Ajacie Origine, 
Cultu, Patria (Leiden, 1907), accord. ing to whom he and Ajax 
Oileus, as depicted in epos, were originally one, a Locrian 
daemon somewhat resembling the giants.  When this spirit put on 
human form and became known at the Saronic Gulf, he developed 
into the ``greater'' Ajax, while among the Locrians he remained 
the ``lesser.'' In the article GREEK ART fig. 13 (from a 
black-figured Corinthian vase) represents the suicide of Ajax. 

AJMERE, or AJMER, a city of British India in Ra)putana. 
which gives its name to a district and also,to a petty 
province called Ajmere-Meirwara.  It is situated in 26 deg.  
27, N. lat. and 74 deg.  44, E. long., on the lower slopes 
of Taragarh hill, in the Aravalli mountains.  To the 
north of the city is a large artificial lake called the 
Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place is derived. 

The chief object of interest is the darga, or tomb of a 
famous Mahommedan saint named Mayud-uddin.  It is situated at 
the foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of 
white marble buildings without much pretension to architectural 
beauty.  To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress, 
performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance 
with the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a 
son.  The large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the 
whole way, to mark the daily halting-place of the imperial 
pilgrim, are still extant.  An ancient Jain temple, now 
converted into a Mahommedan mosque, is situated on the lower 
slope of the Taragarh hill.  With the exception of that part 
used as a mosque, nearly the whole of the ancient temple 
has fallen into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in 
beauty of architecture and sculpture by any remains of Hindu 
art.  Forty columns support the r00f, but no two are alike, 
and great fertility of invention is manifested in the 
execution Of the ornaments.  The summit of Taragarh hill, 
overhanging Ajmere, is crowned by a foot, the lofty thick 
battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the 
table-land.  The walls are 2 m. in circumference, and the 
fort can only be approached by steep and very roughly paved 
planes, commanded by the fort and the outworks, and by the 
hill to the west.  On coming into the hands of the English, 
the fort Was dismantled by order of Lord William Bentinck, 
and is now converted into a sanatorium for the troops at 
Xasirabad.  Ajmere was founded about the year 145 A.p. by 
AJi, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty which continued 
to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of fortune) while 
the repeated waves of Mahommedan invasion swept over India, 
until it eventually became an appanage of the crown Of Delhi in 
1193.  Its internal government, however, was handed over to 
its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the 
conquerors.  It then remained feudatory to Delhi till 1365, 
when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar.  In 1509 the place 
became a source of Contention between the chiefs of Mewar and 
Marwar, and was ultimately Conquered in 1532 by the latter 
prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the emperor 
Akbar.  It continued in the hands of the Moguls, with occasional 
revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas, from 
which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of 
a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the 
Mewar and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by 
the Mahrattas.  In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British 
in return for a payment of 50,000 rupees.  Since then the 
country has enjoyed unbroken peace and a stable government. 

The modern city is an important station on the Rajputana 
railway, 615 m. from BOmbay and 275 m. from Delhi, with a 
branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main 
line.  The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome 
houses.  The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium.  
The former is inlported in large quantities from the Sambar 
lake and Ramsur.  Oil-making is also a profitable branch of 
trade.  Cotton cloths are manufactured to some extent, for 
the dyeing Of which the city has attained a high reputation2 
The educational institutions include the Majo Rajkumar 
college, opened in 1875, for training the sons of the nobles of 
Rajputana, on the lines of an English public school.  Population 
(1901) 73,839, showing an increase of 10% in the decade. 

The DISTRICT OF AJMERE, which forms the largest part of 
the province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 sq. 
m.  The eastern portion of the district is generally flat, 
broken only by gentle undulations, but the western parts, from 
north-west to south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli 
range.  Many of the valleys in this region are mere sandy 
deserts, with an occasional oasis of cultivation, but there 
are also some very fertile tracts; among these is the plain 
on which lies the town of Ajmere.  This valley, however, is 
not only fortunate in possessing a noble artificial lake, but 
is protected by the massive walls of the Nagpathar range or 
Serpent rock, which forms a harrier against the sand.  The 
only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its 
offshoots.  Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas 
being the only stream which can be dignified with that name, 
and it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district 
so as to irrigate the pargana of Samur.  Four small streams 
---the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai-also intersect the 
district.  In the dry weather they are little more than brooks.  
The population in 1901 was 7453, showing a decrease of 13% in the 
decade.  Besides the city of Ajmere, the district contains the 
military station of Nasirabad, with a population of 22,494. 

AJMERE-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British 
India, in Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of 
Ajmere and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated 
amid native states.  The administration is in the hands of a 
commissioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for 
Rajputana.  The capital is Ajmere city.  The area is 2710 sq. 
m.  The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere, 
may be considered as the highest point in the plains of 
Hindustan; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the 
country slopes away on every side---towards river valleys on 
the east, south, west and towards the desert region on the 
north.  The Aravalli range is the distinguishing feature of the 
district.  The range of hills which runs between Ajmere and 
Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India.  
The rain which falls on one side drains into the Chambal, 
and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the other 
side into the Luni, which discharges itself into the Runn of 
Cutch.  The province is on the border of what may be called 
the arid ``zone''; it is the debatable land between the 
north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the 
influence of either.  The south-west monsoon sweeps up the 
Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at 
Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kotah 
and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal 
river.  The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are 
deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those 
countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited 
on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains, 
leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, 
and still less for Ajmere.  It is only when the monsoon is in 
considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from 
it.  The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the 
Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of 
Rajputana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude 
of Ajmere.  On the varying strength of these two monsoons 
the rainfall of the district depends.  The agriculturist 
in Ajmere-Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in 
succession.  A province subject to such conditions can hardly 
be free from famine or scarcity for any length of time; 
accordingly it was visited by two famines, one of unprecedented 
severity, and one scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901.  In 
June 1900 the number of persons in receipt of relief was 
143,000, being more than one fourth of the total population. 

In 1901 the population was 476,912, showing a decrease of 12% 
in the decade, due to the results of famine.  Among Hindus, 
the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are 
cultivators.  The Jains are traders and money-lenders.  
The aboriginal tribe of Mers are divided between Hindus and 
Mahommedans.  The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and 
oil-seeds.  There are several factories for spinning and pressing 
cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kekri. 

AJODHYA, an ancient city of India, the prehistoric capital of 
Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces.  It is 
situated on the right bank of the Gogra.  In the present day 
the old city has almost entirely disappeared, and its site 
is marked only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity 
Ajodhya was one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian 
cities.  It is said to have covered an area of 96 m., and 
was the capital of the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the 
great king Dasaratha, the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar 
line in descent from Raja Manu.  The opening chapters of the 
Ramayana recount the magnificence of the city, the glories 
of the monarch and the virtues, wealth and loyalty of his 
people.  Dasaratha was the father of Rama Chandra, the hero 
of the epic.  A period of Buddhist supremacy followed the 
death of the last king of the Solar dynasty.  On the revival 
of Brahmanism Ajodhya was restored by King Vikramaditya 
(c. 57 B.C..) Kosala is also famous as the early home 
of Buddhism, and of the kindred religion of Jainism, and 
claims to be the birthplace of the founders of both these 
faiths.  The Chinese traveller, Hsuan Tsang, in the 7th 
century, found 20 Buddhist temples with 3000 monks at 
Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical population.  The modern 
town of Ajodhya contains 96 Hindu temples and 36 Mussulman 
mosques.  Little local trade is carried on, but the great fair 
of Ramnami held every year is attended by about 500,000 people. 

AKABA, GULF OF, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity, 
the eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea 
bifurcates near its northern extremity.  It penetrates into 
Arabia Petraea in a N.N.E. direction, from 28 deg.  to 29 deg.  32' 
N., a distance of 100 m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 
m.  The entrance is contracted by Tiran and other islands, 
so that the passage is rendered somewhat difficult; and its 
navigation is dangerous on account of the numerous coral 
reefs, and the sudden squalls which sweep down from the 
adjacent mountains, many of which rise perpendicularly to a 
height of 2000 ft.  The gulf is a continuation southward of 
the Jordan-'Araba depression.  Raised beaches on the coast 
show that there has been a considerable elevation of the 
sea-bed.  The only well-sheltered harbour is that of Dahab 
(the Golden Port) on its western shore, about 33 m. from 
the entrance and 29 m.  E. of Mount Sinai.  Near the head of 
the gulf is Jeziret Faraun (medieval Graye), a rocky islet 
with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin I. (c. 1115). 

About 2 1/2 m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern 
side is the TOMN OF AKABA, with a picturesque medieval 
castle, built for the protection of pilgrims on there way 
from Egypt to Mecca.  In the neighbourhood are extensive 
groves of date palms, and there is an ample supply of good 
water.  Akaba is of considerable historical interest and of 
great antiquity, being the Elath or Eloth of the Bible, and 
one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet sailed to Ophir.  
By the Romans, who made it a military post, it was called 
Aelana.  It continued to be the seat of great commercial 
activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who corrupted 
the name to Haila or Ailat.  In the 10th century an Arab 
geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and 
the emporium of the Hejaz.  In the 12th century the town 
suffered at the hands of Saladin and thereafter fell into 
decay.  In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together 
with the Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt.  At that time 
Egyptian pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers.  In 1892, 
on the accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed 
possession of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted 
the land route to Mecca in favour of a sea passage.  In 1906 
the construction was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to 
the Mecca railway and thus giving through communication with 
Beirut.  Early in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a 
village at the mouth of a small stream g m. by land W. by 
S. of Akaba, near which is the site, not identified, of the 
Ezion-Geber of Scripture, another of the ports whence the 
argosies of the Israelites saileffi.  Taba being on the Egyptian 
side of the frontier, Great Britain intervened on behalf of 
Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the withdrawal of the Turks. 

AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of 
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas.  
It lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and 
Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on 
the west by independent Bhutia tribes.  The Aka country is very 
difficult of access, the direct road from the plains leading 
along the precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which 
divides the Aka from the Daphla country.  The Akas are a brave 
people, and the men are strong and well-made.  Their reputation 
as raiders is sufficiently shown in the division of the tribe 
into two clans, the Hazari-khoas or ``eaters of a thousand 
hearths,'' and the Kapah-chors or ``thieves that lurk in the 
cotton fields.'' In the early years of British occupation, 
about 1820, they gave much trouble; and in 1883 they broke out 
once more into their old habits.  They raided into the British 
district of Darrang and carried off several native forest 
officers as hostages.  An expedition was sent against them 
under General Sale Hill with 860 troops, which was completely 
successful.  All its objects were satisfactorily accomplished, 
namely, the recovery of the captives, the surrender of all 
firearms, the payment of the fine inflicted by government, the 
complete submission of the tribe and the survey of the country. 

AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division 
of Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated 
between the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's 
dominions.  It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has 
a cool and agreeable climate.  Area 498 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 
82,047, showing an increase of 8% in the decade.  Estimated 
revenue, L. 26,586; the tribute is L. 1000.  The chief, who 
is a Mahratta of the Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on 
a pension, while the state is under British management. 

The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian 
Peninsula railway, which traverses the state.  Pop. 8348. 

AKBAR, AKHBAR or AKBER, JELLALADIN MAHOMMED (1542-1605), 
one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors. ' He 
was born at Umarkot in Sind on the 14th of October 1542, his 

father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short time 
before by the usurper Sher Khan.  After more than twelve years' 
exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however, he 
had held only for a few months when he died.  Akbar succeeded 
his father in 1556 under the regency of Baira n Khan, a 
Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the 
throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army, 
tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered 
empire.  Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel; 
and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary 
to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he 
did by a proclamation issued in March 1560.  The discarded 
regent lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to 
establish an independent principality in Malwa, but at last 
he was forced to cast himself on Akbar's mercy.  The emperor 
not only freely pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him 
the choice of a high place in the army or a suitable escort 
for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter 
alternative.  When Akbar ascended the throne, only a small 
portion of what had formerly been comprised within the Mogul 
empire owned his authority, and he devoted himself with great 
determination and success to the recovery of the revolted 
provinces.  Over each of these, as it was restored, he placed a 
governor, whom he superintended with vigilance and wisdom.  
He tried by every means to develop and encourage commerce; he 
had the land accurately measured for the purpose of rightly 
adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest instructions to 
prevent extortion on the part of the taxgatherers, and in 
many other respects displayed an enlightened and equitable 
policy.  Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of Akbar's 
reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had lost, 
the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection only as 
before, but to a great degree of peace, order and contentment.  
Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the chief 
difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords 
perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation
In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant 
exclusiveness of that creed was quite foreign to his 
character.  Scepticism as to the divine origin of the 
Koran led him to seek the true religion in an eclectic 
system.  He accordingly set himself to obtain information 
about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting that the 
Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and listened 
to them with intelligent attention when they came.  As the 
result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure 
deism and a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster.  The 
religion thus founded, however, having no vital force, never 
spread beyond the limits of the court, and died with Akbar 
himself.  But though his eclectic system failed, the spirit 
of toleration which originated it produced in other ways many 
important results, and, indeed, may be said to have done more 
to establish Akbar's power on a secure basis than all his 
economic and social reforms.  He conciliated the Hindus by 
giving them freedom of worship; while a- the same time he 
strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brahmanical practices, 
such as trial by ordeal and the burning of widows against their 
will.  He also abolished all taxes upon pilgrims as an 
interference with the liberty of worship, and the capitation 
tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds.  Measures 
like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of 
``Guardian of Mankind,'' and caused him to be held up as a 
model to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of 
religious toleration have only too seldom followed his example. 

Akbar was a munificent patron of literature.  He established 
schools throughout his empire for the education of both 
Hindus and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of 
literary talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers 
Feizi and Abul Fazl.  The former was commissioned by Akbar 
to translate a number of Sanskrit scientific works into 
Persian; and the latter (see ABUL FAzl) has left, in the 
Akbar-Nameh, an enduring record of the emperor's reign.  
It is also said that Akbar employed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit 
missionary, to translate the four Gospels into Persian. 

The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very 
unhappy by the misconduct of his sons.  Two of them died in 
youth, the victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim, 
afterwards the emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion 
against his father.  These calamities were keenly felt by 
Akbar, and may even have tended to hasten his death, which 
occurred at Agra on the 15th of October 1605.  His body was 
deposited in a magnificent mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra. 

See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (``Rulers of India'' series), 1890. 
AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan.  The town lies 
42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to Andkhui.  It is protected 
by a mud wall and a citadel.  Estimated population d000, chiefly 
Uzbegs.  The khanate is small, but well watered and populous.  
The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no longer 
reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and into 
these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on the 
slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood. 

AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the 
Elbe, 25 m.  E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to 
Cothen (8 m.).  Pop. (1900) 7358.  It has manufactures of 
cloth, leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large 
quantities of beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; 
and there is a considerable transit trade on the Elbe. 

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770), English poet and physician. 
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 9th of November 1721.  
He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his 
life from a wound he received as a child from his father's 
cleaver.  All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending 
the free school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the 
town. he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to study theology with 
a view to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from 
a special fund set aside by the dissenting community for the 
education of their pastors.  He had already contributed ``The 
Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza'' (1737) 
to the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1738 ``A British 
Phillipic, occasioned by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the 
present Preparations for War'' (also published separately).  
After he had spent one winter as a student of theology, he 
entered his name as a student of medicine.  He repaid the 
money that had been advanced for his theological studies, and 
with this change of mind he seems to have drifted to a mild 
deism.  His politics, says Dr Johnson, were characterized by 
an ``impetuous eagerness to subvert and confound, with very 
little care what shall be established,'' and he is caricatured 
in the republican doctor of Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. He 
was elected a member of the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 
1740.  His ambitions already lay outside his profession, 
and his gifts as a speaker made him hope one day to enter 
parliament.  In 1740 he printed his ``Ode on the Winter 
Solstice'' in a small volume of poems.  In 1741 he left 
Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call himself surgeon, 
though it is doubtful whether he practised, and from the 
next year dates his life-long friendship with Jeremiah Dyson 
(1722-1776).  During a visit to Morpeth in 1738 he had 
conceived the idea of his didactic poem, ``The Pleasures of 
the Imagination.'' He had already acquired a considerable 
literary reputation when he came to London about the end of 
1743, and offered the work to Dodsley for L. 120.  Dodsley 
thought the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms 
after submitting the Ms. to Pope, who assured him that this 
was ``no everyday writer.'' The three books of this poem 
appeared in January 1744.  His aim, Akenside tells us in the 
preface, was ``not so much to give formal precepts, or enter 
into the way of direct argumentation, as, by exhibiting the 
most engaging prospects of nature, to enlarge and harmonize 
the imagination, and by that means insensibly dispose the 
minds of men to a similar taste and habit of thinking in 
religion, morals and civil life.'' Akenside's powers 
fell short of this lofty design; his imagination was not 
brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent in a 
poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work was 
well received by the general public.  His success was not 
unchallenged.  Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was 
``above the middling,'' but ``often obscure and unintelligible 
and too much infected with the Hutchinson1 jargon.'' 

Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third 
book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read 
a reflexion on himself.  Accordingly he attacked the author 
of the Pleasures of the Imagination---which was published 
anonymously--in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several 
Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton (1744).  
This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the 
Rev. Mr Brarburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand.  
It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a 
medical degree at Leiden.  In little more than a month he had 
completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento 
foetus humani, and received his diploma.  Returning to 
England he attempted without success to establish a practice in 
Northampton.  In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio, 
attacking William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having 
abandoned his liberal principles to become a supporter of the 
government, and in the next year he produced a small volume 
of Odes on Several Subjects, in the preface to which he 
lays claim to correctness and a careful study of the best 
models.  His friend Dyson had meanwhile left the bar, and had 
become, by purchase, clerk to the House of Commons.  Akenside 
had come to London and was trying to make a practice at 
Hampstead.  Dyson took a house there, and did all he could 
to further his friend's interest in the neighbourhood.  But 
Akenside's arrogance and pedantry frustrated these efforts, 
and Dyson then took a house for him in Bloomsbury Square, 
making him independent of his profession by an allowance 
stated to have been L. 300 a year, but probably greater, 
for it is asserted that this income enabled him to ``keep a 
chariot,'' and to live ``incomparably well.'' In 1746 he wrote 
his much-praised ``Hymn to the Naiads,'' and he also became a 
contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical 
Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote 


1 The reference is to Francis Hutcheson (1604-1746), author of an 
inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725). 


himself almost exclusively to his profession.  He was an acute 
and learned physician.  He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge in 
1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and 
fourth censor in 1755.  In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian 
lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian 
lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration.  In January 
1759 he was appointed assistant physician, and two months 
later principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was 
charged with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his 
unsympathetic character prevented the success to which his 
undeniable learning and ability entitled him.  At the accession 
of George III. both Dyson and Akenside changed their political 
opinions, and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was 
rewarded by the appointment of physician to the queen.  
Dyson became societary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, 
and in 1774 privy Councillor and cofferer to the household. 

Akenside died on the 23rd of June 1770, at his house in 
Burlington Street, where the last ten years of his life had 
been spent.  His friendship with Dyson puts his character in 
the most amiable light.  Writing to his friend so early as 
1744, Akenside said that the intimacy had ``the force of an 
additional conscience, of a new principle of religion,'' and 
there seems to have been no break in their affection.  He 
left all his effects and his literary remains to Dyson, who 
issued an edition of his poems in 1772.  This included the 
revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination, on which 
the author was engaged at his death.  The first book of this 
work defines the powers of imagination and discusses the 
various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception 
of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from 
philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in the 
study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the 
mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence 
of imagination on morals.  The ideas were largely borrowed 
from Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord 
Shaftesbury.  Professor Dowden complains that ``his tone is 
too high-pitched; his ideas are too much in the air; they do 
not nourish themselves in the common heart, the common life 
of man.'' Dr Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but 
found fault with the long and complicated periods.  Akenside's 
verse was better when it was subjected to severer metrical 
rules.  His odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict 
sense, but they are dignified and often musical, while the few 
``inscriptions'' he has left are felicitous in the extreme. 

The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared 
(1834) by Alexander Dyce for the Aldine Edition of the British 
Poets, and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues 
of the series.  See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his 
edition, also Johnson's Lives of the Poets, and the Life, 
Writings and Genius of Akenside (1832) by Charles Bucke. 

AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1806-1873), English antiquarian, 
distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was 
born in Wiltshire.  He became early known in connexion with his 
favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in 
1836.  In the following year he became the secretary of the 
newly established Numismatic Society.  In 1848 he was elected 
secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which 
he was compelled to resign in 1860 on account of failing 
health.  Akerman published a considerable number of works on 
his special subject, the more important being a Catalogue 
of Roman Coins (1839); a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman 
Coins relating to Britain (1844); Ancient Coins--Hispania, 
Gallia, Britannia (1846); and Numismatic Illustrations of 
the New Testament (1846).  He wrote also a Glossary of Words 
used in Wiltshire (1842); Wiltshire Tales, illustrative of 
the Dialect (1853); and Remains of Pagan Saxondom (1855). 

AKHALTSIKH (Georgian Akhaltsikhe, ``new fortress''), 
a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of 
Tiths, 68 m.  E. of Batum, in 41 deg.  40' N. lat., 43 deg.  1' E. 
long., on a tributary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375 
ft.  The new town is on the right bank of the river, 
while the old town and the fortress are on the opposite 
bank.  There is trade in silk, honey and wax, and brown coal 
is found in the neighbourhood.  The silver filigree work is 
famous.  Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many were Armenians, as 
against 15,977 in 1867.  From 1579 to 1828 Akhaltsikh was the 
capital of Turkish Armenia.  In the last-mentioned year it 
was captured by the Russians.  The Turks invested it in 1853. 

AK-HISSAR (anc. Thyateira, the ``town of Thya''), a town 
situated in a fertile plain on the Gurduk Chai (Lycus), in 
the Aidin vilayet, 58 m.  N.E. of Smyrna.  Pop. about 20,000, 
Mussulmans forming two-thirds.  Thyateira was an ancient town 
re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 290 B.C. It 
became an important station on the Roman road from Pergamum to 
Laodicea, and one of the ``Seven Churches'' of Asia (Rev. ii. 
18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a neocorate, 
though made the centre of a conventus by Caracalla.  The 
modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and exports 
cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals.  The inhabitants are 
Greeks, Armenians and Turks.  The Greeks are of an especially 
fine type, physical and moral, and noted all through Anatolia 
for energy and stability.  W. M. Ramsay believes them to be 
direct descendants of the ancient Christian population; but 
there is reason to think they are partly sprung from more 
recent immigrants who moved in the 18th century from western 
Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa and Bergama, 
as recorded by W. M. Leake.  Cotton of excellent quality 
is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is celebrated 
for its scarlet dyes. Perebus Thyatirenorum (1893). 

AKHMIM, or EKHMIM, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right 
bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above 
Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway 
communication with Cairo and Assuan.  It is the largest town on 
the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population 
in 1007 of 25,795, of whom about a third were Copts.  Akhmim 
has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a weekly 
market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the blue shirts 
and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer classes of 
Egypt.  Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two ancient 
temples.  In Abulfeda's days (13th century A.D.) a very 
imposing temule still stood here.  Akhmim was the Egyptian Apu 
or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as Chemmis 
or Panopolis, capital of the 9th or Chemmite nome of Upper 
Egypt.  The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped as 
``the strong Horus.'' Herodotus mentions the temple dedicated 
to ``Perseus'' and asserts that Chemmis was remark-. able 
for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after 

the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a 
matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and 
people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the 
god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the 

east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have 
gathered to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos 
(which was really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at 
Akhmim.  Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis.  
Strabo mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of 
Panopohs, and it is not altogether a coincidence that the 
cemetery of Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful 
textiles of Roman and Coptic age that are brought from 
Egypt.  Monasteries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very 
early date; Shenout (Sinuthius), the fiery apostle and prophet 
of the Coptic national church, was a monk of Atrepe (now 
Suhag), and led the populace to the destruction of the pagan 
edifices.  He died in 451; some years earlier Nestorius, the 
ex-patriarch, had succumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old 
age, in the neighbourhood of Akhmim.  Nonnus, the Greek poet, was 
born at Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. LL. G.) 

AKHTAL [GHIYYTH IBN HYRITH} (c. 640-710), one of the most 
famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the tribe 
of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribesmen, 
a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while not 
taking its duties very seriously.  Of his private life .few 
details are known, save that he was married and divorced, 
and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his 
tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the Taghhbites with the
Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires.  In the 
literary strife between his contemporaries Jarir and Lerazdaq 
he was induced to support the latter poet.  Akhtal, Jarir and 
Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, but as to 
relative superiority there is dispute.  In the'Abbasid period 
there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his 
reputation, but Abu'Ubaida placed him highest of the three 
on the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless 
qasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could 
not be said of the other two.  The chief material of his poems 
consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the latter 
being, however, more restraified than was usual at the time. 

The Poetry of al-Akhtal has been published at the Jesuit press 
in Beirut, 1891.  A full account of the poet and his times 
is given in H. Lammens' Le chantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895) 
(a reprint from the Journal Asiatique for 1894). (G. W. T.) 

AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 
near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (11 m.) 
with the railway from Kiev to Kharkov.  It has a beautiful 
cathedral, built after a plan by Rastrelh in 1753, to which 
pilgrims resort to venerate an ikon of the Virgin.  There 
are manufactures of light woollen stuffs and a trade in 
corn, cattle and the produce of domestic industries.  The 
environs are fertile, the orchards producing excellent 
fruit.  A fair is held on the 9th of May. The place was founded 
by the Poles in 1642.  Pop. (1867) 17,411; (1900) 25,965. 

AKKA (TIKEI-TIKKI), a race of African pygmies first seen 
by the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when he was in the 
Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza.  The home of the Akka 
is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo 
State.  They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid 
race. and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own 
chief.  Of all African ``dwarfs'' the Akka are believed the 
best representatives of the ``little people'' mentioned by 
Herodotus.  Giovanni Miani, the Italian explorer who followed 
Schweinfurth, obtained two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a 
calf.  These, sent to Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4 
in. and 4 ft. 8 in. high, while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth 
did not reach 5 ft.  None of the four Akka brought to Europe 
in 1874 and 1876 exceeded 3 ft. 4 in.  The average height of 
the race would seem to be somewhat under 4 ft., but sufficient 
measurements have not been taken to allow of a conclusive 
statement.  Schweinfurth says the Akka have very large and 
almost spherical skulls (this last detail proves to be an 
exaggeration).  They are of the colour of coffee slightly 
roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and tufted; 
they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protruding 
lips, which give them an ``ape-like'' appearance.  Marked 
physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes 
all Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable 
hollowing of the spine into a curve like an d.  Investigation 
has shown that these are not true racial characteristics, but 
tend to disappear, the abdominal enlargement subsiding after 
some weeks of regular and wholesome diet.  The upper limbs are 
long, and the hands, according to Schweinfurth, are singularly 
delicate.  The lower limbs are short, relatively to the 
trunk, and curve in somewhat, the feet being bent in too, 
which gives the Akka a top heavy, tottering gait.  There is a 
tendency to steatopygia among the women.  The Akka are nomads, 
living in the forests, where they hunt game with poisoned 
arrows, with pitfalls and springs set everywhere, and with 
traps built like huts, the roofs of which, hung by tendrils 
only, fall in on the animal.  They collect ivory and honey, 
manufacture poison, and bring these to market to exchange 
for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons.  They are courageous 
hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants, both 
sexes joining in the chase.  They are very agile, and are 
said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high 
grass like grasshoppers.  They are timid as children before 
strangers, but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous 
fighters.  In dress, weapons and utensils they are as the 
surrounding negroes.  They build round huts of branches 
and leaves in the forest clearings.  They seem in no way a 
degenerate race, but rather a people arrested in development 
by the forest environment.  Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa 
(London, 1873); Dr W. Pleyte, Chapitres supplementaires du 
Livre des Morts, traduction et commontaire (Leiden, 1883); 
Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902). 

AKKAD (Gr. versions aroad and achad), a Hebrew name, 
mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for 
one of the four chief cities, Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh, 
which constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in 
the land of Shinar or Babylonia.  This Biblical city, Akkad, 
was most probably identical with the northern Babylonian city 
known to us as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which 
was the principal seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon 
I. (Sargani-Sarali), whose date is given by Nabonidus, 
the last Semitic king of Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as 
3800 B.C., which is perhaps too old by 700 or 1000 years.i 
The probably non-Semitic name Agade occurs in a number of 
inscriptions2 and is now well attested as having been the name 
of an important ancient capital.  The later Assyro-Babylonian 
Semitic form Akkadu (``of or belonging to Akkad'') is, 
in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form from the non-Semitic 
name Agade, and seems to be an additional demonstration of 
the identity of Agade and Akkad.  The usual signs denoting 
Akkadu in the Semitic narrative inscriptions were read in 
the non-Semitic idiom uri-ki or ur-ki, ``land of the city,'' 
which simply meant that Akkadu was the land of the city par 
excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which 
remained for a long period the leading city of Babylonia.3 

It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may mean 
``crown (aga) of fire (de)''4 in allusion to Istar, 
``the brilliant goddess,'' the tutelar deity of the morning 
and evening star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult 
was observed in very early times in Agade.  This fact is again 
attested by Nabonidus, whose record 5 mentions that the Istar 
worship of Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess 
Anunit, another personification of the Istar idea, whose 
shrine was at Sippar.  It is significant in this connexion that 
there were two cities named Sippar, one under the protection 
of Shamash, the sun-god, and one under this Anunit, a fact 
which points strongly to the probable proximity of Sippar and 
Agade.  In fact, it has been thought that Agade-Akkad was 
situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
and was probably the oldest part of the city of Sippar. 

In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name Akkadu appears 
as part of the royal title in connexion with Sumer; viz. 
non-Semitic: lugal Kengi (ki) Uru (ki) = sar mat Sumeri u 
Akkadi, ``king of Sumer and Akkad,'' which appears to have 
meant simply ``king of Babylonia.'' It is not likely, as many 
scholars have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically 
as a distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that 
the name Sumer (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land, 
because kings who ruled only over Southern Babylonia used 
the double title ``king of Sumer and Akkad,'' which was also 
employed by northern rulers who never established their sway 
farther south than Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror 
Tiglathpileser III. (745--727 B.C..) Professor Mccurdy has 
very reasonably suggested 6 that the title ``king of Sumer 
and Akkad'' indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory 
and city of Akkad together with certain additional territory, 
but not necessarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed. 

A discussion of the interesting question relating to 
the non-Semitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language 
and race will be found in the article SUMER. 


1 Prince, Nabonidus, p. v. 2 in the Sargon inscriptions; 
Bab. Exped. of the Univ. of Penn. also xi. pl. 49, nr. 
119 and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50 (Hilprecht, 
Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pl. 
1, nr. 91146, line 3. 3Rogers, History of Babylonia and 
Assyria, i. pp. 365, 373-374. 4 prince, ``Materials for 
a Sumerian Lexicon,'' pp. 23, 73, Journal of Biblical 
Literature, 1906. 5 I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 
28. 6 History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. sec.  110. 


LITERATURE.---Schmder, Zur Frage n. d.  Ursprung d. altbab. 
Kultur (1883); Keilinschriften und Geschichteforschung, pp. 
533 fr; Fried.  Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? (1881), p. 
198; Paul Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte 
(1881), pp. 133 ff.; Die Sumerische Akkadische Sprache, 
Verh. 5-ten Orient.  Cong. ii. pp. 249-287; Die sumerischen 
Familiengesetze (1879); Zimmern, Babylonische Busspsalmen 
(1885), pp. 71 f.; Hommel, Gesch.  Bab. Assyr. (1885), 
pp. 240 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Assyr.  Gesch. (1888), p. 68; W. 
H. Ward, Hebraica (1886), pp. 79-86; Mccurdy, Presb. and 
Ref. Review, Jan. 1891, pp. 58-81; History, Prophecy and 
the Monuments (1894), sec. sec.  79-85, 94-110; Hugo Winckler, 
Untersuchungen zur altorientallischen Geschichte (1886), pp. 65 
ff.  In Rabbinical literature, Louis Ginzberg, in Monatschrift, 
xliii. 486; and Jewish Encyclopaedia, i. p. 149. (J. D. PR.) 

AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, ``white town''), a 
town, formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the 
government of Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the 
estuary (liman) of the Dniester, 12 m. from the Black Sea. 
The town stands on the site of the ancient Milesian colony of 
Tyras.  Centuries later it was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called 
it Mauro Castro.  The Turks first acquired possession of it in 
1484.  It was taken by the Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806, 
but each time returned to the Turks, and not definitely annexed 
to Russia until 1881 . A treaty concluded here in 1826 between 
Russia and the Porte secured considerable advantages to the 
former.  It was the non-observance of this treaty that led to 
the war of 1S28.  The harbour is too shallow to admit vessels 
of large size, but the proximity of the town to Odessa secures 
for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish wool and 
tallow.  The salt is obtained from the saline lakes (limans) 
in the neighbourhood.  The town, with its suburbs, contains 
beautiful gardens and vineyards.  It is surrounded by 
ramparts, and commanded by a citadel.  Pop. (1900) 32,470. 

AKMOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the 
governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly 
known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of Turgai 
on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-palatinsk 
on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m., 
of which 4535 are lakes.  In the north the government is low 
and dotted with salt lakes, and is sandy on the banks of the 
Irtysh in the north-east.  An undulating plateau stretches 
through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the 
Nura.  The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad 
spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards, 
containing gold, copper and coal.  Many lakes, of which the 
largest is Teniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these 
hills.  Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the southeastern 
frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bek-pak-dala, or Famine 
Steppe.  This section of the government is drained by the 
Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundaryline.  
The climate is continental and dry, the average temperatures 
at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35 deg. , January 
1.5 deg. , July 70 deg. ; rainfall, only 9 in.  The population, which 
was 686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of 
Russians in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz 
(about 350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep.  The 
urban population was only 74,069.  Agriculture is successfully 
carried on in the north, the Siberian railway running between 
Petropavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated 
region.  Steamers ply on the Irtysh.  The government is divided 
into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop. 
53,050 in 1900), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital 
of this government and also of the governor-generalship of 
the Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Akmolly (9560 in 1897), on the 
Ishim, 260 m.  S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the 
caravans coming from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030); 
Kokchetav (5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1901). 

AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Berar, otherwise 
known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts.  The town is on 
the Murna tributary of the Purna river, 930 ft. above the sea, 
Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapeth, containing 
the government buildings and European residences, on the east 
bank.  It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great 
Indian Peninsula railway and is 383 m.  E.N.E. of Bombay.  It 
had a population (1901) of 29,289.  It is walled, and has a 
citadel built in the early years of the 19th century.  Akola 
is one of the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar, 
and has numerous ginning factories and cotton presses.  Among 
the educational establishments are a government high school, 
and an industrial school supported by a Protestant mission. 

The DISTRICT OF AKOLA as. reconstituted in 1905 has an 
area of 4111 sq. n1.. the popi:lation of this area in 1901 
being 754,804. (Before the alteration of the boundaries the 
area of the district was 2678 sq. m., and the population 
582,540.) The surface of the country is generally flat, 
the greater part being situated in the central valley of 
Berar.  On the north it is bounded by the Melghat 
hills.  By the addition of Basim and Mangrul laluks in 
1005, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta 
hills, with peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of 
Basim (q.v..) North of the Ajanta hills the country is 
drained eastward by the I,urna affluent of the Tapti and its 
tributaries.  None of the rivers is navigable.  The climate 
resembles that of Berar generally, but the beat during April 
to mid-June, when the rains begin, is very great, the average 
temperature at the town of Akola in May for the twenty-five 
years ending 1901 being 94.4 deg.  F. But even during the hot 
season the nights are cool.  The annual rainfall averages 34 
in.  In the Purna valley the soil is everywhere a rich lilack 
loam, and nearly the whole of the land is cultivated.  Very 
little.land is under irrigation.  The principal crop is 
cotton, and the staple grain millet.  Wheat and pulses are also 
grown.  The history of Akola is not distinguished from that 
of the other portions of Berar.  In 1317--1318 it was added 
to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani 
dynasty in 1348, and in 1596 again fell under the sv'ay of the 
Moguls.  In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the 
dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853. 

AKRON, a city and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio, 
U.S.A., on the Little Cuyaboga river, about 35 m.  S. by E. of 
Cleveland.  Pop. (1890) 27,601; (1900) 42,728, of whom 7127 
were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1104 English, and 
641 Irish); (1910) 69,067.  It is served by the Baltimore & 
Ohio, the Erie, the Northern fj!:io, and the Cleveland, Akron 
& Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and by 
the Ohio Canal.  The city is situated in a region abounding 
in lakes, springs and hills; it is about 1000 ft. above 
sea-level, whence its name (from Oir. akron, height); 
and attracts many summer visitors.  It is the seat of 
Buchtel College (co-educational; non-sectarian), which was 
founded by the Ohio Universalist Convention in 1870, was 
opened in 1872, and was named in honour of its most liberal 
benefactor, John R. Buchtel (18221802), a successful business 
man who did much to promote the industrial development of 
Akron.  Buchtel College provides three courses leading to 
the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S.B.; it has a school of 
music, a school of art and an academy; in 1908 there were 267 
students.  Coal is mined in the neighbourhood.  The river 
furnishes considerable water-power; and among the city's most 
important manufactures are rubber and elastic goods (value, 
1905, $13,396,974; 83.9% of the total of this industry in 
the state and 21.3% of the total for the United States, 
Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in this 
industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1905, 
$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1905, 
$2,367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay (value, 
1905, $1,718,033; nearly twice the value of the output in 1900, 
Akron ranking fourth among the cities of the United States in 
this industry in 1905).  Other important manufactures are food 
preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill 
products.  The value of the total manufactured products 
(under the ``factory'' system) in 1905 was $34,004,243, an 
increase in five years of 54.5%.  Akron was settled about 
1825, was incorporated as a village in 1836, was made the 
county-seat in 1842, and in 1865 was chartered as a city. 

See S. N. Lane, Fifty Years and over of 
Akron and Sumnnit County (Akron, 1892). 

AK-SHEHR (anc. Philomelioii), a town in Asia Minor, in 
the Ronia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on 
the north side of the Sultan Dagh.  Philomelion was probably a 
Pergamenian foundation on the great Graeco-Roman highway from 
Ephesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smyrniotes wrote
the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp.  
Cicero, on his way to Cilicia, dated some of his extant 
correspondence there; and the place played a considerable 
part in the frontier wars between the Byzantine emperors 
and the sultanate of Rum. It became an important Seljuk 
town, and late in the 14th century passed into Ottoman 
hands.  There Bayezid Yilderim is said by Ali of Yezd to 
have died after his defeat at Angora.  The place still enjoys 
much repute among Turks, as the burialplace of Nur-ed-din 
Khoja.  The town has a station on the Anatolian railway, 
about 60 m. from Afium-Rara-Hissar and 100 m. from Konia. 

AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern 
Turkestan, in 41 deg.  7' N. and 79 deg.  7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270 
m.  N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river, 
which takes its origin in the Tien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains 
and joins the Tarim.  It belongs to the series of oases 
(Uch-Turfan, Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of 
the eastern Tien-shan mountains.  The tov'n, which is supposed 
to have about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall.  It is an 
important centre for caravan routes and has a considerable 
trade.  There are some cotton manufactures; and the place 
is celebrated for its richly ornamented saddlery made from 
deerskin.  A Chinese garrison is stationed here, and copper and 
iron are wrought in the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals.  
Extensive cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants. 

AKYAR, a city and distact in the Arakan division of 
Burma.  The city is situated at the confluence of the three 
large rivers Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu, and is the most 
flourishing city in the Arakan division.  Originally it 
was a mere fishing village, but when the British government 
in 1826 removed the restrictions on trade imposed by the 
Burmese, Akyab quickly grew into an important seat of maritime 
commerce.  After the cession of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo 
in that year the old capital of Myohaung was abandoned as 
the seat of government, and Akyab on the sea-coast selected 
instead.  During the first forty years of British rule it 
increased from a village to a town of 15,536 inhabitants, and 
now it is the third port of Burma, with a population in 1901 of 
31,687.  It contains the usual public buildings and several 
large rice mills.  The chief exports are rice and oil. 

The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay 
of . Bengal, with an area of 5136 sq. m. and a population 
in 1901 of q81,666.  It forms the northernmost district of 
Lower Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between 
the sea and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken 
country formed by a portion of their western spurs and 
valleys.  The forests form a most important feature of Akyab 
district and contain a valuable supply of timber of many 
kinds.  The central part of the district consists of three 
fertile valleys, watered by the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu.  
These rivers approach each other at their mouths, and form 
a vast network of tidal channels, creeks and islands.  Their 
alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible supplies of rice, which 
the abundant water carriage brings down to the port of Akyab 
at a very cheap rate.  The four chief towns are Khumgchu 
in the extreme north-east of the district; Koladaing in the 
centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and Akyab on the 
coast, where their mouths converge.  This district passed into 
the hands of the British, together with the rest of Arakan 
division, at the close of the first Burmese war of 1825--1826. 

Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom of 
Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it.  In 
1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed 
under a special administration, with a view to the better 
government of the wild tribes which inhabit them. (J. G. SC.) 

ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically 
by analogy with its meaning of ``wing.'' In physiology, 
it means any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral 
cartilages of the nose.  In botany, one of the side petals 
of a papilionaceous corolla, &c. In architecture, a side 
apartment or recess of a Romanhouse (the origin of ``aisle''). 

ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated 
between 84 deg.  51' and 88 deg.  31' W. long. and about 30 deg.  13' and 
35 deg.  N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by 
Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi.  Its 
total area is 51,998 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface. 

Physical Features.--The surface of Alabama in the N. and 
N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified 
and picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently 
undulating plain having a general incline south-westward 
toward the Mississippi and the Gulf.  Extending entirely 
across the state of Alabama for about 20 m.  S. of its N. 
boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is 
the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken 
into broad table-lands by the dissection of rivers.  In the 
N. part of this plateau, W. of Jackson county, there are about 
1000 sq. m. of level highlands from 700 to 800 ft. above the 
sea.  South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on 
each side of the Tennessee river, is a delightful country of 
gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to 800 
ft.  To the N.E. of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged 
section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and 
valleys, and flat mountain-tops.  Its elevations range from 
400 to 1800 ft.  In the remainder of this region, the S. 
portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, 
extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, 
and Asing precipitouslyon the N. side 500 ft. above them 
or 1000ft. above the sea.  Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau 
region on the S.E. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as 
Coosa Valley) region, which is the S. extremity of the great 
Appalachian Mountain system, and occupies an area within the 
state of about 8000 sq. m.  This is a limestone belt with 
parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form 
mountains.  Although the general direction of the mountains, 
ridges and valleys is N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of 
the most prominent characteristics.  In the N.E. are several 
flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the 
most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia 
line of little more than 1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in 
height toward the S.W., where Sand Mountain is a continuation of 
Raccoon.  South of these the mountains are marked by steep 
N.W. sides, sharp crests and gently sloping S.E. sides.  
South-east of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont 
Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and 
occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph 
and Clay counties, together with the N. part of Tallapoosa and 
Chambers, form the principal portion.  Its surface is gently 
undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft. above the 
sea.  The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on 
hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.  The 
remainder of the state is occupied by the coastal plain.  This 
is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central 
part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600 
ft., becomes lower and more level toward the S.W., and in 
the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated above the 
sea.  The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the W.N.W. 
by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all other parts 
of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appalachian Valley 
region the Coosa is the principal river; and in the Piedmont 
Plateau, the Tallapoosa.  In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee 
in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) 
in the W. central, and in the E. the Chattahoochee, which 
forms almost half of the Georgia boundary.  The Tombigbee 
and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the state, their 
waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas 
rivers.  The Black Warrior is a considerable stream which joins 
the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N. and N.E. are 
usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad 
and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the 
stream.  The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning 
of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee 
rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such 
sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. 

The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the 
Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. 
Climate and Soil.---The climate of Alabama is temperate and
fairly uniform.  The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by the 
winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation 
above the sea.  The average annual temperature is highest in 
the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the 
highlands.  Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 deg.  F., the mean 
for the summer 81 deg. , and for the winter 52 deg. ; and at Valley 
Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 deg. , the mean 
for the summer 75 deg. , and for the winter 41 deg. .  At Montgomery, 
in the central region, the average annual temperature is 
66 deg. , with a winter average of 49 deg. , and a summer average of 
81 deg. .  The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35 deg. , 
and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the 
thermometer falls below the freezing-point.  At extremely rare 
intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero, as was the 
case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February 
1899, when an absolute minimum of 17 deg.  was registered at Valley 
Head.  The highesl temperature ever recorded was 109 deg.  in 
Talladega county in 1902.  The amount of precipitation is 
greatest along the coast (62 in.) and evenly distributed 
through the rest of the state (about 52 in.).  During each 
winter there is usually one fall of snow in the S. and two 
in the N.; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, 
during' an entire winter, the ground is not covered with 
snow.  Hail-storms occur in the spring and summer, but are seldom 
destructive.  Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly 
to the coast.  Thunderstorms occur throughout the year, but 
are most common in the summer.  The prevailing winds are from 
the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four 
regions.  Extending from the Gulf northward for one hundred 
and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, 
also called the ``Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and 
poor, but responds well to fertilization.  North of this 
is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ``Black 
Prairie,'' which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen 
counties.  It receives its name from its soil (weathered from 
the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, 
almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone 
and marl formations, especially adapted to the production 
of cotton; hence the region is also called the ``Cotton 
Belt.'' Between the ``Cotton Belt'' and the Tennessee Valley 
is the mineral region, the ``Old Land'' area---``a region of 
resistant rocks''--whose soils, also derived from weathering 
in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the 
granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the 
gneisses, schists and slates.  North of the mineral region 
is the ``Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and 
the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays 
and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less 
fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations. 

Agriculture.---Agriculture is the principal occupation in 
Alabama, giving employment to 64.5% of the population.  The 
farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire 
surface of the state), of which 8,654,991 acres (41.8%) were 
improved.  Under the system of slave labour which existed 
before 1860, the average size of the plantations tended to 
increase, but since 1860 the reverse has been true, the 
average plantation in 1860 being 346 acres, and in 190092.7 
acres.  The average value per acre of farm land was $11.86 
in 1860 and $8,67 in 1900.  As to method of cultivation, 
36.3 per cent of the farms were in 1900 managed by the 
owners, 33.3% by cash renters, 24.4(R by share tenants, and 
the remaining 6% by other methods.  The chief product is 
cotton, cultivated extensively in the ``Black Belt'' and 
less extensively in the other portions of the state.  Cotton 
has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount 
of its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 
to 25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state 
in 1840 being double that of 1830.  This was accompanied 
by an extensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820 
until 1860 the rate of increase of the blacks was greater 
than that of the whites.  The success of the economic system 
was such that in 1860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly 
1,000,o00 bales (989,955 bales), being 18.4% of the entire 
cotton product of the United States.  The disorganization of 
labour resulting from the Civil War and the emancipation of 
slaves, was the cause of a temporary decline in the cotton 
crop.  In 1889 the crop again approximated to 1,000,000 bales 
(915,210 bales, being 12.2% of the entire crop of the United 
States), and in 1899 it exceeded that amount, Alabama being 
fourth among the states of the entire country.  The total value 
of the farm products of Alabama in 1899 was $91,387,409; in 
1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879, $56,872,994.  The average 
yield per acre has also increased under the system of free 
labour.  In recent years there has been a tendency to diversify 
crops Indian corn, wheat and oats being mised extensively in 
the ``Cereal Belt.'' In 1906, according to the Year-Book 
of the Department of Agriculture, the following were the 
acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more important 
crops (excepting cotton):---Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres, 
47,849,392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029 
bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels, 
$1,615,618; hay, 56,350 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461,431 . 

Minerals.--The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life 
since 1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal 
resources.  The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of 
which Birmingham is the centre) is primarily red haematite 
and (much less important) brown haematite; though as regards 
the latter Alabama ranked first among the states of the 
Union in 1905 (with 781,561 tons).  The total production of 
all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons in 1905, Alabama 
ranking third in the Union in this respect.  The production 
of bituminous coal has also increased very rapidly.  Coal 
was first discovered in the state in 1834, and in 1840 the 
total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200 short 
tons.  The real development of the mines began in 1881 and 
1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in 1881 
to 1,568,000 in 1883.  By 1890 it had increased to 4,090,409 
tons, by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to 11,866,069 
tons, valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the 
coal-producing states.  Nearly 85% of the coal is produced 
in three counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the 
coalbearing formations cover about 40% of the northern half 
of the state.  Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite 
have also been discovered, but the greater richness of the 
iron and coal deposits has prevented their development. 

Manufactures.---The growth of manufactures in Alabama 
has been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral 
wealth.  In 1880 the capital invested in manufactures was 
$9,668,008, little more than that ($9,098,181) in 1860; 
by 1890 it had increased to $46,122,571, or 377.1%; and 
in 1900 it amounted to $70,370,081, or 52.6% more than in 
1890.  On account of the proximity of coal, iron and 
limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are the most 
extensive.  In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama pig-iron 
could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the English 
product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently to rank 
next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world centres 
of the pig-iron trade.  The pig-iron produced in the state 
in 1860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in 
1880 at $1,405,356, in 1900 at $13,487,769, and in 1905 at 
$16,614,577.  In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama 
held first rank both in 1900 and in 1905.  The manufacture of 
steel, though in its infancy, gave promise of equalling that 
of iron, and the coke industry is also Of growing importance, 
the product of Alabama during the five years from 1896 to 1901 
showing a greater increase, relatively, than that of the other 
states.  In 1900 the state ranked sixth and in 1905 fifth 
among the states of the United States in the manufactures 
of iron and steel.  In 1905 the value of the product was 
2.7% of the value of the total iron and steel product of the 
country, and 22.6% of the value of all the state's factory 
products.  In 1900 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among 
the states of the Union in the production of coke, its product 
being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and 
more than one-twentieth (5.2% in 1000; 5.7% in 1905) of all 
the factory products of the state.  The demand for coke is 
due to the rapidly growing iron and steel industry.  Great 
possibilities were also shown for the production of lumber and 
naval stores.  Approximately three-fourths of the total area 
of the state is woodland.  In the ``Timber Belt'' the forests 
of long leaf pine have an estimated stand of 21,192 million 
ft.; and in 1905 the product of sawed lumber was valued at 
$13,563,815.  Of this, yellow pine represented $11,320,909, 
oak $886,746, and poplar $627,686.  In the decade 1890-1900 
the number of turpentine factories increased from 7 to 
152, and their product in 1900 and in 1905 ranked Alabama 
third among the states in that industry.  The value of the 
turpentine and rosin products in 1905 was $ 2,434,365 . 

The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly.  
As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama, 
one more than the number in 1850; in 19-0 there were 31, 
representing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product 
valued at $8,153,136, an increase of 272. 2% Over the product 
($2,190,771) of 1890; in 1905 there wers 46 establishments, 
representing a capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of 
112`7% over that of 1900), and having a product (for the 
year) of $16,760,332, an increase of 105.6% over that for 
1900.  To encourage the establishment of cotton mills the 
legislature of 1896-1897 exempted from taxation during the 
succeeding ten years all capital that should be invested in 
the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or more be 
invested in buildings and machinery.  Other industries of 
less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather. 

Communications.---The navigable mileage of the Alabama 
rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation 
of a continuous route, notably the ``Muscle Shoals'' of the 
Tennessee, extending from a point 10 m. below Decatur to 
Florence, a distance of 38 m.  To remove or circumvent these 
impediments, and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United 
States government spent, between 1870 and 1904, approximately 
$12,000,000: As the streams in the mineral region are not 
navigable, the railways are the carriers of its products.2 
Here all the large systems of the southern states find an 
entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the Southern (Queen & Crescent 
Route), the Louisville & Nashville, and the Frisco system 
affording communication with the Mississippi and the 
west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, Atlantic Coast 
Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions with 
northern and Atlantic states.  Mobile, the only seaport of 
the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national 
government spends large sums of money; yet an increasing 
amount of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment, 
and Pensacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber. 

Population.---In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered 
1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513,017, an increase of 17%:; in 1900, 
1,828,697, a further increase of 20%. This population is 
notable for its large proportion of negroes (45.23%), its 
insignificant foreign element (.08%), and the small percentage 
of urban inhabitants (10%).  As regards church membership, 
the Baptists are much the most numerous, followed by the 
Methodists, the Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians.  In 
1900 there were 201 incorporated cities, towns and villages 
in the state, but of these only nine had a population in 
excess of 5000, and only three a population in excess of 
25,000.  These three were Mobile (38,469), Birmingham 
(38,415), and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of the 
state.  Other important cities, with their populations, were 
Selma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsville (8068), Bessemer 
(6358), Tuscaloosa (5094), Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4532) 
and Tuskegee (2170).  In 1910 the population was 2,138,003. 

Government.---Alabama has been governed ui,der five 
constitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision 
of 186b, the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present 
constitution. which was framed in 1901.  The last has a number 
of notable provisions.  It lengthened the term of service of 
executive and legislative officials from two to four years, 
made that of the judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial 
sessions of the legislature, and introduced the office of 
lieutenant-governor.  The passage of local or special bills 
by the legislature was prohibited.  A provision intended to 
prevent lobbying is that no one except legislators and the 
representatives of the press may be admitted to the floor of 
the House except by unanimous vote.  No executive official 
can succeed himself in office, and the governor cannot be 
elected or appointed to the United States Senate, or to any 
state office during his term as governor, or within one year 
thereafter.  Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob violence may be 
impeached.  The constitution eliminated the negro from politics 
by a suffrage clause which went int0 effect in 1903.  This 
limits the right to vote to those who can read and write any 
article of the constitution of the United States, and have 
worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employment, 
business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater part 
of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to 
register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and 
write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at 
$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have 
served in the army or navy of the United States or of the 
Confederate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in 
every degree, and persons of good character ``who understand 
the duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican 
form of government,'' are relieved from the operation of this 
law provided they registered prior to the 20th of December 
1902.  The second of these exceptions is known as the 
``Grandfather Clause.'' No man may vote in any election who 
has not by the 1st of February next preceding that election 
paid all poll taxes due from him to the state.  In 1902 
nine-tenths of the negroes in the state were disqualified from 
voting.3 The constitution of 1901 (like that of 1867) and 
special statutes require separate schools for white and negro 
children.  A ``Jim Crow'' law was enacted in 1891.  Buying, 
selling or offering to buy or sell a vote has for penalty 
disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian ballot system 
has been used.  The governor, auditor and attorney-general 
are required to prepare and present to each legislature a 
general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with the 
last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make 
recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound 
to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning 
power.  State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes 
from railway companies, and individuals are forbidden to 
receive freight rebates.  The constitution of 1901 exempted 
a homestead of 80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot 
not exceeding $2000 in value, from liability for any debt 
contracted since the 30th of July 1868 except for a mortage 
on it to which the wife consented; personal property to the 
value of $1000 is exempted.  Under the civil code of 1897 
the earnings of a wife are her separate property, and it is 
provided that ``no woman, nor any boy under age of twelve 
years, shall be employed to work or labour in or about any 
mine in this state.'' By acts of 1903 child labour under 12 
years is forbidden in any factory unless for suoport of ``a 
widowed mother or aged or disabled father,'' or unless the 
child is an indigent orphan; ``no child under the age of 
ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances.'' 
Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child 
is employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of 
a fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not exceeding three 
months.  No child under 13 may do night work at all.  No 
child under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of light 
work.  No child of less than 12 is allowed to work more than 
66 hours in any one week.  An able-bodied parent who does not 
work when he has the opportunity, unless ``idle under strike 
orders, or lock-outs,'' and who hires out his minor children, 
is declared a vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned 
or sentenced to hard labour for not more than six months. 

All amendments to the constitution must be approvedbya 
three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and 
then ratified by the people.  The legislature of 1900--1901 
established a department of archives and history whose 
aim is to preserve documents and historical records. 

Education.---Public education for Mobile was authorized 
by the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until 
1852.  Two years later (1854) a sch00l system for the entire 
state was inaugurated.  Its support was derived from public 
land given by the United States to the state of Alabama for 
educational purposes in 1819, and special taxes or tuition 
fixed by each township.  The Civil War demoralized the 
nascent system.  An important step in its revival seemed 
to be made in the constitution of 1868, which forbade any 
private recompense for instruction in the public schools 
and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue to common 
schools.  But the attempt to teach whites and blacks in the same 
schools, and the corruption in the administration of funds, 
made the results unsatisfactory.  The constitution of 1875 
abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support 
of the schools, except that derived from the land grant of 
1819, and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the 
legislature, and established separate schools for whites and 
blacks.  Progress has been slow but steady.  According to 
the constitution of 1901 the legislature is required to levy, 
in addition to the poll tax, an annual tax for education at 
the rate of 30 to 65 cents on the hundred dollars' worth of 
property, and practically every county in the state had made 
in 190G an appropriation for its schools of a one mill tax on 
$i00.  The school fund in 1900 amounted to $1,000,000, an 
increase of 37% over the average a1+ual fund of the preceding 
decade; for the year ending the 30th of September 1907 
the amount certified for apportionment by the state was 
$1,150,261.40, and the total annual expenditure was about 
$1,600,000; in 1906 the school census showed 697,465 children 
of school age.  The legislature of 1907 voted an increase 
of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common school fund, 
and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but its most 
important work probably was the establishment of county high 
schools.  The rural schools have an annual term of five 
to seven months only.  The percentage of illiterates 
dechnedfrom 50.97% in 1880 to 41% in 1890, and 34% in 1900, 
when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy. 

There are also a number of institutions for higher education in 
Alabama.  The most important of these are the university of 
Alabama (co-educational---opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa, the 
institution being part of the public school system maintained 
by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn, a 
``state college for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts,'' organized in 1872 according to the United States 
land grant act for the promotion of industrial education; the 
Southern University (incorporated 1856--Methodist Episcopal, 
South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at East Lake 
(Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830--Roman Catholic), near 
Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at Talladega; the Tuskegee 
Normal and Industrial Institute (for negroes), at Tuskegee; 
and state normal schools at Florence, Jacksonville, Troy and 
Livingston, and, for negroes, at Montgomery, Tuskegee and Normal. 

Public Institutions.---Alabama supports various philanthropic 
and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at 
Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the 
blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and blind, all 
at Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in 1860, at 
Tuscaloosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka; 
and a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake 
(Birmingham); and a state industrial school for white girls at 
Montevallo.  These institutions are managed by trustees who 
are appointed by the governor.  In addition to the usual 
method of employing convicts in the penitentiary or on state 
farms, Alabama, like other southern states, also hires its 
convicts to labour for private individuals.  Reports of 
abuses under this system caused the legislature in 1901 to 
order a special investigation, the results of which led in 
1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors, whereby the 
prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of state 
officials.  In this same year a system of peonage that 
had grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and 
a Federal grand jury at a single term of court indicted a 
number of men for holding persons as ``peons.'' Many similar 
cases were found later in other southern states, but those 
in Alabama being the first discovered attracted the most 
attention.  The system came into existence in isolated 
communities through the connivance of justices of the peace 
with white farmers.  The justices have jurisdiction over petty 
offences, of which negroes are usually the guilty parties, 
and the fines imposed would sometimes be paid by a white 
farmer, who would thus save the accused from imprisonment, 
but at the same time would require him to sign a contract 
to repay by his labour the sum advanced.  By various devices 
the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to his 
employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an indefinite 
time.  The ``peons'' as a rule were negroes, but a few white 
ones were found; and in several instances negroes were found 
holding members of their own race in peonage.  A law forbidding 
under severe penalties a labourer from hiring himself to a 
second employer without giving notice of a prior contract, 
and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be 
bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the 
system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose.  
The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage 
became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were 
supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the 
state.  Up to 1907 the state licensed the sale of liquor, 
and liquor licence fees were partly turned over to the public 
school fund; there was a dispensary system in some counties; 
and in 1907 one-third of the counties of the state (22 out 
of 67) were ``dry.'' Besides, saloons had been forbidden 
within 5 m. of certain churches and school-houses, so that 
liquor was sold scarcely at all except in incorporated towns, 
where in many cases local dispensaries were established.  
In the 1907 state legislature a county local option bill was 
passed in February, and immediately afterward the Sherrod 
anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance 
of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to 
prohibition districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders 
for liquor in ``dry'' districts with a punishment of $500 
fine and six months' imprisonment with hard labour.  In a 
special session of the legislature in November 1907 a law was 
passed forbidding the sale of liquor within the state, this 
prohibition to come into effect on the 1st of January 1909. 

Finance.---One-half of the income of the state is derived 
from general taxes, the other sources of revenue being 
licences, a special school tax, poll tax and the lease of the 
convicts.  The state debt, for which legislative corruption 
in the years 1868-1872 was largely responsible, amounted 
on the 1st of October 1906 to $9,057,000.  Measures for its 
relunding, but not for its extinction, have been taken.  The 
constitution of 1901 prohibits the increase of the debt for 
any other purposes than the suppression of insurrection or 
resistance to invasion, and the assumption of corporate debts 
by cities and towns is also restricted.  All banks, except 
national banks, are subject to examination by a public official, 
and their charters expire within twenty years of their issue. 

History.---The first Europeans to enter the limits of the 
present state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this 
region as a part of Florida.  It is possible that a member of 
Panfilo de Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now 
southern Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit n'as 
that of Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless 
journey along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in 
1539.  The English, too, claimed the region north of the 
Gulf of Mexico, and the territory of modern Alabama was 
included in the province of Carolina, granted by Charles 
II. to certain of his favourites by the charters of 1663 and 
1665.  English traders of Carolina were frequenting the valley 
of the Alabama river as early as 1687.  Disregarding these 
claims, however, the French in 1702 settled on the Mobile 
river and there erected Fort Louis, which for the next nine 
years was the seat of government of Louisiana.  In 1711 Fort 
Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river, and on higher 
ground was built Fort Conde, the germ of the present city of 
Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement in Alabama.  
Later, on account of the intrigues of the English traders 
with the Indians, the French as a means of defence established 
the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction of 
the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the 
Tombigbee river.  The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his 
associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern 
Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek 
Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with 
them.  The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French 
occupation, and England came into undisouted possession of 
the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi.  The 
portion of Alabama below the 31st parallel then became a part 
of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part 
of the Illinois country,'' set apart, by royal proclamation, 
for the use of the Indians.  In 1767 the province of West 
Florida was extended northward to 32 deg.  28' N. lat., and a 
few years later, during the War for Independence, this region 
fell into the hands of Spain.  By the treaty of Versailles, 
on the 3rd of September 1783, England ceded West Florida to 
Spain; but by the treaty of Paris, signed the same day, she 
ceded to the United States all of this province north of 31 deg. , 
and thus laid the foundation for a long controversy.  By the 
treaty of Madrid, in 1795, Spain ceded to the United States 
her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi between 31 deg.  
and 32 deg.  28'; and three years later (1798) this district was 
organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory.  A strip 
of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern boundary 
of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina; 
but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general 
government.  Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between 
the 31st and 35th parallels from its present western boundary 
to the Mississippi river, and did not surrender its claim 
until 1802; two years later the boundaries of the Mississippi 
Territory were extended so as to include all of the Georgia 
cession.  In 1812 Congress annexed to the Mississippi Territory 
the Mobile District of West Florida, claiming that it was 
included in the Louisiana Purchase; and in the following year 
General James Wilkinson occupied this district with a military 
force, the Spanish commandant offering no resistance.  The 
whole area of the present state of Alabama then for the 
first time became subject to the jurisdiction of the United 
States.  In 1817 the Mississippi Territory was divided; the 
western portion became the state of Mississippi, and the 
eastern the territory of Alabama, with St Stephens, on the 
Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of government.  In 
1819 Alabama was regularly admitted to the Union as a state. 

One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that of 
finance.  Since the amount of money in circulation was not 
sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population, 
a system of state banks was instituted.  State bonds were 
issued and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the 
notes of the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of 
exchange.  Prospects of an income from the banks led the 
legislature of 1836 to abolish all taxation for state purposes.  
This was hardly done, however, before the panic of 1837 wiped 
out a large portion of the banks' assets; next came revelations 
of grossly careless and even of corrupt management, and in 
1843 the banks were placed in liquidation.  After disposing 
of all their available assets, the state assumed the remaining 
liabilities, for which it had pledged its faith and credit, 
and these form a part ($3,445,000) of its present indebtedness. 

The Indian problem was important.  With the encroachment 
of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek 
Indians began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief 
Tecumseh, who visited them in 1811, fomented their discontent.  
When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in 
1812 gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in 
arms, massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge 
in Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee 
rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek 
country was safe outside a palisade.  The Chickasaw and Choctaw 
Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites, 
and volunteers from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee, 
and later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the 
threatened settlements.  In the campaign that followed the most 
distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew Jackson, 
whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power of the Creek 
Confederacy.  By the treaty of Fort Jackson (9th of August 
1814) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half of the 
present state; and cessions by the Cherokees, Chickasaws and 
Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama to the 
Indians.  In 1832 the national government provided for the 
removal of the Creeks; but before the terms of the contract were 
effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into 
counties, and settlers flocked in.  This caused a disagreement 
between Alabama and the United States authorities; although 
it was amicably setrled, it engendered a feeling that the 
policy of the national government might not be in harmony with 
the interests of the state---a feeling which, intensified by 
the slavery agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861. 

The political history of Alabama may be divided 
into three periods, that prior to 1860, the years 
from 1860 to 1876, and the period from 1876 onwards. 

The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy 
political life.  Until 1832 there was only one party in the 
state, the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused 
a division that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and 
the State's Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same 
time, also, there arose, chiefly in those counties where the 
proportion of slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen 
were most aristocratic, the Whig party.  For some time the 
Whigs were nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they 
never secured control of the state government.  The State's 
Rights men were in a minority; nevertheless under their active 
and persistent leader, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they 
pvevailed upon the Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical 
views.  During the agitation over the introduction of slavery 
into the territory acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the 
Democratic State Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known 
as the ``Alabama Platform,'' which declared in substance 
that neither Congress nor the government of a territory 
had the right to interfere with slavery in a territory, 
that those who held opposite views were not Democrats, and 
that the Democrats of Alabama would not support a candidate 
for the presidency if he did not agree with them on these 
questions.  This platform was endorsed by conventions in 
Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures of Georgia and 
Alabama.  Old party lines were broken by the Compromise of 
1850.  The State's Rights party, joined by many Democrats, 
founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded the 
repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future 
encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs, 
joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known as 
the ``Unionists,'' which unwillingly accepted the Compromise 
and denied the ``constitutional'' right of secession.  The 
``Unionists'' were successful in the elections of 1851 and 
1852, but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south 
by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course 
of the slavery agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic 
convention of 1856 to revive the ``Alabama Platform''; and when 
the `i Alabama Platform'' failed to secure the formal approval 
of the Democratic National convention at Charleston, South 
Carolina, in 1860, the Alabama delegates, followed by those 
of the other cotton ``states,'' withdrew.  Upon the election 
of Abraham Lincoln, Governor Andrew B. Moore, according to 
previous instructions of the legislature, called a state 
convention on the 7th of January 1861 After long debate this 
convention adopted on the 11th of January an ordinance of 
secession, and Alabama became one of the Confederate states of 
America, whose government was organized at Montgomery on the 4th 
of February 1861.  Yet secession was opposed by many prominent 
men, and in North Alabama an attempt was made to organize 
a neutral state to be called Nickajack; but with President 
Lincoln's call to arms all opposition to secession ended. 

In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene 
of military operations, yet the state contributed about 
120,000 men to the Confederate service, practically all her 
white population capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine 
of these attained the rank of general.  In 1863 the Federal 
forces secured a foothold in northern Alabama in spite of 
the opposition of General Nathan B. Forrest, one of the 
ablest Confederate cavalry leaders.  In 1864 the defences 
of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but the city held 
out until April 1865; in the same month Selma also fell. 

According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a 
provisional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a 
state convention met in September of the same year, and declared 
the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished; 
a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the 
legislature was at once recognized by the National government, 
and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after 
the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth 
amendment.  But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy 
and apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who 
were flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its 
rejection of the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the 
congressional hostility to the presidential plan that the 
Alabama senators and representatives were denied their seats in 
Congress.  In 1867 the congressional plan of reconstruction 
was completed and Alabama was placed under military 
government.  The negroes were now enrolled as voters and 
large numbers of white citizens were disfranchised.4 A Black 
Man's Party, composed of negroes, and political adventurers 
known as ``carpet-baggers,'' was formed, which co-operated 
with the Republican party.  A constitutional convention, 
controlled by this element, met in November 1867, and framed 
a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes and 
disfranchised a large class of whites.  The Reconstruction Acts 
of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified by 
a majority of the legal voters of the state.  The whites of 
Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five 
days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a 
majority.  Congress then enacted that a majority of the 
votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution 
went into effect, the state was admitted to the Union in 
June 1868, and a new governor and legislature were elected. 

The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance and 
corruption.  The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate of 
$12,000 and $16,000 a mile until the state debt had increased 
from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar 
corruption characterized local government.  The native white 
people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a governor 
and a majority of the lower house of the legislature in 1870; 
but, as the new administration was largely a failure, in 1872 
there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local term 
applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from bad to 
worse.  In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals was 
finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all state 
officials.  A commission appointed to examine the state debt 
found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced to 
$15,000,000.  A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which 
omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one 
should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous 
condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal 
improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise. 

Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control of 
the state administration, the Republicans failing to make 
nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket 
of the Greenback party in 1882.  The development of mining and 
manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress among the 
farming classes, which found expression in the Jeffersonian 
Democratic party, organized in 1892.  The regular Democratic 
ticket was elected and the new party was then merged into 
the Populist party.  In 1894 the Republicans united with the 
Populists, elected three congressional representatives, secured 
control of many of the counties, but failed to carry the state, 
and continued their opposition with less success in the next 
campaigns.  Partisanship became intense, and charges of corruption 
of the ignorant negro electorate were made.  Consequently 
after division on the subject among the Democrats themselves, 
as well as opposition of Republicans and Populists, a new 
constitution with restrictions on suffrage was adopted in 1901. 

The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of Alabama:-- 


 
 
                  Governors of the Territory.
 
 William Wyatt Bibb . . . .  1817-1819
 
                  Governors of the State.
 
 William Wyatt Bibb . . . .  1819-1820      Democrat.
 Thomas Bibb 5  . . . . . .  1820-1821          "
 Israel Pickens . . . . . .  1821-1825          "
 John Murphy  . . . . . . .  1825-1829          "
 Gabriel cloore . . . . . .  1829-1831          "
 Samuel B. Moore  . . . . .     1831            "
 John Gayle . . . . . . . .  1831-1835          "
 Clement C. Clay  . . . . .  1835-1837          "
 Hugh M`Vay 6 . . . . . . .     1837            "
 Arthur P. Bagby  . . . . .  1837-1841          "
 Benjamin Fitzpatrick 7 . .  1841-1845          "
 Joshua L. Martin . . . . .  1845-1847          "
 Reuben Chapman . . . . . .  1847-1849          "
 Henry W. Collier . . . . .  1849-1853          "
 John A. Winston  . . . . .  1853-1857          "
 Adrew B. Moore . . . . . .  1857-1861          "
 John Gill Shorter  . . . .  1861-1863          "
 Thomas H. Watts  . . . . .  1863-1865          "
 Lewis E. Parsons . . . . .     1865      Provisional.
 Robert M. Patton . . . . .  1865-1867     Republican.
 Wager Swayne . . . . . . .  1867-1868      Military.
 William H. Smith . . . . .  1868-1870     Republican.
 Robert B. Lindsay  . . . .  1870-1872      Democrat.
 David P. Lewis . . . . . .  1872-1874     Republican.
 Ceorge S. Houston  . . . .  1874-1878      Democrat.
 Rufus W. Cobb  . . . . . .  1878-1882          "
 Edward A. O'Neal . . . . .  1882-1886          "
 Thomas Seay  . . . . . . .  1886-1890          "
 Thomas G. Jones  . . . . .  1890-1894          "
 William C. Oates . . . . .  1894-1896          "
 Joseph F. Johnston . . . .  1896-1900          "
 William J. Samford . . . .  1900-1901          "
 William D. Jellis  . . . .  1901-1907          "
 B. B. Comer  . . . . . . .    1907             "
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama 
(by Thomas M. Owen) see the Annual Report of the American 
Historical Association for 1807 (Washington, 1898).  
Information regarding the resources, climate, population 
and industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the 
United Statescensus,and in the publications of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, the United States Geological 
Survey, the Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station (published at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins 
and Reports of the Alabama Geological Survey (published at 
Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and in the following works:--B.  
F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Montgomery, 1893), and Saffold 
Berney's Handbook of Alabama (2nd ed., Birmingham, 1892) 

Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained 
in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900); 
Newton W. Bates's History and Civil Government of Alabama 
(Florence, Ala, 1892); Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, 
Resources, War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872); A. 
Davis Smith's and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical 
and Biographical (Birmingham, 1888); Albert J. Pickett's 
History of Alabama (5th ed., 2 vols., Birmingham, Ala., 1900), 
which contains a valuable compilation of the ``Annals of Alabama 
from 1819 to 1900,'' by Thomas M. Owen; and Walter L. Fleming's 
Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (New York, 1905). . 

In addition, W. G. Clark's History of Education in Alabama 
(Washington, 1889); W. E. Martin's Internal Improvements 
in Alabama (Baltimore, 1902; Johns Hopkins University 
Studies, (Series 20, No. 4); and W. L. Martin's Code of 
Alabama (2 vols., Atlanta, Ga., 1897) may be consulted. 

Information concerning the aboriginal remains in the state may 
be found in two papers by Clarence B. Moore, ``Certain Aboriginal 
Remains of the Tombigbee River'' and ``Certain Aboriginal Remains 
of the Alabama River,'' published in the Journal of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences, series 2, vol. ii. (Philadelphia, 1900). 


1 The special census of manufactures taken in 1905 was 
confined to manufacturing establishments conducted under 
the ``factory system.'' According to this census the capital 
invested was $105,382,859, and the value of products was 
$109,169,922.  The corresponding figures for 1900, if the 
same standard be taken for purposes of comparison, would be 
$60,165,904 and $72,109,929.  During the five years, therefore, 
the capital invested in establishments under the factory 
system increased 75.2%, and the value of products 51.4%. 

2 The railway mileage of the state on 
the 31st of December 1906 was 4805.58 m. 

3 In Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 474, a negro asked that the 
defendant board of registry be required to enrol his name and 
the names of other negroes on the registration lists, and that 
certain sections of the constitution of Alabama be declared void 
as being contrary to the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments 
to the federal constitution.  The Supreme Court dismissed 
the bill on the grounds that equity has no jurisdiction over 
political matters; that, assuming the fraudulent character 
of the objectionable constitutional provisions, the court 
was in effect asked to assist in administering a fraud; 
and that relief ``must be given by them [the people of the 
state] or By the legislative and political departments of the 
government of the United States.'' The case attracted much 
attention; and it is often erroneously said that the court 
upheld the disfranchising clauses of the Alabama constitution. 

4 The enrolment was 104,318 blacks and 61,295 whites. 

5 William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and Thomas Bibb, then president 
of the state senate, filled the unexpired term of one year (1820). 

6 In 1837 Governor Clay was elected United States Senator, and Hugh 
M`Vay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. 

7 Until 1845 the term of state officials was one year; from then 
until 1901 it was two years; since 1901 it has been four years. 

``ALABAMA'' ARBITRATION.---This is one of those arbitrations 
on pecuniary claims, made by one state, on behalf of its 
subjects, against another state, which are referred to in the 
article ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. The case is important, 
both from a.historical and a juridical point of view, and 
affords a conspicuous example of the value of arbitration 
as a means of averting war.  The facts are as follows:-- 

In 1861 the Southern States of North America seceded from the 
rest on the slavery question and set up a separate government 
under President Jefferson Davis.  Hostilities began with the 
capture of Fort Sumter by the Confederates on the 13th of April 
1861.  On the 19th of April President Abraham Lincoln declared 
a blockade of the southern ports.  On the 14th of May the 
British government issued a proclamation of neutrality, by 
which the Confederates were recognized as belligerents.  This 
example was followed shortly afterwards by France and other 
nations.  The blockade of the southern ports was not at 
first effective, and blockade-running soon became an active 
industry.  The Confederates established agencies in England 
for the purchase of arms, which they despatched in ordinary 
merchant vessels to the Bahamas, whence they were transhipped 
into fast steamers especially constructed for the purpose. 

In June 1862 the vessel, the ``Alabama,'' originally known as 
``No. 290,'' was being built by Messrs.  Laird at Birkenhead.  
She was then nearly completed and was obviously intended for a 
man-of-war.  On the 23rd of June Mr C. F. Adams forwarded 
to Earl Russell a letter from the United States consul at 
Liverpool giving certain particulars as to her character.  
This letter was laid before the law officers, who advised 
that, if these particulars were correct, the vessel ought to be 
detained.  On the 21st of July sworn evidence, which was 
supplemented on the 23rd of July, was obtained and laid before 
the commissioners of customs (who were the proper authorities 
to enforce the provisions of the Foreign Enlistment Act of 
1819), but they declined to move.  On the 23rd of July the same 
evidence was laid before the law officers, who advised that 
there was sufficient ground fordetention.  By some accident, 
which has never been satisfactorily explained, but was probably 
connected with the severe illness of Sir John Harding, the 
queen's advocate, the papers were not returned till the 29th of 
July.  Instructions were then issued to seize the vessel, but 
she had already sailed on the evening of the 28th.  Although 
she remained for two days off the coast of Anglesey, there was 
no serious attempt at pursuit.  She afterwards made her way to 
the Azores, where she received her armament, which was brought 
from Liverpool in two British ships.  Captain Sommes there 
took command of her under a commission from the Confederate 
government.  After a most destructive career she was sunk 
off Cherbourg by the ``Kearsarge'' on the 19th of June 1864. 

On these facts the United States government alleged against 
Great Britain two grievances, or sets of grievances.  The first 
was the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents 
and a general manifestation of unfriendliness in other 
ways.  The second was in respect of breaches of neutrality 
in allowing the ``Alabama,'' the ``Florida'' (originally the 
``Oreto'', the ``Shenandoah'' and other Confederate vessels 
to be built and equipped on British territory.  Correspondence 
ensued extending over several years.  At length in February 
1871 a commission was appointed to sit at Washington in 
order, if possible, to arrive at some common understanding 
as to the mode in which the questions at issue might be 
settled.  With resoect to the ``Alabama'' claims the British 
commissioners suggested that they should be submitted to 
arbitration.  The American commissioners refused ``unless 
the principles which should govern the arbitrators in the 
consideration of the facts could be first agreed upon.'' After 
some discussion the British commissioners consented that the 
three following rules should apply.  A neutral government is 
bound---(1) to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, 
arming or equipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel, 
which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to 
cruise or to carry on war against a power with which it is at 
peace, and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure 
from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or 
carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially 
adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to 
warlike use; (2) not to permit or suffer either belligerent 
to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval 
operations against the other, or for the purpose of the 
renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms or the 
recruitment of men; (3) to exercise due diligence in its own 
ports and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction 
to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligation and 
duties.  The arrangements made by the commission were embodied 
in the treaty of Washington, which was signed on the 8th 
of May 1871, and approved by the Senate on the 24th of May. 
Article 1, after expressing the regret felt by Her Majesty's 
government for the escape, in whatever circumstances, of the 
``Alabama', and other vessels from British ports, and for 
the depredations committed by these vessels, provided that 
``the claims growing out of the acts of the said vessels, and 
generically known as the `Alabama' claims'' should be referred 
to a tribunal composed of five arbitrators, one to be named 
by each of the contracting parties and the remaining three by 
the king of Italy, the president of the Swiss Confederation 
and the emperor of Brazil respectively.  By Article 2 all 
questions submitted were to be decided by a majority of the 
arbitrators, and each of the contracting parties was to name 
one person to attend as agent.  Article 6 provided that the 
arbitrators should be governed by the three rules quoted 
above, and by such principles of international law not 
inconsistent therewith as the arbitrators should determine to 
be applicable to the case.  By the same article the parties 
agreed to observe these rules as between themselves in 
future, and to bring them to the knowledge of other maritime 
powers.  Article 7 provided that the decision should be 
made within three months from the close of the argument, and 
gave power to the arbitrators to award a sum in gross in the 
event of Great Britain being adjudged to be in the wrong. 

The treaty was, on the whole, welcomed in England.  The United 
States appointed Mr C. F. Adams as arbitrator and Mr J. C. 
Bancroft Davis as agent.  The British government appointed 
Sir Alexander Cockburn as arbitrator and Lord Tenterden as 
agent.  The arbitrators appointed by the three neutral powers 
were Count Sclopis (Italy), M. Staempfli (Switzerland), Baron 
d'Itajuba (Brazil).  The first meetinhof the tribunal took 
place on the 15th of December 1871 in the Hotel de Ville, 
Geneva.  As soon as the cases had been formally presented, the 
tribunal adjourned till the following June.  There followed 
immediately a controversy which threatened the collapse of the 
arbitration.  It was found that in the American case damages 
were claimed not only for the property destroyed by the 
Confederate cruisers, but in respect of certain other matters 
known as ``indirect losses,'' viz. the transference of the 
American marine to the British flag, the enhanced payments of 
insurance, the expenses of pursuit and the prolongation of the 
war.  But this was not all.  The American case revived the 
charges of ``insincere neutrality'' and ``veiled hostility'' 
which had figured in the diplomatic correspondence, and had 
been repudiated by Great Britain.  It dwelt at length upon 
such topics as the premature recognition of belligerency, 
the unfriendly utterances of British politicians and the 
material assistance afforded to the Confederates by British 
traders.  The inclusion of the indirect losses and the other 
matters just referred to caused great excitement in England.  
That they were within the treaty was disputed, and it was 
argued that, if they were, the treaty should be amended or 
denounced.  In October 1872 Lord Granville notified to General 
Schenck, the United States minister, that the British government 
did not consider that the indirect losses were within the 
submission, and in April the British counter-case was filed 
without prejudice to this contention.  On the 15th of June 
the tribunal reassembled and the A11erican argument was 
filed.  The British agent then applied for an adjournment of 
eight months, ostensibly in order that the two governments 
might conclude a supplemental convention, it having been 
meanwhile privately arranged between the arbitrators that 
an extra-judicial declaration should be obtained from the 
arbitrators on the subject of the direct claims.  On the 
10th of June Count Sclopis intimated on behalf of all his 
colleagues that, without intending to express any opinion 
upon the interpretation of the treaty, they had arrived at 
the conclusion that ``the indirect claims did not constitute 
upon the principles of international law applicable to such 
cases a good foundation for . an award or computation of 
damages between nations.'' In consequence of this intimation Mr 
Bancroft Davis informed the tribunal on the 25th of June that 
he was instructed not to press those claims; and accordingly 
on the 27th of June Lord Tenterden withdrew his application 
for an adjournment, and the arbitration was allowed to 
proceed.  The discussion turned mainly on the question of 
the measure of ``due diligence.'' The United States contended 
that it must be a diligence commensurate with the emergency or 
with the magnitude of the results of negligence.  The British 
government maintained that while the measure of care which 
a government is bound to use in such cases must be dependent 
more or less upon circumstances, it would be unreasonable 
to require that it should exceed that which the governments 
of civilized states were accustomed to employ in matters 
concerning their own security or that of their citizens. 

The tribunal adopted the view suggested by the United 
States.  It found that Great Britain was legally responsible 
for all the depredations of the ``Alabama'' and ``Florida'' 
and for those committed by the ``Shenandoah'' after she left 
Melbourne.  In . the case of the ``Alabama'' the court was 
unanimous; in the case of the ``Florida'' Sir A. Cockburn 
alone, in that of the ``Shenandoah'' he and Baron d'Itajuba, 
dissented from the majority, In the cases of the other 
vessels the judgment was in favour of Great Britain.  
The tribunal decided to award a sum in gross, and (Sir A. 
Cockburn again dissenting) fixed the damages at $15,500,000 in 
gold.  On the 14th of September the award was formally 
published, and signed by all the arbitrators except Sir A. 
Cockburn, who filed a lengthy statement of his reasons. 

The stipulation that the three rules should be jointly submitted 
by the two powers to foreign nations has never been carried 
out.  For this the British government has been blamed by some.  But 
the general view of continental publicists is, that the language 
of the rules was not sufficiently precise to admit of their being 
generally accepted as a canon of neutral obligations. (M. H. C.) 

ALABAMA RIVER, a river of Alabama, U.S.A., formed by the 
Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 m. above 
Montgomery.  It flows W. as far as Selma, then S.W. until, 
about 45 m. from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee to form 
the Mobile and Tensas rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay. 
The course of the Alabama is tortuous; its width varies from 
200 to 300 yds., its depth from 3 to 7 ft.; its length by the 
United States Survey is 312 m., by steamboat measurement, 420 
m.  The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber 
districts of the state, and railways connect it with the 
mineral regions of north central Alabama.  The principal 
tributary of the Alabama is the Canaba (about 200 m. long), 
which enters it about 10 m. below Selma.  Of the rivers which 
form the Alabama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of 
Alabama, and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, 
Georgia (where it is formed by the junction of the Oostenaula 
and Etowah rivers), to about 117 m. above Wetumpka (about 
102 m. below Rome and 26 m. below Greensport), and from 
Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa; the channel 
of the river has been considerably improved by the Federal 
government.  The navigation of the Lallapoosa river (which has 
its source in Paulding county, Georgia, and is about 250 m. 
long) is prevented by shoals and a 60-ft. fall at Tallassee, 
a few miles N. of its junction with the Coosa.  The Alabama is 
navigable throughout the year.  In 1878 the Federal government 
undertook to make a channel tho length of the Alabama 200 
ft. wide and 4 ft. deep; an amendment in 1891 provided for 
a 6-ft. channel at low water, and in June 1907 this work was 
reported as ``10% completed'' at an expenditure of $303,650.  
The Mobile river is navigable for vessels of about 14 ft. 
draft.  The Alabama is an important carrier of cotton, cotton 
seed, fertilizer, cereals, lumber, naval stores, &c.; and in 
the fiscal year 1906-1907 the freight tonnage was 417,041 tons. 

ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567--1640), English 
Latin poet and scholar, was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 
1567.  He was, so Fuller states, a nephew by marriage of Dr John 
Still, bishop of Bath and Wells.  His surname, sometimes written 
Arblastier, is one of the many variants of arbalester, a 
cross-bowman.  Alabaster was educated at Westminster school, 
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1583.  He became a 
fellow, and in 1592 was incorporated of the university of 
Oxford.  About 1502 he produced at Trinity College his Latin 
tragedy of Roxana.1 It is modelled on the tragedies of 
Seneca, and is a stiff and spiritless work.  Fuller and Anthony 
a Wood bestowed exaggerated praise on it, while Samuel Johnson 
regarded it as the only Latin verse worthy of notice produced 
in England before Milton's elegies. Roxana is founded 
on the La Dalida (Venice, 1567) of Luigi Groto, known as 
Cieco di Hadria, and Hallam asserts that it is a plagiarism 
(Literature of Europe, iii. 54). A surreptitious edition 
in 1632 was followed by an authorized version a plagiarii 
unguibus vindicata, aucta et agnita ab Aithore, Gulielmo, 
Alabastro. One book of an epic poem in Latin hexameters, in 
honour of Queen Elizabeth, is preserved in MS. in the library of 
Emmanuel College, Cambridge.  This poem, Elisaeis, Apotheosis 
poetica, Spenser highly esteemed. ``Who lives that can match 
that heroick song?'' he says in Colin Clout's come home 
again, and begs ``Cynthia'' to withdraw the poet from his 
obscurity.  In June 1596 Alabaster sailed with Robert Devereux, 
earl of Essex, on the expedition to Cadiz in the capacity 
of chaplain, and, while he was in Spain, he became a Roman 
Catholic.  An account of his change of laith is given in an 
obscurely worded sonnet contained in a MS. copy of Divine 
Meditations, by Mr Alabaster (see J. P. Collier, Hist. of Eng. 
Dram.  Poetry, ii. 341).  He defended his conversion in a 
pamphlet, Seven Motives, of which no copy is extant.  The 
proof of its publication only remains in two tracts, A Booke 
of the Seuen Planets, or Seuen wandring motives of William 
Alablaster's (sic) wit . . ., by John Racster (1598), and 
An Answer to William Alabaster. his Motives, by Roger Fenton 
(1599).  From these it appears that Alabaster was imprisoned 
for his change of faith in the Tower of London during 1598 and 
1599.  In 1607 he published at Antwerp Apparatus in Revelationem 
Jesu Christi, in which his study of the Kabbalah was turned 
to account in a mystical interpretation of scripture which drew 
down the censure alike of Protestants and Catholics.  The book 
was placed on the Index librorum prohibitorum at Rome early in 
1610.  Alabaster says in the preface to his Ecce sponsus 
veni (1633), a treatise on the time of the second advent of 
Christ, that he went to Rome and was there imprisoned by the 
Inquisition but succeeded in escaping to England and again 
embraced the Protestant faith.  He received a prebend in 
St Paul's cathedral, London, and the living of Therlield, 
Hertfordshire.  He died in 1640.  Alabaster's other cabalistic 
writings are Commenitarius de Beslia Apocalyptica (1621) and 
Spiraculum tubarum . . . . (1633), a mystical interpretation 
of the Pentateuch.  It was by these theological writings 
that he won the praise of Robert Herrick, who calls him ``the 
triumph of the day'' and the ``one only glory of a million'' 
(``To Doctor Alabaster'' in Hesperides, 1648). He also published
(1637) Lexicon Pentaglottoni, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, 
Syriacum. Talmudico-Rabbinicci et Arabicum. 

See T. Fuller, Worthies of England (ii. 343); J. P. Collior, 
Bibl. and Crit.  Account of the Rarest Books in the English 
Language (vol. i. 1865); Pierre Bayle, Dictionary, Historical 
and Critical (ed. London, 1834); also the Athenaeum (December 
26, 1903), there Sir Bertram Dobell describes a MS. in his 
possession containing forty-three sonnets by Alabaster. 

1 For an analysis of the play see an article on 
the Latin university plays in the Jahrbuch der 
Deutschen Shakespeare Gesellschaft (Weimar, 1898) 

ALABASTER, a name applied to two distinct mineral substances, 
the one a hydrous sulphate of lime and the other a carbonate of 
lime.  The former is the alabaster of the present day, the 
latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients.  The two 
kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their relative 
hardness.  The modern alabaster is so soft as to be readily 
scratched even by the finger-nail (hardness= 1.5 to 2), whilst 
the stone called alabaster by the ancients is too hard to be 
scratched in this way (hardness=3), though it yields readily to a 
knife.  Moreover, the ancient alabaster, being a carbonate, 
effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid, whereas the 
modern alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected. 

Ancient Alabaster.---This substance, the ``alabaster'' of 
scripture, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early 
examples came from the East.  The Greek name alabastrites is 
said to be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, 
where the stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed 
its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is 
obscure, and it has been suggested that it may have had an Arabic 
origin.  The Oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making 
small perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabastra; 
and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the 
name.  Alabaster was also employed in Egypt for Canopic jars 
and various other sacred and sepulchral objects.  A splendid 
sarcophagus, sculptured in a single block of translucent 
Oriental alabaster from Alabastron, is in the Soane Museum, 
London.  This was discovered by Giovanni Beizoni, in 1817, in 
the tomb of Seti I., near Thebes, and was purchased by Sir John 
Soane, having previously been offered to the British Museum for 

Oriental alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the 
floor and walls of limestone-caverns, or a kind of travertine, 
deposited from springs of calcareous water.  Its deposition 
in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance which 
the marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as 
onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as onyx--a 
term which should, however, be restricted to a siliceous 
mineral.  The Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked 
near Suez and near Assiut; there are many ancient quarries 
in the hills overlooking the plain of Tell el Amarna.  The 
Algerian ony.xmarble has been largely quarried in the province of 
Oran.  In Mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green 
variety at La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla.  
Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of Tehuacan and at several 
localities in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia. 

Modern Alabaster.--- When the term ``alabaster'' is used 
without any qualification it invariably means, at the present 
day, a finely granular variety of gypsum (q.v..) This 
mineral, or alabaster proper, occurs in England in the 
Keuper marls of the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in 
Derbyshire, at Fauld in Staffordshire and near Newark in 
Nottinghamshire.  At all these localities it has been extensively 
worked.  It is also found, though in subordinate quantity, at 
Watchet in Somersetshire, near Penarth in Giamorganshire, and 
elsewhere.  Iii Cumberland and Westmorland it occurs largely 
in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon.  
The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in 
thick nodular beds or ``floors,'' in spheroidal masses known 
as ``balls'' or ``bowls.'' and in smaller lenticular masses 
termed ``cakes.'' At Chellaston. where the alabaster is known 
as ``Patrick,'' it has been worked into ornaments under the name 
of ``Derbyshire spar''---a term applied also to fluor-spar.  The 
finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an ornamental 
stone, especially for ecclesiastical decoration, and for the 
srails of staircases and halls Its softness enables it to be 
readily carved into elaborate forms, but its solubility in 
water renders it inapplicable to outdoor work.  The purest 
alabaster is a snow-white material of fine tiniforni grain, 
but it is often associated with oxide of iron, which produces 
brown clouding and veining in the stone.  The coarser varieties 
of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of 
Paris, whence they are sometimes known as ``plaster stone.'' 

On the continent of Europe the centre of the alabaster trade is 
Florence.  The Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses, 
embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene 
and Pliocene age.  The mineral is largely worked, by means 
of underground galleries, in the district of Volterra.  
Several varieties are recognized---veined, spotted, clouded, 
agatiform, &c. The finest kind, obtained principally from 
Castellina, is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, whilst 
the common kinds are carved locally, at a very cheap rate, into 
vases, clock-cases and various ornamental objects, in which 
a large trade is carried on, especially in Florence, Pisa and 
Leghorn.  In order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster 
and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the 
statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated 
nearly to the boiling-point--an operation requiring great 
care, for if the temperature be not carefully regulated, the 
stone acquires a dead-white chalky appearance.  The effect of 
heating appears to be a partial dehydration ofthegypsum.  If 
properly treated, it Very closely resembles true marble, and 
is known as mormo di Castellina. It should be noted that 
sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also by the ancients, and was 
employed, for instance, in Assyrian sculpture, so that some 
of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone. 

Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after heing 
heated, in various pigmentary solutions; and in this way a 
good imitation of coral has been produced (alabaster coral). 

See M. Carmichael, Report on the Volterra Alabaster Industry, 
Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 352 (London, 1895): A. T. 
Metcalfe, ``The Gypsum Deposits of Nottingham and Derbyshire,'' 
Transactions of the Federated Institution, vol. xii. (1896), 
p. i107; J . G. Goodchild, ``The Natural Uistory of Gypsum''' 
Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, vol. x. (1888), 
p. 425; George P. Merrill, ``The Onyx Marbles,'' Report 
of the U. S. National Museum for 1893, p. 539. (F. W. R.*) 

ALACOQUE, or AL COQ, MARGUERITE MARIE (1647--1690), 
French nun and mystic, was born at Lauthecourt, a village in 
the diocese of Autun, on the 22nd of July 1647.  She would 
seem to have been from the first of a morbid and unhealthy 
temperament, and before the age of thirteen was the subject 
of a paralytic seizure.  Having been cured of this, as she 
believed, by the intercession of the Holy Virgin, she 
changed her name to Marie and vowed to devote her life to her 
service.  In May 1671 she entered the Visitation convent at 
Paray-le-Monial, in the diocese of Autun, and took the final 
vows in November 1672.  Though her reading was confined to 
the lives of the saints, she taught in the school kept by the 
nuns for the girls of the neighbourhood, to whom she endeared 
herself by her kindly disposition.  The appalling austerities, 
however, to which she was allowed to subject herself quickly 
affected her mental and bodily health.  Hallucinations, 
to which she had been always subject, became more and more 
frequent.  She conceived herself to be specially favoured by 
Christ, who appeared to her in the most extravagant forms.  At 
last, by dint of fasting and lacerating her flesh, she succeeded 
in reducing herself to such a state of ecstatic suffering 
that she belies'ed herself to be undergoing in her own person 
the Passion of the Lord.  Her reward was the supreme vision 
in which Christ revealed to her His heart burning with divine 
love, and even, so she afflrmed, exchanged it with hers, at 
the same time bidding her establish, on the Friday following, 
the feast of Corpus Christi, a festival in honour of His Sacred 
Heart.  It was not till ten years later, in 1685, that the 
festival was first celebrated at Paray, and not till after 
the death of Marguerite, on the 17th of October 1690, that 
the cult of the Sacredheart, fostered by the Jesuits and the 
subject of violent controversies within the church, spread 
throughout France and Christendom. (See SACRED HEART.) . 

Marguerite Alacoque was beatified by Pius IX. in 
1864.  Her short devotional writing, La Devotion au 
Sacre-Coeur de Jesus, was published by J. Croiset in 
1698, and is now very popular among Roman Catholics. 

See Bishop Languet, Vie de la venerable Marguerite-Marie 
(Paris, 1724), translated and edited by F. W. Faber (1847): 
Mgr. Bougaud, Histoire de la bienheureuse Marguerite-Marie 
(Paris, 1874); G. Tckell, S.J., The Life ofblessed 
Margaret Mary Alacoque, with some account of the 
devotion to the Sacred Heart (London, 18O9); b.  B. H. 
R. . Capefigue, Marie Marguerite Al-Coq (Paris, 1866). 

ALAGOAS, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. and W. by the 
state of Pernambuco, S. and W. by the state of Sergipe, and E. by 
the Atlantic.  It hasan area of 22,584 sq. m.  A dry, semibarren 
plateau, fit for grazing only, extends across the W. part of 
the state, breaking down into long fertile valleys and wooded 
ridges towards the coast, giving the country a mountainous 
character.  The coastal plain is filled with lakes (logoas), 
in some cases formed by the blocking up of river outlets by beach 
sands.  The valleys and slopes are highly fertile and produce 
sugar, cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, mandioca and 
Iruits.  Hides and skins, mangabeira rubber, cabinet woods, 
castor beans and rum are also exported.  Cattle-raising was 
formerly a prominent industry, but it has greatly declined.  
Manufactures have been developed to a limited extent only, 
though protective tariff laws have been adopted for their 
encouragement.  The climate is hot and humid, and fevers are 
prevalent in the hot season.  The capital, Maceio, is the 
chief commercial city of the state, and its port (Jaragua) 
has a large foreign and coastwise trade.  The principal towns 
are Alagoas, formerly the capital, picturesquely situated 
on Lake Manguaba, 15 m.  S.W. of Maceio, and Penedo, a small 
port on the lower Sao Francisco, 26 m. above the river's 
mouth.  Before 1817 Alagoas formed part of the capitania of 
Pernambuco, but in that year the district was rewarded with 
a separate government for refusing to join a revolution, 
and in 1823 became a province of the empire.  The advent 
of the republic in 1889 changed the province into a state. 

ALAIN DE LILLE [Alanus de Insulis] (c. 1128-1202), 
French theologian and poet, was born, probably at 
Lille, some years before 1128.  Little is known of his 
life.  He seems to have taught in the schools of Paris, 
and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179.  He afterwards 
inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called Alanus de 
Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any 
cloister, and finally retired to Citeaux, where he died in 
1202.  He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime 
and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to 
be called Doctor universalis. Among his very numerous works 
two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin 
literature of the middle ages; one of these, the De planctu 
naturae, is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity; the 
other, the Anticlaudianus, a treatise on morals, the form 
of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, 
is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity.  
As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction 
of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic 
philosophy.  His mysticism, however, is far from being as 
absolute as that of the Victorines.  In the Anticlaudianus 
he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can 
unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; 
for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to 
faith.  This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae 
fidei, as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by 
reason.  Alain even ventures an immediate application of this 
principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined 
in the Creed.  This bold attempt is entirely factitious and 
verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms 
not generally used in such a connexion (axiom, theorem, 
corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent 
originality.  Alain de Lille has often been confounded with 
other persons named Alain, in particular with Alain, archbishop 
of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, 
etc.  Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to 
him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St 
Bernard should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the 
Commentary upon Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury.  Neither 
is the philosopher of Lille the author of a Memoriale rerum 
difficilium, published under his name; and it is exceedingly 
doubtful whether the Dicta Alani de lapide philocophico 
really issued from his pen.  On the other hand, it now seems 
practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of 
the Ars catholicae fidei and the treatise Contra haereticos. 

The works of Alain de Lille have been published by Migne, 
Patrologia latina, vol. ccx.  A critical edition of the 
Anticlaudianus and of the De planctu naturae is given 
by Th. Wright in vol. ii. of the Anglo-Latin Satirical 
Poets and Epigrammatists of the Twelfth Century (London, 
1872).  See Haureau, Memoire sur la vie et quelques 
oeuvres d'Alain de Lille (Paris, 1885); M. Baumgartner, Die 
Philosophie des Alanus de Insulis (Munster, 1896). (P. A.) 

ALAIS, a town of southern France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Gard, 25 m.  N.N.W. of 
Nimes on the Paris-Lyon railway, on which it is an important 
junction.  Pop. (1906) 18,987.  The town is situated at 
the foot of the Cevenues, on the left bank of the Gardon, 
which half surrounds it.  The streets are wide and its 
promenades and fine plane-trees make the town attractive; 
but the public buildings, the chief of which are the church 
of St Jean, a heavy building of the 18th century, and the 
citadel, which serves as barracks and prison, are of small 
interest.  Pasteur prosecuted his investigations into the 
silkworm disease at Alais, and the town has dedicated a bust 
to his memory.  There is also a statue of the chemist J. B. 
Dumas.  Alais has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, 
a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycee and a school of 
mines.  The town is one of the most important markets for 
raw silk and cocoons in the south of France, and the Gardon 
supplies power to numerous silkmills.  It is also the centre 
of a mineral field. which yields large quantities of coal, 
iron, zinc and lead; its blast-furnaces, foundries, glass-works 
and engineering works afford employment to many workmen. 

In the 16th century Alais was an important Huguenot centre.  
In 1629 the town was taken by Louis XIII., and by the peace 
of Alais the Huguenots gave up their right to places de 
surete (garrison towns) and other privileges.  A bishopric 
was established there in 1694 but suppressed in 1790. 

ALAJUELA, the capital of the province of Alajuela, in Costa 
Rica, Central America, on the`transcontinental railway, 15 
m.  W. of San Jose.  Pop. (1904) 4860.  Alajuela is built 
at the southern base of the volcano of Poas (8895 ft.) and 
Overlooks the fertile plateau of San Jose.  Its central 
square, adorned with a handsome bronze fountain, contains the 
municipal buildings, and a large but unattractive cathedral.  
The town covers a considerable area; the detached white 
houses of its suburbs are surrounded by trees and flowering 
shrubs.  Alajuela is the centre of the Costa Rican sugar trade, 
and an important market for coffee.  Its products are exported 
from Puntarenas, on the Pacific Ocean, 32 m.  W. The province 
of Alajuela includes the territory of the Guatusos Indians, 
along the northern frontier; the towns of Atenas, Grecia, 
Naranjo and San Ramon (all with less than 5000 inhabitants), 
and the gold-mines of Aguacate, a little north of Atenas. 

ALAMANNI, or ALLEMANNI, a German tribe, first mentioned 
by Dio Cassius, under the year 213. They apparently dwelt in 
the basin of the Maine, to the south of the Chatti.  According 
to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that they were a 
conglomeration of various tribes.  There can be little doubt, 
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponderating 
element in the nation.  Among the other elements may be 
mentioned the Juthungi, Bucinobantes, Lentienses, and perhaps the 
Armalausi.  From the 4th century onwards we hear also of the 
Suebi or Suabi.  The Hermunduri had apparendy belonged to the 
Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements from new 
Suebic tribes had now moved westward.  In later times the 
names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be synonymous.  The tribe 
was continually engaged in conflicts with the Romans, the 
most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which 
they were defeated by Julian, afterwards emperor, in the year 
357, when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner.  Early 
in the 5th century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the 
Rhine and conquered and settled Alsace and a large part of 
Switzerlafid.  Their kingdom lasted until the year 405, when 
they were conquered by Clovis, from which time they formed part 
of the Frankish dominions.  The Alamannic and Swabian dialects 
are now spoken in German Switzerland, the southern parts of 
Baden and Alsace, Wurttemberg and a small portion of Bavaria. 

See Dio Cassius lxvii. ff.; Ammianus Marcellinus, passim; 
Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii.; C. Zeuss, Die 
Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme (Munich, 1837), pp.  Ro5 ff.; 
O. Bremer in H. Paul, Grundriss der Permanischen Philologie 
(2nd ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp. 930 h. (F. G. M. B.) 

ALAMANNI, or ALEMANNI, LUIGI (1405-1556), Italian 
statesman and poet, was born at Florence.  His father was a 
devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under 
a supposed injustice, joined with Others in an unsuccessful 
conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, afterwards POpe Clement 
VII. He was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, 
and, on the accession of Clement, to flee to France.  When 
Florence shook off the papal yoke in 1527, Alamanni returned, 
and took a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the 
republic.  On the restoration of the Medici in 1530 he had again 
to take refuge in France, where he composed the greater part 
of his works.  He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent 
him as ambassador to Charles V. after the peace of Crepy in 
1544.  As an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is 
related that, when Charles interrupted a complimentary address 
by quoting from a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words--- 

``l' aquila grifagna, Che per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta'' 

(Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears, The better to devour), 

the latter at once replied that he spoke them as a poet, who 
was permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now as an 
ambassador, who was obliged to tell the truth.  The ready 
reply pleased Charles, who added some complimentary words.  
After the death of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence 
of his successor Henry II., and in 1551 was sent by him as his 
ambassador to Genoa.  He died at Amboise on the 18th of April 
1556.  He wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by 
the purity and excellence of their style.  The best is a 
didactic poem, La Coltivazione (Paris, 1546), written 
in imitation of Virgil's Georgics. His Opere Toscane 
(Lyons, 1532) consists of satirical pieces written in blank 
verse.  An unfinished poem, Avarchide, in imitation of 
the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has little 
merit.  It has been said by some that Alamanni was the first 
to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction 
belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino.  He 
also wrote a poetical romance, Girone il Cortese (Paris, 
1548); a tragedy, Antigone; a comedy, Flora; and other 
poems.  His works were published, with a biography by P. 
Raffaelli, as Versi e prose di Luigi Alamanni (Florence, 1859). 

See G. Naro, Luigi Alamanni e la coltivazione (Syracuse, 1897), and C . 
Corso, Un decennio di patriottismo di Luigi Alamanni (Palermo, 1898). 

ALAMEAGH, or ALUMBAGH, the name of a large park 01 walled 
enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque and other buildings, 
as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 m. from 
Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road, in the United Provinces of 
India.  It was converted into a fort by the mutineers 
in 1857, and after its capture by the British was of 
importance in connexion with the military operations around 
Lucknow. (See INDIAN MUTINY and OUTRAM, SIR JAMES.) 

ALAMEDA, a residential city of Alameda county, California, 
U.S.A., on an artificial island about 5 m. long and 1 m. 
wide, on the E. side of San Francisco bay, opposite to and 
about 6 m. from San Francisco, and directly S. of Oakland, 
from which it is separated by a drainage canal, spanned by 
bridges.  Included within the limits of the city is Bay Farm 
island, with an area of about 3 sq. m.  Pop. (1870) 15571 
(1880) 5708; (1890) 11,165; (1900) 16,464, of whom 4175 were 
foreign-born; (1910, census) 23,383.  Alameda is served by 
the Southern Pacific railway, and is connected by an electric 
line with Oakland and Berkeley.  Its site is low and level 
and its plan fairly regular.  Among the city's manufactures 
are terra-cotta tiles, pottery, rugs, refrigerators and 
salt.  The city owns and operates the electriclighting 
plant; the water-works system is privately owned, and the 
water supply is obtained from deep wells at San Leandro.  
A settlement existed here before the end of the Mexican 
period.  In 1854 it was incorporated as a town and in 1885 
was chartered as a city.  In 1906 the city adopted a freehold 
charter, centralizing power in the mayor and providing 
for a referendum.  The county was organized in 1853. 

ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, BALTASAR (1555-1640), Spanish 
scholar, was born at Medina del Campo in 1555.  His friendship 
with Antonio Perez caused him to be arrested in 1590 and 
imprisoned for nearly thirteen years.  His 7Acito espanol 
ilustrado con aforismos (Madrid, 1614) is the only work 
which bears his name, but he is probably the author of the 
Discurso del gobierno ascribed to Perez.  Through the 
influence of Lerma (to whom the Tacito is dedicated) and of 
Olivares, he subsequently attained high official position. 

See L'Art de gouverner, ed.  J. M. Guardia (Paris, 1867); 
P. J. Pidal, Historia de las alteraciones de Aragon en 
el reinado de Felipe II. (Madrid, 1862), vol. iii. pp. 
29-30; A. Perez, Relaciones (Geneva, 1654), pp. 86-88. 

ALAND ISLANDS, an archipelago at the entrance to the Gulf 
of Bothnia, about 25 m. from the coast of Sweden, and 15 from 
that of Finland.  The group, which forms part of the Finnish 
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, consists of nearly three hundred 
islands, of which about eighty are inhabited, the remainder 
being desolate rocks.  These islands form a continuation of 
a dangerous granite reef extending along the south coast of 
Finland.  They formerly belonged to Sweden, and in the 
neighbourhood the first victory of the Russian fleet Over 
the Swedes was gained by Peter the Great in 1714.  They were 
ceded to Russia in 1809.  They occupy a total area of 1426 
sq. km., and their present population is estimated at about 
19,000.  The majority of these occupy the island of Aland, upon 
which is situated the town of Mariehamn with a population of 
1171.  The inhabitants are mostly of Swedish descent, and 
are hardy seamen and fishermen.  The surface of the islands 
is generally sandy, the soil thin and the climate keen; yet 
Scotch fir, spruce and birch are grown; and rye, barley, flax 
and vegetables are produced in sufficient quantity for the 
wants of the people.  Great numbers of cattle are reared; 
and cheese, butter and hides, as well as salted meat and 
fish, are exported.  There are several excellent harbours 
(notably that of Ytternas), which were at one time of great 
importance to Russia from the fact that they are frozen up 
for a much briefer period than those on the coast of Finland. 

The Aland Islands occupy a position of the greatest strategic 
importance, commanding as they do both the entrance to the 
port of Stockholm and the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia, 
through which the greater part of the trade of Sweden is carried 
on.  When, by the 4th article of the treaty of Fredrikshavn 
(Friedrichshamn), 5/17 September 1809, the islands were 
ceded to Russia, together with the territories forming the 
grand-duchy of Finland on the mainland, the Swedes were 
unable to secure a provision that the islands should not be 
fortified.  The question was, however, a vital one not only 
for Sweden but for Great Britain, whose trade in the Baltic was 
threatened.  In 1854, accordingly, during the Crimean War, 
an Anglo-French force attacked and destroyed the fortress 
of Bomersund, against the erection of which Palmerston had 
protested without effect some twenty years previously.  By 
the ``Aland Convention,'' concluded between Great Britain, 
France and Russia on the 30th of March 1856, it was stipulated 
that ``the Aland Islands shall not be fortified, and that 
no military or naval establishments shall be maintained or 
created on them.'' By the 33rd article of the treaty of Paris 
(1856) this convention, annexed to the final act, was given 
``the same force and validity as if it formed part thereof,'' 
Palmerston declaring in the House of Commons (May 6) that 
it had ``placed a barrier between Russia and the north of 
Europe.,' Some attention was attracted to this arrangement 
when in 1906 it was asserted that Russia, under pretext of 
stopping the smuggling of arms into Finland, was massing 
considerable naval and military forces at the islands.  The 
question of the Aland Islands created some discussion in 1907 
and 1908 in connexion with the new North Sea agreements, and 
undoubtedly Russia considered the convention of 1856 as rather 
humiliating.  But it was plainly shown by other powers that 
they did not propose to regard it as modified or open to 
question, and the point was not definitely and officially raised. 

See the article by Dr Verner Soderberg in the 
National Review, No. 392, for April 1908. 

ALANI (Gr. 'Alanoi,'Alaunoi; Chinese 'O-lan-na; since 
the 9th century A.D. they have been called As, Russ. 
Jasy, Georgian Ossi), the easternmost division of the 
Sarmatians (see SCYTHIA), Iranian nomads with some Altaic 
admixture.  First met with north of the Caspian, and later 
(c. 1st century A.D.) spreading into the steppes of 
Russia, the Alans made incursions into both the Danubian and 
the Caucasian provinces of the Roman empire.  By the Huns they 
were cut into two portions, of which the western joined the 
Germanic nations in their invasion of southern Europe, and, 
following the fortunes of the Vandals, disappeared in North 
Africa.  Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about 
the steppes until late medieval times, were by fresh invading 
hordes forced into the Caucasus, where they remain as the 
Ossetes.  At one time partially Christianized by Byzantine 
missionaries, they had almost relapsed into heathenism, but are 
now under Russian influence returning to Christianity. (E. II. M.) 

ALANCON, HERNANDO DE, Spanish navigator of the 16th century, 
is known only in connexion with the expedition to the coast of 
California, of which he was leader.  He set sail on the 9th 
of May 1540 with orders from the Spanish court to await at 
a certain point on the coast the arrival of an expedition by 
land under the command of Vasquez de Coronado.  The junction 
was not effected, though Alarcon reached the appointed place 
and left letters, which were afterwards found by Diaz, another 
explorer.  Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty 
that California was a peninsula and not an island, as had 
been supposed.  He made a careful survey of the coast, 
ascended the Rio del Tizon Or Rio de Buena Guia (Colorado) 
for 85 Spanish m., and was thus able on his return to New 
Spain in 1541 to construct an excellent map of California. 

See Herrera, Decade VI. book ix. ch. 15; 
vol. vi. fol. 212 of Madrid edition of 1730. 

ALARCON, JUAN RUIZ DE (1518?-1639), Spanish dramatist, 
was born about 1581 at Tlacho (Mexico), where his father was 
superintendent of mines.  He came to Europe in 1600, studied 
law at Salamanca, and in 1608 went back to Mexico to compete 
for a professorial chair.  Returning to Spain in 1611, he 
entered the household of the marquis de Salinas, became a 
successful dramatist, and was nominated a member of the council 
of the Indies in 1623.  He died at Madrid on the 4th of August 
1639.  His plays were published in 1628 and 1634; the most 
famous of these is La Verdad sospechosa, which was adapted 
by Corneille as the Menteur. Alarcon had the misfortune to 
be a hunchback, to be embittered by his deformity, and to be 
constantly engaged in personal quarrels with his rivals; but 
his attitude in these polemics is always dignified, and his 
crushing retort to Lope de Vega in Los pechos privilegiados 
is an unsurpassable example of cold, scornful invective.  
More than any other Spanish dramatist, Alarcon is preoccupied 
with ethical aims, and his gift of dramatic presentation is 
as brilliant as his dialogue is natural and vivacious.  It 
has been alleged that his foreign origin is noticeable in his 
plays, and there is some foundation for the criticism; but 
his workmanship is exceptionally conscientious, and in El 
Tejedor de Segovia he had produced a masterpiece of national 
art, national sentiment and national expression. (J. F.-K.) 

ALARCON, PEDRO ANTONIO DE (1833-1891), Spanish writer, was 
born on the 10th of March 1833 at Guadix.  He graduated at 
the university of Granada, studied law and theology privately, 
and made his first appearance as a dramatist before he was of 
age.  Deciding to follow literature as a profession, he joined 
with Torcuato Tarrago y Mateos in editing a Cailiz newspaper 
entitled El Eco de Occidente. In 1853 he travelled to Madrid 
in the hope of finding a publisher for his continuation of 
Espronceda's celebrated poem, El Diablo Mundo. Disappointed 
in his object, and finding no opening at the capital, he 
settled at Granada, became a radical journalist in that city, 
and showed so much ability that in 1854 he was appointed 
editor of a republican journal, El Latigo, published at 
Madrid.  The extreme violence of his polemics led to a duel 
between him and the Byronic poet, Jose Heriberto Garcia 
Quevedo.  The earliest of his novels, El Final de Norma, 
was published in 1855, and though its construction is feeble 
it brought the writer into notice as a master of elegant 
prose.  A small anthology, called Mananias de Abril y Mayo 
(1856), proves that Alarcon was recognized as a leader 
by young men of promise, for among the contributors were 
Castelar, Manuel del Palacio and Lopez de Ayala.  A dramatic 
piece, El Hijo prodigo, was hissed off the stage in 
1857, and the failure so stung Alarcon that he enlisted 
under O'Donnell's command as a volunteer for the war in 
Morocco.  His Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa 
(1859) is a brilliant account of the expedition.  The first 
edition, amounting to fifty thousand copies, was sold within a 
fortnight, and Alarcon's name became famous throughout the 
peninsula.  The book is not in any sense a formal history; it 
is a series of picturesque impressions rendered with remarkable 
force.  On his return from Africa Alarcon did the Liberal 
party much good service as editor of La Politica, but after 
his marriage in 1866 to a devout lady, Paulina Contrera y 
Reyes, he modified his political views considerably.  On 
the overthrow of the monarchy in 1868, Alarcon advocated 
the claims of the duc de Montpensier, was neutral during the 
period of the republic, and declared himself a Conservative 
upon the restoration of the dynasty in December 1874.  These 
political variations alienated Alarcon's old allies and 
failed to conciliate the royalists.  But though his political 
influence was ruined, his success as a writer was greater than 
ever.  The publication in the Revista Europea (1874) of a short 
story, El Sombrero de tres picos, a most ingenious resetting 
of an old popular tale, made him almost as well known out of 
Spain as in it.  This remarkable triumph in the picturesque 
vein encouraged him to produce other works of the same kind; 
yet though his Cuentos amatorios (1881), his Historietas 
nacionales (1881) and his Narracionies inverosimiles (1882) 
are pleasing, they have not the delightful gaiety and charm 
of their predecessor.  In a longer novel, El Escandalo 
(1875), Alarcon had appeared as a partisan of the neo-Catholic 
reaction, and this change of opinion brought upon him many 
attacks, mostly unjust.  His usual bad fortune followed 
him, for while the Padicals denounced him as an apostate, the 
neo-Catholics alleged that El Escandalo was tainted with 
Jansenism.  Of his later volumes, written in failing health 
and spirits, it is only necessary to mention El Capitan 
Veneno and the Historia de mis libros, both issued in 
1881.  Alarcon was elected a member of the Spanish 
Academy in 1875.  He died at Madrid on the 20th of July 
1891.  His later novels and tales are disfigured by their 
didactic tendency, by feeble drawing of character, and 
even by certain gallicisms of style.  But, at his best, 
Alarcon may be read with great pleasure.  The Diario de 
un testigo is still unsurpassed as a picture of campaigning 
life, while El Sombrero de tres picos is a very perfect 
example of malicious wit and minute observation. (J. F.-K.) 

ALARD, JEAN DELPHIN (1815-1888), French violinist and teacher, 
was born at Bayonne on the 8th of May 1815.  From 1827 he was 
a pupil of F. A. Habeneck at the Paris Conservatoire, where he 
succeeded P. de Sales Baillot as professor in 1843, retaining 
the post till 1875.  His playing was full of fire and point, 
and his compositions had a great success in France, while 
his violin school had a wider vogue and considerably greater 
value.  Mention should also be made of his edition in 40 parts 
of a selection of violin compositions by the most eminent 
masters of the 18th century, Les Maitres classiques du violon 
(Schott).  Alard died in Paris on the 22nd of February 1888. 

ALARIC (Ala-reiks, ``All-ruler''), (c. 370-410), Gothic 
conqueror, the first Teutonic leader who stood as a conqueror 
in the city of Rome, was probably born about 370 in an island 
named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube. He was of
noble descent, his father being a scion of the family of the 
Balthi or Bold-men, next in dignity among Gothic warriors 
to the Amals.  He was a Goth and belonged to the western 
branch of that nation --sometimes called the Visigoths--who 
at the time of his birth were quartered in the region now 
known as Bulgaria, having taken refuge on the southern shore 
of the Danube from the pursuit of their enemies the Huns. 

In the year 394 he served as a general of foederati (Gothic 
irregulars) under the emperor Theodosius in the campaign in 
which he crushed the usurper Eugenius.  As the battle which 
terminated this campaign, the battle of the Frigidus, was fought 
near the passes of the Julian Alps, Alaric probably learnt 
at this time the weakness of the natural defences of Italy on 
her northeastern frontier.  The employment of barbarians as 
foederali, which became a common practice with the emperors 
in the 4th century, was both a symptom of disease in the 
body politic of the empire and a hastener of its impending 
ruin.  The provincial population, crushed under a load of 
unjust taxation, could no longer furnish soldiers in the 
numbers required for the defence of the empire; and on the 
other hand, the emperors, ever fearful that a brilliantly 
successful general of Roman extraction might be proclaimed 
Augustus by his followers, preferred that high military command 
should be in the hands of a man to whom such an accession 
of dignity was as yet impossible.  But there was obviously 
a danger that one day a barbarian leader of barbarian troops 
in the service of the empire might turn his armed force and 
the skill in war, which he had acquired in that service, 
against his trembling masters, and without caring to assume 
the title of Augustus might ravage and ruin the countries 
which he had undertaken to defend.  This danger became a 
reality when in the year 395 the able and valiant Theodosius 
died, leaving the empire to be divided between his imbecile 
sons Arcadius and Honorius, the former taking the eastern and 
the latter the western portion, and each under the control 
of a minister who bitterly hated the minister of the other. 

In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning 
of the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped that he would 
receive one of the great war ministries of the empire, and 
thus instead of being a mere commander of irregulars would 
have under his orders a large part of the imperial legions.  
This, however, was denied him, and he found that he was doomed 
to remain an oflicer of foederati. His disappointed ambition 
prompted him to take the step for which his countrymen were 
longing, for they too were grumbling at the withdrawal of the 
``presents,'' in other words the veiled ransom-money, which 
for many years they had been accustomed to receive.  They 
raised him on a shield and acclaimed him as a king; leader and 
followers both resolving (says Jordanes the Gothic historian) 
``rather to seek new kingdoms by their own labour, than 
to slumber in peaceful subjection to the rule of others.'' 

Alaric struck first at the eastern empire.  He marched to 
the neighbourhood of Constantinople, but finding himself 
unable to undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, 
he retraced his steps westward and then marched southward 
through Thessaly and the unguarded pass of Thermopylae into 
Greece.  The details of his campaign are not very clearly 
stated, and the story is further complicated by the plots and 
counterplots of Rufinus, chief minister of the eastern, and 
Stilicho, the virtual regent of the western empire, and the 
murder of the former by his rebellious soldiers.  With these 
we have no present concern; it is sufficient to say that 
Alaric's invasion of Greece lasted two years (395-396), that 
he ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at once capitulated 
to the conqueror, that he penetrated into Peloponnesus and 
captured its most famous cities, Corinth, Argos and Sparta, 
selling many of their inhabitants into slavery.  Here, 
however, his victorious career ended.  Stilicho, who had 
come a second time to the assistance of Arcadius and who was 
undoubtedly a skilful general, succeeded in shutting up the 
Goths in the mountains of Pholoe on the borders of Elis and 
Arcadia.  From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and 
not without some suspicion of connivance on the part of 
Stilicho.  He crossed the Corinthian Gulf and marched with 
the plunder of Greece northwards to Epirus.  Next came an 
astounding transformation.  For some mysterious reason, 
probably connected with the increasing estrangement between 
the two sections of the empire, the ministers of Arcadius 
conferred upon Alaric the government of some part--it can 
hardly have been the whole--of the important prefecture of 
Illyricum.  Here, ruling the Danubian provinces, he was on 
the confines of the two empires, and, in the words of the poet 
Claudian, he ``sold his alternate oaths to either throne,'' 
and made the imperial arsenals prepare the weapons with which 
to aim his Gothic followers for the next campaign.  It was 
probably in the year 400 (but the dates of these events are 
rather uncertain) that Alaric made his first invasion of 
Italy, co-operating with another Gothic chieftain named 
Radagaisus.  Supernatural influences were not wanting to 
urge him to this great enterprise.  Some lines of the Roman 
poet inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a sacred 
grove, ``Break off all delays, Alaric.  This very year 
thou shalt force the Alpine barrier of Italy; thou shalt 
penetrate to the city.'' The prophecy was not at this time 
fulfilled.  After spreading desolation through North Italy 
and striking terror into the citizens of Pome, Alaric was met 
by Stilicho at Pollentia (a Roman municipality in what is now 
Piedmont), and the battle which then followed on the 6th of 
April 402 (Easter-day) was a victory, though a costly one for 
Rome, and effectually barred the further progress of the 
barbarians.  Alaric was an Arian Christian who trusted to 
the sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack, and the 
enemies of Stilicho reproached him for having gained his 
victory by taking an unfair advantage of the great Christian 
festival.  The wife of Alaric is said to have been taken 
prisoner after this battle; and there is some reason to suppose 
that he was hampered in his movements by the presence with 
his forces of large numbers of women and children, having 
given to his invasion of Italy the character of a national 
migration.  After another defeat before Verona, Alaric quitted 
Italy, probably in 403. He had not indeed ``penetrated to 
the city,'' but his invasion of Italy had produced important 
results; it had caused the imperial residence to be transferred 
from Milan to Ravenna, it had necessitated the withdrawal 
of the Twentieth Legion from Britain, and it had lirobably 
facilitated the great invasion of Vandals, Suevi and Alani 
into Gaul, by which that province and Spain were lost to the 
empire.  We next hear of Alaric as the friend and ally of his 
late opponent Stilicho.  The estrangement between the eastern 
and western courts had in 407 become so bitter as to threaten 
civil war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the arms 
of Alaric in order to enforce the claims of Honorius to the 
prefecture of Illyricum.  The death of Arcadius in May 408 
caused milder counsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but 
Alaric, who had actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat 
threatening manner that if he were thus suddenly bidden to 
desist from war, he should be paid handsomely for what in 
modern language would be called the expenses of mobilization.  
The sum which he named was a large one, 4000 pounds of gold 
(about L. 160,000 sterling), but under strong pressure from 
Stilicho the Roman senate consented to promise its payment. 

Three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers 
of his party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an 
order extracted from the timid and jealous Honorius; and in 
the disturbances which followed the wives and children of the 
barbarian foederati throughout Italy were slain.  The natural 
consequence was that these men to the number of 30,000 flocked to 
the camp of Alaric. clamouring to be led against their cowardly 
enemies.  IIe accordingly crossed the Julian Alps, and in 
September 408 stood before the walls of Rome (now with no capable 
general like Stihcho to defend her) and began a strict blockade. 

No blood was shed this time; hunger was the weapon on which Alaric 
relied.  When the ambassadors of the senate in treating for peace 
tried to terrify him with their hints of what the despairing 
citizens might accomplish, he gave with a laugh his celebrated 
answer, ``The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!'' After much 
bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom 
of more than a quarter of a million sterling, besides precious
garments of silk and leather and three thousand pounds of 
pepper.  Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome. 

At this time, and indeed throughout his career, the one 
dominant idea of Alaric was not to pull down the fabric of 
the empire but to Secure for himself, by negotiation with 
its rulers, a regular and recognized position within its 
borders.  His demands were certainly large---the concession 
of a block of territory 200 m. long by 150 wide between the 
Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some 
terms of nominal dependence on the empire), and the title 
of commander-in-chief of the imperial army.  Yet large as 
the terms were, the emperor would probably have been well 
advised to grant them; but Honorius was one of those timid 
and feeble folk who are equally unable to make war or peace, 
and refused to look beyond the question of his own personal 
safety, guaranteed as it was by the dikes and marshes of 
Ravenna.  As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation 
with this emperor failed before his impenetrable stupidity, 
Alaric, after instituting a second siege and blockade of 
Rome in 409, came to terms with the senate, and with their 
consent set up a rival emperor and invested the prefect of the 
city, a Creek named Attalus, with the diadem and the purple 
robe.  He, however, proved quite unfit for his high position; 
he rejected the advice of Alaric and lost in consequence the 
province of Africa, the granary of Rome, which was defended by 
the partisans of Honorius.  The weapon of famine, formerly in 
the hand of Alaric, was thus turned against him, and loud in 
consequence were the murmurs of the Roman populace.  Honorius 
was also greatly strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent 
from Constantinople to his assistance by his nephew Theodosius 
II. Alaric therefore cashiered his puppet emperor Attalus 
after eleven months of ineffectual rule, and once more tried 
to reopen negotiations with Honorius.  These negotiatio1(s 
would probably have succeeded but for the malign influence of 
another Goth, Sarus, the hereditary enemy of Alaric and his 
house.  When Alaric found himself once more outwitted by the 
machinations of such a foe, he marched southward and began in 
deadly earnest his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome.  
No defence apparently was possible; there are hints, not well 
substantiated, of treachery; there is greater probability of 
surprise.  However this may be--for our information at this 
point of the story is miserably meagre----on the 24th of 
August 410 Alaric and his . Goths burst in by the Salarian 
gate on the north-east of the city, and she who was of 
late the mistress of the world lay at the feet of the 
barbarians.  The Goths showed themselves not absolutely ruthless 
conquerors.  The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded with 
wonder many instances of their clemency: the Christian churches 
saved from ravage; protection granted to vast multitudes both 
of pagans and Christians who took refuge therein; vessels 
of gold and silver which were found in a private dwelling, 
spared because they ``belonged to St. Peter''; at least one 
case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed, not in vain, 
to the better feelings of the Cothic soldier who attempted 
her dishonour; but even these exceptional instances show that 
Rome was not enlirely spared those scenes of horror which 
usually accompany the storming of a besieged city.  We do 
not, however, hear of any damage wrought by fire, save in 
the case of Sallust's palace, which was situated close to 
the gate by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor 
is there any reason to attribute any extensive destruction 
of the buildings of the city to Alaric and his followers. 

His work being done, his fated task, and Alaric having 
penetrated to the city, nothing remained for him but to 
die.  He marched southwards into Calabria.  He desired to 
invade Africa, which on account of its corn crops was now 
the key of the position; but his ships were dashed to pieces 
by a storm in which many of his soldiers perished.  He died 
soon after, probably of fever, and his body was bulied under 
the river-bed of the Busento, the stream being temporarily 
turned aside from its course while the grave was dug wherein 
the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were 
interred.  When the work was finished the river was turned 
back into its usual channel, and the captives by whose hands 
the labour had been accomplished were put to death that 
none might learn their secret.  He was succeeded in the 
command of the Gothic army by his brotherin-law, Ataulphus., 

Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian 
Orosius and the poet Claudian, both strictly contemporary; 
Zosimus, a somewhat prejudiced heathen historian, who lived 
probably about half a century after the death of Alaric; 
and Jordanes, a Goth who wrote the history of his nation 
in the year 551, basing his work on the earlier history of 
Cassiodorus (now lost), which was written about 520. (T. II.) 

ALARIC II. (d. 507), eighth king of the Goths in Spain, 
succeeded his father Euric or Evaric in 485. His dominions 
not only included the whole of Spain except its north-western 
corner, but also Aquitaine and the greater part of Provence.  
In religion Alaric was an Arian, but he greatly mitigated 
the persecuting policy of his father Euric towards the 
Catholics and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of 
Agde.  He displayed similar wisdom and liberality in 
political affairs by appointing a commission to prepare 
an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which 
should form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects.  
This is generally known as the Breviarium Alaricianuni, 
or Breviary of Alaric (q.v..) Alaric . was of a peaceful 
disposition, and endeavoured strictly to main- tain the treaty 
which his father had concluded with the Franks, whose king 
Clovis, however, desiring to obtain the Gothic province in 
Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of Alaric.  
The intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and 
father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing.  The two armies 
met in 507 at the Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, where 
the Goths were defeated, and their king, who took to flight, 
was overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself. 

ALA-SHEHR (anc. Philadelphia), a town of Asia Minor, in 
the Aidin vilayet, situated in the valley of the Kuzu Chai 
(Cogamus), at the foot of the Boz Dagh (Mt. Tmolus) 83 
m.  E. of Smyrna (105 by railway).  Pop. 22,000 (Moslems, 
17,000; Christians, 5000).  Philadelphia was founded by Attalus 
II. of Pergamum about 150 B.C., became one of the ``Seven 
Churches'' of Asia, and was called ``Little Athens'' on account 
of its festivals and temples.  It was subject to frequent 
earthquakes.  Philadelphia was an independent neutral city, 
under the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes, when taken 
in . 1390 by Sultan Bayezid I. and an auxiliary Christian force 

under the emperor Manuel II. after a prolonged resistance, 
when all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered.  
Twelve years later it was captured by Timur, who built a 
wall with the corpses of his prisoners.  A fragment of the 
ghastly structure is in the library of Lincoln cathedral.  
The town is connected by railway with Afium-Kara-Hissar and 
Smyrna.  It is dirty and ill-built; but, standing on elevated 
ground and commanding the extensive and fertile plain of the 
Hermus, presents at a distance an imposing appearance.  It is 
the seat of an archbishop and has several mosques and Christian 
churches.  There are small industries and a fair trade.  From 
one of the mineral springs comes a heavily charged water known 
in commerce as ``Eau de Vals,'' and in great request in Smyrna. 

See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Ghurches (Ioo4). 
ALASKA, formerly called RUSSIAN AMERICA, a district 
of the United States of America, occupying the extreme 
northwestern part of North America and the adjacent 
islands.  The name is a corruption of a native word possibly 
meaning ``mainland'' or ``peninsula.'' The district of Alaska 
comprises, first, all that part of the continent W. of the 
141st meridian of W longitude from Greenwich;secondly,the 
eastern Diomede island in Bering Strait, and all islands in 
Bering Sea and the Aleutian chain lying E. of a line drawn 
from the Diomedes to pass midway between Copper Island, off 
Kamchatka, and Attu Island of the Aleutians; thirdly, a 
narrow strip of coast and adjacent islands N. of a line drawn 
from Cape Muzon, in lat. 54 deg.  40, N., E. and N. up Portland 
Canal to its head, and thence, as defined in the treaty of 
cession to the United States, quoting a boundary treaty of 
1825 between Great Britain and Russia, following ``the summit 
of the mountains situated parallel to the coast', to the 
141st meridian, provided that when such line runs more than
ten marine leagues from the ocean the limit ``shall 
be formed by a line parallel to the windings of the 
coast and which shall never exceed the distance of ten 
marine leagues therefrom.'' The international disputes 
connected with this description are referred to below. 

Physical Features.---Alaska is bounded on the N. by the 
Arctic Ocean, on the W. by the Arctic Ocean and Bering 
Strait, on the S. and S.W. by the Gulf of Alaska and the 
Pacific Ocean, and on the E. by Yukon Territory and British 
Columbia.  It consists of a compact central mass and two 
straggling appendages running from its S.W. and S.E. corners, 
and sweeping in a vast arc over 16 degrees of latitude and 
58 degrees of longitude.  These three parts will be referred 
to hereafter respectively, as Continental Alaska, Aleutian 
Alaska and the ``Panhandle.'' The range of latitude from 
Point Barrow in the Arctic Ocean to Cape Muzon is almost 17 
degrees---as great as from New Orleans to Duluth; the range 
of longitude from Attu Island to the head of Portland Canal 
is 58 degrees---considerably greater than from New York to San 
Francisco.  The total area is about 586,400 sq. m.  The 
general ocean-coast line is about 4750 m., and, including the 
islands, bays, inlets and rivers to the head of tide water, 
is about 26,000 m. in length (U.S.  Coast Survey 1889).  The 
entire southern coast is very irregular in outline; it is 
precipitous, with only very slight stretches of beach or 
plain.  Its elevation gradually decreases as one travels W. 
toward the Aleutians.  A great submarine platform extends 
throughout a large part of Bering Sea. The western and northern 
coasts are regular in outline with long straight beaches; and 
shallows are common in the seas that wash them.  On the Arctic 
there is a broad coastal plain.  Of the islands of Alaska 
the more important are: at the S.E. extremity and lying close 
inland, the Alexander Archipelago, whose principal islands 
from N.W. to S.E. are Chicagof, Baranof, Admiralty, Kupreanof, 
Kuiu.  Prince of Wales (the largest of the archipelago and 
of all the islands about Alaska, measuring about 140 m. 
in length and 40m.inwidth), Etolin and Revillagigedo; S.W. 
of the mainland, two groups--.-(1) Kodiak, whose largest 
island, of the same name, is 40 m. by 100 m., and may be 
considered a continuation of the Kenai Peninsula, and whose 
W. continuation, S. of Alaska Peninsula, consists of the 
Semidi, Shumagin and Sannak clusters; (2) the Aleutian Islands 
(q.v.) sweeping 1200 m.  W.S.W. from the end of Alaska 
Peninsula, W. of the mainland, in Bering Sea, the Pribilof 
Islands, about 500 m.  S. of Cape Prince of Wales, the small 
Hall and St Matthew Islands, about 170 m.  S.W. of the same 
cape, St Lawrence Island (100 m. and 10 to 30 m. wide), 
which is about half way between the last mentioned pair of 
islets and Cape Prince of Wales and Nunivak Island, near the 
mainland and due E. of St Matthew; and in the middle of Bering 
Strait the Diomede Islands, which belong in part to Russia. 

Very little was known about Alaska previous to 1896, when the 
gold discoveries in the Klondike stimulated public interest 
regarding it.  Since 1895, however, the explorations of the 
United States Geological Survey and the Department of War, and 
other departments of the government, have fully established the 
main features of its physiography.  It has mountains, plateaus 
and lowlands on a grand scale. ``In a broad way, the larger 
features of topography correspond with those of the western 
states.  There is a Pacific Mountain system, a Central 
Plateau region, a Rocky Mountain system, and a Great Plains 
region.  These four divisions are well marked, and show the 
close geographic relation of this area to the southern part 
of the Continent.'' The orographic features of the Pacific 
Mountain system trend parallel to the coast-line of the Gulf of 
Alaska, changing with this at the great bend beyond the N., 
and of the Panhandle from S.E. and N.W. to N.E. and S.W. and 
running through the Alaska Peninsula.  The Pacific Mountain 
system includes four ranges.  The Coast Range of the Panhandle 
attains a width of 100 m., but has no well-defined crest 
line.  The range is characterized by the uniformity of 
summit levels between 5O00 and 6000 ft.  Continuing the Coast 
Range, with which it is closely associated---the Chilkat 
river lies between them---is the St Elias Range (a term 
now used to include not only the mountains between Cross 
Sound and Mt. St Elias, but the Chugach, Kenai, Skolai and 
Nutzotin mountains); among its peaks are: Mt. Crillon ( 15,900 
ft.), Mt. Fairweather ( 15,290 ft.), Mt. Vancouver (15,666 
ft.), Mt. Wrangell (17,500 ft., an active volcano) in the 
Nutzotin Mountains, Mt. St Elias (18,024 ft.) and, in Canadian 
territory, Mt. Logan (19,539 ft.).  The Aleutian Range, of 
whose crest the Aleutian Islands are remnants, fills out the 
system near the coast.  The Alaskan Range, connecting with 
the Nutzotin and Skolai branches of the St Elias Range, lies 
a little farther inland; it is splendidly marked by many snowy 
peaks, including Mt. Foraker (17,000 ft.) and Mt. Mckinley.  
The latter, which on the W. rises abruptly out of a marshy 
country, offers the obstacles of magnificent, inaccessible 
granite cliffs and large glaciers to the mountaineer; it is 
the loftiest peak in North America (ca. 20,300 ft.).  In the 
Alaskan Range and the Aleutian Range there are more than a 
dozen live volcanoes, several of them remarkable; the latter 
range is composed largely of volcanic material.  Evidences 
of very recent volcanic activity are abundant about Cook 
Inlet.  The Rocky Mountain system extends from Canada (the 
Tukon territory) into N.E. Alaska, which it crosses near 
the Arctic Coast in a broad belt composed of several ranges 
about 6000 ft. in altitude.  There is no well-defined crest 
line; the axis of the system is roughly parallel to the 
Pacific Mountain system, but runs more nearly E. and W. in 
Alaska.  Between the Pacific Mountain and the Rocky Mountain 
systems lies the vast Central Plateau region, or Yukon 
plateau.  Finally, between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Arctic Ocean is the Arctic Slope region, a sloping plain 
corresponding to the interior plains of the United States. 

First Physiographic Region.---The Panhandle is remarkably 
picturesque.  The maze of islands, hundreds in number, of 
the Alexander Archipelago (area about 13,000 sq. m.) are 
remnants of a submerged mountain system; the islands rise 
3000 to 5000 ft. above the sea, with luxuriantly wooded 
tops and bald, sheer sides scarred with marks of glacial 
action; the beachless coast is only a narrow ledge between 
the mountains and the sea, and unlike the coast of Norway, 
to which in outline it is not dissimilar, is bold, steep and 
craggy.  Through the inner channels, sheltered from the 
Pacific by the island rampart, runs the ``inland passage,'' 
the tourist route northward from Seattle, Washington.  
The inter-insular straits are carried up into the shore as 
fjords heading in rivers and glaciers.  Thus the Stikine 
river continues Sumner Strait and the Taku continues Cross 
Sound.  The Stikine, Taku and Alsek rivers all cross the 
mountains in deep-cut canyons.  Everywhere the evidences 
of glacial action abound.  Most remarkable are the inlets 
known as Portland Canal and Lynn Canal (continuing Chatham 
Strait).  The first is very deep, with precipitous shores 
and bordering mountains 5000 to 6000 ft. high; the second 
is a noble fjord 100 m. long and on an average 6 m. wide, 
with magnificent Alpine scenery.  It is subject in winter 
to storms of extraordinary violence, but is never closed by 
ice.  Both Portland Canal and Lynn Canal are of historical 
importance, as the question of the true location of the 
first and the commercial importance to Canada or to the 
United States of the possession of the second, were the 
crucial contentions in the disputes over the Alaska-Canadian 
boundary.  At the head of Lynn Canal, the only place on the 
whole extent of the south-eastern Alaskan coast where a clear-cut 
waterparting is exhibited between the sea-board and interior 
drainage, the summits of the highest peaks in the Coast Range 
are 8000 to 9000 ft. above the sea.  White Pass (2888 ft.) and 
Chilkoot Pass (3500 ft.), at the head of the Lynn Canal, are 
the gateway to the mining country of the Klondike and Upper 
Y(ukon.  They are the highest points that one meets in travelling 
from Skagway along the course of the Yukon to`Bering Sea. 

Prior to the opening (in August 1900) of the railway between 
Skagway and White Horse, Canada (110 m.), by way of the White 
Pass, all transportation to the interior was effected by men 
and pack-animals (and for a time by a system of telpherage) 
over these passe 1/3 and the Chilkat or Dalton trail; the 
building of the railway reduced carriage rates to less than 
a tenth of their former value, and the Chilkat and Chilkoot 
Passes were no longer used.  The coast region above the 
Panhandle shows on a smaller and diminishing scale the same 
characteristic features, gradually running into those of the 
Aleutians.  Out of the Alaska and Nutzotin mountains two great 
rivers flow southward: the Copper, practically unnavigable 
except for small boats, because of its turbulence and the 
discharge of glaciers into its waters; and the Susitna, also 
practically unnavigable.  Both of these rivers have their 
sources in lofty mountain masses, and are swift and powerful 
streams carrying with them much silt; their passes over the 
water-parting N. of the Kenai Peninsula are through gorges from 
4000 to 10,000 ft. in depth.  The Copper, the Susitna and its 
tributary, the Yentna, as well as the Skwentna, a tributary 
of the Yentna from the west, all run through picturesque 
canyons, and their upper courses are characterized by glacial 
and torrential feeders.  Their valleys are well timbered. 

The glaciers of the Panhandle and throughout the rest of 
the Pacific region are most remarkable---extraordinary alike 
for their number and their size.  They lie mainly between 
56 deg.  and 61 deg.  N. lat., in a belt 1000 m. long, of which the 
central part, some 350 or 500 m. long and 80 m. to 100 m. 
wide, has been described as one great confluent neve 
field.  Thousands of Alpine glaciers from one to fifteen miles 
long fill the upper valleys and canyons of the mountains.  
More than a hundred almost reach the sea, from which they are 
separated by detrital lowland or terminal moraines.  Other 
glaciers are of the Piedmont type.  Greatest of these and of 
Alaskan glaciers is the Malaspina, a vast elevated plateau of 
wasting ice, 1500 sq. m. in area (nearly a tenth the area of 
all Switzerland), touching the sea at only one point, though 
fronting it for 50 m. behind a fringing foreland of glacial 
debris.  It is fed by Alpine glaciers, among them one of 
the grandest in Alaska, the Seward, which descends from Mt. 
Logan.  It is more than 50 m. long, and more than 3 m. broad at 
its narrowest point, and several times in its course flows over 
cascades, falling hundreds of feet.  Of tide-water glaciers 
the most remarkable is probably the Muir.  It has an area 
of 350 sq. m.; the main trunk, which is 30 to 40 m. broad, 
is fed by 26 tributaries, 20 of which are each greater than 
the Mer de Glace, and pushes its bergs into the sea from ice 
cliffs almost 2 m. wide, standing IOO to 200 ft. above the 
water, and extending probably 700 to 1000 ft. beneath its 
surface.  It has been calculated that the average daily 
discharge of the Muir in summer is 30,000,000 cubic ft.  Its 
course, which is only about 13 m., has a slope of 100 ft. per 
mile, and the main current moves 7 ft. daily.  The Character of 
the Muir was greatly altered by an earthquake in 1899.  There 
are some 30 tide-water glaciers---a considerable number of 
them very noteworthy.  The Valdez is 30 m. long and 5000 ft. in 
altitude.  Most of the Alaskan glaciers are receding, but 
not all of them; and at times there is a general advance.  
The Muir receded 1.6 m. from 1879--1890, the Childs about 
600 yards in 17 years; others over 4, 7 or 10 m. in 20 years. 

The Aleutian Islands (q.v.), like the Alexander Archipelago, are 
remnants of a submerged mountain system.  Their only remarkable 
features are the volcanoes on the easterly islands, already mentioned. 

Continental Alaska.---Continental Alaska in the interior 
is essentially a vast plateau. ``The traveller between the 
main drainage areas of the interior is struck by the uniform 
elevation of the interfluminal areas.  Rounded hills, level 
meads and persistent flat-topped ridges, composed of rocks of 
varying structure, rise to about the same level and give the 
impression that they are the remnants of a former continuous 
surface.  Occasional limited areas of rugged mountains rise 
above this level, and innumerable stream valleys have been 
incised below it; but from the northern base of the St Elias 
and Alaskan ranges to the southern foothills of the Rocky 
Mountain system, and throughout their length, the remnants of 
this ancient level are to be seen.  In height it varies from 
about 5000 ft. close to the bases of the mountain systems 
to less than 3000 ft. in the vicinity of the main lines of 
drainage, and slopes gradually towards the north.'' The Seward 
Peninsula is particularly rugged.  This great plateau drains 
westward through broad, gently flowing streams, the network 
of whose tributary waters penetrates every corner of the 
interior and offers easy means of communication.  Both the main 
streams and the smaller tributaries often flow through deep 
canyons.  The Yukon is one of the great drainage systems of the 
world.  The Yukon itself has a length of more than 2000 m. 
and bisects the country from E. to W. Behind the bluffs that 
form in large part its immediate border its basin is a rolling 
country, at times sinking into great dead levels like the 
Yukon flats between Circle City and the Lower Ramparts, some 
30,000 sq. m. in area.  Of the two great affluents of the 
Yukon, the Tanana is for the most part unnavigable, while the 
Koyukuk is navigable for more than 450 m. by river steamers, 
and for more than 500 m. above its mouth shows no appreciable 
diminution in volume.  A low water-parting divides the Yukon 
valley from the Kuskokwim, the second river of Alaska in 
size, navigable by steamers for 600 m.  Torrential near 
its source, it is already a broad, sluggish stream at its 
confluence with the East Kuskokwim.  The tides rise 50 ft. 
near its mouth and the tide-head is 100 m. above the mouth. 

Rocky Mountains. --The Rocky Mountain system in Alaska 
is higher and more complex than in Canada.  About 100 m. 
wide at the international boundary, where the peaks of the 
British Mountains on the N. and of the Davidson Mountains 
On the S. are 7000 to 8000 ft. high, the system runs W.S.W. 
as the Endicott Mountains, two contiguous ranges of about 
5000 to 6000 ft., and as these ranges separate, the northern 
becomes the De Long, the southern the Baird Mountains, whose 
elevation rapidly decreases toward the coast-line.  The system 
is sharply defined on the north and less so on the south. 

Arctic Slope Region.---The Arctic Slope region is 
divided into the Anuktuvuk Plateau about 80 m. wide, 
with a maximum altitude to the S. of 2500 ft., and 
between the plateau and the Arctic Ocean the Coastal 
Plain.  Very little is known of either part of the region. 

Climate.--From the foregoing description of the country it 
is evident that the range of climate must be considerable.  
That of the coast and that of the Yukon plateau are quite 
distinct.  The Panhandle, along with the lisiere (foreland), 
westward to Cook Inlet might be called temperate Alaska, its 
climate being similar to that of the N.W. coast of the United 
States; while to the westward and northward the winters become 
longer and more severe. d/he cause of the mild climate of the 
Panhandle, formerly supposed to be the Japanese current, or 
Kuro Shiwo, is now held to be the general eastward drift of the 
waters of the North Pacific in the direction of the prevalent 
winds.  To the warmth and moisture brought by this means the 
coastal region owes its high equable temperature, its heavy 
rainfall (80-110 in.) and its superb vegetation.  The mean 
annual temperature is from 54 deg.  to 60 deg.  F. Winter sets in 
about the 1st of December and the snow is gone save in the 
mountains by the 1st of May. The thermometer rarely registers 
below zero F. or above 75 deg.  F.; the difference between 
the midwinter and midsummer averages is seldom more than 
25 deg. .  The summer is relatively dry, the autumn and winter 
wet.  The vapour-laden sea air blowing landward against the 
girdle of snow and glaciers on the mountain barriers a few 
miles inland drains its moisture in excessive rain and snow 
upon the lisiere, shrouding it in well-nigh unbroken fog 
and cloud-bank.  Only some 60 to 100 days in the year are 
clear.  In passing from the Sitkan district westward toward 
Kodiak and the Aleutians (q.v.) the climate becomes even 
more equable, the temperature a little lower and the rainfall 
somewhat less; i the fogs at first less dense, especially 
near Cook Inlet, where the climate is extremely local, but 
more and more persistent along the Aleutians.  The clear 
days of a year at Unalaska can be counted on the fingers; 
five days in seven it actually rains or snows.  Bering Sea 
is covered with almost eternal fog.  Along the coast N. of 
Alaska Peninsula the rainfall diminishes to 10 in. or less 
within the Arctic circle; the summer temperature is quite 
endurable but the winters are exceedingly rigorous.2 East 
of the mountains in south-eastern Alaska the atmosphere is 
dry and bracing, the temperature ranging from -14 deg.  to 92 deg.  
F. In the farther interior, in the valleys of the Yukon, the 
Tanana, the Copper and the Sushitna the summers are much the 
same in character, the winters much more severe.  On the Yukon 
at the international boundary the mean of the warmest month 
is higher than that of the warmest month at Sitka, 500 m. 
southward.  At some points in the Upper Yukon valley the range 
of extreme temperatures is as great as from --75 deg.  to 90 deg.  
F.3 The mean heat of summer in the upper valley is about 
60 deg.  to 70 deg.  F., and at some points in the middle and lower 
valley even higher.4 By the middle of September snow flurries 
have announced the imminence of winter, the sipaller streams 
congeal, the earth freezes, the miner perforce abandons 
his diggings, and navigation ceases even on the Yukon in 
October.  All winter snows fall heavily.  The air is dry and 
quiet, and the cold relatively uniform.  In midwinter in the 
upper valley the sun rises only a few degrees above the horizon 
for from four to six hours a day, though very often quite 
obscured.  In December, January, February and March the 
thermometer often registers lower than -50 deg.  F., and the mean 
temperature is -20 deg. .  In May the rivers open, the cleared land 
thaws out, and by June the miner is again at work.  Summer is 
quickly in full ascendancy.  In May and June the sun shines 
from eighteen to twenty hours and diffused twilight fills 
the rest of the day.  The rainfall is light, from 10 to 25 
in. according to the year or the locality.  Dull weather is 
unknown.  All nature responds in rich and rapid growth to 
the garish light and intense heat of the long, splendid 
days.  But the Alaska summer is the uncertain season at times 
the nights are cold into July, at times snow falls and there 
are frosts in mid-August; sometimes rain is heavy, or again 
there is a veritable drought.  In the great river valleyss. 
of the Yukon basin climatic conditions are much less uniform. 

Fauna anid Flora.---The fauna of Alaska is very rich and 
surprisingly varied.  The lists of insects, birds and mammals 
are especially noteworthy.5 Of these three classes, and of 
other than purely zoological interest, are mosquitoes, which 
swarm in summer in the interior in vast numbers; sea fowl, 
which are remarkably abundant near the Aleutians; moose, 
and especialiv caribou, which in the past were very numerous 
in the interior and of extreme economic importance to the 
natives.  The destruction of the wild caribou has threatened 
to expose the Indians to wholesale starvation, hence the 
effort which the United States government has made to stock 
the country with domestic reindeer from Siberia.  This effort 
made under the direction of the Bureau of Education has been 
eminently successful, and in the future the reindeer seems 
certain to contribute very greatly to the food, clothing, 
means of shelter and miscellaneous industries of the natives; 
and not less to the solution of the problems of communication 
and transportation throughout the interior.  It is, however, 
the fish and the fur-bearing animals of its rivers and 
surrounding seas that are economically most distinctive of 
and important to Alaska.  The fishing grounds extend along 
the coast from the extreme south-east past the Aleutians 
into Bristol Bay. Herring are abundant, and cod especially 
so.  There are probably more than 100,000 sq. m. of cod-banks 
from 22 to 00 fathoms deep in Bering oea and E. or the Alaska 
Peninsula.  Salmon are to be found in almost incredible 
numbers.  Of marine mammals, whales are hunted far to the N. 
in Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, but are much less common 
than formerly, as are also the walrus, the sea otter and 
the fur seal.  All these are disappearing before commercial 
greed.  The walrus is now found mainly far N.; the sea 
otter, once fairly common throughout the Aleutian district, 
is now rarely found even on the remoter islands; the fur 
seal, whose habitat is the Pribilof Islands in Bering 
Sea, has been considerably reduced in numbers by pelagic 
hunting.  There are half-a-dozen species of hair seals and 
sea-lions.  The number of fur-bearing land animals is equally 
large.  Sables, ermine, wolverines, minks, land otters, 
beavers and musk-rats have always been importantitemsin the fur 
trade.  There are black, grizzly and polar bears, and also 
two exclusively Alaskan species, the Kodiak and the glacier 
bear.  The grey wolf is common; it is the basal stock of 
the Alaskan sledge-dog.  The red fox is widely distributed, 
and the white or Arctic fox is very common along the 
eastern coast of Bering Sea; a blue fox, once wild, is 
now domesticated on Kodiak and the Aleutians, and on the 
southern continental coast, and a black fox, very rare, 
occurs in south-eastern Alaska; the silver fox is very rare. 

The Alaskan flora is less varied than the fauna.  The 
forests of the coastal region eastward from Cook Inlet, and 
particularly in south-eastern Alaska, are of fair variety, 
and of great richness and value.  The balsam fir and in the 
south the red cedar occur in scant quantities; more widely 
distributed, but growing only under marked local conditions, 
is the yellow or Alaska cedar, a very hard and durable wood 
of fine grain and pleasant odour.  The Oregon alder is fairly 
common.  Far the most abundant are coast and Alpine hemlocks 
and the tide-land or Sitka spruce.  The last is not confined 
to this part of Alaska, but is the characteristic and universal 
tree.  It is of primary economic importance to thenatives,who 
use it for the most variouspurposcs.  On the islands of the 
Alexander Archipelago and on Prince William Sound it grows 
to gigantic size; even on the Koyukuk and the middle Yukon 
it attains in places a diameter of 2 ft.  In 1002 a forest 
reservation comprising the largest part of the Alexander 
Archipelago was created by the United States government.  The 
separation of the coast and interior floras is almost complete; 
only along the mountain passes and river valleys, and rarely 
there, is there an exchange of species.  Timber, however, is 
fairly abundant along the entire course of the Yukon above Anvik 
(about 400 m. from the mouth), along the great tributaries of 
the Yukon, and, so far as explorations have re vealed, along 
every stream in central Alaska; and the woods of the interior 
consist almost entirely of spruce.  On the Yukon flats it 
grows in a vast forest impenetrably dense.6 The timber line, 
which in the I,anhandle and along the southern coast of the 
continental mass runs from 1800 to 2400 ft., frequently rises 
in the interior plateau even to 4000 ft.  Next in importance 
after spruce, in the interior, is birch, and then balsam 
poplar.  Thickets of alders and willows in wet places and 
new-made land, aspens and large cottonwoods west of the 
characteristic spruce area (as on Seward Peninsula), are also 
common.  Toward the Arctic circle, the timber becomes, of 
course, sparse, low, gnarled and distorted.  The willows in 
the Arctic drainage basin shrink to shrubs scarcely knee-high.  
Bushes are common in western Alaska, but undergrowth is very 
scanty in the forests.  Crasses grow luxuriantly in the river 
bottoms and wherever the tundra moss is destroyed to give them 
footing.  Most distinctive is the ubiquitous carpeting of 
mosses, varying in colours from the pure white and cream of 
the reindeer moss to the deep green and brown of the peat 
moss, all conspicuously spangled in the briefsummer with 
bright flowers of the higher orders, heavy blossoms on stunted 
stalks.  The thick peat moss or tundra of the undrained lowlands 
covers probably at least a quarter of Alaska; the reindeer moss 
grows both on the lowlands and the hills.7 Sedges available 
for forage grow in the tundra.  In August berries are fairly 
abundant over the interior; one of them, the salmon or cloud 
berry, preserved in seal oil for the winter, is an important 
food of the natives.  The grasses are killed by the frosts in 
September.  The western timber limit is on Kodiak Island.  
The Aleutian Islands (q.v.) are almost destitute of trees, 
but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage.  Climatic 
differences cannot account for the treeless condition of 
the country W. of this point, and the true explanation lies 
probably in the fact that in winter, when the seeds of the 
coastal forests ripen and are released, the prevalent winds 
W. of Kodiak are damp and blow from the S. and S.W., while 
the spread of the seeds requires dry winds blowing from the 
N. and N.W. Such favourable conditions occur only rarely. 

The Soil of Alaska seems to be in Jtself rich, and quite 
capable of agricultural development; the great impediment 
to this is in . the briefness of the summer.  Contrary, 
however, to the once universal belief, the experiments of 
the department of agriculture of the United States have 
definitely proved that hardy vegetables in great variety 
can readily be produced in the coastal region and at various 
stations in the Yukon valley; and presumably, therefore, all 
over the interior S. of the Arctic circle, save along Bering 
Sea; also that there is little doubt of the practicability 
of successfully cultivating buckwheat, barley and oats, and 
possibly also rye and wheat; that grasses for grazing grow 
generally and often in abundance; and in general that the 
possibilities of interior Alaska as a live-stock country 
are very cons18erable.  It is calculated that a twentieth of 
south-eastern Alaska is available for agriculture, and that of 
the entire country 100,000 sq. m. are pasturable or tillable. 

Indiistrl'.---The fur and fish resources of Alaska have until 
recently held first place in her industries.  Herrings furnish 
oil and guano, and the young fish are packed as ``sardines'' at 
Juneau.  Cod can be taken with comparatively little danger or 
hardship.  During the Russian occupation a small amount was 
shipped to California and the Sandwich Islands.  The take 
since 1879 has been practically constant.  The take of halibut 
is increasing steadily.  The salmon industry dates from 
1878.  The total output (in 1901, 100,000,000 lb.; in 1006, 
about 72,000,000 lb.), which since 1900 has been more than 
half the total salmon product of the United States, is more 
than ten' times the product of all other fish.8 On the Karluk 
river, Kodiak Island, is the greatest salmon fishery in the 
world.  More than 3,000,000 salmon have been canned here 
in one season.  The second salmon stream is the Nushagak, 
flowing into Bristol Bay; this bay is the richest fishing 
field of Alaska, furnishing in 1901, 35% of the total 
production.  The recklessly wasteful manner in which these 
fisheries are conducted, and the inadequate measures taken by 
the United States government for their protection, threaten 
the entire industry with destruction.  From 1867 to 1902 
the value of the total fishery product was estimated at 
$60,000,000.  The fur-seal industry has been better protected 
but still unavailingly. (See SEAL FIsheries and BERINO SEA 
ARBITRATION.) The value of the fur seals taken from 1868 to 
1902 was estimated at $35,000,000 and that of other furs at 
$17,000,000.  The walrus, hunted for its ivory tusks, and 
the sea otter, rarest and most valuable of Alaskan fur 
animals, are near extermination; the blue fox is now bred 
for its pelt on the Aleutians and the southern continental 
coast; the skins of the black and silver fox are extremely 
rare, and in general the whole fur industry is discouragingly 
decadent.  The whale fishery also has greatly fallen off; 
there is no profit on the oil and the whales are sought for 
the baleen alone; they are much less numerous too than they 
once were, and have to be sought farther and farther north. 

Minerals.--The timber resources of Alaska are untouched 
and the serious exploitation of her minerals is very recent.  
As early as 1861 gold discoveries were made on the Stikine 
river; repeated discoveries, culminating in the Cassiar 
district ``boom,'' were made in British Columbia from 1857 to 
1874; colourings along the Yukon were reported in 1866-1867 
and systematic prospecting of the upper river began about 
1873.  Juneau was founded in 1880; the same year the opposition 
of the Indians was withdrawn that had prevented the crossing 
of the mountain passes to the interior, and after 1880 
repeated and scattered discoveries were made on the Lewes, 
Pelly, Stewart and other streams of the Upper Yukon country in 
Canada.  As early as 1883-1885 there was a considerable mining 
excitement due to these discoveries, and a much greater one 
in 1887 after the discovery of coarse gold on Forty Mile 
Creek in American territory; but these were as nothing to 
the picturesque and feverish rush that followed the location 
of the first Klondike claim in Canadian territory in August 
1896. (SEE KLONDIKE.) The mines in American territory 
were temporarily deserted for the new diggings.  Other gold 
districts are scattered over the whole interior of Alaska.  
Nome (q.v.) was the scene of a great gold mining stampede in 
1900.  The quartz mines near Juneau are among the greatest 
stamp mills of the world (SEE JUNEAU.) The product of gold 
and silver (of the latter some 1.3% of the total) from 1895 
to 1901 was more than $32,000,000 from Alaska proper (not 
including that from the Canadian Tukon fields) as against 
a production of $5,000,000 in 1880-1896.  The gold product 
of the Canadian Yukon territory from 1896-1903 was about 
$96,000,000, as estimated by the Canadian Geological Survey.  In 
1905 the product of gold from Alaska was valued at $15,630,000 
(mines report); and from 1880 to 19djec the production of 
gold, according to the estimate of A. H. Brooks, was more than 
$100,000,000.  The gravest problem of mining in the interior 
country, even graver than that presented by the climate, is 
transportation; in 1900 the Tanana fields, for example, were 
provisioned from Circle City, about 125 m. distant, at the 
rate of a cent per lb. mile (i.e. $2000 for moving a ton 100 
m.).  Even higher rates prevailed in the copper country in 
1902.  Various other minerals in addition to gold have been 
discovered, and several of them, notably copper and silver 
(the latter appearing with the gold deposits), may probably 
be profitably exploited.  In 1905 the product of copper 
was valued at $759,634, that of silver at $80,165 (mines 
report).  Coal, and in much larger quantities lignite, 
have been found in many parts of Alaska.  Most important, 
because of their location, are deposits along the Alaska 
Peninsula and between Circle City and Dawson.  The latter 
furnishes fuel to the river steamboats, and it is hoped may 
eventually supply the surrounding mining region.  There are 
valuable deposits of gypsum on Chicagof Island, and marble 
quarries are being developed on Prince of Wales Island. 

As against $7,200,000 paid for Alaska in 1867, the revenues 
returned to the United States in the years 1867--1903 totalled 
$9,555,909 (namely, rental for the Fox and Pribilof Islands, 
$999,200; special revenue tax on seal-skins, $7,597,351; 
Alaskan customs, $528,558; public lands, $28,928; other sources 
$401,872).  It has been estimated that in the same period 
the United States drew from Alaska fish, furs and gold 
to the value of about $150,000,000; that up to 1903 the 
imports from the states aggregated $i00,000,000; and that 
$25,000,000 of United States capital was invested in Alaska. 

Since 1896 communication with the outer world has been greatly 
increased.  Alaskan mails leave the states daily, many 
post-offices are maintained, mail is regularly delivered 
beyond the Arctic circle, all the more important towns have 
telegraphic communication with the states,9 there is one 
railway in the interior through Canadian territory from 
Skagway, and other railways are planned.  The total mileage 
in 1906 was 136 m.  In that year the Alaskan Central Railroad 
(from Seward to Fairbanks, 463 m.) was chartered; 45 m. of 
this road were in operation in 1905.  One long military road 
as an ``All American'' route from Valdez has long been built. 

Population.---The population in 1867 at the time of the 
cession from Russia is estimated at 30,000, of which two-thirds 
were Eskimo and other Indians.  Population returned in 
1880, 33,426; in 1890, 32,052; in 1900, 63,592, of whom 
approximately 48% were whites, 46% natives and 6% Japanese and 
Chinese; (1910 census) 64,356.  The Asiatics are employed in 
the salmon canneries.  The natives of Alaska fall under four 
ethnologic races: the Eskimo or Innuit---of these the Aleuts 
are an offshoot; the Haidas or Kaigani, found principally 
on Prince of Wales Island and thereabouts; the Thlinkits, 
rather widely distributed in the ``Panhandle''; and the 
Tinnehs or Athapascans, the stock race of the great interior 
country.  In 1800 the pure-blooded natives numbered 23,531, 
of whom 6000 were Haidas, Thlinkits or other natives of the 
coastal region, 1000 Aleuts, 3400 Athapascans and 13,100 
Eskimo.  The natives have adopted many customs of white 
civilization, and on the Aleutians, and in coastal Alaska, and 
in scattered regions in the interior acknowledge Christianity 
under the forms of the Orthodox Greek or other churches.  The 
rapid exhaustion in late years of the caribou, seals and other 
animals, once the food or stockin-trade of the Aleuts and other 
races, threatens more and more the swift depletion of the 
natives.  They have also felt the fatal influence of the liquor 
traffic.  From 1893 to 1895 the United States expended $55,000 
to support the natives of the Fur Seal Islands.  This policy 
threatens to become a continued necessity throughout much of 
Alaska.  There is a small government Indian reservation 
on Afognak Island, near Kodiak.  The white population is 
extremely mobile, and few towns have an assured or definite 
future.  The prosperity of the mining towns of the interior 
is dependent on the fickle fortune of the gold-fields, 
for which they are the distributing points.  Sitka, Juneau 
(the capital) and Douglas, both centres of a rich mining 
district, Skagway, shipping point for freight for the Klondike 
country (see these titles), and St Michael, the ocean port 
for freighting up the Yukon, are the only towns apparently 
assured of a prosperous future.  Wrangell (formerly Fort 
St Dionysius, Fort Stikine and Fort Wrangell), founded in 
1833, is a dilapidated and torpid little village, of some 
interest in Alaskan history, and of temporary importance from 
1874 to 1877 as the gateway to the Cassiar mines in British 
Columbia.  Its inhabitants are chiefly Thlinkit Indians. 

Government.---Alaska, by an act of Congress approved the 
7th of May 1906, received the power to elect a delegate to 
Congress.  Before this act and the elections of August 1906 
Alaska was a governmental district of the United States without 
a delegate in Congress.  Its administration rests in the hands 
of the various executive departments, and is partly exercised 
by a governor and other resident officials appointed by the 
president.  It is a military district, a customs district (since 
1868), is organized into a land district, and constitutes 
three judicial divisions.  In 1867-1877 the government was 
in the hands of the department of war, although the customs 
were from the beginning collected by the department of the 
treasury, with which the effective control rested from 1877 
until the passage of the so-called Organic Act of 17th May 
1884.  This act extended over Alaska the laws of the state 
of Oregon so far as they should be applicable, created the 
judicial district and a land district, put in force the 
mining laws of the United States, and in general gave the 
administrative system the organization it retained up to the 
reforms of 1899-1900.  The history of government and political 
agitation has centred since then in the demand for general 
land legislation and for an adequate civil and criminal law, 
in protests against the enforcement of a liquor prohibition 
law, and in agitation for an efficiently centralized 
administration.  As the general land laws of the United States 
were not extended to Alaska in 1884, there was no means, 
generally speaking, of gaining title to any land other than 
a mining claim, and so far as any method did exist its cost 
was absolutely prohibitive.  After partial and inadequate 
legislation in 1891 and 1898, the regular system of land 
surveys was made applicable to Alaska in 1899, and a generous 
homestead law was provided in 1903.  An adequate code of civil 
and criminal law and provisions for civil government under 
improved conditions were provided by Congress in 1899 and 
1900.  The agitation over prohibition dates from 1868; the 
act of that year organizing a customs district forbade the 
importation and sale of firearms, ammunition and distilled 
spirits; the Organic Act of 1884 extended this prohibition 
to all intoxicating liquors.  The coast of Alaska offers 
exceptional facilities for smuggling, and liquor bas always 
been very plentiful; juries have steadily refused to convict 
offenders, and treasury officials have regularly collected 
revenue from saloons existing in defiance of law.  The 
prohibition law is still upon the statute-books.  The chief 
weaknesses in the colonial administration of the territory, 
particularly prior to 1900---but only to a slightly less 
extent since---have been decentralization and a lax civil 
service.  The concomitants of these have been irresponsibility 
and inefficiency.  The governor has represented the president 
without possessing much power; the department of war has had 
illdefined duties; the department of justice has, in theory, 
had charge of the general law; the department of the interior 
has administered the land law; the agents of the bureau of 
education have superintended the stocking of Alaska with 
reindeer; the United States Fish Commission has investigated 
the condition of marine life without having powers to protect 
it.  The treasury department has charted the coasts, sought 
to enforce the prohibition law, controlled and protected 
the fur seals and fisheries, and incidentally collected the 
customs.  Since the creation of the department of commerce 
and labour (1903), it has taken over from other departments 
some of these scattered functions.  All in all, the 
government has proved itself without power to protect the 
most valuable industries of the district, and for many years 
there has been talk of a regular territorial government.  
The paucity of permanent residents and the poverty of the 
local treasury seem to make such a solution an impossibleone. 

History.---The region now known as Alaska was first explored 
by the Russian officers Captain Vitus Bering and Chirikov 
in I 741 They visited parts of the coast between Dixon 
Entrance and Cape St Elias, and returned along the line of the 
Aleutians.  Their expedition was followed by many private 
vessels manned by traders and trappers.  Kodiak was discovered 
in 1763 and a settlement effected in 1784.  Spanish expeditions 
in 1774 and 1775 visited the south-eastern coast and laid a 
foundation for subsequent territorial claims, one incident of 
which were the Nootka Sound seizures of 1789.  Captain James 
Cook in 1778 made surveys from which the first approximately 
accurate chart of the coast was published; but it was reserved 
for Vancouver in 1793-1794 to make the first charts in the 
modern sense of the intricate south-eastern coast, which only 
in recent years have been superseded by new survel's.  Owing 
to excesses committed by private traders and companies, who 
robbed, massacred and hideously abused the native Indians, 
the trade and regulation of the Russian possessions were 
in 1799 confided to a semi-official corporation called the 
Russian-American Company for a term of twenty years, afterwards 
twice renewed for similar periods.  A monopoly of the American 
trade had previously been granted in 1788 to another private 
company, the Shohkof.  Alexander Baranov (1747--1819); chief 
resident director of the American companies (1790-1819), one 
of the early administrators of the new company, became famous 
through the successes he achieved as governor.  He founded 
Sitka (q.v.) in 1804 after the massacre by the natives of 
the inhabitants of an eadier settlement (1799) at an adjacent 
point.  The headquarters of the company were at Kodiak until 
1805, and thereafter at Sitka.  In 1821 Russia attempted by 
ukase to exclude navigators from Bering Sea and the Pacific 
coast of her possessions, which led to immediate protest from 
the United States and Great Britain.  This led to a treaty 
with the United States in 1824 and one with Great Britain in 
1825, by which the excessive demands of Russia were relinquished 
and the boundaries of the Russian possessions were permanently 
fixed.  The last charter of the Russian-American Company expired 
on the 31st of December 1861, and Prince Maksutov, an imperial 
governor, was appointed to administer the affairs of the 
territory.  In 1864 authority was granted to an American 
company to make explorations for a proposed Russo-American 
company's telegraph line overland from the Amur river in 
Siberia to Bering Strait, and through Alaska to British 
Columbia.  Work was begun on this scheme in 1865 and continued 
for nearly three years, when the success of the Atlantic 
cable rendered the construction of the lme unnecessary and 
it was given up, but not until important explorations had been 
made.  In 1854 a Californian company began importing ice from 
Alaska.  Very soon thereafter the first Official overtures 
by the United States for the purchase of Russian America were 
made during the presidency of James Buchanan.  In 1867, by a 
treaty signed on the 30th of March, the purchase was consummated 
for the sum of $7,200,o00, and on the 18th of October 1867 
the formal transfer of the territory was made at Sitka. 

Since its acquisition by the United States the history of Alaska 
has been mainly that of the evolution of its administrative 
system described above, and the varying fortunes of its 
fisheries and sealing industries.  Since the gold discoveries 
a wonderful advance has been made in the exploration of the 
country.  A military reservation has been created with Fort 
Michael as a centre.  The two events of greatest general interest 
have been the Fur Seal Arbitration of 1893 (see BERING SEA 
ARBITRATION), and the . Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute, 
settled by an international tribunal of British and American 
jurists in London in 1903.  The boundary dispute involved the 
interpretation of the words, quoted above, in the treaties 
of 1825 and 1867 defining the boundary of the Russian (later 
American) possessions, and also the determining of the location 
of Portland Canal, and the question whether the coastal girdle 
should cross or pass around the heads of the fjords of the 
coast.  The tribunal was an ad-)udication board and not an 
actual court of arbitration, since its function was not to decide 
the boundary but to settle the meaning of the Anglo-Russian 
treaty, which provided for an ideal (and not a physical) 
boundary.  This boundary did not fit in with geographical 
facts; hence the adjudication was based upon the motive of 
the treaty and not upon the literal interpretation of such 
elastic terms as ``ocean,', ``shore'' and ``coast-line.'' 
The award of the tribunal made in October 1903 was arrived 
at by the favourable vote of the three commissioners of 
the United States and of Lord Alverstone, whose action 
was bitterly resented by the two Canadian commissioners; 
it sustained in the main the claims of the United States. 

AUTHORITIES.---W.  H. Dall and M. Baker, ``List of Charts, 
Maps, and Publications relating to Alaska'', in United States 
Pacific Coast Pilot, 1879; Monthly Catalogue United 
States Public Documents, No. 37 (1898), and Bulletin 
227, United States Geological Surve8' (1904), for official 
documents; H. H. Bancroft, Alaska 1710--f8&5) pp. 595-609; 
and various other bibliographies in titles mentioned below, 
especially in Brooke's The Geography and Geology of Alaska. 

General.--United States Monthly Summary of Commerce Finance, 
July 1903, ``Commercial Alaska, 1867-1903.  Area, Popula 
tion, Productions, Commerce . . .''; W. H. Dall, Alaska 
and its Resources (Boston, 1870); C. Sumner, Speech on 
``Cession of Russian-America to the United States,'' in 
Works, vol. xi. (Boston, 1875): C. H. Merriam, editor, 
Halrriman Alaska Expedition (New York, 1901-1904, 3 vols.). 

Physiography and Climate.---United States Department of 
War, Explorations in Alaska, 1864-1900 (Washington, 1901); 
United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports since 
1897---``The Geography and Geology of Alaska: A Summary of 
Existing Knowledge,'' by Alfred H. Brooks (Washington, 1905; 
Professional Paper, No. 45), with various maps (see National 
Geographic Mag., May 1904, lor a map embodying all knowledge 
then known); ``Altitudes in Alaska'' (Bulletin 100, by H. 
Gannett); ``Geographic Dictionary of Alaksa'' (Bulletin 
299, Washington, 1906), by M. Baker; United States Post 
Office, ``Map of Alaska'' (1901); United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, Bulletins and maps; Bulletin American 
Geographieal Society, February 1902, F. S. Schrader, ``Work 
of the United States Geological Survey in Alaska''; Journal 
of Franklin Institute, October and November 1904, W. R. 
Abercrombie---``The Copper River Country of Alaska''; I. C. 
Russell, Glaciers of North America. . . . Ivan Petroff, Report 

Industries.--United States Census, 1880, Ivan Petroff, 
Report on the Population, Industries and Resources of 
Alaska; United States Census, 1890 and 1900; on reindeer, 
Fifteenth Annuat Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer 
into Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson (Washington, 1906); on 
agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, Experiment 
Stations, Bulletin Nos. 48, 62, 82 . . . (1898-1900); Seal 
and Salmon Fisheries and General Industries of Alaska, 
1868-1805 (Washington, 1898) (United States Treasury, also 
55 Congress, 1 Session, House Document 92, vols. vi.-x.), 
4 vols.; D. S. Jordan et al., The Fur Seals and Fur Seal 
Islanids (or Peport of ln.: also many special reports on 
the seals published by the voln.: also many special reports 
on the seals published by the United States Treasury: for 
Report of British seal experts, Creat Britain, Foreign Office 
Correspondence, United States, No. 3 (1897), No. 1 (1898). 

History and Government.--H.  H. Bancroft, Alaska, 1730-1885 
(San Francisco, 1886); W. H. Dall, ``Alaska as it was and 
is, 1863-1893,'' in Bulletin of the Philadelphia Society of 
Washington, xiii.; Governor of Alaska, Annual Report to the 
Secretary of the Interior; Fur Seal Arbitration, Proceedings 
(Washington, 1895, 46 vols.l: also Great Britain, Foreign 
Office Correspondence, United States, Nos. 6, 7, 8 (1893), No. 
1 (1895); Alaskan Boundary Tribunal, Cases, Counter-cases, 
Arguments, Atlases of United States and Great Britain 
(Washington, 1903 seq.); and a rich periodical literature. 

Population, Natives.--United States National Museum, 
Ann. Report (1896); W. Hough, ``Lamp of the Eskimo'' 
(long, and of general interest): F. Knapp and R. L. Childe, 
The Thlinkets of South-Eastern Alaska (Chicago, 1896). 

1 At Kodiak, the monthly means range from 28 deg.  to 33 deg.  with a 
total range from -10 deg.  to 82 deg.  F., as against -5 deg.  to 87 deg.  F. 
at Sitka; the average temperature is 40.6 deg.  F., rainfall 59 in. 

2 At St Michael the mean annual temperature is about 26 deg. , 
the monthly means run from about -2 deg.  to 54 deg. , and the extreme 
recorded temperatures from about -55 deg.  to 77 deg.  F.; at Port 
Clarence the annual mean is 22 deg. lmonthly means -7 deg.  to 51 deg.  
F.; extreme range of temperature, -38 deg.  to 77 deg.  F.; at Point 
Barrow the annual mean is 7.70 F'., monthly means -18.6 deg.  
to 38.1 deg. F., extreme range of temperature -55 deg.  to 65 deg.  F. 

3 The mean annual temperature on the Yukon at the international 
line is about 21 deg.  F., the monthly means run from -17 deg.  to 60 deg.  
F., the range of extreme temperatures from -80 deg.  to 90 deg.  F. 

4 At Fort Yukon five years' records showed mean seasonal 
temperatures of 14 deg. , 60 deg. , 17 deg. , and -23.8 deg.  F. for spring, 
summer, autumn and winter respectively: at Holy Cross Mission 20 deg. , 
59 deg. , 36 deg.  and 0.95 deg. , at Nulato 29 deg. , 60 deg. , 36 deg.  and -14 deg. . ` 

5 The Harriman expedition collected in two months 1000 species of 
insects, of which 344 species (and 6 genera) were new to science. 

6 The trees here grow as large as 10 in. in diameter and 40 or 
50 ft. high; the branches do nor spread, even where there is room, 
so ihat the tallest tree has a top only four or five feet broad; 
the roots, which cannot penetrate the shaded and frozen soil, 
spread over the ice or shallowly into the tundra carpeting, and 
often only by their matted neiwork prevent the fall of the trees. 

7 280 species of mosses proper, of which 46 were new to science, 
and 16 varieties of peat moss (Sphognum) were listed by the 
Harriman expedition; and 74 species or varieties of ferns. 

8 The value of the total aroduct of Alaska's fish canneries 
was in 1905 $7,735,782, or 29.3% of the total for the 
United States; in 1900 it was 17.4% of the country's total. 

9 Seattle, Sitka and Valdez are connected by cable; 
telegraoh lines run from the Panhandle inland to 
the Yukon and down its valley to Fort St Michael. 

ALASSIO, a town of Liguria, Italy, on the N.W. coast 
of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 57 
m.  S.W. of the town of the same name by rail.  Pop. (1901) 
5630.  It is mainly noticeable as a health resort in winter 
and a bathing-place in summer, and has many hotels.  The 
anchorage is safe, and the bay full of fish; the harbour 
has a certain amount of trade.  The old town contains one 
or two interesting churches, and commands a fine view. 

ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, the spirit of revenge, which 
prompts the members of a family to commit fresh crimes to obtain 
satisfaction.  These crimes necessitate further acts of 
vengeance, and the curse is thus transmitted from generation to 
generation.  The word is also used for a man's evil genius, 
which drives him to sin without any provocation; a man so 
driven is sometimes called Alastor. The epithet is applied to 
Zeus and the Erinyes as the deities of revenge and punishment. 

ALA-TAU (``Variegated Mountains''), the name of six 
mountain ranges in Asiatic Russia.  Three of these are in the 
government of Semiryechensk in Central Asia, all belonging to 
the Tianshan system:---(1) the Terskei Ala-tau, south of and 
parallel to the lake of Issyk-kul; (2) the Kunghei Ala-tau, 
and (3) the Trans-Ili Ala-tau, both N. of and parallel to the 
same lake; and (4) the Dzungarian Ala-tau, lying N. of the Ili 
depression.  The first three link together the Tian-shan and 
the Alexander Range.  Their mean elevation is 6000--7000 ft.; 
their culminating point, Talgar, on a transverse ridge between 
(2) and (3), reaches 15,000 ft.; the limits of perpetual 
snow run at 11,000-11,700 ft.  The Dzungarian Ala-tau reach a 
maximum altitude of 11,000 ft. and have a mean altitude of 6250 
ft.  From the middle of the Alexander Range another range 
(5) called Ala-tau, or Talastau, strikes west by south.  The 
name Ala-tau also enters into the designation of (6), a range 
between the upper Yenisei and the upper Ob, in the government 
of Tomsk, namely, the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, forming an outlier of 
the Altai Mountains, and reaching 6000-7000 ft. in altitude. 

ALAUNA, ALAUNUS, the Celtic names of two rivers, &c., in Roman 
Britain.  Hence the modern Allan Water, river Alyn, &c. 

ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770-1841), Spanish general 
and statesman, was born at Vittoria in 1770.  He served first 
in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when he 
exchanged intorthe army, receiving corresponding rank.  He 
was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the 
flagship of his uncle Admiral Alava.  In politics he followed 
a very devious course.  At the assembly of Bayonne in 1808 he 
was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the new 
constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain.  After the 
national rising against French aggression, and the defeat of 
General Dupont at Bailen in 1808, Alava joined the national 
independent party, who were fighting in alliance with the 
English.  The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at the 
English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who regarded 
him with great favour, made him one of his aides-decamp.  
Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank of 
brigadier-general.  On the restoration of Ferdinand, 
Alava was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle 
Ethenard, the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy 
release.  He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, 
who appointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague.  It was 
therefore his remarkable forrune to be present at the battle 
of Waterloo with Wellington's staff.  He is supposed to 
have been the only man who was present at both Waterloo and 
Trafalgar.  Four years later he was recalled owing, it is 
said, to the marked kindness he had shown to his banished 
fellow-countrymen.  On the breaking out of the revolution 
of 1820 he was chosen by the province of Alava to represent 
it in the Cortes, where he became conspicuous in the party 
of the Exallados, and in 1822 was made president.  In 
the latter year he fought with the militia under Francisco 
Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority of 
the Cortes against the rebels.  When the French invested 
Cadiz, Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with 
the duc d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the 
restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal 
policy.  No sooner had he regained power, however, than 
he ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and 
Alava found it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and 
then to England.  On the death of Ferdinand he returned to 
Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria Christina against 
Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to London in 1834 and 
to Paris in 1835.  After the insurrection of La Granja he 
refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declaring himself 
tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently obliged 
to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843. 

Frequent and honourable mention of Alava is made in Napier's 
History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met borh 
in lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence. 

ALAVA, one of the Basque Provinces of northern Spain; 
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre, S. by 
Logrono, and W. by Burgos.  Pop. (1900) 96,385; area 1175 sq. 
m.  The countship of Trevino (190 sq. m.) in the centre of 
Alava belongs to the province of Burgos.  The surface of 
Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where 
a part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary.  It is 
separated from Logrono by the river Ebro, and its other rivers 
are the Zadorra and the Ayuda.  The climate is mild in summer, 
fitful in autumn and spring, and very cold in winter, as even 
the plains are high and shut in on three sides by mountains 
snow-clad during several months.  The soil in the valleys 
is fertile, yielding wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp and 
fruits.  Oil and a poor kind of wine called chacoli are also 
produced.  Many of the mountains are clothed with forests 
of oak, chestnuts, beeches and other trees, and contain 
iron, copper, lead and marble.  Salt is also found in large 
quantities; but mining and quarrying are not practised 
on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt being 
worked.  There are mineral waters in many places.  Other 
local industries of some importance include smelting, and 
manufactures of beds, furniture, railway carriages, matches, 
paper, sweets and woollen and cotton goods.  Bread-stuffs. 
colonial products and machinery are largely imported.  Few 
provinces in Spain are inhabited by so laborious, active and 
well-to-do a population.  The primary schools are numerously 
attended, and there are very good normal schools for teachers 
of both sexes, and a model agricultural farm: The public 
roads and other works of the province are excellent, and, 
like those of the rest of the Basque provinces, entirely kept 
up by local initiative and taxes.  Railways from Madrid to 
the French frontier, and from Saragossa to Bilbao, cross the 
province.  The capital is Vitoria (pop. 1900, 30,701), 
which is the only town with more than 3500 inhabitants. 

For a fuller account of the history, people and customs of 
Alava, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCE, with the works there 
cited.  A very elaborate bibliograohy is given in the Catalogo 
de las obras referentes a las provincias de Alava y Navarra, 
by A. A. Salazar (Madrid, 1887.) The following books by i.  
I. Landazuri y Romarate contain much material for a provincial 
history:--Historia ecclesiastica, &c. (Pamplona, 1797); 
Historia civil, &c. (Vitodes, 1798); Compendios historicos 
de la ciudad y villas de . . . Alava, &c. (Pamplona, 
1798); Suplemento a' los cuatro libros de la historia de 
. . . Alava (Vitoria, 1799); and Los varones illustres 
Alavenses Vitoria, 1798).  See also M. Risco in vol. 33 of 
Hispania Sagiada, by H. Florez, &c. (Madrid, 1754-1879). 

ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white), a liturgical vestment 
of the Catholic Church.  It is a sack-like tunic of white 
linen, with narrow sleeves and a hole for the head to pass 
through, and when gathered up round the waist by the girdle 
(cingulum) just clears the ground.  Albs were originally 
quite plain, but about the 10th century the custom arose of 
ornamenting the borders and the cuffs of the sleeves with 
strips of embroidery, and this became common in the 12th 
century.  These at first encircled the whole border; but soon 
it became customary to substitute for them square patches of 
embroidery or precious fabrics.  These ``parures'' ``apparels'' 
or ``orphreys'' (Lat. parun'ae, grammala, aurifeisia, 
&c.), were usually four in number, one being sewn on the 
back and another on the front of the vestment just above 
the lower hem, and one on each cuff.  When, as occasionally 
happened, a fifth was added, this was placed on the breast 
just below the neck opening.  These ``apparelled albs'' 
(albae paratae) continued in general use in the Western 
Church till the 16th century, when a tendency to dispense 
with the parures began, Rome itself setting the example. 

The growth of the lace industry in the 17th century hastened 
the process by leading to the substitution of broad bands of 
lace as decoration; occasionally, as in a magnificent specimen 
preserved at South Kensington, nearly half the vestment is 
thus composed of lace.  At the present time, so far as the 
Roman Catholic Church is concerned, apparelled albs are only 
in regular use at Milan (Ambrosian Rite), and, partially, in 
certain churches in Spain.  The decree of the Congregation 
of Rites (May 18, 1819) says nothing about apparels, but 
only lays down that the alb must be of white linen or hemp 
cloth.  There is no definite rule as to the material or 
character of the ornamentation, and attempts have been made, 
especially in England, to revive the use of the apparelled alb. 

In the Roman Church the alb is now reckoned as one of the vestments 
proper to the sacrifice of the Mass.  It is worn by bishops, 
priests, deacons and subdeacons under the other eucharistic 
vestments, either at Mass or at functions connected with 
it.  It is sometimes also worn by clerics in minor orders, 
whose proper vestment is, however, the surplice--itself a 
modification of the alb (see SURPLICE.) The alb is supposed 
to be symbolical of purity, and the priest, when putting it 
on, prays: ``Make me white and purify my heart, O Lord,'' 
&c. In the middle ages the parures, which originally had 
no mystic intention whatever, were taken to symbolize the 
wounds of Christ; whence probably is derived the custom 
surviving at the cathedral of Toledo, of the singers of 
the Passion on Good Friday being vested in apparelled albs. 

In England at the Reformation the alb went out of use with 
the other ``Mass vestments,'' and remained out of use in the 
Church of England until the ritual revival of the 19th century.  
It is now worn in a considerable number of churches not only 
by the clergy but by acolytes and servers at the Communion.
Where the ritual, as in most cases, is a revival of pre-Reformation 
uses and not modelled on that of modern Rome, these albs are frequently 
apparelled.  For the question of its legality see VESTMENTS. 

Both the alb and its name are derived ultimately from the 
tunica alba, the white tunic, which formed part of the 
ordinary dress of Roman citizens under the Empire.  As such it 
was worn both in and out of church, the few notices remaining 
which suggest a special tunic for ministers at the Eucharist 
merely implying that it was not fitting to use for so sacred 
a function a garment soiled by everyday wear.  The date of its 
definite adoption as a liturgical vestment is uncertain; at 
Rome--- where until the 13th century it was known as the linea 
or camisia (cf. the modern Italian camice for alb)---it 
seems to have been thus used as early as the 5th century.  But 
as late as the 9th and 10th centuries the alba is still an 
everyday as well as a liturgical garment, and we find bishops 
and synods forbidding priests to sing mass in the alba worn 
by them in ordinary life (see Braun, p. 62). Throughout the 
middle ages, moreover, the word alba was somewhat loosely 
used.  In the medieval inventories are sometimes found albae, 
described as red, blue or black; which has led to the belief 
that albs were sometimes not only made of stuffs other than 
linen, but were coloured.  It is clear, however, from the 
descriptions of these vestments that in some cases they were 
actually tunicles, the confusion of terms arising from the 
similarity of shape (see DALMATIC); in other cases the colour 
applied to the parures, not to the albs as a whole.  Silk 
albs appear in the inventories, but only very exceptionally. 

The equivalent of the alb in the ancient Churches of the 
East is the sticharion (sticharion) of the Orthodox Church 
(Armenian shapik, Syrian Kutina, Coptic stoicharion 
or tuniah.) It is worn girdled by bishops and priests 
in all rites, by subdeacons in the Greek and Coptic 
rites.  By deacons and lectors it is worn ungirdled in all 
the rites.  The colour of the vestment is usually white 
for bishops and priests (this is the rule in the Coptic 
Church); for the other orders there is no rule, and all 
colours, except black, may be used.  Its material may be 
linen, wool, cotton or silk; but silk only is the rule for 
deacons.  In the Armenian and Coptic rites the vestment is 
often elaborately embroidered; in the other rites the only 
ornament is a cross high in the middle of the back, save in 
the case of bishops of the Orthodox Church, whose sticharia 
are ornamented with two vertical red stripes (potamoi, 
``rivers'').  In the East as in the West the vestment is 
specially associated with the ritual of the Eucharist. 

The whole subject is exhaustively treated by Father Joseph 
Braun in Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau, 
1907).  See also Bibliography to the article VESTMENTS. 

ALBA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, on the 
river Tanaro, in the province of Cuneo.  From the town of 
the same name it is 33 m.  N.E. direct; it is 42 m.  S.S.E. 
of Turin by rail.  Pop. (1901) 13,900.  It contains a fine 
cathedral, with a Gothic facade, reconstructed in 1486, and 
is an important commercial centre.  It occupies the site of 
the ancient Alba Pompeia, probably founded by Pompeius Strabo 
(consul 89 B.C.) when he constructed the road from Aquae 
Statiellae (Acqui) to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin).  Probably 
this was the road taken by Decimus Brutus when he succeeded, 
after the raising of the siege of AIutina in 43 B.C., in 
occupying Pollentia just before Mark Antony's cavalry came in 
sight.  Alba was the birthplace of the emperor Pertinax.  It 
became an episcopal see dependent on Milan in the 4th century.  
A small museum of local antiquities was established in 1897. 

See F. Eusebio in Atti del Congresso Internazionale 
di Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1904), vol. v. p. 485. 

ALBACETE, an inland province of south-eastern Spain, formed 
in 1833 out of the northern half of Murcia, and bounded on the 
N. by Cuenca, E. by Valencia and Alicante, S. by Murcia, and 
W. by Granada and Jaen.  Pop. (1900) 237,877; area 5737 sq. 
m.  The northern part of Albacete belongs to the high plains 
of New Castile, the southern is generally mountainous, 
traversed by low ranges or isolated groups of hills, which 
culminate in the Sierra de Alcaraz on the borders of Granada, 
where several summits reach 5000 ft.  Besides many smaller 
streams, two large rivers water the province, the Segura in 
the south-west, and the Jficar in the north-east; both rising 
beyond the borders of Albacete, and ultimately flowing into the 
Mediterranean.  The fertile glens of the Alcaraz district 
are richly wooded, and often, from their multitude of fruit 
trees, resemble the huertas or gardens of Alicante; but broad 
tracts of land are destitute of trees, and suitable only for 
pasture.  These barren regions are thinly peopled; and for the 
whole of Albacete the density of population (41.3 per sq. m. in 
1900) is lower than in any other Spanish province, except Soria. 

The climate is generally mild and healthy, although, among 
the higher mountains, the snow lies for several months.  Wheat 
and other cereals are cultivated, with fruits of many kinds, 
olives, and vines which yield a wine of fair quality; while 
saffron is largely produced, and some attention is given to 
thekeeping of bees and silkworms.  Stock-farming, for which 
the wide plains afford excellent opportunities, employs 
many of the peasantry; the bulls of Albacete are in demand 
for bullfighting, and the horses for mounting the Spanish 
cavalry.  There is also a good breed of mules.  Sulphurous 
and other mineral springs, both hot and cold, exist in several 
districts, and deposits of silver, iron, copper, sulphur, coal 
and other minerals have been discovered; but the exploitation 
of these is retarded by lack of communications, and, apart 
from building materials, sulphur and salt, the actual output is 
insignificant.  Manufactures are almost confined to the 
spinning of hemp, and the making of coarse cloth, porcelain, 
earthenware and cutlery.  Brandy distilleries are numerous, and 
there is some trade in wood; but no local industry can rival 
agriculture and stock-breeding, which furnish the bulk of the 
exports.  Albacete (pop. 1900, 21,512), the capital, and 
the other important towns of Almansa (11,180) and Hellin 
(12,558), are described under separate headings.  Alcaraz, 
which gives its name to the mountain range already mentioned, 
is a picturesque old town with the ruins of a Moorish castle, 
and a fine Roman aqueduct; pop. (1900) 4501.  Caudete (5913), 
Chinchilla, or Chinchilla de Monte-Aragon (6680), La Roda 
(7066), Tobarra (7787), Villarrobledo (10,125) and Yeste 
(6591) are important markets for the sale of agricultural 
produce.  The railway from Madrid to Albacete passes 
south-westward to Chinchilla, where it bifurcates, one line 
going to Murcia, and the other to Alicante.  A large part of 
the province is only accessible by road, and even the main 
highways maintained by the state are ill kept.  Education 
is very backward even in the towns; many of the inhabitants 
carry arms; and crimes of violence are not infrequent. 

ALBACETE, the capital of the above province, on the MadridAlicante 
railway, and at the confluence of the river Balazote with the 
canal of Maria Christina, which flows into the river Jficar, 16 
m.  N. Pop. (1900) 21,512.  Albacete comprises the picturesque 
old upper town and the new or lower town, with iawCourts, 
schools, barracks, hospitals, a councihhall, a bull-ring and 
other modern buildings, mostly erected after the city became 
a provincial capital in 1833.  It is surrounded by a fertile 
plain, and has considerable trade in saffron and agricultural 
produce.  A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, 
is held annually in September, and extends over several 
days.  The manufacture of matches is aided by the existence 
of sulphur workings in the vicinity; and Albacete formerly 
had an extensive trade in cutlery, from which it was named 
the Sheffield of Spain.  Despite the importation of cutlery 
from England and Germany, Albacete is still famous for its 
daggers, which arc held in high repute by Spaniards.  They 
are formidable weapons, of coarse manufacture, but with 
richly ornamented handles; and they frequently bear proverbial 
inscriptions suitable to their murderous appearance. 

ALBA FUCENS (mod. Albe), an ancient Italian town occupying 
a lofty situation (3347 ft.) at the foot of the Monte Velino, 4 
m.  N. Of Avezzano.  It was originally a town of the Aequi, 
though on the frontier of the Marsi, but was occupied by a 

loied by a 



 Roman colony (304 B.C.I owing to its strategic importance.  
It lay on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria, 
which was probably prolonged beyond Tibur at this very 
period.  In the Second Punic war Alba at first remained 
faithful, but afterwards refused to send contingents and was 
punished.  After this it became a regular place of detention for 
important state prisoners, such as Syphax of Numidia, Perseus of 
Macedonia, Bituitus, king of the Arverni.  It was attacked by 
the allies in the Social War, but remained faithful to Rome; 
and its strong position rendered it a place of some importance 
in the civil wars.  Its prosperity, in the imperial period, 
can only be inferred from the number of inscriptions found 
there.  It is chiefly remarkable for its finely preserved 
fortifications.  The external walls, which have a circuit of 
about 2 m., are constructed of polygonal masonry; the blocks 
are carefully jointed, and the faces smoothed.  With our present 
knowledge of such constructions, their date cannot certainly be 
determined.  They are not preserved to any very considerable 
height; but the arrangement of the gates is clearly traceable; 
as a rule they come at the end of a long, straight stretch of 
wall, and are placed so as to leave the right side of any 
attacking force exposed.  On the north there is, for a length 
of about 150 yds. a triple line of defences of later date 
(possibly added by the Roman colonists), inasmuch as both the 
city wall proper and the double wall thrown out in front of 
it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced with finer 
polygonal masonry (in which horizontal joints seem to be purposely 
avoided).  A mile to the north of the city a huge mound with a 
ditch on each side of it (but at a considerable distance from 
it) may be traced for a couple of miles.  Within the walls 
there are hardly any buildings of a later date.  Excavations 
have only been made casually, though remains of buildings 
and of roads can be traced, and also an extensive system of 
underground passages perhaps connected with the defences of the 
place.  The hill at the western extremity was occupied by a 
temple of the Tuscan order, into which was built the church of 
S. Pietro; this contains ancient columns, and some remarkably 
fine specimens of Cosmatesque work.  It is the only monastic 
church in the Abruzzi in which the nave is separated from 
the aisles by ancient columns.  The collegiate church of S. 
Nicola in the village contains a remarkable staurotheca 
of the 11th (?) century, and a wooden triptych in imitation 
of the Byzantine style with enamels of the 13th century. 

A very good description of the site, with plans, is given by C. 
Promis, L'Antichita di Alba Fucense (Rome, 1836). (T. As.) 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Latium, situated on the 
western edge of the Albanus Lacus, about 12 m.  S.E. of 
Rome.  It was, according to tradition, founded by Ascanius, 
and was the oldest of all Latin cities---the mother indeed 
of Rome, by which, however, it was destroyed, it is said 
under Tullus Hostilius.  By this act Rome succeeded to the 
hegemony of the Latin league.  It has by many topographers 
been placed between the Albanus Mons and the Albanus Lacus, 
according to the indication given by.  Dionysius (i. 66), 
at the monastery of Palazzolo; but the position is quite 
unsuitable for an ancient city, and does not at all answer to 
Livy's description, ab situ porrectae in dorso urbis Alba 
longa appellata; and it is much more probable that its site 
is to be sought on the western side of the lake, where the 
modern Castel Gandolfo stands, immediately to the north of 
which the most important part of the archaic necropolis was 
situated.  Confirmation of this may be found in Cicero's 
description (Pro Milone, 85) of the destruction of the 
shrines and sacred groves of Alba by the construction of 
Clodius's villa, in the local application of the adjective 
Albanus, and in the position of Castel Gandolfo itself, 
which exactly suits Livy's description.  No traces of the 
ancient city, except of its necropolis, the tombs of which 
are overlaid with a stratum of peperino 3 ft. thick, are 
preserved.  The view that the modern Albano occupies the 
site of Alba Longa was commonly held in the 15th and 16th 
centuries, but was disproved by P. Cluver (1624).  But it 
is certain that no city took the place of Alba Longa until 
comparatively late times.  The name Albanum, from about 150 
B.C. till the time of Constantine, meant a villa in the Alban 
territory.  The emperors formed a sinrle estate out of a 
considerable part of this district, including apparently the 
whole of the lake, and Domitian was especially fond of residing 
here.  The imperial villa occupied the site of the present 
Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and considerable remains 
of it still exist.  To the south was a camp for the imperial 
bodyguard, with baths, an amphitheatre, a large water reservoir, 
&c. The first legion known to have been quartered there is 
the II. Parlhica, founded by Septimius Severus; but it 
was probably constructed earlier.  In some of the tombs of 
these legionaries coins of Maxentius have been found, while 
the Liber Pontifealis records that Constantine gave to the 
church of Albano ``omnia scheneca deserta vel domos intra 
urbem Albanensem,', which has generally been taken to refer 
to the abandoned camp.  It was at this period, then, that 
the civitas Albanensis arose.  The lapis Albanus is a green 
grey volcanic stone with black and white grains in it (hence 
the modern name.  Deperino). much used for building material. 

See T. Ashby in Journal ofphilology, xxvii., 1901, 37. (T. 
As.) ALBAN, SAINT, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, 
is said to have been born at Verulamium (the modern St Albans 
in Hertfordshire) towards the close of the 3rd century, and to 
have served for seven years in Rome in the army of the emperor 
Diocletian.  On his return to Britain he settled at his 
native place and was put to death as a Christian during the 
persecution of Diocletian (c. 286--303).  According to 
tradition, when peace was restored, great honours were paid 
to his tomb.  A church was built on the spot, c. 793, by 
King Offa of Mercia.  A monastery was subsequently added, 
and around it the present town of St Albans gradually grew 
up.  Pope Adrian IV., who was born in the neighbourhood, 
conferred on the abbot of St Alban's the right of precedence 
over his fellow abbots, a right hitherto attached to the 
abbey of Glastonbury.  St Alban is commemorated in the 
Roman martyrology on the 22nd of June; but it is impossible 
to determine with certainty whether he ever existed, as no 
mention of him occurs till the middle of the 6th century. 

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (1905), i. 
95; D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (1862), I. i. 3-34, ii. 688. 

ALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Italian 
painter, was born at Bologna.  His father was a silk merchant, 
and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation; 
but Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so 
strong an inclination for painting, that on the death of his 
father he devoted himself entirely to art.  His first master 
was Denis Calvert, with whom Guido Reni was at the same time a 
pupil.  He was soon left by Calvert entirely to the care 
of Guido, and contracted with him a close friendship.  He 
followed Guido to the school of the Caracci; but after this, 
owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to 
cool.  They kept up for a long time a keen competition, 
and their mutual emulation called forth some of their best 
productions.  Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke 
of each other with the highest esteem.  Albani after having 
greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, went 
to Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many 
years.  Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal 
Caracci, the whole of the frescoes in the chapel of San 
Diego in the church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli.  
His best frescoes are those on mythological subjects, of 
which there is a large number in the Verospi, now Torlonia 
Palace.  On the death of his wife he returned to Bologna, 
where he married a second time and resided till his death.  
His wife and children were very beautiful and served him for 
models.  The learning displayed in the composition of his 
pictures, and their minute elaboration and exquisite finish, 
gave them great celebrity and entitle them to a distinctive 
place among the products of the Bolognese school.  A number 
of his works are at Bologna, and others at Florence, the 
Louvre, Dresden and St Petersburg.  Among the best of his 
sacred subjects are a ``St Sebastian'' and an ``Assumption 
of the Virgin,'' both in the church of St Sebastian at 
Rome.  He was among the first of the Italian painters to 
devote himself to the painting of cabinet pictures.  A 
rare etching, the ``Death of Uido,'' is attributed to him. 

ALBANI, the stage name of MARIE, LOUISE EMMA CECILE 
LAJEUNESSE (1847- ), Canadian singer, who was born at 
Chambly, in the province of Quebec, on the 27th of September 
1847.  She made her first public appearance in Montreal, 
at the age of seven, and afterwards studied in the United 
States, Paris and Italy.  In 1870 she made her first 
appearanceatmessina, and after two successful seasons appeared 
in London in 1872 with the Royal Italian Opera.  Later she 
abandoned opera for oratorio. and sang at all the principal 
festivals.  She has made several tours of Canada and of 
the United States, and in 1886 sang at the opening of the 
Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London the ode written 
by Tennyson for the occasion.  She frequently sang before 
Queen Victoria, the German emperor and others of the crowned 
heads of Europe, and received numerous marks of their 
esteem.  In 1897 she was awarded the gold Beethoven medal by 
the London Philharmonic Society, ``as a mark of appreciation 
of her exceptional genius and musical attainments, and of 
her generous and artistic nature.'' She marriedin 1878 Ernest 
Gye, the theatrical manager.  Her stage name of Madame 
Albani was taken from that of an extinct Italian family. 

See Morgan, Canadian Men and Women of the Time (1898). 

ALBANIA, the ancient name of a district in the eastern 
Caucasus, consisting, according to Strabo (xi. 4. 1-8), of the 
valley of the Cyrus (Kur) and the land lying between it and the 
Caucasus range from Iberia to the Caspian Sea, i. e. the modern 
Shirvan.  In reality the Albani inhabited also the mountain 
valleys and the land to the north towards Sarmatia, the modern 
Daghestan (Pliny vi. 39). Dionysius of JIalicarnassus quotes 
a tradition that the name arose from the alleged fact that 
the people were the descendants of emigrants from Alba in 
Italy, but it would seem that the race was of Lesghian (not 
Georgian) descent.  Strabo describes them as tall, well made, 
and in character simple and honest; he says that payment 
was in kind and that the people could not count beyond a 
hundred.  They worshipped the sun, and more particularly the 
moon, the latter being perhaps identical with the great 
Nature Goddess of Asia Minor(see GREAT MOTHER OF THE 
GODS), and believed in soothsaying and the virtue of human 
sacrifice.  Old age was held in high honour, but it was 
sacrilege to speak, or even to think, of the dead.  The race 
was nomadic, and lived on the abundant natural fruits of the 
land.  In Strabo's time they appear to have been ruled by 
a single king, though previously there were twenty-six, 
each one ruling over a community distinct only in point of 
language.  The Albani became known to the Romans during Pompey's 
pursuit of Mithradates the Great (65 B.C.), against which 
they are said to have opposed a force of 60,000 foot and 20,000 
cavalry.  Pompey exacted from them a nominal submission, 
but their independence was not seriously affected by the 
Romans.  In the reign of Hadrian their territory was invaded 
by the Alani (Th. Mommsen, Provinces ofthe Roman Empire, 
Eng. trans., 1886), and later they fell under the Sassanid 
rule.  They were driven finally into Armenia by the Khazars, 
and ceased to exist as a separate people.  The district 
subsequently suffered under the successive invasions of Huns, 
Varangians (who captured the chief town Barda in the 10th 
century) and Mongols. (See CAUCASIA, History; ARMENIA.) 

ALBANIA, a portion of the Turkish empire extending along 
the western littoral of the Balkan Peninsula from the 
southern frontier of Montenegro to the northern confines of 
Greece.  Albania is perhaps the least-known region in Europe; 
and though more than a hundred years have passed since Gibbon 
described it as ``a country within sight of Italy, which 
is less known than the interior of America,'' but little 
progress has yet been made towards a scientific knowledge 
of this interesting land and its inhabitants.  The wild and 
inaccessible character of the country, the fierce and lawless 
disposition of the people, the difficulties presented by 
their language and their complex social institutions, and the 
inability of the Turkish authorities to afford a safe conduct 
in the remoter districts, combine to render Albania almost 
unknown to the foreign traveller, and many of its geographical 
problems still remain unsolved.  A portion of the Mirdite 
region, the Mat district, the neighbourhood of Dibra, Jakova 
and Ipek and other localities have never been thoroughly 
explored.  The northern boundary of Albania underwent some 
alteration in consequence of the enlargement of Montenegro, 
sanctioned by the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878); owing to 
subsequent arrangements providing for the cession of Dulcigno 
to Montenegro (November 25, 1880) in exchange for the districts 
of Plava and Gusinye, restored to Turkey, the frontier-line 
(finally settled December 1884) now ascends the Boyana from 
its mouth to Lake Sass (Shas), thence passes northward. and 
crossing Lake Scutari separates the district of Kutch Kraina 
on the N. from the territories of the Gruda, Hot and Klement 
tribes on the S.; leaving Gusinye and Plava to the S.E., it 
turns to the N.W. on reaching the Mokra Planina, and then 
follows the course of the Tara river.  On the S., Albanian 
territory was curtailed owing to the acquisition of the Arta 
district by Greece (May 1881), the river Arta now forming the 
frontier.  On the E. the chains of Shar, Grammos and Pindus 
constitute a kind of natural boundary, which does not, 
however, coincide with ethnical limits nor with the Turkish 
administrative divisions.  North-eastern Albania forms part 
of the Turkish vilayet of Kossovo; the northern highlands 
are included in the vilayet of Shkodra (Scutari), the 
eastern portion of central Albania belongs to the vilayet of 
Monastir, and the southern districts are comprised in the 
vilayet of Iannina.  The boundaries of the three last-named 
vilayets meet near Elbassan.  The name Albania (in the Tosk 
dialect Arberia, in the Gheg Arbenia), like Albania 
in the Caucasus, Armenia, Albany in Britain, and Auvergne 
(Arveniaj in France, is probably connected with the root 
alb, alp, and signifies ``the white or snowy uplands.'' 

Physical Features.--The mountain system is extremely complex, 
especially that of the northern region.  On the E. the great 
Shar range, extending in a south-westerly direction from 
the neighbourhood of Prishtina to thatof Dibra, is continued 
towards the S. by the ranges of Grammos and Pindus; the entire 
chain, a prolongation of the Alpine systems of Bosnia and 
Dalmatia, may be described as the backbone of the peninsula; 
it forms the watershed between the Aegean and the Adriatic, 
and culminates in the lofty peak of Liubotrn, near Kalkandele, 
one of the highest summits in south-eastern Europe (8858 
ft.).  The country to the west of this natural barrier may be 
divided geographically into three districts---northern, central 
and southern Albania.  The river Shkumb separates the northern 
from the central district, the Viossa the central from the 
southern.  The highland region of northern Albania is divided 
into two portions by the lower course of the Drin; the 
mountains of the northern portion, the Bieska Malziis, extend 
in a confused and broken series of ridges from Scutari to the 
valleys of the Ibar and White Drin; they comprise the rocky 
group of the Prokletia, or Accursed Mountains, with their 
numerous ramifications, including Mount Velechik, inhabited 
by the Kastiat and Shkrel tribes, Bukovik by the Hot, Golesh 
by the Klement, Skulsen (7533 ft.), Baba Vrkh (about 7306 
ft.), Maranay near Scutari, and the Bastrik range to the 
east.  South of the Drin is another complex mountain system, 
including the highlands inhabited by the Mirdites and the Mat 
tribe; among the principal summits are Deja Mazzukht, Mal-i 
Vels, Kraba, Toli and Mnela.  Central Albania differs from 
the northern and southern regions in the more undulating and 
less rugged character of its surface; it contains considerable 
lowland tracts, such as the wide and fertile plain of Musseki, 
traversed by the river Simen.  The principal summit is Tomor 
(7916 ft.), overhanging the town of Berat.  Southern Albania, 
again, is almost wholly mountainous, with the exception of 
the plains of Iannina andarta; the most noteworthy feature is 
the rugged range of the Tchika, or Khimara mountains, which 
skirt the sea-coast from south-west to north-east, terminating 
in the lofty promontory of Glossa (ancient Acroceraunia.) 
Farther inland the Mishkeli range to the north-east of 
Lake Iannina and the Nemertzika mountains run in a parallel 
direction.  In the extreme south, beyond the basin of the 
Kalamas, the mountains of Sull and Olyzika form a separate 
group.  The rivers, as a rule, flow from east to west; owing 
to the rapidity of their descent none are navigable except the 
Boyana and Arta in their lower courses.  The principal rivers 
are the Boyana, issuing from Lake Scutari, and consequently
regarded as a continuation of the Montenegrin Moratcha, 
the Drin, formed by the confluence of the White and Black 
Drin, which, flowing respectively to the south and north 
through a long valley at the foot of the Shar range, take 
a westerly direction after their junction, the AIatia, the 
Arzen, the Shkumb (ancient G:e:iusos), the Simen (Apsos), 
formed by the junction of the Devol and Ergene, the Viossa 
(Aous), which owing to the trend of the Khimara range 
takes a north-westerly direction, the Ralamas (Thyamis) 
and the Arta (Arachthos), flowing south into the Ambraciah 
Gulf.  A portion of the stream of the Drin has found its 
way into the Boyana channel; the result has been a rise in 
the level of Lake Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent 
lowlands.  A proposal to confine the Drin to its former 
course by means of a dyke, and to ease the downflow of the 
Boyana by a canal opening navigation to Lake Scutari, has 
long been considered by the Turliish authorities.  The great 
lakes of Scutari (135 sq. m.) and Ochrida (107 sq. m.) are 
among the most beautiful in Europe; the waters of Ochrida, 
which find an outlet in the Black Drin, are of marvellous 
clearness.  Lake KIahk, south by east of Ochrida, is 
drained by the Devol.  The waters of the picturesque Lake 
Iannina (24 sq. m.) find an issue by katabothra, or 
underground channels, into the Ambracian Gulf.  The lake of 
Butrinto (Buthrotum) is near the sea-coast opposite Corfu. 

Climate.---The climate is healthy in the uplands, though 
subject to violent changes; in the valleys fever is very 
prevalent, especially in the basins of the Boyana, the lower 
Drin and the Simen.  The winter is short, but exceedingly 
cold; snow remains on the Prokletia and other mountains 
till August, and sometimes throughout the year.  The summer 
temperature in the plains is that of southern Italy; in 
the mountain districts it is high during the day, but falls 
almost to freezing-point at night.  The sea-coast is exposed 
to the fierce bora, or north wind, during the spring. 

Natural Products.--The mountains of Albania are said to be 
rich in minerals, but this source of wealth remains practically 
unexplored.  Iron and coal are probably abundant, and silver-lead, 
copper and antimony are believed to exist.  Cold mines were 
worked in antiquity in the Drin valley, and silver mines in 
the Mirdite region were known to the Venetians in the middle 
ages.  At Selinitza, near Avlona, there is a remarkable 
deposit of mineral pitch which was extensively worked in Roman 
times; mining operations are still carried on here, but in a 
somewhat primitive fashion.  The splendid forests, of which 
there are 70,000 acres in the vilayet of Scutari alone, are 
undergoing a rapid process of destruction, as in other lands 
under Turkish rule.  The principal trees are the oak, the 
valonia oak, the beech. ash, elm, plane, celtis, poplar and 
walnut, which give way in the higher regions to the pine and 
fir.  The oak forests near Dibra, where charcoalmaking is a 
considerable industry, and the beech-woods of the Prishtina 
district, are especially remarkable.  The sumach is largely 
grown in the Mirdite district; its leaves are exported to 
Trieste for use in tanneries and dyeworks.  In 1898 the 
export of valonia was estimated at L. 11,200, of sumach at 
L. 2400.  Of fruit-trees the white mulberry, cherry and wild 
pear are plentiful; the chestnut and walnut are sometimes met 
with, and the olive is grown in the lowland and maritime 
districts.  The exportation of olive oil in 1808 was valued at 
L. 24,000.  The greater part of the country is admirably 
suited to viticulture, and wine of tolerable quality is 
produced.  Tobacco is grown extensively in southern Albania, 
especially near Berat and in the upper valley of the 
Viossa, but the quantity exported is small.  The means of 
subsistence are mainly provided by the cultivation of grain and 
cattle-rearing.  Notwithstanding the primitive condition of 
agriculture, the deficiency of communications and the damage 
caused by frequent inundations, Albania furnishes almost the 
entire corn supplu of the Dalmatian coast and islands.  Maize 
is the favourite grain for home consumption, but considerable 
quantities of this cereal, as well as barley, rye and oats are 
exported.  The total export of cereals in 1808 was valued at 
L. 70,800.  Sheep and goats form almost the only wealth of 
the mountaineers of northern Albania; large cattle are found 
only on the plains.  The slopes of Pindus afford excellent 
pasture for the flocks of the Vlach shepherds.  The export of 
raw hides and wool is considerable; in 1898 these commodities 
were valued respectively at L. 90,400 and L. 24,000.  The lakes 
and rivers of Albania abound in fish.  The scoranze (Alb. 
seraga), a kind of sardine, is taken in great quantities in 
Lake Scutari; it is salted and smoked for home consumption and 
exportation.  Sea-fishing is almost wholly neglected.  
There are salines at Avlona and other places on the coast. 

Commerce anid Industries.--The exports in 1898 were estimated 
at L. 480,000, the imports at L. 1,360,000, the former comprising 
agricultural produce, live stock, hides, wool, cheese, eggs, 
poultry, olive oil, valonia, sumach leaves, timber, skins of wild 
animals, silk, tobacco and salted fish, the latter manufactured 
articles, cloth, hardware, furniture, firearms, gunpowder, 
sugar, coffee, &c. The monopoly of Albanian commerce formerly 
Dossessed by Venice has descended to Austria-Hungary; the 
trade with other countries, except Italy, is inconsiderable.  
Owing to the poverty of the people, cheap Austrian goods 
find a readier sale than the more expensive and solid British 
manufactures.  The maritime traffic is largely conducted 
by the steamers of the subsidized Austrian-Lloyd company, 
Trieste being the principal commercial centre; the coasting 
trade is carried on by small Greek and Turkish sailing 
vessels.  The trade of the northern and western districts has 
to some extent been diverted to Salonica since the opening of 
the railways from that town to Mitrovitza and Monastir.  The 
development of commerce is retarded by lack of communications; 
the country Dossesses no railways and few roads.  Several 
railway lines have been projected, but there is no great 
probability of their construction under existing political 
conditions.  The Via Egnatia, the great Roman highway to the 
east, is still used; it runs from Durazzo (Dyrrhachium) to 
Elbassan and Ochrida.  Iannina is connected by carriage-roads 
with Monastir, Agii Saranta and Preveza.  As a rule, however, 
bridle-paths supply the only means of communication.  The 
native industries are inconsiderable, and many of them are 
in a languishing condition.  The manufacture of highly ornate 
firearms, yataghans and other weapons at Scutari, Jakova 
and Prizren has declined, owing to the importation of modern 
rifies and revolvers.  Gold and silk embroidery, filigree 
work, morocco and richly-braided jackets are produced for 
home use and for sale in Bosnia, Macedonia and Montenegro. 

Population----The population of Albania may be estimated 
at between 1,600,000 and 1,500,000, of whom 1,200,000 or 
1,100,000 are Albanians.  Of the other races the Slavs 
(Serbs and Bulgars) are the most numerous, possibly numbering 
250,000.  Servian settlements exist in various parts of 
northern Albania; there is a strong Bulgarian colony in the 
neighbourhood of Dibra and Ochrida; farther south, Mount Zygos 
and the Pindus range--the ``Great Walachia'' of the middle 
ages---are inhabited by Vlachs or Tzintzars, who possibly number 
70,000.  Some Turkish colonies are also found in the south-eastern 
districts.  There is a considerable Greek-speaking population 
in Epiros (including many Mahommedan Albanians), which must, 
however, be distinguished from the genuine Greeks of Iannina, 
Preveza and the extreme south; these may be estimated at 
100,000.  The population of the vilayet of Scutari is given 
as 237,000, that of the vilayet of Iannina as 552,000.  The 
principal towns are Scutari (Albanian Shkoder, with the 
definite article Shkodr-a), the capital of the vilayet 
of that name, pop. 32,000; Prizren, 30,000; Iannina (often 
incorrectly written Ioannina), capital of the southern 
vilayet, 22,000; Jakova, 12,000; Dibra, 15,000; Prishtina, 
11,000; Ipek (Slav. Petch), 15,000; Berat, 15,000; Ochrida, 
11,000; Tirana, 12,000; Argyrokastro, 11,000; Kortcha (Slav. 
Goritza), 10,000; Elbassan (perhaps ancient Albanopolis), 
8000; Metzovo, 7500; Preveza, 6500; Avlona, 6000; Durazzo, 
5000; Parga, 5000; Butrinto, 2000; and Kroia, the ancient 
fortress of Scanderbeg, 5000.  All these, except Elbassan, 
Metzovo and Kroia, are described in separate articles. 

The Albanians are apparently the most ancient race in 
southeastern Europe.  History and legend afford no record 
of their arrival in the Balkan Peninsula.  They are probably 
the descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were 
represented in historical times by the kindred Illyrians, 
Macedonians and Epirots; the Macedonians and Epirots are 
believed by Hahn to have formed the core of the pre-Hellenic 
Tyrrheno-Pelasgian population which inhabited the southern 
portion of the peninsula and extended its limits to Thrace and 
Italy.  The Illyrians were also ``Pelasgian,'' but in a wider 
sense.  Of these cognate races, which are described by the 
Greek writers as barbarous or non-Hellenic, the Illyrians 
and Epirots, he thinks, were respectively the progenitors 
of the Ghegs, or northern, and the Tosks, or southern, 
Albanians.  The Via Egnatia, which Strabo (vii. fragment 3) 
describes as forming the boundary between the Illyrians and 
Epirots, practically corresponds with the course of the 
Shkumb, which now separates the Ghegs and the Tosks.  The 
same geographer (v. 2. 221) states that the Epirots were also 
called Pelasgians; the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at Dodona 
(Homer, Il. xvi. 234), and the neighbourhood of the sanctuary 
was called Pelasgia (Herodotus ii. 56). The meaning of the 
term ``Pelasgian'' is, however, too obscure to furnish a 
basis for ethnographical speculation; in the time of Herodotus 
it may have already come to denote a period rather than a 
race.  The name Tosk is possibly identical with Tuscus, 
Etruscus, while the form Tyrrhenus perhaps survives in 
Tirana.  The large number of Slavonic local names in 
Albania, even in districts where no trace of a Slavonic 
population exists, bears witness to the extensive Servian 
and Bulgarian immigrations in the early middle ages, but 
the original inhabitants gradually ousted or assimilated the 
invaders.  The determination with which this remarkable race 
has maintained its mountain stronghold through a long series 
of ages has hitherto met with scant appreciation in the outside 
world.  While the heroism of the Montenegrins has been lauded 
by writers of all countries, the Albanians---if we except 
Byron's eulogy of the Suloits---still remain unsung.  Not 
less noticeable is the tenacity with which isolated fragments 
of the nation have preserved their peculiar characteristics, 
language, customs and traditions.  The Albanians in Greece and 
Italy, though separated for six centuries from the parent stock, 
have not yet been absorbed by the surrounding populations. 

The Albanians, both Ghegs and Tosks, call themselves Shkupetar, 
and their land Shkupenia or Shkuperia, the former being 
the Gheg, the latter the Tosk form of the word. Shkupetar 
has been variously interpreted.  According to Hahn it is a 
participial from shkyipoij, ``I understand,'' signifying 
``he who knows'' the native language; others interpret it 
with less probability as ``the rock-dweller,'' from shkep, 
shkip, N. Alb. shkamp, ``rock.'' The designations Arber 
(Gr. 'Arbanites, Turk. Arnaoiit), denoting the people, 
and Arbenia or Arberia, the land, are also, though less 
frequently, used by the Albanians.  A district near Kroia 
is locally known as Arbenia; the Tosk form Arberia strictly 
applies only to the mountain region near Avlona.  The region 
inhabited by a more or less homogeneous Albanian population 
may be roughly marked out by a line drawn from the Montenegrin 
frontier at Berane to Mitrovitza and the Servian frontier 
near Vranya; thence to Uskub, Prilep, Monastir, Florina, 
Kastoria, Iannina and Parga.  These limits, however, are 
far from including all the members of a widely scattered 
race.  The Albanians in Greece, whose settlements extend over 
Attica, Boeotia, the district of Corinth and the Argolid 
peninsula, as well as southern Euboea and the islands of Hydra, 
Spetzae, Poros and Salamis, descend from Tosk immigrants in 
the 14th century.  They played a brilliant part in the War 
of Independence (1821-1829), and to-day supply the Greek 
army with its best soldiers.  They were estimated by Leake at 
200,000.  A large number still speak the Albanian langaage; 
many of the older men, and a considerable proportion of the 
women, even in the neighbourhood of Athens, are ignorant of 
Greek.  The Albanian settlements in southern Italy and Sicily 
were founded in 1444, 1464 and 1468; minor immigrations 
followed in the three succeeding centuries.  In southern Italy 
there are 72 Albanian communes, with 154,674 inhabitants; 
in Sicily 7 communes, with 52,141 inhabitants.  The Italian 
and Sicilian Albanians are of Tosk descent, and many of them 
still speak a variation of the Tosk dialect.  There are also 
several Albanian settlements in European Turkey and Asia 
Minor, some founded by military colonists who received grants 
of land from successive sultans, others owing their origin 
to enforced migrations after insurrections in Albania.  The 
only genuine division of the Albanian race is that of Ghegs 
and Tosks; the Liaps, who inhabit the district between the 
Viossa and the sea, and the Tshams or Chams, who occupy the 
coast-land south of the Kalamas, are subdivisions of the Tosk 
family.  The name Gheg (Gege-a) is not adopted by the Ghegs 
themselves, being regarded as a nickname; the designation Tosk 
(Toske-a) is restricted by the Tosks to the inhabitants 
of a small region north of the lower Viossa (Toskeria). 

National Characteristics.---While the other primitive 
populations of the peninsula were either hellenized or latinized, 
or subsequently absorbed by the Slavonic immigration, the 
Albanians to a great extent remained unaffected by foreign 
influences.  Retaining their original language and preserving 
the customs and institutions of remote antiquity, they present 
a distinct type, and differ in many essential particulars from 
the other nations of the peninsula.  The Ghegs especially, 
notwithstanding their fierce and lawless character, their 
superstition, ignorance and predatory propensities, possess 
some noteworthy qualities rarely found in eastern Europe: 
simple, brave, faithful, and sometimes capable of devoted 
attachment, these wild mountaineers make excellent soldiers and 
trustworthy retainers; they have long furnished a bodyguard to 
the sultan and, like the Tosks, are much employed as kavasses 
and attendants at foreign embassies and consulates in the 
East.  The native disposition of the Tosks has been modified 
by intercourse with the Greeks and Vlachs; while the Gheg 
devotes his attention exclusively to fighting, robbery and 
pastoral pursuits, the Tosk occasionally occupies himself with 
commercial, industrial or agricultural employments; the Gheg 
is stern, morose and haughty, the Tosk lively, talkative and 
affable.  The natural antipathy between the two sections of the 
race, though less evident than in former times, is far from 
extinct.  In all parts of Albania the vendetta (gyak, jak) 
or blood-feud, the primitive lex talionis, is an established 
usage; the duty of revenge is a sacred tradition handed down 
to successive generations in the family, the village and the 
tribe.  A single case of homicide often leads to a series of 
similar crimes or to protracted warfare between neighbouring 
families and communities; the murderer, as a rule, takes 
refuge in the mountains from the avenger of blood, or remains 
for years shut up in his house.  It is estimated that in 
consequence of these feuds scarcely 75% of the population in 
certain mountainous districts die a natural death.  A truce 
(bessa, literally ``faith,'' ``pledge''), either temporary or 
permanent, is sometimes arranged by mediation, or among the 
Ghegs, by the intervention of the clergy; a general bessa 
has occasionally been proclaimed by special irade of the 
sultan, the restoration of peace being celebrated with elaborate 
ceremonies.  So stringent are the obligations of hospitality 
that a household is bound to exact reparation for any injury 
done to a guest as though he were a member of the family.  No 
traveller can venture into the mountain districts without the 
bessa of one of the inhabitants; once this has been obtained 
he will be hospitably welcomed.  In some districts there is 
a fixed price of blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the 
compensation paid by the homicide to the relatives of his 
victim is 1200 piastres (about L. 10), at Khimara 2000 piastres; 
once the debt has been acquitted amicable relations are 
restored.  Notwithstanding their complete subjection, women 
are treated with a certain respect, and are often employed 
as intermediaries in the settlement of feuds; a woman may 
traverse a hostile district without fear of injury, and her 
bessa will protect the traveller or the stranger.  Women 
accompany their male relatives to the battle-field for the 
purpose of tending the wounded and carrying away the dead.  
The bride brings no dowry to her husband; she is purchased 
at a stipulated price, and earnest-money is paid at the 
betrothal, which usually takes place while the contracting 
parties are still children.  It is customary for young men 
who are attached to each other to swear eternal brotherhood 
(compare the Slavonic pobratimstvo); the contract is 
regarded as sacred, and no instance has been known of its 
violation.  The costume of the Tosks differs from that of 
the Ghegs; its distinctive feature is the white plaited 
linen fustanella or petticoat, which has been adopted by the 
Greeks; the Ghegs wear trews of white or crimson native cloth 
adorned with black braid, and a short, close-fitting jacket, 
which in the case of wealthy persons is embellished with gold 
lace.  The fez is worn by both races, and in the northern 
highlands yataghans and firearms are almost invariably carried.  
The costume of the Mirdite and Mat tribes is peculiar.  It 
consists of a white felt cap, a long white tunic bound with 
a red girdle, white linen trousers and opinki, or sandals. 

Tribal System.---The tribal organization in northern Albania 
is an interesting survival of the earliest form of social 
combination; it may be compared in many respects with that which 
existed in the Scottish highlands in the time of the Stuart 
kings.  The practical autonomy which the Gheg mountaineers 
enjoy has been won by a prolonged and successful resistance 
to Turkish domination; as a rule they pay no taxes, they are 
exempt from the conscription, they know nothing of the Ottoman 
law, and the few Turkish officials established amongst them 
possess no real authority.  Their only obligation to the 
Turkish government is to furnish a contingent in time of 
war; the only law they recognize is either traditional custom 
(adet) or the unwritten Hanun-i Leks Dukajinit, a civil 
and criminal code, so called from its author, Leka Dukajini, 
who is supposed to have lived in the 13th or 14th century.  
The tribe or mal (``mountain'') is often composed of several 
clans (phis-i, pharea) or baryaks (literally ``standards'') 
each under a chief or baryaktar (standard-bearer), who is, 
strictly speaking, a military leader; there are in each clan 
a certain number of elders or voivodes (Albanian kru-y'e, 
pl. krenic-te) who form a council and, like the baryaktar, 
hold their oflice by hereditary right; they preside over 
the assemblies of the tribesmen, which exercise the supreme 
legislative power.  The clan is generally subdivided into 
smaller communities (mahale), each administered by a local 
notable or jobar. The jobars superintend the execution of 
the laws, collect fines and administer capital punishment; 
they are in contact with the buluk-bashi, or resident 
representative of the tribe at Scutari, who forms the only 
link between the mountaineers and the Turkish government.  
He communicates to the tribesmen the orders of the vali, 
which must be framed in accordance with their customs and 
institutions.  The tribes of northern Albania, or Ghegeria, 
may be classified in seven groups as follows:----(1) The 
Mirdites, who inhabit the alpine region around Orosh to the 
south-east of Scutari--the most important of all in respect 
of numbers (about 17,000) and political independence.  A Roman 
Catholic tribe, occupying an inaccessible district, they have 
hitherto defeated every effort of the Turks to encroach on their 
autonomy.  Their hereditary chiefs, or capidans, belong to 
the family known as Dera e Jon Markut (the house of John 
Marco), which has ruled for 200 years and is supposed to be 
descended from Scanderbeg.  In 1868 the reigning chief, Bib 
Doda, died, and his son and successor Prenk was detained as 
a hostage by the Turks.  The Mirdites consequently refused 
to contribute their customary contingent to the Turkish army, 
and eventually Prenk was restored.  His ambiguous conduct, 
however, led to the despatch of two expeditions against the 
Mirdites and the devastation of their territory.  In 1880 
Prenk was kidnapped by the Turkish authorities and exiled to 
Anatolia; another member of the ruling family was appointed 
kaimakam, but the Mirdites refused to obey him, and their 
district has ever since been in a state of anarchy.  No Moslem 
is allowed to remain in Mirdite territory. (2) The Mi-shkodrak 
(Upper Scutari) group or confederation, also known as the 
Malsia-Madhe (Great Highlands), is composed of the Klement, 
Grud-a, Hot, Kastrat and Shkrel tribes, which occupy the 
mountainous district north-east of Scutari.  OWing to the 
proximity of the capital this group is comparatively subject 
to the Turkish power, and pays a small annual tribute; the 
chiefs, who assess and collect the tribute, form a kind of 
administrative council; the confederation has also an official 
representative council at Scutari, called the Jibal, under 
the presidency of a Serkarde or Moslem official. (3) The 
Dukajin, whose territory lies between that of the last-named 
group and the district of Jakova, include the Pulati, Shalla, 
Shoshi and other tribes; they are more independent and more 
savage than the Mi-shkodrak, and have never paid tribute from 
time immemorial. (4) The Puka group, known as ``the Seven 
Baryaks of Puka,'' dwell on the south side of the river Drin; 
theyare nominally administered by a Turkish kaimakam, who is 
a mere spectator of their proceedings. (5) The Malsia Jakovs, 
a group of two Catholic and three Moslem tribes, extend in 
the direction of Jakova, where they maintain an official 
representative; they are entirely exempt from taxation. (6,7) 
The Malsia-Lezhs, who occupy the Alessio highlands, and the 
Malsia Krues, who inhabit the region north of Krola, live in a 
state of extreme poverty and pay no tribute; the Malsia Krues 
are much addicted to brigandage.  To these seven groups, which 
are included under the general appellation of Malissori, 
or ``highlanders,'' may be added the Malsia of IAbra, who 
extend to the west and north of that town, and form a large 
separate group; they are notorious for their fierce lawless 
character, and maintain themselves by plundering the Bulgarian 
peasants in their neighbourhood.  In general the attitude of the 
Albanians in the north-eastern districts towards the Slavonic 
peasantry may be compared with that of the Kurds towards the 
Armenians.  In the region east of Kroia the Mat tribe, 
which occupies the upper valley of the Matra, presents an 
entirely different organization; their district is governed 
by four wealthy families, possessing hereditary rank and 
influence.  Towards the south the tribal organization becomes 
looser and is gradually supplanted by a kind of feudal system; 
among the powerful aristocratic houses may be mentioned the 
Vliores at Avlona, who are stated to own over 150 sq. m. of 
land, and the Toptans at Tirana.  The principal landowners, 
who reside in fortified houses, are all Moslems; their estates 
are cultivated on the metayer system.  Since the time 
of Ali Pasha, who broke the power of the local chieftains, 
southern Albania has been subject to the central Turkish 
power; before that period the mountaineers of Suh and Khimara 
enjoyed an independence similar to that of the Gheg tribes. 

Religions.---The great majority of the Albanians, probably 
more than three-fifths, are Moslems.  The conversion of the 
Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place 
during the 16th and 17th centuries.  Like the Cretan Moslems 
and the Bulgarian Pomaks, the Albanian Mahommedans retain 
many Christian traditions and customs; it is said that many 
thousands of them secretly adhere to their original faith.  In 
the vilayet of Scutari they form about 55% of the population; 
central Albania is almost entirely Moslem; in southern Albania, 
however, there is a considerable Christian population, whose 
limits practically coincide with those of the Greek-speaking 
districts.  Of the Christian population (about 600,000), some 
110,000 are Roman Catholic Ghegs, some 90,000 are Orthodox 
Tosks, and some 400,000 are Orthodox Slavs, Greeks and 
Vlachs.  The Roman Catholic Ghegs appear to have abandoned 
the Eastern for the Western Church in the middle of the 13th 
century.  Their bishops and priests, who Wear the moustache 
in deference to popular prejudice, are typical specimens 
of the church militant.  Some of the Gheg tribes, such as 
the Puka, Malsia Jakovs and Malsia Krues, are partly Roman 
Catholic, partly Moslem; among fellowtribesmen the difference 
of religion counts for little.  The Mirdites are exclusively 
Roman Catholic, the Mat-i exclusively Moslem.  At the head of 
the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the archbishops of Scutari 
(with three suffragans), Prizren and Durazzo; the mitred abbot 
of St Alexander is the spiritual chief of the Mirdites.  The 
Orthodox Church has metropolitans at Prizren, Durazzo, Berat, 
Iannina and Kortcha; the Bulgarian exarchate maintains a 
bishop at Dibra.  Of the Albanians in Sicily the great majority 
(44791) remain faithful to the Greek Church; in Italy 116,482
follow the Latin ritual, and 38,192 the Greek.  All 
the Albanians in Greece belong to the Orthodox Church. 

Education.---Education is almost non-existent, and the vast 
majority of the populati(m, both Christian and Moslem, are totally 
illiterate.  Instruction in the Albanian language is prohibited 
by the Turkish government for political reasons; a singleexception 
has been made in the caseof an American school for girls at 
Kortcha.  There are Turkish primary and secondary schools in some 
of the towns; in the village mosques instruction in the Koran 
is given by the imams, but neither reading nor writing is 
taught.  The aristocratic Moslem families send their sons 
to be educated in Constantinople or Vienna.  At Scutari a 
college and a seminary are maintained by the Jesuits, with the 
aid of the Austrian government; the Franciscans have several 
primary schools, and three lay schools are supported by the 
Italian government; in all these institutions Italian is the 
language of instruction.  There are two Servian seminaries at 
Prizren.  In southern Albania there are Greek schools in the 
towns and a large Greek gymnasium at Iannina.  The priests 
of the Greek Church, on whom the rural population depend for 
instruction, are often deplorably ignorant.  The merchant 
families of Iannina are Well educated; the dialect spoken 
in that town is the purest specimen of colloquial Greek. 

Language.---Albanian is peculiarly interesting as the only 
surviving representative of the so-called Thraco-Illyrian 
group of languages which formed the primitive speech of the 
peninsula.  It has afforded an attractive study to philologists, 
amongst whom may be mentioned Malte-Brun, Leake, Xylander, 
Hahn, Miklosich and G. Meyer.  The analysis of the language 
presents great difficulties, as, owing to the absence of literary 
monuments, no certainty can be arrived at With regard to its 
earlier forms and later development.  The groundwork, so far 
as it can be ascertained, and the grammar are Indo-European, 
but a large number of words have been borrowed from the Latin 
or Italian and Greek, and it is not always easy to decide 
Whether the mutilated and curtailed forms now in use represent 
adopted words or belong to the original vocabulary.  There 
is also a considerable admixture of Turkish and Slavonic 
words.  Notwithstanding certain points of resemblance in 
structure and phonetics, Albanian is entirely distinct from 
the neighbouring languages; in its relation to early Latin and 
Greek it may bc regarded as a co-ordinate member of the Aryan 
stock.  It possesses seven vowels; among the consonants are the 
aspirated d and t, as in Greek, and many other sounds, such 
as b, d, sh, zh (French.j), and hard g, which are wanting in 
Greek, but exist in the Slavonic languages.  There are three 
declensions, each with a definite and indefinite form; the 
genitive, dative and ablative are usually represented by a 
single termination; the vocative is formed by a final o, 
as memmo from memme, ``mother.'' The neuter gender is 
absent.  There are two conjugations; the passive formation, 
now Wanting in most Indo-European languages, has been retained, 
as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, ``I seek,'' forms kerko-n-em, 
``I am sought.'' The,infinitive is not found; as in Greek, 
Rumanian and Bulgarian, it is replaced by the subjunctive with a 
particle.  The two auxiliary verbs are kam, ``I have,'' and 
yam, ``I am.'' An interesting and characteristic feature 
of the language is the definite article, which is attached 
to the end of the word: e.g. mik (``friend,'' amicus), 
mik-u (``the friend''); kien (``dog''), kien-i Shkumb, 
Shkumb-i. The suffix-article likewise appears in Rumanian and 
Bulgarian, but in no other Latin or Slavobic language; it is 
in each case a form of the demonstrative pronoun.  Another 
remarkable analogy between the Albanian and the neighbouring 
languages is found in the formation of the future; the Albanian 
do (3rd pers. sing. of dova, ``I will''), like the Greek 
tha, is prefixed without change to all persons of the verb: a 
similar usage in Servian and Bulgarian, as well as in Rumanian 
(especially the Macedonian dialect), is peculiar to these 
languages in the Slavonic and Latin groups.  These and other 
points of similarity, possibly only accidental, have led to 
the conjecture that the primitive Illyrian language may have 
exerted some kind of influence on the other idioms of the 
peninsula.  In the absence of literary culture the Albanian 
dialects, as might be expected, are widely divergent; the 
limits of the two principal dialects correspond with the racial 
boundaries of the Ghegs and Tosks, who understand each other 
with dilficulty; the Albanians in Greece and Italy have also 
separate dialects.  In writing Albanian the Latin character 
is employed by the Ghegs, the Greek by the Tosks; neither 
alphabet sufiices to represent the manifold sounds of the 
language, and various supplementary letters or distinguishing 
signs are necessary.  In the use of these no uniform system 
has yet been adopted.  An alphabet of fifty-two letters, some 
presenting ancient Phoenician and Cretan forms, was found by 
Hahn in partial use at Elbassan and Tirana; its antiquity, 
however, has not been established.  The Tosks generally use 
the Greek language for written communications.  The native 
folklore and poetry of the Albanians can hardly compare 
with that of the neighbouring nations in originality and 
beauty.  The earliest printed works in Albanian are those of 
the Catholic missionaries; the first book containing specimens 
of the language was the Dictionarium Latino-Epirolicum of 
Bianchi, printed in 1635.  The literature of the last two 
centuries consists mainly of translations and religious works 
written by ecclesiastics, some of whom were natives of the 
Albanian colonies in Italy.  The most noteworthy Albanian 
writer was Girolamo di Rada (b. 1815), a poet, philologist 
and collector of national folklore.  Among his successors 
may be mentioned Vincenzo Dorsa and Demetrio Camarda. 

Antiquities.---Albania abounds in ancient remains, which 
as yet have been little explored.  Fragments of ``Cyclopean'' 
structures were discovered by Hahn at Kretzunista, Arinista, 
and other sites in the district of Argyrokastro; the walls, 
partly ``Cyclopean,'' of an ancient city (perhaps Bullis) 
are Visible at Gradisti on the Viossa.  Masonry of this 
type, however, occurring in Illyria and Dalmatia (e.g. 
at Soalato and on the island of Lesina) has been shown by 
modern archaeologists to belong to the Roman period.  In 
general, the remains of the classical epoch attest the 
influence of Roman rather than of Greek civilization.  At 
Pollina, the ancient Apollonia, are the remnants of a 
Doric temple, of which a single column is still standing.  
A little north of Preveza are the considerable ruins of 
Nikopohs, founded by Octavian to commemorate the victory of 
Actium.  At Khimara (anc. Chimaera) the remains of an 
old Greek city may still be seen; at Santi Quaranta (anc. 
Cnchesmos) the walls and towers of a later town are in good 
preservation.  Few traces remain of the once celebrated 
Dyrrhachium.  The ruins of Pandosia, Ephyra, Elatea, Phoenike, 
Bathrotum, Akrolissos and other towns may be identified.  The 
most important and interesting remains, however, are those 
of Dodona (q.v..) Of the medieval ruins those of Kroia, 
the stronghold of Scanderbeg, are the most interesting. 

Medieval History.---After the division of the Roman empire, 
the lands inhabited by the Albanian race became provinces of 
the Byzantine empire; northern Albania from Scutari to Berat 
formed the thema or province of Dyrrachium (Durazzo, 
Albanian Dourtz), southern Albania and Epirus the thema of 
Nikopolis.  The country was overrun by the Goths in the 4th 
and 5th centuries, but reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 640 
northern Albania was invaded by the Serbo-Croats; it continued 
with interruptions under Servian rule till 1360.  In 861 the 
Bulgarians conquered the southern portion of the country and 
Epirus as far as Khimara; under their powerful tsar Simeon 
(893-927), who defeated the Servians, they established their 
rule on the Adriatic littoral, except at Durazzo, which remained 
Ilyzantine, and colonized these regions in great numbers.  A 
new Bulgarian dynasty, that of Shishman, was founded at Ochrida 
after the death of Simeon.  Shishman's son Samuel (976-1014) 
captured Durazzo; he extended his sway over a great part of 
the Balkan Peninsula, but was eventually defeated in 1014 by 
the emperor Basil II., who put out the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian 
prisoners.  Southern Albania and Epirus fell once more 
under Byzantine rule, which, however, was shaken by numerous 
revolts.  In 1081 the Normans under Robert Guiscard possessed 
themselves of Durazzo; Guiscard,s son Bohemund defeated the
Greeks in several battles and again (1107) laid siege to 
Durazzo, which had been surrendered to them by treachery; 
failing to take the city, he retired to Italy in 1109.  
Southern Albania and Epirus remained under Byzantine domination 
till 1204, when, after the capture of Constantinople by the 
crusaders, Michael Comnenus, a member of the imperial family, 
withdrew to Epirus and founded an independent sovereignty 
known as the Despotate of Epirus at Iannina; his realm 
included the whole of southern Albania, Acarnania and 
Aetolia.  The despotate of Epirus was held by the Comnenus 
family till 1318, and by princes of the house of Orsini till 
1358.  Meanwhile Durazzo, with Berat and Central Albania, had 
passed into the hands of the Sicilian kings of the house of 
Anjou, who ruled these regions, which they styled the ``Kingdom 
of Albania,'' from 1271 to 1368, maintaining a constant warfare 
with the Byzantine emperors.  The Servians again installed 
themselves in Upper Albania about 1180, and the provinces of 
Scutari and Prizren were ruled by kings of the house of Nemanya 
till 1360; Stefan Dushan (1331-1358), the greatest of these 
monarchs, included all Albania in his extensive but short-lived 
empire, and took the title of 1mperotor Romaniae Slavoniae 
et Albaniae (emperor of the Greeks, Slavs and Albanians). 

Period of Native Rule.---After the death of Dushan and the 
break-up of the Servian empire, a new epoch began when Albania 
fell under the rule of chieftains more or less of native 
origin.  A portion of Upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha 
dynasty (1366-1421), which, though apparently Servian by 
descent, assimilated itself with its Albanian subjects 
and embraced the faith of Pome.  Alessio and a tract of 
the interior in the direction of Ipek was governed by the 
Dukajin.  The northern portion of the ``kingdom of Albania,'' 
including Durazzo and Kroia, was ruled by the family of 
Thopia (1359-1392) and afterwards by that of Lastriota, to 
which Scanderbeg belonged; the southern portion with Berat, 
by the Musaki (1368--1476).  In the middle of the 14th century 
a great migration of Albanians from the mountainous districts 
of the north took place, under the chiefs Jin Bua Spata and 
Peter Liosha; they advanced southwards as far as Acarnania and 
Aetolia (1358), occupied the greater portion of the despotate of 
Epirus, and took Iannina and Arta.  In the latter half of the 
century large colonies of Tosks were planted in the Morea by the 
despots of Mistra, and in Attica and Boeotia by Luke Nerio of 
Athens.  As the power of the Balshas declined, the Venetians 
towards the close of the 14th century established themselves at 
Scutari, Budua, Antivari and elsewhere in northern Albania. 

Period of Turkish Rule.---The advance of the Turks into 
Albania began with the capture of Iannina in 1431.  For once 
in the history of the country the Albanian chiefs combined 
against the invader under a single leader, the celebrated 
Georce Eastriota (see SCANDERBEG), who fought thirteen 
campaigns in the period 1444--1466.  In 1478 Kroia, which the 
Venetians had occupied after Scanderbeg's death, surrendered 
to Mahommed II., and in 1479 Scutari, after a memorable defence 
by the Venetians and their Montenegrin allies, was reduced by 
blockade.  Nany of its native Christian defenders emigrated 
to Dallratia and Italy; others took refuge in the mountains 
with the Loiran Catholic Ghegs.  In 1502 the Turks captured 
Durazzo, and in 1571 Antivari and Dulcigno, the last Venetian 
possessions in Albania.  Notwithstanding the abandonment of 
Christianity by a large section of the population after the 
Turkish conquest, the authority of the sultans was never 
effectively established, and succeeding centuries present 
a record of interminable conflicts between the tribesmen 
and the Turks, between the Christians and the converts to 
Islam, or between all combined and the traditional Montenegrin 
enemy.  The decline of the Ottoman power, which began towards 
the end of the 17th century, was marked by increasing anarchy 
and lawlessness in the outlying portions of the empire.  
About 1760 a Moslem chieftain, Mehemet of Bushat, after 
obtaining the pashalik of Scutari from the Porte, succeeded 
in establishing an almost independent sovereignty in Upper 
Albania, which remained hereditary in his family for some 
generations.  In southern Albania Ali Pasha of Tepelen (b. 
about 1750), an able, cruel and unscrupulous man, subdued 
the neighbouring pashas and chiefs, crushed the Suliotes and 
Khimarrliotes, and exercised a practically independent sovereignty 
from the Adriatic to the Aegean.  He introduced comparative 
civilization at Iannina, his capital, and maintained direct 
relations with foreign powers.  Eventually he renounced his 
allegiance to the sultan, but was overthrown by a Turkish army in 
1822.  Shortly afterwards the dynasty of Scutari came to 
an end with the surrender of Mustafa Pasha, the last of the 
house of Bushat, to the grand vizier Reshid Pasha, in 1831. 

The opposition of the Albanians, Christian as well as Moslem, 
to the reforms introduced by the sultan Mahmud II. led 
to the devastation of the country and the expatriation of 
thousands of its inhabitants.  During the next half-century 
several local revolts occurred, but no movement of a strictly 
political character took place till after the Berlin Treaty 
(July 13, 1878), when some of the Moslems and Catholics 
combined to resist the stipulated transference of Albanian 
territory to Austria-Hungary, Servia and Montenegro) and the 
Albaniian League Was formed by an assemblage of chiefs at 
Prizren.  The movement, which was instigated by the Porte 
with the object of evading the provisions of the treaty, Was 
so far successful that the restoration of Plava and Gusinye 
to Albania was sanctioned by the powers, Montenegro receiving 
in exchange the town and district of Dulcigno.  The Albanian 
leaders, however, soon displayed a spirit of independence, 
which proved embarrassing to Turkish diplomacyand caused 
alarm at Constantinople; their forces came into conflict with 
a Turkish army under Dervish Pasha near Dulcigno (November 
1880), and eventually the league was suppressed.  A similar 
agitation on a smaller scale was organized in southern Albania 
to 1esist the territorial concessions awarded by the powers to 
Greece.  In the spring of 1903 serious disturbances took 
place in north-western Albania, but the Turks succeeded in 
pacifying the revolted tribesmen, partly by force and partly by 
concessions.  These movements were far from displaying a 
genuinely national character.  In recent years attempts have 
been made by Albanians resident abroad to propagate the national 
idea among their compatriots at home; committees have been 
formed at Brussels, Bucharest, Athens and elsewhere, and books, 
pamphlets and newspapers are surreptitiously sent into the 
country.  Unity of aim and effort, however, seems foreign 
to the Albanians, except in defence of local or tribal 
privileges.  The growth of a wider patriotic sentiment must 
depend on the spread of popular education; certainly up to 
1908 no appreciable progress had been made in this direction. 

AUTHORITIES.---F.  C. H. Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece 
(Paris, 1820); W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece 
(London, 1835); J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 
1854), Reise durch die Gebiete des Drin und Vardar (Vienna, 
1867); F. Bopp, Uber dos Albanesische (Berlin, 1854); J. 
P. Fallmerayer, Das albanesische Element in Griechenland 
(Munich, 1864); N. Camarda, Saggio di grammatologia comparata 
sulla lingua albanese (Leghorn, 1865); Viscountess Strangford, 
The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic (London, 1865); H. F. 
Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London, 1869); 
F. Miklosich, Albanes.  Forschungen (Vienna, 1870); C. 
Hopf, Chroniques greco-romaines inedites ou peu connues 
(Berlin, 1873); H. Hecquard, Histoire et description de la 
Haute Albanie ou Guegarie (Paris, undated); S. Gopchevich, 
Oberalbanien und seine Liga (Leipzig, 1881); V'. Tajani, 
Le Istoria Albanesi (Salerno, 1886); G. Gelchich, La Zedda 
e la dinastia dei Balshi (Spalato, 1899); S. Lambros, `E 
onomatologia tes 'Attikes kai h eis ten choran 
epikesis ton .Albanon in the 'Epeteris tou Parnassou 
(Athens, 1896); Theodore Ippen ``Beitrige zur inneren 
Geschichte der Turkei im 19. Jahrhundert speciell Albaniens,'' 
in the Osterreichisch-Ungarische Revue, vol. xxviii.; A. 
Philippson, Thessalia und Epirus (Berlin, 1897).  See 
also Murray's Greece, ed. 1900, pp. 720-731 and 760-814, 
and Blue-book Turkey, No. 15, Part ii., 1886. (J. D. B.) 

ALBANUS LACUS (mod. Lago di Albano), a lake about 12 
m.  S.E. of Rome.  It is generally considered to have been 
formed by a volcanic explosion at the margin of the great 
crater of the Albanus Mons; it has the shape of a crater, 
the banks cf Which are over 400 ft. in height from the 
water-level, while the water is as much as 560 ft. deep 
in the S. portion.  It is fed by subterraiiean springs.  
According to the legend, the emissarium (outlet) which 
still drains it was made in 398-397 B.C., the Delphic oracle 
having declared that Veri could onlybe taken when the waters
of the lake reached the sea.  It is over a mile in length, 
hewn in the rock, and about 6 ft. high and 4 ft. broad; it 
has vertical shafts at intervals, and a sluice chamber at 
its egress from the lake.  In the time of Domitian the whole 
lake belonged to the imperial domain. (SEEALBALONGA.) 

ALBANUS MONS (mod. Monte Cavo, from an early city of 
the name of Cabum? 1), the highest point of the volcanic 
Alban hills, about 13 m.  S.E. of Rome, 3115 ft. above 
sea-level.  It is upon the line of the rim of the inner crater 
of the great volcano, While Tusculum and Algidus Mons mark 
the edge of the earlier outer crater, which was about 7 m. 
wide.  The lakes of Albano and Nemi were probably formed by 
volcanic explosions at the margin of the great crater; though a 
view has also been expressed that the basins are the result of 
subsidence.  The name Albanus Mons is also used generally 
of the Alban group of hills in which there seem to have been 
some remains of volcanic activity in early Roman times, which 
covered the early necropolis of Alba Longa, and occasionally 
produced showers of stones, e.g. in the time of Tullus 
Hostilius (Liv. i. 31), and perhaps much later.  In 193 B.C. 
it is recorded (ib. xxxv. 9) that such a snower occurred at 
Aricia, Lanuvium and on the Aventine.  Upon the Mons Albanus 
stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, where the annual festival 
of the Latin League was held.  The foundations and some of the 
architectural fragments of the temple were still in existence 
until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist 
monastery by Cardinal York.  The road which ascended to the 
temple from the rim of the lake is still well preserved. 

1 See Th. Mommsen in Bulletino dell' Istituto (1861), 
206; Corpus Inscrip.  Lat. (Berlin, 1887), xiv. 2228, 

ALBANY, DUKES OF. The territorial designation of Albany was 
formerly given to those parts of Scotland to the north of the 
firths of Clyde and Forth.  The title of duke of Albany was 
first bestowed in 1398 by King Robert III. on his brother, Robert 
Stewart, ead of Fife (see I. below); but in 1425 it became 
extinct.  The dukedom was re-created, r. 1458, in favour of 
Alexander Stewart, ``lord of Annandale and earl of March', 
(see II. below), whose son and successor (see III. below) 
left no legitimate heir.  The title of duke of Albany was next 
bestowed upon Henry Stuart, commonly known as Lord Darnley, 
by Mary, queen of Scots, in 1565.  From him the title passed 
to his son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England.  The 
title was by him given, at his birth, to Charles, his second 
son, afterwards King Charles I. By Charles II. it was again 
bestowed, in 1660, on James, duke ot York, afterwards King 
James II. On the 5th of July 1716 Ernest Augustus, bishop of 
Osnaburgh [Osnabruck] (1715-1728), youngest brother of King 
George I., was created duke of York and Albany, the title 
becoming extinct on his death without heirs in 1728.  On the 
1st of April 1760 Prince Edward Augustus, younger brother of 
King George III., was created duke of York and Albany; he died 
without heirs on the 17th of September 1767.  On the 29th of 
November 1784 the title of duke of York and Albany was again 
created in favour of Frederick, second son of George III., who 
died without heirs on the 5th of January 1827.  The title of 
duke of Albany was bestowed on the 24th of May 1881 on Prince 
Leopold, youngest son of Queen Victoria (see IV. below). 

I. ROBERT STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1345-1420), regent 
of Scotland, was a son of King Robert II. by his mistress, 
Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were 
married about 1349.  In 1361 he married Margaret, countess 
of Menteith, and after his widowed sister-in-law, Isabel, 
countess of Fife, had recognized him as her heir, he was 
known as the earl of Fife and Menteith.  Taking an active 
part in the government of the kingdom, the earl was made 
high chamberlain of Scotland in 1382, and gained military 
reputation by leading several plundering expeditions into 
England.  In 1389 after his elder brother John, earl of 
Carrick, had been incapacitated by an accident, and when his 
father the king was old and infirm, he was chosen governor 
of Scotland by the estates; and he retained the control of 
affairs after his brother John became king as Robert III. in 
1390.  In April 1308 he was created duke of Albany; but 
in the following year his nephew David, duke of Rothesay, 
the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor, although 
the duke himself was a prominent member of the advising 
council.  Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 1402 
the latter died in prison at Falkland.  It is not certain 
that Albany was responsible for the imprisonment and death 
of Rothesay, whom the parliament declared to have died 
from natural causes; but the scanty evidence points in the 
direction of his guilt.  Restored to the office of governor, 
the duke was chosen regent of the kingdom after the death 
of Robert III. in 1406, as the new king, James I., was a 
prisoner in London; and he took vigorous steps to prosecute 
the war with England, which had been renewed a few years 
before.  He was unable, or as some say unwilling, to effect 
the release of his royal nephew, and was soon faced by a 
formidable revolt led by Donald Macdonald, second lord of the 
Isles, who claimed the earldom of Ross and was in alliance with 
Henry IV. of England; but the defeat of Donald at Harlaw near 
Aberdeen in July 1411 freed him from this danger.  Continuing 
alternately to fight and to negotiate with England, the duke 
died at Stirling Castle in September 1420, and was buried in 
Dunfermline Abbey.  Albany, who was the ablest prince of his 
house, left by his first wife one son, Murdac (or Murdoch) 
Stewart, who succeeded him as duke of Albany and regent, 
but at whose execution in 1425 the dukedom became extinct. 

See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, 
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun, 
Scotichronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T. 
Hearne (Oxford, 1722); and P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland 
(Edinburgh, 1850).  See also Sir W. Scott's Fair Maid of Perth. 

II. ALEXANDER STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1454-1485), 
was the second son of James II., king of Scotland, by his 
wife, Mary, daughter of Arnold, duke of Gelderland.  Created 
duke of Albany before 1458, he also received the lordship of 
the Isle of Man, and was afterwards captured by an English 
ship when journeying to Gelderland in 1468.  He was soon 
released, and as he grew to manhood began to take part in 
the government and defence of Scotland, being appointed in 
quick succession high admiral, warden of the marches, governor 
of Berwick and lieutenant of the kingdom.  Soon, however, 
he quarrelled with his brother, King James III. Some of his 
actions on the marches aroused suspicion, and in 1479 he 
was seized and imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle; but he soon 
made his escape, and reaching Paris in September 1479 was 
welcomed by King Louis XI. Louis, however, would not assist 
him to attack his brother the king, and crossing to England 
he made a treaty with King Edward IV. at Fotheringhay in June 
1482.  Like Edward Baliol, he promised to hold Scotland under 
English suzerainty in return for Edward's assistance, and 
with Richard, duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard 
III., he marched at the head of the English forces to 
Edinburgh.  Meanwhile his supporters in Scotland had seized 
James, and professed their readiness to recognize Albany, 
declaring at the same time their distrust of Gloucester.  A 
compromise, however, was arranged, and the restoration of his 
lands and offices was promised to Albany, who in turn agreed 
to be faithful to James; but about the same time the duke with 
remarkable duplicity had sworn he would keep the treaty with 
Edward.  Again he was appointed lieutenant of the kingdom, 
a truce was made with the English, and James, released from 
custody, restored his brother and created him earl of Mar and 
Garioch.  The fraternal peace was soon disturbed.  Failing 
to obtain possession of the king's person, Albany renewed 
negotiations with Edward, and in February 1483 made a new treaty 
at Westminster on the lines of that of Fotheringhay.  A fresh 
reconciliation followed between the brothers, but in July 1483, 
during Albany's absence in England, he was sentenced to death for 
treason.  After making a raid on Lochmaben he went to France, 
where in 1485 he was accidentally killed.  Albany's first 
wife was Catherine, daughter of William, third earl of Orkney 
and first earl of Caithness, who bore him three sons and a 
daughter.  This marriage was dissolved in 1478, and as its 
issue was regarded as illegitimate the title of duke of Albany 
descended to John (see below), his only son by his second 
wife, Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne. daughter of Bertrand II., 
count of Auvergne and of Bouillon, whom he married in 1480. 

III. JOHN STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1481-1536), regent 
Of Scotland, was born about 1481.  He was brought up in 
France, where he owned large estates, and held the office of 
admiral of France.  In 1515, at the request of the Scottish 
parliament, and in spite of Henry VIII.'s efforts to prevent 
him, Albany came to Scotland, was inaugurated regent in July, 
and proceeded to organize resistance to the influence of England 
and of Margaret Tudor, the queen dowager, sister of Henry 
VIII.  In August he seized the latter and her children at 
Stirling, and subsequently was occupied in suppressing the 
rebellion of the Homes, Angus (the second husband of Margaret), 
and James Hamilton, earl of Arran; Alexander, third Lord 
Home, being beheaded in October 1516.  Albany was declared 
on the 12th of November heir to the throne, and on the 6th 
of June 1517 he returned to France.  In August he concluded 
the treaty of Rouen, by which the alliance between France 
and Scotland was renewed and a daughter of Francis I. was 
to marry James V., and next year he obtained the relaxation 
of certain dues on Scottish imports into France.  Meanwhile 
Margaret had returned immediately on Albany's departure, and 
disorders had broken out owing to the rivalry between Angus and 
Arran.  Francis I. had secretly engaged himself to Henry 
VIII. not to allow Albany's departure from France, but he 
returned at the close of 1521 and immediately became the 
object of Henry VIII.'s and Wolsey's attacks.  He reconciled 
himself temporarily with Margaret, supported her divorce from 
Angus, and was now accused by the English government, in all 
probability unjustly, of having seduced her and of harbouring 
schemes of marrying her himself, together with designs against 
the life of the young king.  These accusations were repudiated 
by the Scots, and Henry's demand for the regent's dismissal 
refused.  War broke out in 1522, and in September Albany 
advanced to within four miles of Carlisle with a large 
army.  The Scots, however, showed unwillingness to fight 
outside their own frontiers, and Albany agreed to a truce 
and disbanded his troops.  On the 25th of October he departed 
hastily to France, leaving the borders exposed to the 
enemy.  On the 25th of September 1523 he once more landed 
in Scotland, bringing with him supplies from France and a 
considerable body of troops, and on the 3rd of November, after 
an unsuccessful attack on Wark, retreated hastily, and quitted 
Scotland finally on the 20th of May 1524.  On the 30th of July 
his regency was terminated by the declaration of James V. as 
king.  He accompanied Francis I. in his disastrous Italian 
campaign of 1525, being detached to make a diversion in 
Naples against the Spanish.  Between 1530 and 1535 he acted as 
French ambassador in Rome, conducted Catherine de' Medici, his 
wife's niece, to Paris on her marriage to Henry (afterwards 
Henry II.) in 1534, and negotiated the marriage of James V. 

The regent Albany was a singularly unfortunate commander in 
the field, but a successful ruler and administrator, and the 
Scottish court of session owed to him its institution.  But he 
regarded himself more the subject of the king of France than 
of the king of Scotland, subordinated the interests of the 
latter state to the former, and disliked his official duties 
in Scotland, where the benefits of his administration were 
largely diminished by his want of perseverance and frequent 
absence.  He appears to have been a man of honourable and 
straightforward conduct, whose character must be cleared from 
the aspersions of Wolsey and the English authorities.  He 
married his cousin Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne, but left no 
legal issue, and all his honours became extinct at his death. 

IV. LEOPOLD GEORGE DUNCAN ALBERT, duke of Albany, eighth 
child and youngest son of Queen Victoria, was born on the 7th 
of April 1853.  The delicacy of his health seemed to mark him 
out for a life of retirement, and as he grew older he evinced 
much of the love of knowledge, the capacity for study and 
the interest in philanthropic and ecclesiastical movements 
which had characterized his father, the prince consort.  He 
matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872, living 
with his tutor at Wykeham House, St Giles's, and diligently 
pursued his favourite studies of science, art and the modern 
languages.  In 1876 he left the university with the honorary 
degree of D.C.L., and resided at Boyton House, Wiltshire, 
and afterwards at Claremont.  On coming of age in 1874, he 
had been made a privy councillor and granted an annuity of 
L. 15,000.  He travelled on the continent, and in 1880 visited 
the United States and Canada.  He was a trustee of the British 
Museum, a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and continued to take 
an active part in the promotion of education and knowledge 
generally.  Like his father and other members of his family 
he was an excellent public speaker.  On the 24th of May 1881 
he was created duke of Albany, earl of Clarence and Baron 
Arklow.  On the 27th of April 1882 he married Helene 
Frederica Augusta, princess of Waldeck-Pyrmont, and his income 
was raised by parliament to L. 25,000.  Having gone to the 
south of France for his health in the spring of 1884, he was 
attacked by a fit, the cause or the consequence of a fall 
in a club-house at Cannes, on the 27th of March, and died 
very unexpectedly on the following morning.  His death was 
universally regretted, from the gentleness and graciousness 
of his character, and the desire and ability he had shown 
to promote intellectual interests of every kind.  He left a 
daughter, born in February 1883, and a posthumous son, Arthur 
Charles Edward, born on the 19th of July 1884, who succeeded 
to the dukedom of Albany, and who on the 30th of July 
1900 became duke of Saxe-Coburg on the death of his uncle. 

ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF 
(1752-1824), eldest daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of 
Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 20th of September 
1752.  In her youth she was a canoness of Ste. Wandru at Mons, 
but in her twentieth year she was affianced, at the instigation 
of the duke of Berwick and with the secret connivance of the 
French Court, to Prince Charles Edward Stuart, ``the Young 
Pretender,'' self-styled count of Albany.  She was wedded 
to the prince at Macerata, near Ancona, on Good Friday 1774, 
and the married pair for over two years resided in the old 
Stuart palace at Rome.  Pretty, intelligent, charming and 
witty, Louise fascinated Roman society, wherein she gained 
the nickname of ``Queen of Hearts.'' The union, however, which 
was obviously intended to give an heir to the Stuart prince, 
proved childless, and Louise's married life became far from 
happy.  In 1774 the pair moved to Florence, where in December 
1780 Louise, terrified at her husband's violence and fearing 
for the safety of her life, fled to a neighbouring convent 
and threw herself on the protection of her brother-in-law, 
Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, who invited her to Rome.  Louise 
had already in Florence formed the acquaintance of the great 
Italian tragic poet, Vittorio Alfieri, who had been captivated 
by her engaging manners, her youthful beauty and her literary 
powers.  The poet now followed her to Rome, but the friendship 
between Alfieri and his sister-in-law does not seem to have 
aroused any suspicion in the mind of Cardinal York until 
1783, when, after a visit to his brother in Florence, he 
suddenly requested Pope Pius VI. to banish Alfieri from papal 
territory.  In 1784, however, a legal separation between the 
count and countess of Albany was arranged, and by Charles's 
death in 1788 Louise found herself freed from matrimonial 
bonds.  In company with Alfieri (to whom rumour said she 
had been secretly married) she now visited Paris and London, 
and was cordially received at the English court, George 
III. granting her an annual pension of L. 1600 from the privy 
purse.  Returning to Italy, Alfieri and the countess settled 
at Florence, where the poet died on the 9th of October 
1803, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce beneath 
Canova's vast monument erected at Louise's expense.  The 
countess continued to reside in the house on the Lung' 
Arno at Florence, patronising men of science and letters 
and holding nightly receptions, at which all visitors were 
expected to treat their hostess with the etiquette due to 
reigning royalty.  She died on the 29th of January 1824 and 
was buried in Santa Croce, where in the south transept a 
marble monument by Giovannozzi and Santarelli commemorates 
her.  By her will the countess bequeathed all her property, 
including many historic objects of art and documents, to the 
companion of her old age, the French painter, Francois Xavier 
Fabre, who ultimately gave the greater part of his legacy to 
the museum of his native town of Montpellier.  Two excellent 
portraits of the countess of Albany and of Alfieri, painted 
by this artist, now hang in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence. 

See Vernon Lee, The Countess of Albany (1884); 
Marchesa Vitelleschi, A Court in Exile. (H. M. V.) 

ALBANY, a river of Canada, forming part of the boundary 
between the province of Ontario and the district of Keewatin.  
It rises in Lake St Joseph in 91 deg.  25, W. and 50 deg.  55' N., and 
flows E.N.E. into James Bay, its total length being over 400 
m.  It is navigable for nearly half its length, to Martin's 
Falls.  There are four Hudson's Bay Company's posts 
on its banks, including Fort Albany at its mouth.  The 
Ogoki and Kenogami rivers are the principal tributaries. 

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Dougherty county, 
Georgia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Kinchafoona Creek, and 
at the head of navigation on the Flint river, about 100 m.  
S.S.W. of Macon, about 200 m.  S.W. of Savannah and about 203 
m.  N.E. of Pensacola.  Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4606 (2903 
of negro descent); (1910) 8190.  It is served by the Central 
of Georgia, the Georgia Northern, the Seaboard Air Line, the 
Albany & Northern and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and 
by steamboats connecting it with Apalachicola at the mouth 
of the Apalachicola river.  Its importance is largely due to 
these transportation facilities and to the resources of the 
surrounding country, which produces timber, lime, cotton, 
Indian corn, sugar-cane, wheat, oats, fruit, melons, hay and 
vegetables.  Albany ships much cotton, and has a cotton 
compress, a cotton mill, cotton-seed oil and guano factories, 
brick yards, lumber mills and ice factories.  It is a summer 
and winter resort and is the home of the Georgia Chautauqua.  
The city owns and operates the electric-lighting plant and 
artesian water-works.  It was settled in 1836, was incorporated 
in 1838 and received its present city charter in 1907. 

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, New 
Yrork, U.S.A., and the capital of the state.  It is situated 
on the W. bank of the Hudson river, just below the mouth of 
the Mohawk, 145 m.  N. of New York City and 165 m.  W. of 
Boston.  Pop. (1880) 90,758; (1890) 94,923; (1900) 94,151, of 
whom 17,718 were foreign-born (6612 being Irish, 5903 German, 
1361 English and 740 Russian) and 1178 were negroes; (1910) 
100,253.  Albany is a terminus of the New York Central & Hudson 
River, the Delaware & Hudson and the West Shore railways, 
and is also served by the Boston & Maine railway, by the 
Erie and Champlain canals (being a terminus of each), by 
steamboat lines on the Hudson river and by several inter-urban 
electric railways connecting with neighbouring cities. 

Albany is attractively situated on a series of hills rising 
sharply from the river.  The older portions of the city are 
reminiscent of Dutch colonial days, and some fine specimens of 
the Dutch and later colonial architecture are still standing.  
Perhaps the most famous of these is the Schuyler mansion (now 
St Francis de Sales Orphan Asylum), built in 1760-1761.  The 
Van Rensselaer manor-house, built in 1765, was pulled down in 
1893 and was reconstructed on the campus of Wilhams College, 
Williamstown, Massachusetts, where it is used as a fraternity 
club-house.  Among the public buildings, the finest is the 
new State Capitol, one of the largest and most imposing in 
America.  It occupies a commanding position in Capitol Square 
(7.84 acres), one of the highest points in the city.  It is 
built of white Maine granite, and cost about $25,000,000.  Its 
dimensions are 300 X 400 ft.  The corner-stone was laid in 
1871, and the building was completed, with the exception of 
the central tower and dome, in 1904.  The legislature first 
met in it in 1879.  The original designs were by Thomas Fuller, 
who also designed the parliamentary buildings at Ottawa; but 
the plans underwent many changes, Isaac Gale Perry, Leopold 
Eidlitz and H. H. Richardson being associated with the work 
before its completion.  The beautiful ``western staircase'' 
of red sandstone (from plans by Perry) and the senate chamber 
(designed by Richardson) are oerhaps the most notable parts 
of the structure.  The building houses the various executive 
departments, the legislature and the court of appeals.  A 
large and handsome building of white granite was begun in 1908 
directly opposite the Capitol to accommodate the department 
of education and the magnificent state library (about 450,000 
volumes).  Other important buildings are the old state hall, 
a handsome white marble building erected in 1842; the city 
hall, a beautiful French Gothic building of pink granite 
trimmed with red sandstone, designed by H. H. Richardson; 
the Federal Building; the State aIuseum of Natural History; 
the galleries of the Albany Institute and Historical and Art 
Society, in State Street, opposite the Capitol; Harmanus Bleecker 
Hall, a theatre since 1898; and the Ten Eyck and Kenmore 
hotels.  Among the finest office buildings are the structures 
of the Albany City Savings Institution, National Commerical 
Bank, Union Trust Company, Albany Trust Company, the National 
Savings Bank, First National Bank, the New York State National 
Bank (1803, probably the oldest building in the United States 
used continuously for banking purposes) and the Albany Savings 
Bank.  The Fort Orange Club, the Catholic Union, the Albany 
Club, the University Club, the City Club of Albany, the 
Country Club, the German Hall Association and the Adelphi 
Club are the chief social organizations.  The principal church 
buildings are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception 
(Roman Catholic), a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, 
built of brownstone, with spires 210 ft. high; the cathedral 
of All Saints (Protestant Episcopal), an English Gothic 
structure of pink sandstone designed by R. W. Gibson and 
begun in 1883; St Peter's Episcopal Church (French Gothic), 
of Hudson River bluestone; Emmanuel Baptist Church, of white 
granite; the Madison Avenue Reformed Church; and St Joseph's 
(Roman Catholic), of bluestone and Caen stone with marble 
trimmings.  Among the educational institutions are the Albany 
Medical College (1839) and the Albany Law School (1851), 
both incorporated since 1873 with the Union University, the 
Collegiate Department of which is at Schenectady; the Albany 
College of Pharmacy (1881), also part of Union University; the 
Albany Academy (1813), in which Joseph Henry, while a member 
of the faculty, perfected in 1826--1832 the electro-magnet 
and began his work on the electric telegraph; the Albany 
Academy for Girls, founded in 1814 as the Albany Female 
Academy (name changed in 1906); and a State Normal College 
(1890), with a Model School.  The hospitals and charitable 
institutions include St Vincent's Orphan Asylum, the Lathrop 
Memorial (for children of working mothers), Albany City 
Hospital, the Homeopathic Hospital, St Peter's Hospital, 
the Albany City Orphan Asylum and the House of the Good 
Shepherd.  There are a county penitentiary and a State 
armoury.  The city has 95 acres of boulevards and avenues 
under park supervision and several fine parks (17, with 307 
acres in 1907), notably Washington (containing Calverley's 
bronze statue of Robert Burns, and Rhind's ``Moses at the Rock 
of Horeb''), Beaver and Dudley, in which is the old Dudley 
Observatory--the present Observatory building is in Lake 
Avenue, south-west of Washington Park, where is also the Albany 
Hospital.  In the beautiful rural cemetery, north of the city, 
are the tombs of President Chester A. Arthur and General Philip 
Schuyler.  The city owns a fine water-supply and a filtration plant 
covering 20 acres, with a capacity of 30,000,000 gallons daily 
and storage reservoirs with a capacity of 227,000,000 gallons. 

The first newspaper in Albany was the Gazetle, founded in 
1771.  The Argus, founded in 1813 by Jesse Buel (1778--1839) 
and edited from 1824 to 1854 by Edwin Croswell (1797-1871), was 
lontthe organ of the coterie of New York politicians known . 
as the ``Albany Regency,'' and was one of the most influential 

Democratic papers in the United States.  Previously to their 
holding office, Daniel Manning (1831-1887), secretary of the 
treasury in President Cleveland's cabinet, was president of the 
Argus company, and Daniel Scott Lamont (1851-1905), secretary 
of war during President Cleveland's second administration,
was managing editor of the newspaper.  The Evening Journal, 
founded in 1830 as an anti-Masonic organ, and for thirty-five 
years edited by Thurlow Weed, was equally influential as 
an organ of the Whig and later of the Republican party. 

Albany is an important railway and commercial centre, particularly 
as a distributing point for New England markets, as a lumber 
market and--though to a much less extent than formerly-as 
a depot for transhipment to the south and west.  Among the 
city's manufactories are breweries, iron and brass foundries, 
stove factories, knitting mills, cotton mills, clothing 
factories, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, 
cigar and cigarette factories, and manufactories of adhesive 
pastes, court plaster, spring beds, ribbed underwear, aniline 
dyes, chemicals, gas meters, fire-brick, and glazed paper and 
cardboard.  The value of the total factory product in 1905 
was $20,208,715, which was 17% greater than that for 1900. 

History.---Albany was probably the second place to be 
permanently settled within the borders of the original Thirteen 
Colonies.  It seems likely that French traders ascended 
the river as far as the site of the present city in the 
first half of the sixteenth century, and according to some 
writers a temporary trading post was established here about 
1540.  Albany's authentic history, however, may be dated from 
1614, when Dutch traders built on Castle Island, opposite the 
city, a post which they named Fort Nassau.  Three years later 
the fort was removed to the mainland, and near here in 1618 
the Dutch made their first treaty with the Iroquois.  In 1624 
arrived eighteen families of Dutch Walloons, the first actual 
permanent settlers, as distinguished from traders.  In that 
year, on a hill near the site of the present Capitol, Fort 
Orange was built, and around it, as a centre, the new town 
grew.  At first it was known by the Dutch simply as the 
``fuyck'' (hoop), from the curve in the river at this point, 
whence was soon derived the name Beverfuvck or Beverwvck.  In 
1629 the Dutch government granted to Killiaen van Rensselaer, 
an Amsttrdam diamond merchant, a tract of land (24 sq. m.) 
centring at Fort Orange.  Over this tract, the first patroonship 
granted in the colony, he had the usual powers and rights of a 
patroon.  The grant was named Rensselaerwyck in his honour, 
became a ``manor'' in 1685, and remained in the family until 
1853.  The colonists whom he settled upon his grant (1630) were 
industrious, and ``Beverwvck'' became increasingly prosperous.  
From this time the town, on account of its favourable commercial 
and strategic position at the gateway of the Iroquois country 
and at the head of navigation on the Hudson river, was for 
a century and a half one of the most important places in the 
colonies.  In 1664. with the transfer of New Netherlands 
to English control, the name ``Beverwvck'' was changed to 
``Albany''-one of the titles of the duke of York (afterward James 
II.).  In 1673 the town was acain for a short time under Dutch 
control.  In 1686 Governor Donaan granted to Albany a city 
charter, which provided for an elected council.  The first 
mayor appointed by the aovernor was Peter Schuyler (1657-1724).  
In 1689 was held here the first inter-colonial convention in 
America, when delegates from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
Connecticut and New York met to treat with representatives of 
the Five Nations and to plan a system of colonial defence.  
During the 18th century there was a great influx of English 
colonists, and in 1714 the first English church was erected.  
During the French and Indian wars Albany was a starting-point 
for expeditions against Canada and the Lake Champlain 
country.  In June 1754, in Dursuance of a recommendation 
of the Lords.of Trade, a convention of representatives of 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Connecticut, New 
Vork, Pennsylvania and Maryland met here for the purpose of 
confirming and establishing a closer league of friendshiq with 
the Iroquois and of arranging for a Dermanent union of the 
colonies.  The Indian affairs having been satisfactorily 
adiusted, the convention, after considerable debate. in which 
Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hopkins and Thomas Hutchinson 
took a leading part, adopted (July 11) a plan foraunionof the 
colonies, which was in great part similar to one submitted 
to the convention by Franklin.  This plan provided for a 
representative governing body to be known as the Grand Council, 
to which each colony should elect delegates (not more than 
seven or less than two) for a term of three years.  This body 
was to have control of Indian affairs, impose taxes, nominate 
all civil officers, authorize the opening of new lands to 
settlement, and in general have charge of colonial defence, 
and of the enlistment, equipment and maintenance of an army.  
An executive or viceroy, to be known as the president-general, 
was to have the veto power over the acts of the Grand Council 
and the right of appointment of military officers.  Finally, 
it was provided that the acts of the Grand Council should 
be valid unless vetoed by the crown within a period of three 
years.  Neither the British government nor the growing party 
in the colonies which was clamouring for colonial rights 
received the plan with favour--- the former holding that 
it gave the colonies too much independence, and the latter 
that it gave them too little. 4.he strategic importance of 
Albany was fully recognized during the War of Independence, 
and it was against Albany that Burgoyne's expedition was 
directed.  Albany became the permanent state capital in 
1797.  In 1839 it became the centre of the ``Anti-Rent 
War,'' which was precipitated by the death of Stephen 
van Rensselaer (1764-1839), the last of the patroons; the 
attempt of his heirs to collect overdue rents resulting 
in disturbances which necessitated the calling out of the 
militia, spread into several counties where there were large 
landed estates, and were not entirely settled until 1847. 

See William Barnes, The Settlement and Early History of 
Albany (Albany, 1864): J. Munsell, The Annals of Albany 
(10 vols., Albany, 1859-1859: 2nd ed., 4 vols., 1869-1871); 
E. B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the State of New 
York, vol. iii. (Albany, 1850): A. J. Weise, The History 
of the City of Albany (Albany, 1884); G. R. Howell and J. 
Tenney, Bi-centennial History of Albany (New York, 1886); 
Amasa I. Parker, Landmarks of Albany County (Syracuse, 
1897); and Cuyler Reynolds, Albany Chronicles; or Albany 
Mayors anid Contemporaneous Chronology (Albany, 1907). 

ALBANY, a municipal town in the county of Plantagenet, West 
Australia, on Princess Royal Harbour, a branch of King George 
Sound, 352 m. by rail and 254 m. directly S.S.E. of Perth.  Pop. 
(1901) 3650.  It is the chief health resort of the state, and 
its climate is one of the finest in Australia; it has a mean 
annual temperature of 58.6 deg.  F., and the summer heat is never 
excessive.  One of the features of the town is the Marine 
Drive, some 5 1/2 m. in circuit around the hills overlooking the 
harbour.  Albany has several flourishing industries, of 
which the chief are brewing, coach-building, printing and 
tanning.  In addition it has the finest harbour in West 
Australia.  A pier extends for 1700 ft. into the sea, giving 
safe accommodation to the large steamers which call at the 
port.  The Great Southern railway has a line to the seaward 
end of the pier, and affords direct communication with the 
interior of the colony.  The harbour is protected by forts 
and there is a garrison in the town.  King George Sound, 
of which Albany is the township, was first occupied in 1826 
and a penal settlement was established.  No attempt was made 
to colonize the locality until after this settlement was 
given up in 1831.  Albany became a municipality in 1871. 

ALBATEGNIUS (c. 850--929), an Arab prince and astronomer, 
correctly designated Mahommed ben Gebir al Batani, his surname 
being derived from his native town, Batan in Mesopotamia.  From 
his observations at Aracte and Damascus, where he died, he was 
able to correct some of Ptolemy's results, previously taken on 
trust.  He compiled new tables of the sun and moon, long 
accepted as authoritative, discovered the movement of the sun's 
apogee, and assigned to annual precession the improved value of 
55'' Perhaps independently of Aryabhatta (born at Pataliputra 
on the Ganges 476 A.D.), he introduced the use of sines in 
calculation, and partially that of tangents.  His principal 
work, De Motu Stellarum, was published at Nuremberg in 1537 
by Melanchthon, in a blundering Latin translation by Plato 
Tiburtinus (fl. 1116), annotated by Regiomontanus.  A reprint 
appeared at Bologna in 1645.  The original MS. is preserved 
at the Vatican; and the Escorial library possesses in MS. a 
treatise of some value by him on astronomical chronology.  
Albategnius takes the highest rank among Arab astronomers. 

See Houzeau, Bibliographie astronomique, i. 467; M. Marie, Histoire 
des sciences, ii. 113; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, 
p. 67; Delambre, Hist. de l'astr. au moyen age, ch. ii.; 
Phil.  Trans. 1693 (913), where E. Halley supplies corrections 
to some of the observations recorded in De Motu Stellarum. 

ALBATROSS (from the Port. Alcatraz, a pelican), the name 
of a genus of aquatic birds (Diomedea), closely allied to the 
petrels, and belonging, like them, to the order Tubinares. 
In the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnaeus, there 
is a reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions 
of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds.  The beak is large, 
strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in 
a large hook; the wings are narrow and very long; the feet 
have no hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely 
webbed.  The best known is the common or wandering albatross 
(D. exulans), which occurs in all parts of the Southern 
Ocean.  It is the largest and strongest of all sea-birds.  
The length of the body is stated at 4 ft., and the weight at 
from 15 to 25 lb. .  It sometimes measures as much as 17 ft. 
between the tips of the extended, wings, averaging probably 
from 10 to 12 ft.  Its strength of wing is very great.  It 
often accompanies a ship for days--not merely following it, 
but wheeling in wide circles round it---without ever being 
observed to alight on the water. and continues its flight, 
apparently untired, in tempestuous as well as in moderate 
weather.  It has even been said to sleep on the wing, and 
Moore alludes to this fanciful ``cloud-rocked slumbering'' 
in his Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on the 
animal refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess 
at times that it is unable to fiy and rests helplessly on the 
water.  The colour of the bird is white, the back being 
streaked transversely with black or brown bands, and the wings 
dark.  Sailors capture the bird for its long wing-bones, which 
they manufacture into tobacco-pipe stems.  The albatross lays 
one egg; it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 in. 
long.  In breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island 
groups, like the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan 
da Cunha, where it has its nest--a natural hollow or a 
circle of earth roughly scraped together--on the open 
ground.  The early explorers of the great Southern Sea cheered 
themselves with the companionship of the albatross in its 
dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of him who shot with his 
cross-bow the bird of good omen is familiar to readers of 
Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Several species of 
albatross are known; for the smaller forms see MALLEMUCK. 

ALBAY, a city and the capital of the province of Albay, 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, near an inlet on the W. shore 
of the Gulf of Albay, 215 m. by wagon-road S.E. of Manila.  
Pop. (1903) 14,049; in October 1907 the towns of Daraga (pop. 
1903, 18,695) and Legaspi (pop. 1903, 9206) were merged with 
Albay, making its total population, on the basis of the 1903 
census, 41,950.  Albay is one of the most important cities 
of the Philippine Islands.  It is built on level ground 
near the S. base of Mount Mayon, a beautiful volcanic peak, 
7916 ft. high, from which it is sheltered by the Linguin 
hills.  The surrounding country is one of the most important 
hemp-producing districts in the Philippines; sinamay is woven 
here, and large quantities of hemp are shipped from here to 
Manila.  Cocoa, copra, sugar and sweet potatoes are other 
important products of the district.  The language is 
Bicol.  The old town, called Cagsaua, which stood a short 
distance E.N.E. of the new, was completely destroyed by an 
eruption of the volcano in 1814 (about 1200 people being 
killed), and the new town was almost entirely destroyed by 
the insurgents in February 1900, an ancient stone church of 
much beauty (in what was formerly Daraga) being left standing 
on an elevated site commanding a view of the surrounding 
country.  The town was rebuilt on a larger scale by Americans. 

ALBEDO (from Lat. albus, white), ``whiteness,'' 
a word used principally in astronomy for the degree 
of reflected light; the light of the sun which is 
reflected from the moon is called the albedo of the moon. 

ALBEMARLE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The name Albemarle, which 
now forms the title of the earldom held by the English 
family of Keppel, is an early variant of the French Aumale 
(Lat. Alba dlarla), other forms being Aubemarle and 
Aumerle, and is described in the patent of nobility granted 
in 1696-1697 by William III. to Arnold Joost van Keppel 
as ``a town and territory in the dukedom of Normandy.'' 

The fief of Aumale (q. v.) was granted by the archbishop 
of Rouen to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the 
Conqueror, who erected it into a countship.  On Odo's death 
his son Stephen succeeded not only to the countship of Aumale, 
but to the lordships of Holderness, of Bytham in Lincolnshire, 
&c., which were subsequently known as the ``Fee and Honor of 
Albemarle.'' Stephen, who as a crusader had fought valiantly at 
Antioch, died about 1127, leaving by his wife Hawise, daughter 
of Ralph de Mortimer, a son---William of Blois, known as 
``le Gros.'' William, who distinguished himself at the battle 
of the Standard (1138), and shared with King Stephen in the 
defeat of Lincoln (1141), married Cicely, daughter of William 
FitzDuncan, grandson of Malcolm, king of Scotland, who as ``lady 
of Harewood'' brought him vast estates.  He founded abbeys 
at Meaux in Holderness and at Thornton, and died in 1179.  
His elder daughter and heiress Hawise married (1) William de 
Mandeville, 3rd earl of Essex (d. 1189), (2) William de Fortibus 
(de Fors, de Fortz or des Forts1), (3) Baldwin de Betun or 
Bethune, all of whom bore the title of earls of Albemarle. 

Soon after the deathpf Baldwin (October 13, 1213), William de 
Fortibus, Hawise's son by her second husband, was established 
by King John in the territories of the countship of Albemarle, 
and in 1215 the whole of his mother's estates were formally 
confirmed to him.  He is described by Bishop Stubbs as ``a 
feudal adventurer of the worst type,'' and for some time was 
actively engaged in the struggles of the Norman barons against 
John and Henry III. He was one of the twenty-five executors 
of the Great Charter; but in the war that followed sided with 
John, subsequently changing sides as often as it suited his 
policy.  His object was to revive the independent power 
of the feudal barons, and he co-operated to this end with 
Falkes de Breaute (q.v.) and other foreign adventurers 
established in the country by John.  This brought him into 
conflict with the great justiciar, Hubert de Burgh, and in 
1219 he was declared a rebel and excommunicated for attending 
a forbidden tournament.  In 1220 matters were brought to a 
crisis by his refusal to surrender the two royal castles of 
Rockingham and Sauvey of which he had been made constable in 
1216.  Henry III. marched against them in person, the garrisons 
fled, and they fell without a blow.  In the following year, 
however, Albemarle, in face of further efforts to reduce his 
power, rose in revolt.  He was now again excommunicated by 
the legate Pandulph at a solemn council held in St Paul's, 
and the whole force of the kingdom was set in motion against 
him, a special scutage-the ``scutagium de Bihan''---being 
voted for this purpose by the Great Council.  The capture 
of his castle of Bytham broke his power; he sought sanctuary 
and, at Pandulph's intercession, was pardoned on condition 
of going for six years to the Holy Land.  He remained in 
England, however, and in 1223 was once more in revolt with 
Falkes de Breaute, the earl of Chester and other turbulent 
spirits.  A reconciliation was once more patched up; but it 
was not until the fall of Falkes de Breaute that Albemarle 
finally settled down as an English noble.  In 1225 he witnessed 
Henry's third re-issue of the Great Charter; in 1227 he went 
as ambassador to Antwerp; and in 1230 he accompanied Henry on 
his expedition to Brittany.  In 1241 he set out for the Holy 
Land, but died at sea, on his way there, on the 26th of March 
1242.  By his wife Avelina of Montfichet, William left a 
son, also named William, who married (1) Christina (d. 
1246), daughter and co-heiress of Alan, lord of Galloway, 
(2) in 1248 Isabella de Redvers (1237-1292-3), daughter of 
Baldwin de Redvers, earl of Devon and lord of the Isle of 
Wight.  He played a conspicuous part in the reign of Henry 
III., notably in the Mad Parliament of 1258, and died at 
Amiens in 1260.  His widow, Isabella, on the death of her 
brother Baldwin, 8th earl of Devon, in 1261, cailed herself 
countess of Devon.  She had two children, Thomas, who died 
in 1269 unmarried, and Avelina, who married (1269) Edmund 
Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and died without issue in 
1274.  The ``Honor of Albemarle'' was claimed, in 1278, by 
John de Eston, or Aston, as heir of Amicia, younger daughter 
of William le Gros; but he released his right to the earldom of 
Albemarle to the crown in exchange for certain lands in Thornton. 

The title of Albemarle, thus extinguished, was several times 
revived before it became attached to the family of its present 
holders.  In 1385 Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, 
was summoned to padiament as ``duke of Albemarle,'' but he 
seems never subsequently to have used the title.  In any 
case this creation became extinct with the death of his son 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1399.  In 1411 Thomas 
Plantagenet, second son of Henry IV., was created earl of 
Albemarle and duke of Clarence, but at his death at the 
battle of Beauge (March 22, 1421) these honours became 
extinct.  That of Albemarle was, however, soon revived (c. 
1423) in favour of Richard de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, 
whose title of earl of Aumerle, however, died with him. 

In 1660 Charles II. bestowed the title of duke of Albemarle on 
General Monk (q.v..) Monk's hereditary claim to this semiroyal 
peerage was a very shadowy one, being based--as was also his 
subordinate style of Baron Beauchamp---on his descent from the 
youngest of the three co-heiresses of Richard, earl of Warwick, 
and, with yet more remote applicability, on that from Arthur 
Plantagenet, a natural son of Edward IV. The title became extinct 
in 1688, on the death of Christopher, 2nd duke of Albemarle. 

Finally, as mentioned above, the title of earl of Albemarle was 
bestowed by William III., without any shadow of hereditary claim, 
on his Dutch favourite Arnold Joost van Keppel (see below), by 
whose descendants it is still held.  The motive for choosing this 
title was probably that, apart from its dignified traditions, 
it avoided the difficulty created by the fact that the Keppels 
had as yet no territorial possessions in the British Islands. 

ARNOLD JOOST VAN KEPPEL, 1st earl of Albemarle, and lord of 
Voorst in Gelderland (c. 1670-1718), son of Oswald van Keppel 
and his wife Anna Geertruid van Lintello, was born in Holland 
about 1670.  He became page to William III., accompanied him 
to England in 1688, and was made groom of the bed-chamber and 
master of the robes in 1695.  On the 10th of February 1696f7 
he was created earl of Albemarle, Viscount Bury and Baron 
Ashford.  In 1700 William gave him lands of enormous extent 
in Ireland, but parliament obliged the king to cancel this 
grant, and William then bestowed on him L. 50,000.  The same 
year he was made a knight of the Garter.  Meanwhile he had 
served both with the English and Dutch troops, was major-general 
in 1697, colonel of several regiments and governor of 
Bois-le-Duc.  Of handsome person and engaging disposition, 
he rivalled Portland, whose jealousy he aroused in the royal 
favour, possessed William's full confidence and accompanied him 
everywhere.  In February 1702 he was sent by William. then 
prostrated with his last illness, to Holland to arrange 
the coming campaign, and only returned in time to receive 
William's last commissions on his deathbed.  After the death 
ofthe latter, who bequeathed to him 200,000 guilders and some 
lands, he returned to Holland, took his seat as a noble in the 
states-general, and was made a general of horse in the Dutch 
army.  He joined the forces of the allies in 1703, was 
present at Ramillies in 1706 and at Oudenarde in 1708, and 
distinguished himself at the siege of Lille.  He commanded 
at the siege of Aire in 1710, led Marlborough's second line 
in 1711, and was general of the Dutch forces in 1712, being 
defeated at Denain after the withdrawal of Ormonde and the 
English forces and taken prisoner.  He died on the 30th of 
May 1718, aged 48. He married Geertruid, daughter of Adam 
van der Denijn, by whom, besides a daughter, he had a son, 
William Anne, who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Albemarle. 

Of the later earls mention need only be made of the sixth, 
GEORGE THOMAS KEPPEL (1799--1891), British general, 
second son of the fourth earl, born on the 13th of June 
1799.  Educated at Westminster School he entered the army as 
ensign, 14th Foot, in 1815.  He joined his regiment in Belgium 
and took part in the Waterloo campaign and the march to Paris, 
joined the second battalion in Corfu, and was transferred to 
the 22nd Foot, with which he served in Mauritius and at the 
Cape, returning home in 1819, when he was appointed equerry 
to the duke of Sussex.  Promoted to a lieutenancy in the 
24th Foot, he was transferred to the 20th Foot, and went to 
India, where he was aide-de-camp to the marquess of Hastings 
until his resignation in 1823, when Keppel returned to 
England, travelling overland through Persia, Moscow and St 
Petersburg.  He published in 1825 an account of his travels, 
entitled Journey from India to England.  He was aide-de-camp 
to the Marquess Wellesley, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for 
two years, was promoted captain in the 62nd Foot, studied 
in the senior department of the Royal Military College at 
Sandhurst, and in 1827 obtained a half-pay unattached 
majority.  He did not again serve on full pay, but rose to be a 
general.  In 1829 he visited the seat of the Russo-Turkish 
war and was with the British fleet in Turkish waters.  In 1832 
he was returned in the Whig interest to the first reformed 
parliament as member for East Norfolk and sat until 1835.  He 
was private secretary to the premier, Lord John Russell, in 
1846, and M.P. for Lymington from 1847 to 1849.  He succeeded 
to the title on the death of his brother in 1851.  He died in 
1891 and was buried at Quidenham, Norfolk.  He wrote an account 
of a Journey across the Balkans, Memoirs of the Marquis of 
Rockingham, and an autobigraphy entitled Fifty Years of My Life. 

See G. E. C(ockayne), Complete Peerage, 8 vols. (London, 
1887).  For the two Williams de Fortibus, see s.v. 
Prof.  T. F. Tout's articles in the Dict. of Nat. Biog. 

1 The name was derived from Fors, a commune in the canton of 
Prahecq in Poitou.  It is spelt Forz in a deed of 1233, and the best 
vernacular form is, according to Thomas Stapleton (Preface to the 
Liber de Antiquitate, Camden Soc., 1846, p. xxxiv. note), de Fortz. 

ALBENGA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, on 
the N.W. coast of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of 
Genoa, 521 m.  S.W. of Genoa by rail.  Pop. (1901) 6248.  
Albenga is the ancient Album Ingaunum or Albingaunum, 
the chief town of the Ingauni, one of the most important 
of the Ligurian tribes, whose territory reached as far as 
Genoa.  Under the empire it was a municpium; an inscription 
records the restoration of the walls, forum, harbour, &c., 
by Constantius A.D. 354. A little way outside the town to 
the E. is a well-preserved Roman bridge nearly 500 ft. long 
and 11 1/2 ft. wide, with IO arches, each with a span of 37 
ft.  It belonged to the coast road and is now known as Ponte 
Lungo.  To the S. of the town is a conspicuous monument, 27 
ft. high, in the form of a rectangular pillar, resembling 
a tomb; but as there is no trace of a door to a sepulchral 
chamber it may be a shrine.  In the town itself there are 
no Roman remains; but there is a good Gothic cathedral in 
brick, and an interesting octagonal baptistery, attributed to 
the 8th or oth century, the arches being supported by ancient 
columns, and the vaulting decorated with mosaics.  Some of 
the medieval palaces of Albenga have lofty brick towers. 

See A. d'Andrade in Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale per la Conservazione 
dei monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria (Turin, 1899), 114 seq. 

ALBERONI, GIULIO (1664-1752), Spanish--Italian cardinal and 
statesman, was born near Piacenza, probably at the village 
of Fiorenzuola, on the 31st of May 1664.  His father was a 
gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church 
in the humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza.  
Having gained the favour of Bishop Barni he took priest's 
orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to 
Rome.  During the war of the Spanish succession Alberoni laid 
the foundation of his political success by the services he 
rendered to the duke of Vendome, commander of the French 
forces in Italy; and when these forces were recalled in 1706 he 
accompanied the duke to Paris, where he was favourably received 
by Louis XIV. In 1711 he followed Vendome into Spain as his 
secretary.  Two years later, the duke having died in the 
interval, Alberoni was appointed consular agent for Parma at 
the court of Philip V. of Spain, being raised at the same time 
to the dignityof count.  On his arrival at Madrid he found 
the princesse des Ursins all but omnipotent with the king, 
and for a time he judged it expedient to use her influence 
in carrying out his plans.  In concert with her he arranged 
the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma.  The 
influence of the new queen being actively exerted on Alberoni's 
behalf, he speedily rose to high position.  He was made a 
member of the king's council, bishop of Malaga, and in 1715 
prime minister, and was raised to the dignity of cardinal in 
1717.  His internal policy was exceedingly vigorous.  The 
main purpose he put before.himself was to produce an economic 
revival in Spain by abolishing internal custom-houses, 
throwing open the trade of the Indies and reorganizing the 
finances.  With the resources thus gained he undertook to 
enable King Philip V. to carry out an ambitious policy both in 
Italy and in France.  The impatience of the king and his wife 
gave the minister no time to mature his plans.  By provoking 
England, France, Holland and the Empire at once it brought 
a flood of disaster on Spain for which Alberoni was held 
responsible.  On the 5th of December 1719 he was ordered to 
leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken an active part 
in procuring the decree of banishment.  He went to Italy, and 
there had to take refuge among the Apennines, Pope Clement XI., 
who was his bitter enemy, having given strict orders for his 
arrest.  On the death of Clement, Alberoni boldly appeared at 
the Conclave, and took part in the election of Innocent XIII. 
(1721), after which he was for a short time imprisoned by the 
pontiff on the demand of Spain.  At the next election (1724) 
he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten 
votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XIII.  Benedict's 
successor, Clement XII. (elected 1730), named him legate of 
Ravenna, in which capacity he incurred the pope's displeasure 
by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to reduce 
the little republic of San Marino to subjection to Rome.  He 
was consequently replaced by another legate in 1740, and soon 
after he retired to Piacenza.  Clement XII. appointed him 
administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 
1730.  The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of 
lepers.  The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni 
obtained the consent of the pope to the suppression of the 
hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced 
it by a college for the education of seventy poor boys for the 
priesthood, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it 
still bears.  He died on the 16th of June 1752, leaving a sum 
of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded, and the 
residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in Spain to his 
nephew.  Alberoni left a large quantity of manuscripts; 
but the genuineness of the Political Testament, published 
in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has been questioned. 

An Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni up to 1719 was published by 
Jean Rousset de Missy at the Hague in 1719.  A laudatory life, 
Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni, was published by Stefano 
Bersani, a priest educated at his college, at Piacenza, in 
1861. Giulio Alberoni e il suo secolo, by Giovanni Bianchi 
(1901), is briefer and more critical.  See also Lettres 
intimes de J. Alberoni, edited by M. E. Bourgeois (1892). 

ALBERT (1522-1557), prince of Bayreuth, surnamed THE WARLIKE, 
and also ALCIBIADES, was a son of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth, 
and a member of the Franconian branch of the Hohenzollern 
family.  Born at Ansbach on the 28th of March 1522, he lost 
his father in 1527 and came under the guardianship of his uncle 
George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of the reformed 
doctrines.  In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share of 
the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality 
was Kulmbach he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of 
Brandenburg-Kulmbach.  His restless and turbulent nature 
marked him out for a military career; and having collected 
a small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor Charles 
V. in his war with France in 1543.  The peace of Crepy in 
September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won 
a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to 
attack the league of Schmalkalden, he took pains to win Albert's 
assistance.  Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate, 
Albert was taken prisoner at Rcchlitz in March 1547 by John 
Fredeack, elector of Saxony, but was released as a result 
of the emperor's victory at Muhlberg in the succeeding 
April.  He then followed the fortunes of his friend Maurice, 
the new elector of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the 
league which proposed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance 
with Henry II. of France.  IIe took part in the subsequent 
campaign, but when the treaty of Passau was signed in August 
1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade 
of plunder in Franconia.  Having extorted a large sum of 
money from the burghers of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his 
supporter, the French king, and offered his services to the 
emperor.  Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, 
gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial 
sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops 
of Wurzburg and Bamberg; and his conspicuous bravery was of 
great value to the emperor on the retreat from Metz in January 
1553.  When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert 
renewed his depredations in Franconia.  These soon became so 
serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice 
of Saxony led an army against his former comrade.  The 
rival forces met at Sievershausen on the 9th of July 1553, 
and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to 
flight.  Henry II., duke of Brunswick, then took command of 
the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed 
under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke 
Henry, and compelled to fly to France.  He there entered the 
service of Henry II., and had undertaken a campaign to regain 
his lands when he died at Pforzheim on the 8th of January 1557. 

See J. Voigt, Morkgraf Albrecht Alcibiades 
von BrandenburgKulmbach (Berlin, 1852). 

ALBERT I. (c. 1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed 
THE BEAR, was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of 
Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of 
Saxony.  He inherited the valuable Saxon estates of his father 
in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to 
one-half of the lands of the Billungs.  About 1123 he received 
from Lothair, duke of Saxony, the margraviate of Lusatia, 
and, after Lothair became German king, accompanied him on the 
disastrous expedition to Bohemia in 1126, when he suffered 
a short imprisonment.  In 1128 his brother7in-law, Henry 
II., margrave of the Saxon north mark, died, and Albert, 
disappointed at not receiving this fief, attacked Udo, the 
succeeding margrave, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by 
Lothair.  In spite of this, he went to Italy in 1132 in the 
train of the king, and his services there were rewarded, 
in 1134, by the investiture of the north mark, which was 
again without a ruler.  For three years he was occupied in 
campaigns against the Wends, and by an arrangement made with 
Pribislaus, duke of Brandenburg, Albert secured this district 
when the duke died in 1150.  Taking the title margrave of 
Brandenburg, he pressed the warfare against the Wends, extended 
the area of his mark, did much for the spread of Christianity 
and civilization therein, and so became the founder of the 
margraviate of Brandenburg.  In 1137 his cousin, Henry the 
Proud, had been deprived by King Conrad III. of his Saxon 
duchy, which was given to Albert.  After meeting with some 
success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from 
Saxony, and also from his mark by Henry, and compelled to 
take refuge in South Germany, and when peace was made in 1142 
he renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties of 
Weimar and Orlamunde.  It was possibly at this time that 
Albert was made arch-chamberlain of the Empire, an office 
which afterwards gave the margraves of Brandenburg the 
rights of an elector. A feud with Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
was followed, in 1158, by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
and in 1162 Albert accompanied the emperor Frederick I. 
to Italy, and distinguished himself at the storming of 
Milan.  In 1164 he joined a league of princes formed against 
Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided 
his territories among his six sons, and died on the 13th 
of November 1170, and was buried at Ballenstadt.  His 
personal qualities won for him the surname of ``the Bear,'' 
and he is also called by later writers ``the Handsome.'' 

See L. von Heinemann, Albrecht der Bar (Darmstadt, 1864). 
ALBERT III. (1414--1486), elector of Brandenburg, surnamed 
ACHILLES because of his knightly qualities, was the third 
son of Frederick I. of Hohenzollern, elector of Brandenburg, 
and was born at Tangermunde on the 9th of November 1414.  
After passing some time at the court of the emperor Sigismund, 
he took part in the war against the Hussites, and afterwards 
distinguished himself whilst assisting the German king, Albert 
II., against the Poles.  On the division of territory which 
followed his father's death in 1440, Albert received the 
principality of Ansbach; and although his resources were 
very meagre he soon took a leading place among the German 
princes, and was especially prominent in resisting the attempts 
of the towns to obtain self-government.  In 1443 he formed 
a league directed mainly against Nuremberg, over which town 
members of his family had formerly exercised the rights of 
burgrave.  It was not until 1448, however, that he found a 
pretext for attack, and the war which lasted until 1453 ended 
in a victory for the Nurembergers, and the recognition of their 
independence.  He supported the emperor Frederick III. in his 
struggle with the princes who desired re-forms in Oiermany, 
and in return for this loyalty received many marks of favour 
from Frederick, including extensive judicial rights which 
aroused considerable irritation among neighbouring rulers.  In 
1457 he arranged a marriage between his eldest son John, and 
Margaret, daughter of William III., landgrave of Thuringia, 
who inherited the claims upon Hungary and Bohemia of her 
mother, a granddaughter of the emperor Sigismund.  The attempt 
to secure these thrones for the Hohenzollerns through this 
marriage failed, and a similar fate befell Albert's efforts 
to revive in his own favour the disused. title of duke of 
Franconia.  The sharp dissensions which existed among the 
princes over the question of reform culminated in open warfare 
in 1460, when Albert was confronted with a league under the 
leadership of the elector palatine, Frederick I., and Louis 
IX. (the Rich), duke of Bavaria-Landshut.  Worsted in this 
struggle, which was concluded in 1462, Albert made an alliance 
with his former enemy, George Podebrad, king of Bohemia, a 
step which caused Pope Paul II. to place him under the ban. 

In 1470 Albert, who had inherited Bayreuth on the death of his 
brother John in 1464, became elector of Brandenburg owing to the 
abdication of his remaining brother, the elector Frederick II. 
He was soon actively engaged in its administration, and by the 
treaty of Prenzlau in 1472 he brought Pomerania also under his 
supremacy.  Having established his right to levy a tonnage on 
wines in the mark, he issued in February 1473 the important 
dispositio Achillea, which decreed that the mark of Brandenburg 
should descend in its entirety to the eldest son, while the 
younger sons should receive the Franconian possessions of the 
family.  After treating in vain for a marriage between one 
of his sons and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, Albert handed over the government of 
Brandenburg to his eldest son John, and returned to his Franconian 
possessions.  In 1474 he married his daughter Barbara to Henry 
XI., duke of Glogau, who left his possessions on his death in 
1476 to his widow with reversion to her family, an arrangement 
which was resisted by Henrv's kinsman, John II., duke of 
Sagan.  Aided by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, John invaded 
Brandenburg, and the Pomeranians seized the opportunity to 
revolt.  Under these circumstances Albert returned to 
Brandenburg in 1478, compelled the Pomeranians to own his 
supremacy, and after a stubborn struggle secured a part 
of Duke Henry's lands for his daughter in 1482.  His main 
attention was afterwards claimed by the business of the Empire, 
and soon after taking part in the election of Maximilian as 
king of the Romans he died at Frankfort on the 11th of March 
1486.  He left a considerable amount of treasure.  His first 
wife was Margaret of Baden, by whom he had six children; 
and his second was Anne of Saxony, by whom he had thirteen. 

Albert was a man of relentless energy and boundless ambition, 
who by reason of his physical and intellectual qualities 
was one of the most prominent princes of the 15th century. 

See Das kaiserliche Buch des Markgrafen Albrecht Achilles, 
Ferkurfurstliche Periode, 1440-1470, edited by C. Hofler 
(Bayreuth, 1850); Kurfurstliche Periode, edited by J. 
von Minutoli (Berlin, 1850); Quellensammlung zur Geschichte 
des Hauses Hohenzollern, Band I., edited by C. A. H. 
Burkhardt (Jena, 1857); O. Franklin, Albrecht Achilles 
und die Nuremberger, 1444-1453 (Berlin, 1866); Politische 
Korrespondenz des Kurfursten Albrecht Achilles, 1486, 
edited by F. Priebatsch (Leipzig, 1894-1898); J. G. Droysen, 
Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1835-1886). 

ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819-1861), 
prince-consort of England, was born at Bosenau on the 26th 
of August 1819.  He was the second son of the hereditary duke 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (belonging to the Ernestine or elder 
branch of the royal family of Saxony) by his first wife, the 
princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (d. 1831), from 
whom the duke was separated in 1824.  His father's sister 
married the duke of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen 
Victoria of England, Prince Albert's wife, was thus his first 
cousin.  They were born in the same year.  Albert and his 
elder brother, Ernest, were close companions in youth, and 
were educated under the care of Consistorialrath Florschutz, 
subsequently proceeding to the university of Bonn.  There 
Prince Albert devoted himself especially to natural science, 
political economy and philosophy, having for teachers such 
men as Fichte, Schlegel and Perthes; he diligently cultivated 
music and painting, and excelled in gymnastic exercises, 
especially in fencing.  The idea of a marriage between him 
and his cousin Victoria had always been cherished by their 
uncle, King Leopold I. of Belgium, and in May 1836 the duke of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and his two sons paid a visit to Kensington 
Palace, where Princess Victoria, as she then was, lived, for 
the purpose of making acquaintance for the first time.  The 
visit was by no means to the taste of King William IV., who 
disapproved of the match and favoured Prince Alexander of 
Orange.  But Leopold's plan was known to Princess Victoria, 
and William's objections were fruitless.  Princess Victoria, 
writing to her uncle Leopold (May 23, 1836), said that Albert 
was ``extremely handsome''; and (June 7) thanked him for the 
``prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give 
me in the person of dear Albert.  He possesses every quality 
that could be desired to render me perfectly happy.', No 
formal engagement was entered into, but the situation was 
privately understood as one which in time would naturally 
develop.  After the queen came to the throne, her letters show 
her interest in Albert's being educated for the part he would 
have to play.  In the winter of 1838-1839 the prince travelled 
in Italy, accompanied by Baron Stockmar, formerly Leopold's 
doctor and private secretary, and now the queen's confidential 
adviser.  On the 10th of October 1839 he and Ernest went again 
to England to visit the queen, with the object of finally 
settling the marriage.  Mutual inclination and affection at 
once brought about the desired result.  They became definitely 
engaged on the 15th of October, and on the 10th of February 1840 
the marriage was celebrated at the chapel-royal, St James's. 

The position in which the prince was placed by his marriage, 
while it was one of distinguished honour, was also one 
of considerable difficulty; and during his lifetime the 
tactful way in which he filled it was very inadequately 
appreciated.  The public life of the prince-consort cannot 
be separated from that of the queen, and it is unnecessary 
here to repeat such details as are given in the article 
on her (see VICTORIA, QUEEN.) The prejudice against 
him, on account of what was regarded as undue influence in 
politics, was never fully dissipated till after his death.  
His co-operation with the queen in dealing with the political 
responsibilities which devolved upon the sovereign represented 
an amount of conscientious and self-sacrificing labour which 
cannot easily be exaggerated; and his wisdom in council 
could only be realized, outside a very small circle, when in 
later years the materials for the history of that time became 
accessible.  He was indeed a man of cultured and liberal 
ideas, well qualified to take the lead in many reforms which 
the England of that day sorely needed.  He was specially 
interested in endeavours to secure the more perfect application 
of science and art to manufacturing industry.  The Great 
Exhibition of 1851 originated in a suggestion he made at a 
meeting of the Society of Arts, and owed the greater part of 
its success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts.  He had 
to work for its realization against an extraordinary outburst 
of angry expostulations.  Every stage in his project was 
combated.  In the House of Peers, Lord Brougham denied the 
right of the crown to hold the exhibition in Hyde Park; in 
the Commons, Colonel Sibthorp prophesied that England would 
be overrun with foreign rogues and revolutionists, who would 
subvert the morals of the people, filch their trade secrets 
from them, and destroy their faith and loyalty towards their 
religion and their sovereign.  Prince Albert was president of 
the exhibition commission, and every post brought him abusive 
letters, accusing him, as a foreigner, of being intent upon 
the corruption of England.  He was not the man to be balked by 
talk of this kind, but quietly persevered, looking always to 
the probability that the manufacturing power of Great Britain 
would be quickened by bringing the best manufactured products 
of foreign countries under the eyes of the mechanics and 
artisans.  A sense of the artistic was at this time almost 
wholly wanting among the English people.  One day the prince 
had a conversation with a great manufacturer of crockery, 
and sought to convert him to the idea of issuing something 
better than the eternal willow-pattern in white with gold, 
red or blue, which formed the staple of middle and lower class 
domestic china.  The manufacturer held out that new shapes 
and designs would not be saleable; but he was induced to 
try, and he did so with such a rapid success that a revolution 
in the china cupboards of England was accomplished from that 
time.  The exhibition was opened by the queen on the 1st of May 
1851, and was a colossal success; and the realized surplus 
of L. 150,000 went to establish and endow the South Kensington 
Museum (afterwards renamed ``Victoria and Albert'') and to 
purchase land in that neighbourhood.  Similar institutions, 
On a smaller scale but with a kindred aim, always found in 
him warm advocacy and substantial support.  It was chiefly at 
meetings in connexion with these that he found occasion for 
the delivery of addresses characterized by profound thought and 
comprehensiveness of view, a collection of which was published in 
1857.  One of the most favourable specimens of his powers 
as a speaker is the inaugural address which he delivered as 
president of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science when it met at Aberdeen in 1859.  The education of his 
family and the management of his domestic affairs furnished 
the prince with another very important sphere of action, in 
which he employed himself with conscientious devotedness. 

The estates of the duchy of Cornwall, the hereditary appanage of 
the prince of Wales, were so greatly improved under his father's 
management that the rent-roll rose from L. 11,000 to L. 50,000 a 
year.  Prince Albert, indeed, had a peculiar talent for the 
management of landed estates.  His model farm at Windsor was in 
every way worthy of the name; and the grounds at Balmoral and 
Osborne were laid out entirely in conformity with his designs. 

A character so pure. and a life so useful and well-directed in 
all its aims, could scarcely fail to win respect among those 
who were acquainted with the facts.  As the prince became better 
known, public mistrust began to give way.  In 1847, but only 
after a significantly keen contest with Earl Powis, he was 
elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge; and he was 
afterwards appointed master of the Trinity House.  In June 
1857 the formal title of prince-consort was conferred upon 
him by letters patent, in order to settle certain difficulties 
as to precedence that had been raised at foreign courts. 

But in the full career of his usefulness he was cut off.  
During the autumn of 1861 he was busy with the arrangements 
for the projected international exhibition, and it was just 
after returning from one of the meetings in connexion with 
it that he was seized with his last illness.  Beginning at 
the end of November with what appeared to be influenza, it 
proved to be an attack of typhoid fever, and, congestion of 
the lungs supervening, he died on the 14th of December.  The 
grief of the queen was overwhelming and the sympathy of the 
whole nation marked a revulsion of feeling about the prince 
himself which was not devoid of compunction for earlier want of 
appreciation.  The magnificent mausoleum at Frogmore, in which 
his remains were finally deposited, was erected at the expense 
of the queen and the royal family; and many public monuments to 
``Albert the Good'' were erected all over the country, the most 
notable being the Albert Hall (1867) and the Albert Memorial 
(1876) in London.  His name was also commemorated in the queen's 
institution of the Albert medal ( 1866) in reward for gallantry 
in saving life, and of the order of Victoria and Albert (1862). 

By the queen's authority, her secretary, General Grey, compiled 
The Early Days of the Prince Consort, published in 1867; and 
The Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (ist vol., 1874; 
2nd, 1880) mas similarly edited by Sir Theodore Martin.  A volume 
of the Principal Specches and Addresses of Prince Albert, 
with an introduction by Sir Arthur Helps, was published in 
1862.  See also the Letters of Queen Victoria (ioo7). (H. CH.) 

ALBERT I. (c. 1250-1308), German king, and duke of Austria, 
eldest son of King Rudolph I., the founder of the greatness 
of the house of Habsburg, was invested with the duchies of 
Austria and Styria, together with his brother Rudolph, in 
1282.  In 1283 his father entrusted him with their sole 
government, and he appears to have ruled them with conspicuous 
success.  Rudolph was unable to secure the succession to 
the German throne for his son, and on his death in 1291, the 
princes, fearing Albert's power, chose Adolph of Nassau as 
king.  A rising among his Swabian dependants compelled Albert 
to recognize the sovereignty of his rival, and to confine 
himself to the government of the Habsburg territories.  
He did not abandon his hopes of the throne, and, in 1298, 
was chosen German king by some of the princes, who were 
dissatisfied with Adolph.  The armies of the rival kings 
met at Gollheim near Worms, where Adolph was defeated and 
slain, and Albert submitted to a fresh election.  Having 
secured the support of several influential princes by extensive 
promises, he was chosen at Frankfort on the 27th of July 
1298, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of August 
following.  Albert sought to play an important part in European 
affairs.  He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with 
France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of Pope 
Boniface VIII. to recognize his election led him to change his 
policy, and, in 1299, a treaty was made between Albert and 
Philip IV., king of France, by which Rudolph, the son of the 
German king, was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French 
king.  He afterwards became estranged from Philip, and, in 
1303, was recognized as German king and future emperor by 
Boniface, and, in return, admitted the right of the pope 
alone to bestow the imperial crown, and promised that none 
of his sons should be elected German king without the papal 
consent.  Albert had failed in his attempt to seize Holland and 
Zealand, as vacant fiefs of the Empire, on the death of Count 
John I. in 1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia 
for his son Rudolph on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He 
also renewed the claim which had been made by his predecessor, 
Adolf, on Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the 
succession to the Hungarian throne.  His attack on Thuringia 
ended in his defeat at Lucka in 1307, and, in the same year, 
the death of his son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern 
Europe.  His action in abolishing all tolls established on 
the Rhine since 1250, led to the formation of a league against 
him by the Rhenish archbishops and the count palatine of the 
Rhine; but aided by the towns, he soon crushed the rising.  
He was on the way to suppress a revolt in Swabia when he was 
murdered on the 1st of May 1308, at Windisch on the Reuss, by 
his nephew John, afterwards called ``the Parricide,'' whom he 
had deprived of his inheritance.  Albert married Elizabeth, 
daughter of Meinhard IV., count of Gorz and Tirol, who bore 
him six sons and five daughters.  Although a hard, stern 
man, he had a keen sense of justice when his selfish interests 
were not involved, and few of the German kings possessed so 
practical an intelligence.  He encouraged the cities, and 
not content with issuing proclamations against private war, 
formed alliances with the princes in order to enforce his 
decrees.  The serfs, whose wrongs seldom attracted notice 
in an age indifferent to the claims of common humanity, 
found a friend in this severe monarch, and he protected 
even the despised and persecuted Jews.  The stories of his 
cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons first appear 
in the 16th century, and are now regarded as legendary. 

See G. Droysen, Albrechts I. Bemuhungen um die Nachfolge 
im Reich (Leipzig, 1862); J. F. A. Mucke, Albrecht 
I. von IIabsburg (Gotha, 1865); A. L. J. Michelsen, 
Die Landgrafschaft Thuringen unter den Konigen 
Adolf, Albrecht, und Heinrich VII. (Jena, 1860). 

ALBERT II. (1397-1439), German king, king of Bohemia and 
Hungary, and (as Albert V.) duke of Austria, was born on the 
10th of August 1397, the son of Albert IV. of Habsburg, duke of 
Austria.  He succeeded to the duchy of Austria on his father's 
death in 1404.  After receiving a good education, he undertook 
the government of Austria in 1411, and succeeded, with the 
aid of his advisers, in adding the duchy of the evils which 
had arisen during his minority.  He assisted the German king, 
Sigismund, in his campaigns against the Hussites, and in 
1422 married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sigismund, 
who designated him as his successor.  When the German king 
died in 1437, Albert was crowned king of Hungary on the 
1st of January 1438, and although crowned king of Bohemia 
six months later, he was unable to obtain possession of the 
country.  He was engaged in warfare with the Bohemians and 
their Polish allies, when on the 18th of March 1438 he was 
chosen German king at Frankfort, an honour which he does 
not appear to have sought.  Afterwards engaged in defending 
Hungary against the attacks of the Turks, he died on the 
27th of October 1439 at Langendorf, and was buried at 
Stuhlweissenburg.  Albert was an energetic and warlike prince, 
whose short reign gave great promise of usefulness lor Germany. 

ALBERT (1490-1545), elector and archbishop of Mainz, and 
archbishop of Magdeburg, was the younger son of John Cicero, 
elector of Brandenburg, and was born on the 28th of June 
1490.  Having studied at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
he entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in 1513 became 
archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of the diocese of 
Halberstadt.  In 1514 he obtained the electorate of Mainz, 
and in 1518 was made a cardinal.  Meanwhile to pay for 
the pallium of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other 
expenses of his elevation, Albert had borrowed a large sum of 
money from the Fuggers, and had obtained permission from Pope 
Leo X. to conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to 
obtain funds to repay this loan.  For this work he procured 
the services of John Tetzel, and so indirectly exercised a 
potent influence on the course of the Reformation.  When the 
imperial election of 1519 drew near, the elector's vote was 
eagerly solicited by the partisans of Charles (afterwards 
the emperor Charles V.) and by those of Francis I., king of 
France, and he appears to have received a large amount of 
money for the vote which he cast eventually for Charles.  
Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with Ulrich 
von Hutten, and his political ambitions, appear to have raised 
hopes that he would be won over to the reformed faith; but 
after the Peasants' War of 1525 he ranged himself definitely 
among the supporters of Catholicism, and was among the princes 
who met to concert measures for its defence at Dessau in July 
1525.  His hostility towards the reformers, however, was 
not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I., elector of 
Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself in the 
interests of peace, although he was a member of the league 
of Nuremberg, which was formed in 1538 as a counterpoise to 
the league of Schmalkalden.  The new doctrines nevertheless 
made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was 
compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants 
of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins.  During his 
latter years indeed he showed more intolerance towards the 
Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in his 
dominions.  Albert adorned the Stiftiskirche at Halle and 
the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and took as his 
motto the words Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae. A generous 
patron of ait and learning, he counted Erasmus among his 
friends.  He died at Aschaffenburg on the 24th of September 1545. 

See I. H. Hennes, Albrecht von Brandenburg, Erzbischofvon 
Mbinz und Magdeburg (Mai1iz, 1858); i.  May, Der 
Kuriurst, Kardinal, und Erzbischof Albrecht II. von Mainz 
unid Mogdeburg (Munich, 1865--1875ai co.  Schum, Kardinal 
Albrecht von Mainz und die Erfurter Kirchenreformation 
(Halle, 1878); P. Redlich, Kardinal Albrecht von 
Brandenburg, und das neue Stift zu Halte (Mainz, 1900). 

ALBERT (1490-1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 
and first duke of Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of 
Hohenzollern, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia, 
daughter of Casimir IV., king of Poland.  Born at Ansbach 
on the 16th of May 1490, he was intended for the church, and 
passed some time at the court of Hermann, elector of Cologne, 
who appointed him to a canonry in his cathedral.  Turning 
to a more active life, he accompanied the emperor Maximilian 
I. to Italy in 1508, and after his return spent some time in 
Hungary.  In December, Frederick, grand master of the Teutonic 
Order, died, and Albert, joining the order, was chosen as his 
successor early in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to 
Sigismund I., king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement 
of the disputes over east Prussia, which had been held by the 
order under Polish suzerainty since 1466.  The new master, 
however, showed no desire to be conciliatory, and as war 
appeared inevitable, he made strenuous efforts to secure 
allies, and carried on tedious negotiations with the emperor 
Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of 
members of the order in Poland, culminated in a struggle which 
began in December 1519.  During the ensuing year Prussia was 
devastated, and Albert consented early in 1521 to a truce for four 
years.  The dispute was referred to the emperor Charles V. 
and other princes, but as no settlement was reached the master 
continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the 
war.  For this purpose he visited Nuremberg in 1522, where 
he made the acquaintance of the reformer, Andreas Osiander, 
by whose influence he was won over to the side of the new 
faith.  He then journeyed to Wittenberg, where he was advised 
by Martin Luther to cast aside the senseless rules of his 
order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into an hereditary 
duchy for himself.  This proposal, which commended itself to 
Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives; 
but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured 
Pope Adrian VI. that he was anxious to reform the order 
and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran doctrines.  
Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in 
order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread 
his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, 
George, prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before Sigismund of 
Poland.  After some delay the king assented to it provided that 
Prussia were held as a Polish fief; and after this arrangement 
had been confirmed by a treaty made at Cracow, Albert was 
invested with the duchy by Sigismund for himself and his heirs 
on the 10th of February 1525.  The estates of the land then 
met at Konigsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the new 
duke, who used his full powers to forward the doctrines of 
Luther.  This transition did not, however, take place without 
protest.  Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert 
refused to appear and was placed under the ban; while the order, 
having deposed the grand master, made a feeble effort to recover 
Prussia.  But as the German princes were either too busy or 
too indifferent to attack the duke, the agitation against 
him soon died away.  In imperial politics Albert was fairly 
active.  Joining the league of Torgau in 1526, he acted inunison 
with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded 
themselves together to overthrow Charles V. after the issue 
of the Interim in May 1548.  Forvarious reasons, however, 
poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a 
prominent part in the military operations of this period. The
early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were faidy prosperous.  
Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands 
and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the 
nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the 
court.  He did something for the furtherance of learning by 
establishing schools in every town and by giving privileges 
to serfs who adopted a scholastic life.  In 1544, in spite 
of some opposition, he founded a university at Konigsberg, 
where he appointed his friend Osiander to a professorship in 
1549.  This step was the beginning of the troubles which clouded 
the closing years of Albert's reign.  Osiander's divergence 
from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him 
in a violent quarrel with XIelanchthon, who had adherents in 
Konigsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an 
uproar in the town.  The duke strenuously supported Osiander, 
and the area of the quarrel soon broadened.  There were no longer 
church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, 
the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became 
unpopular.  After Osiander's death in 1552 he favoured a preacher 
named John Funck, who, with an adventurer named Paul Scalich, 
exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable 
wealth at the public expense.  The state of turmoil caused by 
these religious and political disputes was increased by the 
possibility of Albert's early death and the necessity in that 
event for a regency owing to the youth of his only son, Albert 
Frederick.  The duke was consequently obliged to consent to a 
condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came 
in 1566 when the estates appealed to Sigismund II., king of 
Poland, who sent a commission to Konigsberg.  Scalich saved 
his life by flight, but Funck was executed; the question of 
the regency was settled; and a form of Lutheranism was adopted, 
and declared binding on all teachers and preachers.  Virtually 
deprived of power, the duke lived for two years longer, and 
died at Tapiau on the 20th of March 1568.  In 1526 he had 
married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick I., king of Denmark, 
and after her death in 1547, Anna Maria, daughter of Eric 
I., duke of Brunswick.  Albert was a voluminous letterwriter, 
and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the 
time.  In 1891 a statue was erected to his memory at Konigsberg. 

See J. Voigt, Briefwechsel der beruhmtested Gelehrten des 
Zeitalters der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht von Preussen 
(Konigsberg, 1841); E. Joachim, Die Politik des letzten 
Hochmeisters in Preussen, Albrecht von Brandenburg (Leipzig, 
1892); K. Lohmeyer, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen (Danzig, 1890). 

ALBERT III. ( 1443-1500), duke of Saxony, surnamed ANIMOSUS 
or THE COURAGEOUS, younger son of Frederick II., the Mild, 
elector and duke of Saxony, was born on the 27th of January 
1443, and after escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, 
who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, passed 
some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III. in 
Vienna.  In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of 
George Podebrad, king of Bohemia, but failed to obtain the 
Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471.  After the 
death of the elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled 
their lands together, but in 1485 a division was made by the 
treaty of Leipzig, and Albert received Meissen, together,with 
some adjoining districts, and founded the Albertine branch of 
the family of Wettin.  Regarded as a capable soldier by the 
emperor, Albert, in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign 
against Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led 
an expedition against Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, 
which failed owing to lack of support on the part of the 
emperor.  In 1488 he marched with the imperial forces to free 
the Roman king Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and 
when, in 1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left 
as his representative to prosecute the war against the rebels.  
He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian 
in Holland, Flanders and Brabant, but failed to obtain any 
repayment of the large sums of money which he had spent in these 
campaigns.  His services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian 
bestowed upon him the title of hereditary governor (potestat) 
of Friesland, but he had to make good his claim by force of 
arms.  He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying 
a visit to Saxony, when he was recalled by news of a fresh 
rising.  Groningen was captured, but soon afterwards the duke 
died at Emden, on the 12th of September 1500.  He was buried at 
Meissen.  Albert, who was a man of great strength and considerable 
skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly 
exercises.  His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses 
incurred in this connexion, aroused some irritation among his 
subjects, but his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony. 

See F. A. von Langenn, Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte, 
Stammvater des koniglichen IIauses Sachsen (Leipzig, 
1838); O. Sperling, Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte 
von Sachsen als Gubernator Frieslands (Leipzig, 1892). 

ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony (18281902), was 
born on the 23rd of April 1828, being the eldest son of Prince 
John, who succeeded to the throne in 1854.  His education 
was, as is usual with German princes, to a great extent 
military, but he attended lectures at the university of 
Bonn.  His first experience of warfare was in 1849,'when he 
served as a captain in the campaign of Schleswig-Holstein 
against the Danes.  When the war of 1866 broke out, the 
crown-prince was placed in command of the Saxon forces 
opposing the Prussian army of Prince Frederick Charles.  No 
attempt was made to defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into 
Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians.  They 
took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians 
forced the line of the Iser and in the battle of Gitchin.  The 
crown-prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in 
good order, and in the decisive battle of Koniggratz (see 
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) he held the extreme loft of the Austrian 
position.  The Saxons maintained their post with great 
tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their 
allies.  During these operations the crown-prince won the 
reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and 
Saxony had entered the North German confederation, he was 
placed in command of the Saxon army, which had now become 
the XII. army corps of the North German army, and in this 
position carried out the necessary reorganization.  He was a 
firm adherent of the Prussian alliance.  On the outbreak of 
war in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included 
in the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles, his old 
opponent.  At the battle of Gravelotte they formed the extreme 
left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out 
the attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the 
battle.  In the reorganization of the army which accompanied 
the march towards Paris the crown-prince was given a separate 
command over the 4th army (army of the Meuse) consisting of 
the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps and the IV. (Prussian 
Saxony) corps.  He was succeeded in command of the XII. corps 
by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in 
Bohemia.  He took a leading part in the operations which 
preceded the battle of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot 
on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of Macmahon; 
and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on the 29th and 
30th of August were fought under his direction; in the 
battle of Sedan itself, with the troops under his orders, 
he carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and 
north.  His conduct in these engagements won for him the 
complete confidence of the army, and during the siege of Paris 
his troops formed the north-east section of the investing 
force.  After the conclusion of the armistice he was left in 
command of the German army of occupation, a position which 
he held till the fall of the Commune.  On the conclusion 
of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and 
field-marshal.  On the death of his father on the 29th of October 
1873 he succeeded to the throne.  His reign was uneventful, 
and he took little public part in politics, devoting himself 
to military affairs, in which his advice and experielice 
were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but 
to the German army in general.  In 1897 he was appointed 
arbitrator between the claimants for the principality of 
Lippe.  King Albert married in 1853 Carola, daughter of Prince 
Gustavus of Vasa, and granddaughter of the last king of Sweden 
of the house of Holstein.  He died on the 19th of June 1902. 

ALBERT, surnamed THE DEGENERATE (c. 1240-1314), 
landgrave of Thuringia, was the eldest son of Henry III., 
the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen.  He married Margaret, 
daughter of the emperor Frederick II., in 1254, and in 1265 
received from his father Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate.  
His infatuation for Kunigunde of Eisenberg caused his wife to 
leave him, and after her death in 1270 he married Kunigunde, 
who had already borne him a son, Apitz or Albert.  He wished 
to make Apitz his successor in Thuringia, a plan which was 
resisted by his two elder sons, and a war broke out which 
lasted until 1307, when he abandoned Thuringia, in return for 
a yearly payment, but retained the title of landgrave (see 
THURINGIA.) Albert, who had married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Hermann III., count of Orlamunde, after the death of 
his second wife in 1286, died on the 13th of November 1314. 

See F. X. Wegele, Friedrich der Friedige, Markgraf von 
Meissen, und die Wettiner seiner Zeit (Nordlingen, 
1820); F. W. Tittmann, Geschichte Heinirich des 
Erlauchten Markgraven zu Meissen (Leipzig, 1863). 

ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT), ARCHDUKE (1817-1895), 
Austrian field-marshal, was the eldest son of the archduke Charles 
(Karl Friedrich), and was born on the 3rd of August 1817 at 
Vienna.  After being educated under the careful superintendence 
of his father, he entered the Austrian (H.K.) army as a colonel 
of infantry in 1837, and was transferred to the cavalry arm in 
1839, becoming a major-general in 1840.  A brief period of 
leave in this year he spent at the great n:an0-uvres in Italy, 
to learn the art of troop-leading from the first soldier in 
Europe, Radetzky.  He then took over the command of a brigade 
of all arms at Graz.  In 1844 he married Trincess Hildegarde of 
Bavaria.  He had been made a lieutenant field-marshal in the 
previous year, and was now placed in command of the forces 
in Upper and Lower Austria.  In this position he did much to 
maintain and improve the efficiency of the troops under his 
command, at a time when nearly all armies in Europe, with 
the exception of Radetzky's in Italy, had sunk to the lowest 
level.  The influence of Radetzky over the young archduke 
was indeed remarkable.  At this time the Austrian generals 
and staff officers had committed themselves blindly to the 
strategical method of the archduke Charles, the tradition of 
whose practical soldiership survived only in Radetzky and a few 
others.  Albert chose to follow the latter, and was thus saved 
from the pseudoscientific pedantry which brought defeat to the 
Austrian arms in 1359 and in 1866.  His first serious service 
came in March 1848, when it became his duty, as district 
commander, to maintain order in Vienna by force, and at the 
outbreak of revolution in Vienna during the month of March he 
was in command of the troops who came into collision with the 
rioters.  Owing to the collapse of the government it was 
impossible to repress the disturbances, and he was relieved 
from a post which brought much unpopularity and was not suitable 
to be held by a member of the imperial family.  He went at 
once to the seat of war in Italy, and fought under Radetzky 
as a volunteer throughout the campaign of 1848, being present 
at the action of bastrengo and the battles of Santa Lucia and 
Custozza.  In the following campaign he applied for and 
obtained the command of a division in the II. corps (FZM. 
d'Aspre), though his previous grade had been that of a general 
commanding-in-chief.  The splendid fighting of the corps at 
Novara was decisive of the war, and Radetzky named d'Aspre, 
Count Thurn, and the archduke as the general officers 
worthy of the greatest rewards.  The field-marshal indeed 
recommended, and almost insisted, that Albert should receive 
the much-prized order of Maria Theresa.  In 1850 he became a 
general of cavalry, and in 1851 military and civil governor of 
Hungary.  In this important and difficult position he 
remained until 1860, when he was relieved at his own request.  
Shortly afterwards he was appointed to succeed Radetzky as 
commander-in-chief in Italy, and in 1863 he was promoted 
field-marshal.  In the following year the archduke lost his 
wife, soon after the marriage of their elder daughter to 
Duke Philip of Wurttemberg.  In 1859 and 1864 he was sent on 
important military and diplomatic missions to Berlin.  When 
war became imminent in 1866, the archduke took command of 
the field army in Italy.  The story of the campaign of 1866 
in Italy will be found under ITALIAN WARS (1848-1870); the 
operations of the archduke, who disposed of greatly inferior 
forces, were crowned with success in the brilliant victory of 
Custozza (June 23), and his reputation as a general-in-chief 
was firmly established by only eight days of field 
operations, though it is possible that his chief of staff, 
Lieut.  Field-Marshal von John, contributed not a little to 
the success of the Austrian arms.  The result of Custozza was 
the retreat and complete immobilization of the whole Italian 
army, so that Albert was able to despatch the greater part of 
his troops to reinforce the Bohemian army, when, after being 
defeated by the Prussians, it fell back on Vienna.  On the 10th 
of July the archduke was summoned to Vienna to take supreme 
command of the forces which were being collected to defend the 
capital, but peace was made before further hostilities took 
place.  From this time, under various titles, he acted as 
inspector-general of the army.  Like his father, and with 
better fortune, he was called upon to reorganize the military 
system of his country on an entirely new pian, learned, as 
before, by defeat.  The principle of universal short service, 
and the theory of the armed nation, were necessarily the 
groundwork of the reforms, and the consequent preparation 
of all the national resources for their task in war, by 
the superintendence of peace administration, by the skilful 
conduct of man0-uvres, was thenceforward the task of his 
lifetime.  In 1870 he conducted the military negotiatio:1s 
preparatory to an alliance with France, which, however, was 
not concluded.  The tragic death of his daughter, Princess 
Mathilde, in 1867, and the death of his brother, Archduke Karl 
Ferdinand, in 1874, narrowed still further his family circle, 
and impelled him to even greater activity in his military duties, 
and to effective participation in the work of many military 
charities.  IUe retained personal control of the army until his 
last illness, which he contracted at the funeral of his nephew 
Francis, ex-king of Naples.  His only remaining brother, the 
archduke Wilhelm, had died a few months before, as the result 
of an accident.  He himself died on the 18th of February 
1895.  His only son died in childhood, and his nephew Archduke 
Frederick (born 1856) inherited his great possessions, including 
the Albertina, a famous collection of books, manuscripts, 
engravings and maps, founded by Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen. 

Amongst the military works of the Archduke Albert may be 
named Uber die Verantworllichkeil im Kriege (a work which 
created a great sensation, and was translated into English 
and French), Gledanken uber dem Militargeist, Uber die 
hohere Heitung im Kriege, and Kritische Betrachtunger 
uber den Feldzug 1866 in Italien.  He also was the 
principal editor of the military works of his father. 

See Duncker, F. M. Erzherzog Albrecht (Vienna and Prague, 
189; Mathes v.  Bilabruck, ``Gedenkrede auf Weiland Sr. K. 
u.  K. H. Erzh.  Albrecht,'' Mil.-Wissenschaftl.  Verein, 1895; 
Teuber, F. M. Erzh.  Albrecht, ein Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895). 

ALBERT, MADAME (c. 1805-1846), French actress, whose 
maiden name was Theresc Vernet, was born of a family of 
players.  She first appeared in children's and ingenile 
parts, and in comic opera, and it was not until 1827, two 
years after her Paris debut, that her great talents 
were seen and appreciated.  In Caleb Valentine, Henry 
V., Madame Dubarry, Catherine II., Leontine,, Un duel sous 
le cardinal de Richelieu, and many other plays, her grace, 
beauty and distinction of manner made her the idol of Paris, 
and her circle of admirers was widened by long tours of the 
provinces and abroad.  Ill-health compelled her to retire in 
1846.  She was twice married, about 1825 to Albert Rodrigues, 
an actor who played under his Christian name, and in 1846 
to Eugene Bignon (1812-1858), the actor and playwright. 

ALBERT OF AIX (fl. c. A.D. 1100), historian of the first 
crusade, was born during the later part of the 11th century, 
and afterwards became canon and custos of the church of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  Nothing else is known of his life except 
that he was the author of a Historia Hierosolymitanae 
expeditionis, or Chronicon Hierosolymitanum de bello 
sacro, a work in twelve books, written between 1125 and 
1150.  This history begins at the time of the council of 
Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the first crusade and 
the earlier history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, and 
ends somewhat abruptly in 1121.  It was well known during the 
middle ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of 
Tyre, for the first six books of his Belli sacri historia. 
In modern times its historical value has been seriously 
impugned, but the verdict of the best scholarship seems 
to be that in general it forms a true record of the events 
of the first crusade, although containing some legendary 
matter.  Albert never visited the Holy Land, but he appears 
to have had a considerable amount of intercourse with 
returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable 
correspondence.  The first edition of the history was published 
at Helmstadt in 1584, and a good edition is in the Recueil 
des historiens des croisades, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887). 

See F. Krebs, Zur Kritik Alberts von Aachen (Munster, 
1881); B. Kugler, Albert von Aachen (Stuttgart, 1885); 
M. Figeonneau, Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famine 
de Bouillon (Paris, 1877); H. von Sybel, Geschichte des 
ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881): F. Vercruysse, Essai 
critique sur la chronique d'Albert d'Aix (Liege, 1889). 

ALBERTA, a province of western Canada, established in 
1905.  Area 260,000 sq. m.  It is bounded S. by the United 
States boundary line, 49 deg.  N.; E. by 110 deg.  W., vhich divides 
it from the province of Saskatchewan; N. by 60 deg.  N., which 
separates it from the North-West Territories; and W. by 
the line of peaks of the Rocky Mountains range, vhich runs 
northwesterly, and divides it from British Columbia.  A 
fertile province, in the eastern and southern portions 
its surface consists chiefly of plains almost entirely 
treeless.  As the slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the west 
are reached 1rore trees are found, until in the foot-hills of 
the mountains bcdies of forest timber occur.  Trees become more 
numerous also northward in the province, until in the region 
north of the North Saskatchewan river forests are again met 
with..  From the southern boundary line for two and a half 
degrees north the prairie is dry, but of good soil, which 
grows excellent crops when irrigated.  North of this region 
the surface of the province is of itost fertile soil, the 
ordinary rainfall sufficing for agriculture.  The appearance 
of the prairie section of the province is that cf undulating 
meadows, with rounded sloping ridges covered with shorter . 
grasses, which serve for the support of great herds of cattle and 
horses.  The.wooded portions of the terrain are dotted with 
clumps and belts of trees of moderate size, giving them a 
parklike appearance.  In winter the snowfall is very light, 
and even this is frequently removed by warm winds from the 
west.  Within a hundred miles of the mountains there is 
constanlly in view, in clear weather, the beautiful line 
of snowy peaks along the western horizon.  This continues 
for hundreds of miles north-westward.  The Rocky Mountains, 
vhich give its charm to Alberta, are ascended by a gradual 
approach from the east, but are exceedingly abrupt on their 
transalpine slope in British Columbia.  The peaks of these 
mountains are 1rajestic, many of them reaching a height of 
more than two niles above the sea.  Among the more notable 
of these are Lcbscn peak, 13,700 ft.; Athabasca, 13,700; 
Assiniboine, 11,8s0; Fyell, 12,000; Mummery, 12,000; 
Temple, 11,658; and Geikie, 11,000.  Mt. Brown reaches 9050. 

Through these Rocky Mountains the explorers and furtraders, by 
ascending the streams running down the eastern declivities of 
the mountains, and crossing by short portages to the streams 
of the western slope, have succeeded in discovering passes 
by which the mountain chain can be crossed, the range rarely 
exceeding 60 m. in breadth.  The most noted of the Alberta 
passes are (1) the Crow's Nest Pass, near the southern boundary 
line, through which a branch of the Canadian I,acific' 
railway runs; (2) the Kicking Horse Pass, through which the 
main line of the Canadian Pacific railway is built; 80 m. 
from the eastern end of this pass is the Rocky Mountains 
Park, with the famous watering-place of Banff as its centre; 
(3) the Yellow Head Pass, running west from the northern 
branch of the Saskatchewan river; this pass was discovered by 
Capt.  Pallise1 (1858), was crossed by Lord Milton and Dr 
W. B. Cheadle (1861), and by Sandford Fleming (1871-1872) in 
the Ocean to Ocean expedition; (4) Peace River Pass.  By this 
pass Alexander Mackenzie made his celebrated voyage.  There 
are other minor passes, and no doubt more to be discovered. 

With the exception of the southern section, the province of 
Alberta may be said to be well watered.  Rising from numerous 
valleys on the Alberta declivity of the Rocky Mountains between 
the international boundary line and 52 deg.  N. are streams which 
unite to form the Belly river, and farther north the Bow 
river.  Running eastward these two rivers unite about 112 deg.  
W;, and flow on under the name of the South Saskatchewan 
river.  North of 52 deg.  N. many small streams unite to form 
the Red Deer river, which flowing south-eastward joins the 
South Saskatchewan near 110 deg.  W. Between 52 deg.  and 53 deg.  N. 
rises the great river, the North Saskatchewan.  It receives 
a southern tributary, the Battle river, which joins it 
about 108 deg.  W. Pursuing their courses eastward the North 
and South Saskatchewan rivers unite in the Saskatchewan 
(Cree, rapid-flowing river), which finds its way to Lake 
Winnipeg, and thence by way of Nelson river to Hudson 
Bay. It is one of the mightiest rivers of the continent. 

Between 53 deg.  and 54 deg.  N. begins the height of land running 
north-easterly, north of which all the waters of Alberta flow 
toward the Arctic Sea. In northern Alberta, on the northern 
slope, gathering its tributaries from rills in the Rocky 
Mountains, the river Athabasca runs north and empties into 
Lake Athabasca near 58 deg.  N. North of 56 deg.  N. flows through and 
from the Rocky Mountains the Peace river.  After descending 
north-eastward to within a few miles of Lake Athabasca, it 
is met by a stream emerging from that lake.  The united river 
carrying down the waters of the Athabasca slope is called 
the Slave river, which, passing through Great Slave Lake, 
emerges as the great Mackenzie river, which falls into the 
Arctic Sea. Alberta thus gives rise to the two great rivers 
Saskatchewan and Mackenzie.  While a number of fresh-water, 
or in some cases brackish, lakes each less than 100 sq. m. 
in extent are situated in Alberta, two of more considerable 
size are found.  These are Lake Athabasca, 3085 sq. m. in 
extent, of which a part is in the province of Saskatchewan, 
and the other Lesser Slave Lake some 600 sq. m. in area. 

Climate.--As Alberta extends for 750 m. from north to 
south---as great a distance as from Land's End in England 
to the north of the Shetland Isles--it is natural that the 
climate should vary considerably between parallels of 40 deg.  
and 60 deg.  N.. and also between 110 deg.  and 120 deg.  W. It is also 
further influenced by the different altitudes above the 
sea of the several parts of the province.  Dividing the 
province into three equal parts of 250 m. each from north to 
south, these may be called (A) the south, (B) the centre, 
(C) the north.  The following data may be considered:-- 


 
                      CLIMATIC TABLE
      Climate           Places                  Above the Sea   Mean Winter Temp
  (A) Moderate and   Medicine Hat,                2171 ft.        14.3 deg.  F.
        changeable     lat. 50 deg.  N.
                     Calgary, lat. 51 deg.        3432  "         15.4 deg.  "
                     Banff, lat. 51 1/2 deg.      4515  "         15.9 deg.  "
 
  (B) Steady         Edmonton, lat. 53 1/2 deg.   2210  "         10.3 deg.  "
 
  (C) Severe         Fort Chipewyan, lat.          600  "          7.2 deg.  "
                       lat. 59 deg.  N.
 

Climate (A) allows, in what is a great ranching district, 
cattle and horses to run at large through the whole 
winter.  Through the mountain passes come at times dry winds 
from the Pacific coast, which lick up the snow in a few 
hours.  These winds are known as Chinook winds.  While 
elevating the temperature they bring more moisture into 
the air and produce a change not entirely desirable. 

Climate (B) is the steady winter climate of Edmonton 
district.  This while averaging a lower temperature than 
(A) is not so subject to change; it retains the snow for 
sleighing, which is a boon to the farmer.  This climate 
is much less influenced by the Pacific winds than (A). 

Climate (C), that of Fort Chipewyan, having a mean winter 
temperature of 22.6 deg.  lower than Calgary, is a decidedly 
sub-arctic climate.  It is the region in winter of constant 
ice and snow, but its lower altitude gives it a summer 
climate with a mean temperature of only 1.6 deg.  less than 
Calgary, and 1.8 deg.  less than Edmonton.  It will thus be seen 
that the agricultural capabilities of the Athabasca and Peace 
river districts, not yet fully known, are full of promise. 

Fauna.--The three climatic regions of Alberta have naturally 
a varying fauna.  The south and central region was the land 
of the bison, its grasses affording a great pasture ground 
for tens of thousands of ``buffaloes.'' They were destroyed 
by whites and Indians in 1870-1882 on the approach of the 
Canadian Pacific railway.  Grizzly, black and cinnamon bears 
are, found in the mountains and wooded districts.  The 
coyote or small wolf, here and there the grey wolf, the fox 
and the mountain lion (panther) occur.  The moose and red 
deer are found in the wooded regions, and the jumping deer 
and antelope on the prairies.  Wild sheep and goats live 
in the Rocky Mountains.  The lynx, wolverine, porcupine, 
skunk, hare, squirrel and mouse are met.  The gopher is a 
resident of the dry plains.  District (C) is the fur-trader's 
paradise.  The buffalo is replaced by the mountain buffaloes, 
of which a few survive.  The musk-ox comes in thousands 
every year to the great northern lakes, while the mink, 
marten, beaver, otter, ermine and musk-rat are sought by the 
fur-trader.  Fort Chipewyan was long known in Hudson's Bay 
Company history as the great depot of the Mackenzie river 
district.  Northern Alberta and the region farther north 
is the nesting-ground of the migratory birds.  Here vast 
numbers of ducks, geese, swans and pelicans resort every 
year.  Cranes, partridges and varieties of singing birds 
abound.  The eagle, hawk, owl and crow are plentiful.  Mosquitoes 
and flies are everywhere, and the wasp and wild bee also.  In 
the rivers and lakes pike, pickerel, white fish and sturgeon 
supply food for the natives, and the brook trout is found in 
the small mountain streams.  The turtle and frog also appear. 

Flora.--In central and northern Alberta the opening spring 
brings in the prairie anemone, the avens and other early 
flowers.  The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the 
sunflower family, until in August the plains are one blaze of 
yellow and purple.  The southern part of Alberta is covered 
by a short grass, very nutritive, but drying up in the middle 
of summer until the whole prairie is brown and unattractive.  
The trees in the wooded sections of the province are seen 
in clumps and belts on the hill sides.  These are largely 
deciduous.  On the north side of the Saskatchewan river 
forests prevail for scores and even hundreds of miles.  They 
contain the poplar Or aspen (Populus tremuloides), balsam 
poplar (Populus balsamifera), and paper or canoe birch 
(Fetula papyrifera.) The Coniferae are found northward 
and in the mountain valleys.  Some of these are: Jack pine 
(Pinus Banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine (Pinus flexilis), 
black pine (Pinus Murrayana), white spruce (Picea alba), 
black spruce (Picea nigra), Engelman's spruce (Picea 
Engelmanni), mountain balsam (Abies subalpina), Douglas fir 
(Pseudotsuga Douglasii), mountain larch (Larix Lyallis.) 

Population.--By the census of 1906 the population 
of Alberta was found to be 185,412.  It has grown from 
73,022 in 1901 (the area of Alberta being then slightly 
different).  The basis of the population is Canadian, and 
the immigration has been chiefly from (1) the British Isles, 
(2) United States, (3) continent of Europe (chiefly Austria, 
Hungary and Russia).  Of the population in 1901, 17,245 
had immigrated thither from the three mentioned sources.  
The following table shows the percentages of origins:-- 


 
                                               1901.
 
         Canadian and native born   .   .   .   54  %
         The British Isles  .   .   .   .   .    6.8%
         United States  .   .   .   .   .   .   16.6%
         Continent of Europe    .   .   .   .   24.4%
 

Of the Indian and Indian half-breed population there were in 
1901, 14,669 of the former and 11,635 of the latter.  The Indians 
of central Alberta are chiefly plain Crees, a tribe of Algonquin 
stock.  In southern Alberta are several thousands of Indians on 
reserves south and west of Calgary, consisting of the Blackfoots 
of Algonquin stock, Sarcees, Piegans and a few Assiniboins. 

The chief cities and towns of Alberta are Edmonton (11,167), Calgary 
(i1,967), Medicine IIat (3020), Lethbiidge (2948) and Strathcona (2927). 

Industries.--- The chief industries of the people are 
farming and ranching.  Cattle, horses and sheep are largely 
reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller 
holdings.  In this region irrigation is widely used.  Red 
winter wheat is now produced to a considerable degree.  In the 
town of Raymond is a large beet sugar manufactory, and in the 
vicinity great quantities of beets are grown by irrigation.  
In central Alberta coarse grains---oats and barley----and some 
wheat are grown, in conjunction with mixed farming.  While 
washing out the sands of the North Saskatchewan for gold is 
still somewhat resorted to, the only real mining in Alberta 
is that for coal.  Vast beds of coal are found extending for 
hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the 
plains.  The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, and while 
not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures is of excellent 
quality.  In the valley of the Bow river, alongside the Canadian 
Pacific railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal ale worked, and
the coal is carried by railway as far east as Winnipeg.  
The usual coal deposits of Alberta are of bituminous or 
semi-bituminous coal.  These are largely worked at Lethbridge 
in southern Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the 
province.  Many other parts of the province have pits for private 
use.  The Athabasca river region, as well as localities far 
north on the Mackenzie river, has decided indications of 
petroleum, though it is not yet developed.  Natural gas has 
been found at several points.  The most notable gas discovery 
is that at Medicine Hat, which has wells with unlimited 
quantities.  The gas is excellent, is used for lighting 
the town, supplies light and fuel for the people, and a 
number of industries are using the gas for manufacturing. 

Communications.---For transportation the North Saskatchewan is 
to some extent depended on for carrying freight by steamboats, 
but railways are widespread in the province.  The Canadian 
Pacific railway has its main line running from east to west 
chiefly between 50 and 51 deg.  N. Over this line passesanenormous 
trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean---the railway 
with its ``Empress'' steamers on the Pacific and also on the 
Atlantic Ocean claiming to have as its termini Liverpool and 
Yokohama.  A branch line of the Canadian Pacific railway runs 
from Medicine Hat between 49 deg.  and 50 deg.  N., passing through 
the Crow's Nest Pass of the Rocky Mountains and carrying on 
trade with British Columbia.  Another branch from Calgary runs 
southward to Macleod, and to Lethbridge there comes from the 
south a branch cf the Great Northern railway of the United 
States, connecting with the state of Montana.  From Calgary 
to Edmontonnorthward runs a line under the control of the 
Canadian Pacific railway.  From this railway also run, eastward 
from Lacombe and Wetaskiwin, branch lines to complete the 
system.  In 1906 tue new line of the Canadian Northern 
railway was opened, connecting Winnipeg, 1000 m. to the 
east, along the NUrth Saskatchewan river, with Edmonton.  
The Grand Trunk Pacific railway, backed by the Canadian 
government, forms a new transcontinental line; the prairie 
section from Winnipeg to Edmonton was in 1908 under contract. 

Administration, &c.---The local government of Alberta is 
carried on by a provincial organization resembling that of 
the other Canadian provinces.  The capital of the province 
is Edmonton, and here reside the lieutenant-governor and 
cabinet.  The legislature consists of one house---the Legislative 
Assembly----of twenty-five members.  Responsible government after 
the British model is followed, and the revenue is chiefly derived 
from grants from the Dominion government.  Alberta has a system 
of municipal government similar to that of the other provinces. 

Education is given by a public-school system, which, while nominally 
providing for separate schools for Catholics and Protestants, 
makes it practically impossible at most points to carry on such 
schools.  A normal school is situated at Calgary.  There is a 
college for secondary education in Calgary and another in Edmonton. 

The following are the leading denominations in Alberta:-- 


 
                                      1901.
     Roman Catholics .   .   .   .  12,957
     Presbyterians   .   .   .   .  10,655
     Methodists  .   .   .   .   .   9,623
     Church of England   .   .   .   8,888
     Lutherans   .   .   .   .   .   5,810
     Greek Church    .   .   .   .   4,618
     Mormons .   .   .   .   .   .   3,212
     Baptists    .   .   .   .   .   2,722
 

The Mormons of Alberta are in the most southerly part of the 
province, and are a colony from the Mormon settlements in Utah, 
U.S. On coming to Canada they were given lands by the Dominion of 
Canada.  The organization adopted in Utah among the Mormons 
is found also in Alberta, but the Canadian Mormons profess 
to have received a later revelation condemning polygamy. 

History.---The present province of Alberta as far north as the 
height of land (53 deg.  N.) was from the time of the incorporation 
of the Hudson's Bay Company (1670) a part of Rupert's Land.  
After the discovery of the north-west by the French in 1731 
and succeeding years the prairies of the west were occupied by 
them, and Fort La Jonquiere was established near the present 
city of Calgary (1752).  The North-West Company of Montreal 
occupied the northern part of Alberta district before the 
Hudson's Bay Company succeeded in coming from Hudson Bay to 
take possession of it.  The first hold of the Athabasca region 
was gained by Peter Pond, who, on behalfofthe North-West 
Company of Montreal, built Fort Athabasca on river La Biche in 
1778.  Roderick Mackenzie, cousin of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, 
built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca in 1788.  By way of 
the North Saskatchewan river Alexander Mackenzie crossed the 
height of land, and proceeding northward discovered the river 
which bears his name, and also the Arctic Sea. Afterward 
going westward from Lake Athabasca and through the Peace 
river, he reached the Pacific Ocean, being the first white 
man to cross the North American continent, north of Mexico. 

As part of the North-West Territories the'district of 
Alberta was organized in 1875.  Additional privileges and 
a locallegislature were added from time to time.  At length 
in 1905 the district of Alberta was enlarged and the present 
province formed by the Dominion parliament. (G. BR.) 

ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the 
southern of the two western reservoirs of the Nile.  It lies 
in the Albertine rift-valley between 0 deg.  8' and 0 deg.  40' S. 
and 29 deg.  28' and 29 deg.  52' E., at an elevation of 3004 ft. 
above the sea.  It is roughly oval in shape and has no deep 
indentations.  On its N.E. side it is connected by a winding 
channel, 25 m. long and from a quarter of a mile to a mile 
wide, flowing between high banks, with a smaller sheet of 
water, Lake Dweru, which extends north of the equator.  
Albert Edward Nyanza has a length of 44 m. and a breadth of 
32 m. (maximum measurement) . Dweru is about 20 m. long and 
10 across at its widest part.  The area of the two lakes is 
approximately 820 sq. m., or about the size of Leicestershire, 
England.  A swampy plain, traversed by the Ruchuru and other 
rivers, extends south of the Nyanza and was once covered 
by its waters.  The plain contains several salt-pans, and 
at the S.E. corner are numerous geysers.  Along the eastern 
shore the low land extends to Kamarangu, a point about 
midway between the south and north ends of the lake, a 
considerable stretch of ground intervening between the wall 
of the rift-valley and the water, two terraces being clearly 
defined.  The euphorbia trees and other vegetation on the 
lower terrace are of small size and apparently of recent 
origin.  At some distance from the lake runs a belt of 
forest.  North of Kamarangu the wall of the valley approaches 
the water in a series of bluffs some 300 to 350 ft. high.  
At the N.E. end the hills again recede and the plain widens 
to ioclude Dweru.  On the west side of the Nyanza the wall of 
the rift-valley runs close to the lake shore and at the N.W. 
corner the mountains close in on the water.  North of the 
lake a high alluvial plain stretches to the southern slopes 
of the Ruwenzori mountains.  From Ruwenzori a subsidiary 
range, known as the Kipura mountains, runs due south to the 
lake shore, where it ends in a low rounded hill.  In general, 
the plain rises above the lake in a series of bold bluffs, 
a wide margin of swamp separating them from the water.  The 
Semliki, the only outlet of the lake, issues from its N.W. 
end.  Round the north-eastern shore of the lake are numerous 
crater lakes, many salt, the most remarkable being that of 
Katwe.  This lake lies west of the Dweru channel and is separated 
from Albert Edward Nyanza by a ridge of land, not more than 160 
ft. in breadth.  The sides of this ridge run down steeply to 
the water on either side.  The waters of the Katwe lake have 
a beautiful rose colour which becomes crimson in the shadows.  
The salt is highly prized and is exported to great distances. 

The main feeder of Albert Edward Nyanza, and western head-stream 
of the Nile, the Ruchuru, rises on the north side of the 
volcanoes north of Lake Kivu (see MEUMBIRO.) On reaching the 
level plain 15 m. from the lake its waters become brackish, and 
the Vegetation on its banks is scanty.  The reedy marshes near 
its mouth form a retreat for a primitive race of fishermen.  
Lake Dweru, the shores of which are generally high, is fed by 
the streams from the eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori range.  
One of these, the Mpango, is a larger river than the Ruchuru. 
The outlet of the Nyanza, the Semliki, and the part plaved
by the lake in the Nile system are described under ALBERY NYANZA. 

A feature of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza is the thick haze which 
overhangs the water during the dry season, blotting out from 
view the mountains.  In the rains, vhen the sky is clear, the 
magnificent panorama of hills encircling the lake on the west 
and north-west is revealed.  The lake water is clear of a light 
green colour, and distinctly brackish.  Fish abound, as do 
waterfowl, crocodiles and, in the southern swamps, hippopotami.  
In the rainy season the lake is subject to violent storms. 

The entire area of Albert Edward Nyanza was found, by the 
work of the Anglo-German Boundary Commission of 1902-1904, 
to lie within the limits of the sphere of influence of the 
Congo Free State as defined in the agreement of the 12th 
of May 1894 between that state and Great Britain.  Dweru 
was discovered in 1875 by H. M. Stanley, then travelling 
westward from Uganda, and by him was named Beatrice Gulf in 
the belief that it was part of Albert Nyanza.  In 1888-1889 
Stanley, approaching the Nile region from the west, traced the 
Semliki to its source in Albert Edward Nyanza, which lake he 
discovered, naming it after Albert Edward, prince of Wales, 
afterwards Edward VII. Stanley also discovered the connecting 
channel between the larger lake and Dweru.  The accurate 
mapping of the lake was mainly the work of British officials 
and travellers, such as Scott Elliott, Sir F. D. Lugard, Ewart 
Grogan, J. E. Moore and Sir H. Johnston; while Emin Pasha 
and Franz Stuhlmann, deputygovernor (1891) of German East 
Africa, explored its southern shores. (See ALBERT NYANza and 
NIRE, and the authorities there quoted.) (W. E. G.; F. R. C.) 

ALBERTI, DOMENICO (c. 1710-1740), Italian musician, is 
known in musical history as the writer of dozens of sonatas 
in which the melody is supported from beginning to end by 
an extremely familiar formula of arpeggio accompaniment, 
consequently known as the Alberti bass.  He thus shows 
how advanced was the decay ofpolyphonic sensibility (as a 
negative preparation for the advent of the sonata-style) 
already during the lifetime of Bach.  His works have no 
other special qualities, though it is probable that Mozart's 
first violin sonatas, written at the age of seven, were 
modelled on Alberti in spite of their superior cleverness. 

ALRERTI, LEONE BATTISTA (1404-1472), Italian painter, 
poet, philosopher, musician and architect, was born in 
Venice on the 18th of February 1404.  He was so skilled in 
Latin verse that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, 
entitled Philodoxius, deceived the younger Aldus, who 
edited and published it as the genuine work of Lepidus.  
In music he was reputed one of the first organists of the 
age.  He held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan 
church of Florence, and thus had leisure to devote himself to 
his favourite art.  UIe is generally regarded as one of the 
restorers of the ancient style of architecture.  At Rome he 
was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in the restoration of the 
papal palace and of the foundation of Acqua Vergine, and in 
the ornamentation of the magnificent fountain of Trevi.  At 
Mantua he designed the church of Sant' Andrea and at Rimini 
the celebrated church of San Francesco, which is generally 
esteemed his finest work.  On a commission from Rucellai he 
designed the principal facade of the church of Santa Maria 
Novella in Florence, as well as the family palace in the Via 
della Scala, now known as the Palazzo Strozzi.  Alberti wrote 
works on sculpture, Della Statua, and on painting, De . 
Pictura, which are highly esteemed; but his most celebrated 
treatise is that on architecture, De Re Aedificaloria, 
which has been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and 
English.  Alberti died at Rome in the April of 1472. 

See Passerini, Gli Alberti di Firenze (1869, 1870); Mancini, Vrita 
de Alberti (Firenze, 1882); V. Hoffmann, Studien zu Leon Battista 
Alberti's zehn Buchern: De Re Aedicatoria (Frankenberg, 1883). 

ALBERTINEILI, MARIOTTO (1474-1515), Italian painter, 
was born in Florence, and was a fellow-pupil and partner 
of Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted many works.  His 
chief paintings are in Florence, notably his masterpiece, 
the ``Visitation of the Virgin'' (1503) at the Uffizi. 

ALRERTITE, a variety of asphalt found in Albert county, New 
Brunswick.  It is of jet-black colour and brilliant pitch-like 
lustre.  Its percentage chemical composition is:-- 


 
       C.       H.       O.       N.       S.      Ash.
     86.04     8.96     1.97     2.93    trace     0.10
 

It softens slightly in boiling water, but only fuses 
imperfectly when further heated, and it is less 
soluble than ordinary asphalt in oil of turpentine. 

ALBERT LEA, a citynnd the county-seatof Freeborn county, 
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 97 m.  S. of St Paul.  Pop. (1890) 3305; 
(1900) 4500; ( 1905, state census) 5657, 1206 being foreign-born 
(461 Norwegians, 411 Danes, 98 Swedes); (1910, L. S. census) 
6192.  It is served by two branches of the Lhicago, Milwaukee 
& St Paul, by the main line and one branch of the Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific, by the Illinois Central, by the Iowa 
Central, and by the Minneapolis & St Louis railways.  It is 
attractively situated between Fountain Lake and Albert Lea 
Lake, and is a summer resort.  It has a public library and 
the Freeborn County Court House, and is the seat of Albert 
Lea College (Presbyterian, for women), founded in 1884, and of 
Luther Academy ( Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran), founded in 
1888.  Albert Lea is a railway and manufacturing centre of 
considerable importance, has grain elevators and foundries 
and machine shops, and manufactures bricks, tiles, carriages, 
wagons, flour, corsets, refrigerators and woollen goods.  The 
city is also the centre of large dairy interests, and there 
are many creameries in the county.  Sumerous artesian wells 
furnish the city with an ample supply of water of unusual 
excellence.  Albert Lea was settled in 1855 and received a 
city charter in 1878.  The city and the lake were named in 
honour of Lieutenant Albert Miller Lea (1808--1801), a West 
Point graduate (1831) who, on behalf of the United States 
government, first surveyed the region and described it in 
a report published in 1836.  He was a lieutenant-colonel 
of engineers in the Confederate army during the Civil War. 

ALBERT NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the northern of 
the two western reservoirs of the Nile, lying in the western 
(A!bertine) rift-valley, near its north end.  The southern 
reservoir is Albert Edward Nyanza (q.v..) Lake Albert lies 
between 1 deg.  9' and 2 deg.  17' N. and 30 deg.  30' and 31 deg.  35' E., 
at an elevation of about 2000 ft. above the sea.  Its greatest 
length is about 100 m., its greatest width 22 m., its area 
being approximately 1640 sq. m., about the size of Lancashire, 
England.  South of the lake is a wide plain, traversed by the 
Seniliki river, which enters the Nyanza through a swamp of tall 
weeds, chiefly ambach and papyrus.  Both east and west the 
walls of the rift-valley are close to the lake,the waterin 
many places washing the base of the cliffs.  Elsewhere the 
narrowforeshore is thicklywooded.  The ascent to the plateaus 
is generally by three tiers of hills rising one behind the 
other.  On the west side the mountains present many pointed 
and conical summits; on the east the cliffs rise abruptly 
1000 to 2000 ft.  On either coast wild gorges and ravines, 
densely wooded, break the outline of the mountains.  Through 
these gorges dash magnificent cascades, others leaping the 
escarpments of the plateaus in waterfalls of great volume and 
depth.  Towards the north the hills recede from the coast and 
on both sides flats extend for distances varying from 5 to 15 
m.  On the eastern side, 92 m. from the southern end of the 
Nyanza, the Victoria Nile enters the lake, here not more 
than 6 m. across, through a wilderness of woods, the delta 
of the Nile extending over 4 m.  The mouth of the main stream 
is obstructed by a bar of its own formation; the current is 
sluggish; there are many side channels, and the appearance 
of the lake gives no hint that a great river has joined its 
waters.  For 5 or 6 m. north of the junction of the Victoria 
Nile the lake suffers no material diminution in width.  Then, 
however, the eastern and western shores approach each other, 
and a current is perceptible flowing north.  The lake has 
become the Bahr-el-Jebel, or Mountain river, as this section 
of the Nile is called.  Throughout its extent Albert Nyanza 
is shallow; at its southern end the water for a considerable 
distance is not more than 3 ft. deep.  The deepest soundings 
give only 50 to 55 ft., the average depth being 30 to 40 ft. 

The Alberline Basin of the Nile.---Albert Nyanza receives the 
whole of the drainage of Albert Edward Nyanza and the Semliki 
river, and with them and its own basin forms the ``Albertine'' Nile 
system.  Its waters, as stated above, mingle with those of the 
Victoria Nile, their united volume flowing north towards the 
Mediterranean.  A study of the changes going on in the riftvalley 
in which the lakes lie leads, however, to the belief that 
the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas are drying up, a process 
which the nature of the drainage areas is helping to bring 
about.  That the Albert Edward Nyanza once covered a much 
larger area than it does at present is certain.  At that 
time, recent from a geological standpoint, the valley to the 
north, through which now flows the Semliki river, was blocked.  
The removal of the block led to the shrinkage of the lake and 
the formation.of the Semhki, which found its way to the more 
northern lake-Albert Nyanza.  Gradually the Semliki eroded 
its bed, and consequently the level of Albert Edward Nyanza 
continued to fall.  The process continues but is checked by 
the existence of the rock barrier which stretches across the 
Semliki.  This stream leaves Albert Edward Nyanza at its 
N.W. end in 0 deg.  8' 30q S., and after a course of about 160 
m. enters Albert Nyanza in 1 deg.  9' N. In its upper and in its 
lower course the river flows either through high alluvial 
plains, in which it has scored a deep channel, or across swamp 
land.  In the middle section, which has a length of some 75 
m., the river runs in a deep narrow valley -covered with 
the densest forest.  On the west this valley is bounded by 
the Congo mountains, which form the wall of the rift-valley, 
on the east by the mighty range of Ruwenzori, whose heights 
tower over 16,000 ft. above sea-level.  In this length 
of 75 m. the river falls in cataracts and rapids over 800 
ft.  This rocky barrier acts as a regulator for the water 
received from Albert Edward Nyanza snd, by checking the 
erosion of the river bed, tends to maintain the level of the 
lake.  When this bar wears away Albert Edward Nyanza will, in 
all probability, disappear as a lake and will become a river, a 
continuation of its present most southern affiuentj the Ruchuru. 

Albert Nyanza, on the other hand, is threatened in the 
distant future with destruction from another cause--the 
filling of its bed by the alluvium poured into it by the 
Semliki, the Victoria Nile and, in a lesser degree, by other 
streams.  The Semliki receives directly or indirectly the 
whole of the drainage of Ruwenzori, and also that of the 
eastern face of the Congo mountains as well as the drainage 
basin of Albert Edward Nyanza.  The amount of alluvial matter 
carried is enormous; from Ruwenzori alone the detritus is very 
great.  Charged with all this matter, the Semhki, as it 
emerges from the region of forest and cataracts (in which, 
often closely confined by its mountain barriers, the stream 
is deep and rapid), becomes sluggish, its slope flattens 
out, and its waters, unable to carry their burden, deposit 
much of it upon the land.  This process, continually going 
on, has formed a large plain at the south end of Albert 
Nyanza, which has seriously encroached upon the lake.  At 
the northern end of the lake the sediment brought down by the 
Victoria Nile is producing a similar effect.  Albert Nyanza 
has indeed shrunk in its dimensions during the comparatively 
few years it has been known to Europeans.  Thus at the S.W. 
end, Nyamsasi, which was an island in 1889, has become a 
peninsula.  Islands which in 1876 were on the east coast 
no longer exist; they now form part of the foreshore.  On 
the other hand, the shrinkage of the lake level caused the 
appearance in 1885 of an island where in 1879 there had been 
an expanse of shallow water.  It seems probable that, in a 
period geologically not very remote, the ``Albertine'' system 
will consist of one great river, extending from the northern 
slopes of the Rivu range, where the Ruchuru has its rise, to 
the existing junction of the Victoria Nile with Albert Nyanza. 

The combined drainage area, including the water surface of 
Albert Edward Nyanza, the Semhki and Albert Nyanza, is some 
16,600 sq. m.  Throughout this area the rainfall is heavy (40 
to 60 in. or more per annum), the volume of water entering 
Albert Nyanza by the Semliki when in flood being not less 
than 700 cubic metres per second.  Of the water received 
by Albert Nyanza annually (omitting the Victoria Nile from 
the calculation) between 50 and 60% is lost by evaporation, 
whilst 24,265,000,000 cubic metres are annually withdrawn 
by the Bahr-el-Jebel.  The ``Albertine'' system plays a 
comparatively insignificant part in the annual llood rise 
of the White Nile, but to its waters are due the maintenance 
of a constant supply to this river throughout the year. 

Discovery and Exploration.---Albert Nyanza was first reached 
by Sir Samuel Baker on the 14th of March 1864 near Vacovia, 
a small village of fishermen and salt-makers on the east 
coast.  From a granitic cliff 1500 ft. above the water he 
looked out over a boundless horizon on the south and south-west, 
and towards the west descried at a distance of 50 or 60 m. 
mountains about 7000 ft. high.  Albert Nyanza was consequently 
entered on his map as a vast lake extending about 380 m.  But 
the circumnavigation of the lake by Gessi Pasha (1876), and 
by Emin Pasha in 1884, showed that Baker had been deceived as 
to the size of the lake.  By the end of the 19th century the 
topography of the lake region was known with fair accuracy.  
The lake forms part of the (British) Uganda Protectorate, 
but the north-west shores were leased in 1894 to the (iongo 
Free State during the sovereignty of king Leopold II. of 
Belgium.  Of this leased area a strip 15 m. wide, giving 
the Congo State a passage way to the lake, was to remain in 
its possession after the determination of the lease. - See 
Nile; Sir W. Garstin's Report upon the Basin of the Upper 

Loile (Egypt, No. 2, 1904); Capt.  H. G. Lyons' The 
Physiography oj. the River Nelc and its Basin (Cairo, 1906), 
and the authorities quoted in those works. (W. E. G.; F. R. C.) 

ALBERTUS MAGNUS (ALBERT OF COLOGNE.? 1206-1280), count of 
Bollstadt, scholastic philosopher, was born of the noble 
family of Bollstadt at Lauingen in Suabia.  The date of his 
birth, generally given as 1193, is more probably 1206.  He was 
educated principally at Padua, where he received instruction 
in Aristotle's writings.  In 1223 (or 1221) he became a member 
of the Dominican order, and studied theology under its rules 
at Bologna and elsewhere.  Selected to fill the position of 
lecturer at Cologne, where the order had a house, he taught for 
several years there, at Regensburg, Freiburg, Strassburg and 
Hildesheim.  In 1245 he went to Paris, received his doctorate 
and taught for some time, in accordance with the regulations, 
with great success.  In 1254 he was made provincial of his 
order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with 
great care and efficiency.  During the time he held this office 
he publicly defended the Dominicans against the university of 
Paris, commented on St John, and answered the errors of the 
Arabian philosopher, Averroes.  In 1260 the pope made him 
bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after three 
years.  The remainder of his life he spent partly in preaching 
throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in 
retirement in the various houses of his order; in 1270 he 
preached the eighth Crusade in Austria; almost the last of 
his labours was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former 
pupil, Thomas Aquinas.  He died in 1280, aged seventy-four.  
He was beatified in 1622, and he is commemorated on the 16th of 
November.  Albert's works (published in twenty-one folios by 
the Dominican Pierre Jammy in 1651, and reproduced by the Abbe 
Borgnet, Paris, 1890, 36 vols.) sufficiently attest his great 
activity.  He was the most widely read and most learned man 
of his time.  The whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the 
Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, were 
by him digested, interpreted and systematized in accordance 
with church doctrine.  Albert's activity, however, was rather 
philosophical than theological (see SCHOLASTICISM.) The 
philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last 
of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according 
to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of 
interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative 
works, with supplementary discussions depending on the 
questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the 
opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a
commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences 
of Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum), and the Summa 
Theologiae in two volumes.  This last is in substance a 
repetition of the first in a more didactic form.  Albert's 
knowledge of physical science was considerable and for 
the age accurate.  His industry in every department was 
great, and though we find in his system many of those gaps 
which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, yet the 
protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of 
systematic thought and exposition, and the results of that 
study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous 
title sometimes given him--the ``Ape of Aristotle.'' They 
rather lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his 
contemporaries to bestow on him the honourable surnames 
``The Great'' and ``Doctor Universahs.'' It must, however, 
be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; 
it even appears that he regarded Plato and Speusippus as 
Stoics.  Albertus is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made 
his doctrine of free-will the basis of his ethical system.  
Dante places him with his pupil Aquinas among the great lovers 
of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun. 

See Paget Toynbee, ``Some Obligations of Dante to Albertus 
Magnus'' in Romania, xxiv. 400-412, and the Dante 
Dictionary by the same author.  For Albert's life see J. 
Sighart, Albertus Magnus, sein Leben und seine Wissenschaft 
(Regensburg, 1857; Eng. trans., Dixon, London, 1876); H. Finke, 
Ungedruckte Dominikanerbriefe des 13. Jahrh. (Paderborn, 
1891).  For his philosophy A. Stockl, Geschichte d. 
scholastischen Philosophie; J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss d. Ges. 
d.  Phil. vol. i. 8. The histories of Haureau, Ritter, 
Prantl and Windelband may also be consulted.  See also W. 
Feiler, Die Moral d.  A. M. (Leipzig, 1891); M. Weiss, 
Ueber mariologische Schriften des A. M. (Paris, 1898); Jos. 
Bach, Des A. M. Verhaltniss zu d. Erkenntnisslehre d.  
Griechen, Romer, Araber u.  Juden (Vienna, 1881); Herzog-Hauck, 
Realencyk. (1897); Vacant, Dict.  Theol. Cathol. (s.v.); 
Ch. Jourdain in Dict. d. sciences philos. (s.v.); M. Joel, 
Das Verhaltniss A. d.  G. zu Moses Maimonides (Breslau, 1863). 

ALBERUS, ERASMUS (c. 1500-1553), German humanist, reformer 
and poet, was a native of the village of Sprendlingen near 
Frankfort-on-Main, where he was born about the year 1500.  
Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education 
was neglected.  Ultimately in 1518 he found his way to the 
university of Wittenberg, where he studied theology.  He had 
here the good fortune to attract the attention of Luther and 
Melanchthon, and subsequently became one of Luther's most 
active helpers in the Reformation.  Not merely did he fight 
for the Protestant cause as a preacher and theologian, but 
he was almost the only member of Luther's party who was able 
to confront the Roman Catholics with the weapon of literary 
satire.  In 1542 he published a prose satire to which Luther 
wrote the preface, Der Barfusser Monche Eulenspiegel und 
Alkoran, an adaptation of the Liber confermitatum of the 
Franciscan Bartolommeo Albizzi of Pisa (Pisanus, d. 1401 
), in which the Franciscan order is held up to ridicule.  Of 
higher literary value is the didactic and satirical Buch von 
der Tugend und Weisheit (1550), a collection of forty-nine 
fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations of 
Church and State.  His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly 
and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions 
with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic 
satire, Thomas Murner, to inflict such telling blows.  Several 
of Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his 
master Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant 
hymnal.  After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time Diakonus 
in Wittenberg; he became involved, however, in the political 
conflicts of the time, and was in Magdeburg in 1550-1551, 
while that town was besieged by Maurice of Saxony.  In 1552 
he was appointed Generalsuperintendent at Neubrandenburg 
in Mecklenburg, where he died on the 5th of May 1553. 

Das Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit has been edited by W. 
Braune (1892); the sixteen Geistliche Lieder by C. W. Stromberger 
(1857).  Alberus' prose writings have not been reprinted in recent 
times.  See F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Erasmus Alberus (1894). 

ALBERY, JAMES (1838--1889), English dramatist, was born in 
London on the 4th of May 1838.  On leaving school he entered 
an architect's office, and started to write plays.  After many 
failures he at last succeeded in getting an adaptation--Dr 
Davy --Produced at the Lyceum (1866).  His most successful 
piece, Two Roses, a comedy, was produced at the Vaudeville in 
1870, in which Sir Henry Irving made one of his earliest London 
successes as Digby Grant.  He was the author of a large number 
of other plays and adaptations, including Jingle (a version 
of Pickwick), produced at the Lyceum in 1878, and Pink 
Dominoes, the latter being one of a series of adaptations 
from the French which he made for the Criterion theatre.  At 
that house his wife, the well-known actress, Miss Mary Moore, 
played the leading parts.  He died on the 15th of August 1889. 

ALBI, a city of south-western France, capital of the 
department of Tarn, 48 m.  N. E. of Toulouse, on a branch 
line of the Southern railway.  Pop. (1906) 14,956.  Albi 
occupies a commanding position on the left bank of the 
Tarn; it is united to its suburb of La Madeleine on the 
right bank by a medieval and a modern bridge.  The old town 
forms a nucleus of narrow, winding streets surrounded by 
boulevards, beyond which lie modern quarters with regular 
thoroughfares and public gardens.  The cathedral of Sainte 
Cecile, a fine fortress-church in the Gothic style, begun 
in 1277, finished in 1512, rises high above the rest of the 
town.  The exterior, flanked at the western end by a lofty 
tower and pierced by high, narrow windows, is devoid of 
ornament.  Its general plainness contrasts with the elaborate 
carving of the stone canopy which shelters the southern 
portal.  In the interior, which is without transepts or aisles, 
the roodscreen and the choir-enclosure, which date from about 
1500, are masterpieces of delicate sculpture; the vaulting 
and the walls are covered with paintings of the 15th and 16th 
centuries.  The archbishop's palace to the north-east of the 
cathedral is a fortified building of the 14th century.  St 
Salvi, the chief of the other churches of Albi, belongs 
to the 13th and 15th centuries.  A statue of the sailor La 
Perouse (1741-1788) stands in the square named after him. 

Albi is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect and a court of 
assizes.  It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, 
a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a lycee 
and training colleges.  The industrial establishments of the 
town include dye-works, distilleries, tanneries, glass-works 
and important flour-mills.  It is also a centre for hat-making, 
and produces cloth-fabrics, lace, umbrellas, casks, chairs, 
wooden shoes, candles and pastries.  Trade is in wine and anise. 

Albi (Albiga) was, in the Gallo-Roman period, capital of 
the Albigenses, and later of the viscounty of Albigeois, 
which was a fief of the counts of Toulouse.  From the 12th 
century onwards, its bishops, the first of whom appears 
to have lived about the 3rd century, began to encroach 
on the authority of the viscounts; the latter, after the 
Albigensian war, lost their estates, which passed to Simon 
de Montfort and then to the crown of France.  By a convention 
concluded in 1264 the chief temporal power in the city was 
granted to the bishops.  The archbishopric dates from 1678. 

ALBIAN (Fr. Albion, from Alba = Aube in France), in 
geology the term proposed in 1842 by A. d'Orbigny for that 
stage of the Cretaceous System which comes above the Aptian 
and below the Cenomanian (Pal. France.  Cret. ii.).  The 
precise limits of this stage are placed somewhat differently 
by English and continental geologists.  In England it is 
usual to regard the Albian stage as equivalent to the Upper 
Greensand plus Gault, that is, to the ``Selbornian'' of 
Jukes-Browne.  But A. de Lapparent would place most of the 
UPper Greensand in the Cenomanian.  The English practice 
is to commence the upper Cretaceous with the Albian; on 
the other hand, this stage closes the lower Cretaceous 
according to continental usage.  It is necessary therefore, 
when using the term Albian, to bear these differences in 
mind, and to ascertain the exact position of the strata by 
reference to the zonal fossils.  These are, in descending 
order, Pecten asper and Cardiaster fossarius, Schloen
bachia rostrata, Hoplites lautus and H. interruptus, 
Douvilleiceras mammillalum. In addition to the formations 
mentioned above, the following representatives of the Albian 
stage are worthy of notice: the gaize and phosphatic beds of 
Argonne and Bray in France; the Flammenmergel of North Germany; 
the lignites of Iltrillas in Spain; the Upper Sandstones 
of Nubia, and the Fredericksburg beds of North America. 

See GAULT, GREENSAND, and CRETACEOUS. (J. A. H.) 

ALBIGENSES, the usual designation of the heretics---and 
more especially the Catharist heretics--of the south of 
France in the 12th and 13th centuries.  This name appears to 
have been given to them at the end of the 12th century, and 
was used in 1181 by the chronicler Geoffroy de Vigeois.  The 
designation is hardly exact, for the heretical centre was 
at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts rather than at 
Albi (the ancient Albiga.) The heresy, which had penetrated 
into these regions probably by trade routes, came originally 
from eastern Europe.  The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) 
was often applied to the Albigenses, and they always kept 
up intercourse with the Bogomil sectaries of Thrace.  Their 
dualist doctrines, as described by controversialists, present 
numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils, and still 
more to those of the Paulicians, with whom they are sometimes 
connected.  It is exceedingly difficult, however, to form 
any very precise idea of the Albigensian doctrines, as our 
knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the 
very rare texts emanating from the Albigenses which have 
come down to us (e.g. the Rituel cathare de Lyon and the 
Nouveau Testament en provencal) contain very inadequate 
information concerning their metaphysical principles and moral 
practice.  What is certain is that, above all, they formed 
an anti-sacerdotal party in permanent opposition to the Roman 
church, and raised a continued protest against the corruption 
of the clergy of their time.  The Albigensian theologians and 
ascetics, the Cathari or perfecti, known in the south of 
France as bons hommes or bons chretiens, were few in 
number; the mass of believers (credentes) were perhaps not 
initiated into the Catharist doctrine; at all events, they were 
free from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, 
on condition that they promised by an act called convenenza 
to become ``hereticized'' by receiving the consolamentum, the 
baptism of the Spirit, before their death or even in extremis. 

The first Catharist heretics appeared in Limousin between 
1012 and 1020.  Several were discovered and put to death 
at Toulouse in 1022; and the synod of Charroux (dep. of 
Vienne) in 1028, and that of Toulouse in 1056, condemned 
the growing sect.  The preachers Raoul Ardent in 1101 and 
Robert of Arbrissel in 1114 were summoned to the districts 
of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the heretical 
propaganda.  But, protected by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, 
and soon by a great part of the southern nobility, the 
heretics gained ground in the south, and in 1119 the council 
of Toulouse in vain ordered the secular powers to assist the 
ecclesiastical authority in quelling the heresy.  The people 
were attached to the bons hommes, whose asceticism imposed 
upon the masses, and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter 
of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord.  Languedoc and 
Provence, only facilitated the progress of Catharism in those 
regions.  In 1147 Pope Eugenius III. sent the legate Alberic 
of Ostia and St Bernard to the affected district.  The few 
isolated successes of the abbot of Clairvaux could not obscure 
the real results of this mission, and the meeting at Lombers 
in 1165 of a synod, where Catholic priests had to submit to 
a discussion with Catharist doctors, well shows the power of 
the sect in the south of France at that period.  Moreover. 
two years afterwards a Catharist synod, in which heretics 
from Languedoc, Bulgaria and Italy took part, was held at St 
Felix de Caraman, near Toulouse, and their deliberations were 
undisturbed.  The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus). 
formerly bishop of Meaux, to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 
1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano (formerly 
abbot ol Clairvaux), in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary 
successes.  Henry of Albano attempted an armed expedition 
against the stronghold of heretics at Lavaur and against 
Raymond Roger. viscount of Beziers, their acknowledged 
protector.  The taking of Lavaur and the submission of Raymond 
Roger in no way arrested the progress of the heresy.  The 
persistent decisions of the councils against the heretics 
at this period--in particular, those of the council of Tours 
(1163) and of the oecumenical Lateran council (1179)---had 
scarcely more effect.  But on ascending the papal throne, 
Innocent III. resolved to suppress the Albigenses.  At first 
he tried pacific conversion, and in 1198 and 1199 sent into 
the affected regions two Cistercian monks, Regnier and Guy, and 
in 1203 two monks of Fontfroide, Peter of Castelnau and Raoul 
(Ralph), with whom in 1204 he even associated the Cistercian 
abbot, Arnaud (Arnold).  They had to contend not only with 
the heretics, the nobles who protected them, and the people 
who listened to them and venerated them, but also with the 
bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary 
authority which the pope had conferred upon his legates, the 
monks.  In 1204 Innocent III. suspended the authority of the 
bishops of the south of France.  Peter of Castelnau retaliated 
by excommunicating Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, as an 
abettor of heresy (i207), and kindled in the nobles of the 
south that animosity of which he was the first victim (1209).  
As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter of Castelnau, the 
pope ordered the Cistercians to preach the crusade against the 
Albigenses.  This implacable war, which threw the whole of 
the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, 
and destroyed the brilliant Provencal civilization, ended, 
politically, in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king 
of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater 
part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its 
fiefs.  The independence of the princes of the south was at an 
end, but, so far as the heresy was concerned, Albigensianism 
was not extinguished, in spite of the wholesale massacres of 
heretics during the war.  Raymond VII. of Toulouse and the 
count of Foix gave asylum to the ``faidits'' (proscrtbed), 
and the people were averse from handing over the bonis 
hommes. The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly 
in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns 
during the whole of the 13th century and a great part of the 
14th, succeeded in crushing the heresy.  There were indeed 
some outbursts of rebellion, some fomented by the nobles of 
Languedoc (12401242), and others emanating from the people of 
the towns, who were embittered by confiscations and religious 
persecutions (e.g. at Narbonne in 1234 and Toulouse in 
1235), but the repressive measures were terrible.  In 1245 the 
royal officers assisting the Inquisition seized the heretical 
citadel of Montsegur, and 200 Cathari were burned in one 
day.  Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement 
against all laymen suspected of sympathy with the heretics 
(council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252). 

Hunted down by the Inquisition and quickly abandoned by the 
nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more 
scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only 
meeting surreptitiously.  There were some recrudescences of 
heresy, such as that produced by the preaching (1298-1509) 
of the Catharist minister, Pierre Authier; the people, too, 
made some attempts to throw off the yoke of the Inquisition 
and the French,i and insurrections broke out under the 
leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne, and, 
especially, Bernard Delicieux at the beginning of the 14th 
century.  But at this point vast inquests were set on foot 
by the Inquisition, which terrorized the district.  Precise 
indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, 
Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and 
others.  The sect, moreover, was exhausted and could find 
no more adepts in a district which, by fair means or foul, 
had arrived at a state of peace and political and religious 
unity.  After 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain but 
few proceedings against Catharists. (See also under CATHARS.) 

AUTHORITIES.---See C. Schmidt's Histoire de la secte des 
Cathares ou Albigeois (Paris, 1849), which is still the 
most important work on the subject.  The following will be 
found useful: D. Vaissete, Histoire de Languedoc, vols. iii. 
iv. vii. viii. (new edition); Ch. Molinier, L'Inquisition 
dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1880), and the other 
works by the same author; L. Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux 
de l'Inquisition en France (Paris, 1893). Les Albigeois, 
leurs origines (Paris, 1878), by Douais, should be read with 
caution.  Of the sources, which are very numerous, may be 
mentioned: the Liber Sententiarum of the Inquisition of 
Carcassonne, published by Ph. van Limborch at the end of his 
Historia Inquisitionis (Amsterdam, 1692): other registers of 
the inquisition analysed at length by Ch. Molinier, op cit., 
some published in vol. ii. of the Documents pour l'histoire 
de l'Inquisition (Paris, 1900), by C. Douais; numerous texts 
concerning the last days of Albigensianism, collected by M. 
Vidal, ``Les derniers ministres albigeois,' in Rev. de quest. 
histor. (1906).  See also the Rituel cathare, ed. by Cunitz 
(Jena, 1852); the Nouveau Testament en provencal, ed. by 
Cledat (Paris, 1887); and the very curious Debat d'Yzarn 
et de Sicart de Figueiras, ed. by P. Meyer (1880).  On 
the ethics of the Catharists, see Jean Guiraud, Questions 
d'histoire et d'archeologie chretienne (Paris, 1906); and 
P. Alphandery, Les idees morales chez les heterodoxes 
latins au debut du XIIIe siecle (Paris, 1903). (P. A.) 

1 These they often confounded and a heretic is described aa 
saying: ``Clergy and French, they are one and the same thing.'' 

ALBINO, a biological term (Lat. albus, white), in the usual 
acceptation, for a pigmentless individual of a normally pigmented 
race.  Among some flowering plants, however, the character 
has become one of specific rank, .and among animals we have 
in the polar bear and the Greenland hare instances where 
partial albinism--for in them the eyes are black and other 
parts may be pigmented--has also become a specific character. 

A true or complete albino is altogether devoid of pigment.  
One result of this among the Vertebrata is that the eyeball 
is pink in colour, since the cornea, iris and retina being 
transparent, the red blood contained in the capillaries is 
unmasked by the absence of pigmentary material.  In man, and 
doubtless also in lower forms, the absence of this pigment 
produces the well marked albinotic facies.  This is a condition 
in which the eyelids are brought into a nearly closed position 
accompanied by blinking movements and a general wrinkling of 
the skin around the immediate neighbourhood of the eyes.  It 
is the result of the too great intensity of the light incident 
upon the retina, and which in normal eyeballs is adequately 
diminished by the absorptive power of the pigmentary material. 

In a complete albino not only is all pigment absent in the 
skin, but also that which is normally present in deeper 
organs, such as the sympathetic nervous system and in the 
substanlia nigra of the brain.  There is some reason to 
believe that a peculiar condition found in the majority of 
human albinoes, and knovn as nystagmus, is correlated with 
the absence of pigment in the central nervous system.  This 
condition is one marked by unsteadiness---a sort of flickering 
rolling--of the eyeballs, and it becomes more marked as they 
endeavour to adjust their accommodation to near objects.  It 
is thought to depend upon some connexion, not yet anatomically 
demonstrated, between the third cranial nerve and its nucleus 
in the floor of the iter and the substantia nigra. 

In addition to complete albinism, there exist, however, various 
albinotic conditions in which more or less pigment may be 
present.  Familiar instances of this partial albinism is 
seen in the domestic breed of Himalayan rabbits.  In these 
animals the eyeball and the fur of the body are unpigmented, 
but the tips of the ear pinnae and extremities of the fore 
and hind limbs, together with the tail, are marked by more 
or less well defined colour.  One remarkable feature of these 
animals is that for a few months after birth they are complete 
albinoes.  Occasionally, however, some are born with a grey 
colour and a few may be quite black, but ultimately they 
attain their characteristic coat.  There is some reason to 
believe, as we shall see later, that in spite of the presence 
of a little pigment and of occasional wholly pigmented young 
ones, Himalayans must be regarded as true albinoes.  Other 
individual rabbits, but belonging to no particular breed, 
are similarly marked, but in addition the eyeballs arc 
black.  Some domesticated mice are entirely white with the 
exception that they have black eyeballs; and individuals 
of this type are known in which there is a reduction of 
pigment in the eyeballs, and since the colour of the blood 
is then partially visible these appear of a reddish-black 
colour.  Such cases are interesting as representing the last 
step in the graded series through which the condition of 
complete pigmentation passes into that of complete albinism. 

There is evidence, as shown by G. M. Allen, that partial 
albinism is a condition in which pigment is reduced around 
definite body centres, so that unpigmented areas occur 
between the pigment patches or at their borders.  In the 
mouse, ten such centres may be distinguished, arranged 
symmetrically five on either side of the median plane---a 
cheek patch, neck patch, shoulder patch, side patch and rump 
patch.  Various degrees in the reduction of the pigment 
patches up to that of complete elimination may be traced. 

Some animals are wholly pigmented during the summer and 
autumn, but through the winter and spring they are in the 
condition of extreme partial albinism and become almost complete 
albinoes.  Such instances are found in the Scotch blue hare 
(Lepus timidus), in the Norway hare, in the North American 
hare (H. americanius), in the arctic fox (Canis lagopus), 
in the stoat and ermine, and among birds, in the ptarmigan, 
and some other species of Lagopus. How the change from the 
autumnal to the winter condition takes place appears not to 
be definitely settled in all cases, and accurate observations 
are much to be desired.  In the case of the Norway hare, 
it has been stated that a general moult, including all the 
hairs and under fur, takes place and new white hairs are 
substituted.  The process of moulting is said to begin in 
the middle of autumn and is completed before the end of 
December, by which time the fur is in its winter condition, 
and is closer, fuller and longer than in summer (Naturalists' 
Library, vol. vii.).  On the other hand, it has been stated 
that during the whole of the transformation in the fur no 
hairs fall from the animal, and it is attributed to an actual 
change in the colour of the hair (Edinburgh Philosophical 
Journal, vol. xi. p. 191).  In the case of the American 
hare, however, some very careful observations have been 
made by F. H. Welch.  In this animal the long hairs (which 
form the pile) become white at their extremities, and in 
some of them this whiteness extends through their whole 
length.  At the same time, new hairs begin to develop and 
to grow rapidly, and soon outstrip the hairs of the autumn 
pile.  From their first appearance these new hairs are white 
and stiff, and they are confined to the sides and back of the 
body.  It is not clear from Welch's account what is the cause 
of the whiteness of the tips of the hairs of the autumn coat, 
but his figures suggest that it is due to the development 
of gas in the interspaces between the keratin bridges and 
trabeculae of the hairs.  There is nothing to show whether 
the pigment persists or is absorbed.  Probably it persists.  
In this event, the whiteness of the tips will be due to the 
scattering or irregular reflexion of the incident rays of 
light from the surface of the numerous gas bubbles.  In the 
case of the ptarmigan the evidence is clear that the existing 
autumnal feathers do change, more or less completely, to 
white.  But the evidence is not conclusive as to whether any part 
of the winter condition is additionally produced by moulting. 

The condition of albinism thus assumed as a seasonal variation 
is never complete, for the eyes at least retain their pigmented 
state.  The reason of this is readily understood when it is 
borne in mind how disadvantageous to the function of sight is 
the unpigmented condition of an albino's eyeball; a disadvantage 
which would be probably much accentuated, in the cases now under 
consideration, by the bright glare from the surface of the 
snow, which forms the natural environment of these animals 
at the particular period of the year when the winter change 
occurs.  In some cases, as in all the varying hares, in addition 
to the eyes retaining their normal pigmentation, areas similar 
in extent and situation to those on the Himalayan rabbits also 
retain their pigmentation; and in the ptarmigan there is a 
black band on each side of the head stretching forwards and 
backwards from the eyeball, and the outer tail feathers are black. 

Albinism is restricted to no particular class of the animal 
kingdom; for partial albinism at least is known to occur in 
Coelentera, worms, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Coleoptera,Arachnida and 
fishes.  The individuals in which this diminished pigmentation 
is found are for the most part those living in caves, and 
it is probable that their condition is not truly albinotic, 
but only temporary and due to the absence of the stimulus of 
light.  This may be also true of some of those instances 
that have occurred among frogs, in Proteus, and with an 
axolotl once possessed by the present writer.  This latter 
animal was quite white, with the exception of the black 
eyeballs.  At the end of four weeks after it was first 
purchased the dorsal or upper surface of its external gills 
developed a small amount of dark pigment.  Within the next 
few weeks this increased in quantity and the dorsal surface 
of the head and of the front end of the trunk began to be 
pigmented.  The animal died at the end of the eighth week, but 
it is possible that had it lived it would have become wholly 
pigmented.  But, apart from these instances, albinism is known, 
according to W. E. Castle, who cites it on the authority of Hugh 
M. Smith, to occur among a breed of albino trout, which breed 
true and are reared in the State fish-hatcheries of America.  
With birds and mammals, however, there is no doubt that complete 
albino individuals do occur; and among species which, like the 
jackdaw, certain deer and rabbits, are normally deeply pigmented. 

Albinism occurs in all races of mankind, among mountainous 
as well as lowland dwellers.  And, with man, as with other 
animals, it may be complete or partial.  Instances of the 
latter condition are very common among the negroes of the United 
States and of South America, and in them assumes a piebald 
character, irregular white patches being scattered over the 
general black surface of the body.  Occasionally the piebald 
patches tend to be symmetrically arranged, and sometimes the 
eyeballs are pigmentless (pink) and sometimes pigmented (black). 

According to A. R. Gunn, of Edinburgh Dniversity, who has 
recently been investigating the subject of albinism in 
man, there is reason to believe that a condition of piebald 
albinism occurs also in Europeans (Scotsmen).  He has examined 
subjects in which the whole of the hair of the body is 
white, but the eyeballs are pigmented, often deeply; and, 
conversely, he has seen cases in which the eyes are pink 
but the hair is pigmented.  The hair and the eyes may be 
regarded as skin patches, in which sometimes the one and 
sometimes the other is pigmentless.  He believes that, were 
it not for the generally very pale colour of white-skinned 
races, this piebald condition would be as manifest in 
them as in negroes, over the whole surface of the body. 

In complete human albinoes, albinism is correlated, in addition 
to nystagmus, with a peculiar roughness of the skin, making it 
harsh to the touch.  The skin is also milky-white in appearance. 

According to C. J. Sehgmann, there exists among the Papuans 
an albinotic race whose skin varies in colour from a 
pink-white to that of cafe au lait; the eyes are generally 
greenish, hazel or brown, and the hair is tow-coloured.  The 
skin where unexposed is pinker than that of a normal North 
European.  Like complete albinoes, this race suffers from 
photophobia, and is characterized by the albinotic facies. 

Before we can inquire into the cause and meaning of albinism it 
will be necessary first to consider the nature Of pigmentation.  
It has recently been ascertained that the coloration of 
certain sponges is due to the interaction of an oxydizing 
ferment, tyrosinase, upon certain colourless chromogenic 
substances.  In 1901, Otto v.  Furth and Hugo Schneider showed 
that a tyrosinase could be obtained from the blood of certain 
insects, and, acting upon a chromogen present in the blood, 
converted it into a pigmentary substance of melanin-like 
nature.  Hans Przibram also extracted a tyrosinase from the 
ink-sac of Sepia, and, causing it to act upon a watery 
solution of tyrosin, obtained a black pigment.  From the blood of 
Bombyx mori, fe. von Ducceshi has also obtained a tyrosinase. 

Subsequently (1903) L. Cuenot, in order to explain certain 
features in the hereditary transmission of coat colour in 
mice, postulated the hypothesis that the grey colour of 
the wild mouse (which is known to be a compound of black, 
chocolate and yellow pigments) may be due either to the 
interaction of a single ferment and three chromogens, or vice 
versa, to one chromogenic substance and three ferments. 

Since then (1904) Miss Florence Durham has shown that if 
the skins of young or embryonic mammals (rats, rabbits and 
guinea-pigs) be ground up and extracted in water, and the 
expressed juice be then incubated with solid tyrosin for 
twenty-four hours, with the addition of a very small amount 
of ferrous sulphate to act as an activator, a pigmentary 
substance is thrown down.  The colour of this substance 
is that of the pigment in the skin or hairs of the animal 
used.  Miss Durham interprets her results as indicating that the 
skin of these pigmented animals normally secretes one or more 
tyrosinases.  The same result was obtained from the skins of 
some unhatched chickens.  The skins of albinoes gave no results. 

Not only have such resuits been obtained with sponges, 
Insects, cephalopods, birds and mammals, but Em. Bourquelot 
and G. Bertrand have shown that certain fungi, the tissues 
of which, when exposed to the air by injury, become 
immediately coloured, do so owing to the action of tyrosinase 
upon one or more chromogenous substances present in the 
plant.  We may conceive, then, that a pigmented animal 
owes its colour to the power that certain tissues of its 
body possess to secrete both tyrosinases and chromogenic 
substances.  And the period at which this process is most 
active is at birth, or preceding it or immediately succeeding 
it.  In spite of the inquiry being only in its initial stages, 
there is already good evidence to believe that Cuenot's 
theory is correct, and that an albino is an individual whose 
skin lacks the power to secrete either the ferment or the 
chromogen.  It forms one but not both of these substances. 

A moment's consideration, however, will show that, while 
an albino may be an individual in which one or more of 
the complementary bodies of pigmentation are absent, a 
pigmented animal is something more than an individual which 
carries all the factors necessary for the development of 
colour.  For it must be borne in mind that animals are not only 
coloured but the colour is arranged in a more or less definite 
pattern.  The wild mouse, rat and rabbit are self-coloured, 
but the domesticated forms include various piebald patterns, 
such as spotted forms among mice, and the familiar black and 
white hooded and dorsal-striped pattern of some tame rats. 

Colour, therefore, must be correlated with some determinant 
(determining factor) for pattern, and it cannot, therefore, 
exist alone in an animal's coat.  And we must conceive that 
each kind of pattern---the self, the spotted, the striped, 
the hooded and all others---has its own special determinant.  
Given the presence of all the necessary determinants for 
the development of pigment in a mammal's coat, some or all 
of the hairs may bear this pigment according to the pattern 
determinants, or absence of pattern determinants, which the 
cells of the hair papillae carry.  And this brings us to 
the question as to whether in a piebald animal the pigmented 
hairs are in any way different from the pigmentless or white 
hairs.  No adequate investigation of this subject has yet 
been made, but some observations made by the author of this 
article, on the piebald black and white rat, show that 
differences connected with the microscopic structure exist. 

There is thus evidence that colour is correlated with other 
factors which determine pattern.  And this leads to the 
inquiry as to whether albinoes ever exhibit evidence that they 
carry the pattern determinants in the absence of those for 
pigmentation.  For it is to be expected a priori that, since 
albinoes were derived from pigmented progenitors and may at 
any time appear, side by side with pigmented brothers, in 
a litter from pigmented parents, they would be carrying the 
pattern determinants of some one or other of their pigmented 
ancestors.  Now we know, from the numerous experiments in 
heredity which have resulted since the rediscovery of Mendel's 
principles, that an individual may carry a character in one of two 
conditions.  It may be carried as a somatic character, when it 
will be visible in the body tissues, or it may be carried as a 
gametic character, and its presence can only then be detected 
in subsequent generations, by adequately devised breeding tests. 

With regard to pattern, the evidence is now clear that 
albinoes may carry the determinants in both these ways.  
So far as they are carried gametically, i.e. by the 
sex-cells, it has been shown by Cuenot and G. M. Allen for 
mice, by C. C. Hurst for rabbits, and by L. Doncaster and 
G. P. Mudge for rats, that in a cross between a coloured 
individual of known gametic purity and an albino, the 
individuals of the progeny in either the first or second, or 
both generations, may differ, and that the difference in some 
cases wholly depends upon the aihino used. It has been shown
that the individuals in such an offspring may bear patterns 
which never occurred in the ancestry of the coloured parent, 
but did in that of the albino; and, moreover, if the same 
coloured parent be mated with another individual, either 
albino or coloured, that their offspring may never contain 
members bearing such patterns.  The particular pattern 
will only appear when the coloured parent is mated with 
the particular albino.  And yet the albino itself shows no 
somatic pattern or pigment.  So clear is the evidence on 
this point that any one adequately acquainted at first hand 
with the phenomena, by employing an albino of known gametic 
structure and mating it with a coloured individual, also 
of known gametic constitution, could predict the result. 

With respect to albinoes carrying pattern as a visible somatiu 
character, i.e. in the body cells, no definite evidence 
has as yet been published.  But W. Haacke has described a 
single albino rat, in which he states that the hairs of the 
shoulder and mid-dorsal regions were of a different texture 
from those of the rest of the body.  And it is possible 
that this albino, had it developed colour, would have been 
of the piebald pattern.  But the author of this article has 
quite recently reared some albinoes in which the familiar 
shoulder hood and dorsah stripe of the piebald rat is 
perfectly obvious, in spite of the absence of the slightest 
pigmentation.  The hairs which occupy the region which in 
the pigmented individual is black, are longer, thinner and 
more widely separated than those in the regions which are 
white.  As a result of this, the pink skin is quite visible 
where these hairs occur, but elsewhere it is invisible.  Thus 
these albinocs exhibit a pattern of pink skin similar in form 
with the black pattern of the piebald rat.  Moreover, some 
of the albinoes possess these particular ``pattern'' hairs 
all over the body and obviously such individuals are carrying 
the self pattern.  There are other details into which we 
cannot here enter, but which support the interpretation put 
upon these facts, i.e: that these particular albinoes are 
carrying in the soma the pattern determinants simultaneously 
with the absence of some of the factors for pigmentation. 

Not only do albinoes thus carry the determinants for pattern, 
but it has been known for some time that they also carry 
gametically, but never visible somatically, the determinants 
for either the ferment or the chromogen for one or more 
colours.  L. Cuenot was the first to show this for albino 
mice.  He was able by appropriate experiments to demonstrate 
that when an albino is derived (extracted) from a coloured 
ancestry, and is then crossed with a coloured individual, both 
the colour of the pigmented parent and of the pigmented ancestry 
of the albino may appear among the individuals of the offspring. 

Immediately subsequent to Cuenot, G. M. Allen in Ameriia 
demonstrated the same Jact upon the same species of rodents.  
C. C. Hurst, more recently, has shown that albino rabbits. 
whether pure bred for eight generations at least, or extracted 
from pigmented parents, may carry the determinants for black 
or for black and grey.  In this latter case the determinants 
for black are carried by separate gametes from those carrying 
grey, and the two kinds of sex-cells exist in approximately 
equal numbers.  This is likewise true of albino mice when 
they carry the determinants for more than one colour. 

Since Hurst's work, L. Doncaster and G. P. Mudge have both 
shown that albino rats also carry in a latent condition 
the determinants for black or grey.  The experiments of the 
latter author show that, if a gametically pure black rat be 
crossed with an albino derived from a piebald black and white 
ancestry, all the offspring in successive litters will be 
black; but if the same black parent be crossed with albinoes 
extracted from parents of which One or both are grey, then both 
grey and black members will appear in the successive litters. 

The proportions in which the various coloured individuals 
appear are approximately those demanded by the Mendelian 
principle of gametic purity and segregation.  Cuenot and Hurst 
have also shown that when albinoes of one colour extraction 
are crossed with albinoes of another colour extraction the 
segregation of the colour determinants in the gametogenesis 
of the albinoes takes place in precisely the same way that it 
does in the gametogenesis of a pigmented individual; that is, 
in Mendelian fashion.  Or, to express it otherwise, an albino 
extracted from yellow parents, bred with an albino extracted 
from black parents, will give an albino offspring whose 
gametes in equal numbers are bearers of the black and yellow 
determinants.  And when one of these albinoes is bred with 
a pure coloured individual, a mixed offspring will appear in 
the first generation.  Some of the individuals will be one 
or other of the two colours, the determinants of which were 
borne by the albino, and others the colour of the pigmented 
parent.  But in such albino crosses the colour characters 
are latent because albinoes do not carry the whole of the 
complements for colour production.  They carry only some 
determinant or determinants which are capable of developing 
colour when they interact with some other determinant or 
determinants carried alone by pigmented individuals.  Whether 
albinoes carry the tyrosinase or other ferment, or whether 
they carry the chromogen or chromogens, is not yet settled.  
Miss Durham's work suggests that they carry the latter.  But 
that they never bear both is proved by the fact that, when 
albinoes are crossed with each other, none but albinoes ever 
result in the offspring.  One apparent exception to this rule 
only is known, and this almost certainly was due to error. 

It is not only among albino animals that colour factors 
are carried in a latent condition, but also in white 
flowers.  W.. Bateson has shown this to be the case for the 
sweet-pea (Lathyrus odoratus), var.  Emily Henderson, 
and for certain white and cream stocks (Matthiola.) When 
white Emily Henderson (the race having round pollen grains) 
is crossed with a blue-flowered pea, purple offspring 
result.  Similarly, when white Emily Henderson (long pollen 
grains) is crossed with white Emily Henderson (round pollen 
grains), the offspring wholly consists of the reversionary 
purple type, and sometimes wholly of a red bicolor form known 
as ``Painted Lady.'' These two types never appear in the same 
family.  With the stocks, when a white-flowered and hairless 
form is crossed with a cream-flowered and hairless one, all 
the offspring are purple and hairy.  Bateson considers that 
the purple colour is due to the simultaneous existence in 
the plant of two colour factors which may be designated by 
C and R. If either one of these two is absent the plant is 
colourless.  Cream-coloured flowers are regarded as white 
because cream is due to yellow plastids and not to sap 
colour.  Thus the cream plant may carry C and the white 
one R. When they are crossed the two factors for colour 
production are brought together.  Obviously, we may regard C 
as a tyrosinase and R as a chromogen, or vice versa; and in 
the case of the white sweetpea crossed with a blue-flowered 
one, and producing purple offspring, we may imagine that 
the white flower brought in an additional tyrosinase or a 
chromogen not present in the blue flower, which, when combined 
or mixed with the chromogen or tyrosinase for blue, gave 
purple.  A similar explanation may apply to C. Correns's 
experiment, in which he crossed white Mirabilis jalapa with 
a yellow form, and always obtained red-flowered offspring. 

In heredity, complete albinism among animals is always 
recessive; and partial albinism (piebald) is always recessive 
to complete pigmentation (self-coloured).  When an albino 
mouse, rat, guinea-pig or rabbit is crossed with either 
a pure self or pure pied-coloured form, the offspring are 
similar to, though not always exactly like, the coloured 
parent; provided, of course, that the albino is pure and 
is not carrying some colour or pattern determinant which is 
dominant to that of the coloured parent used.  No albinoes, 
in such a case, will appear among the first generation, 
but if the individuals of this (F.1) generation are crossed 
inter se or back crossed with the albino parenr, then 
albino individuals reappear among the offspring.  In the 
former case they would form one-quarter of the individuals 
of this second (F.2) generation, and in the latter, one-half. 

The recessive nature of albinism and its distribution in 
Mendelian fashion is almost certainly as true for man as 
for lower forms.  This has been shown by W. C. Farabee for 
negroes in Coanoma county, Mississippi.  The facts are as 
follows.  An albino negro married a normal negress.  They had 
three children, all males.  All three sons married, and two 
of them had only normal children, judged of course by somatic 
characters.  But the third son married twice, and by the 
first wife had five normal and one albino children, and by 
the second, six normal and three albino children.  If we 
assume that the two negresses which the third son married 
were themselves carrying albinism recessive --an exceedingly 
probable condition considering that albino negroes are not 
uncommon---the result is accurately in accordance, as W. E. 
Castle has shown, with Mendelian expectation.  For there is 
expected in the offspring of this third son coloured individuals 
and albinoes in the proportion of 3:1. There is actually 11:4, 
which is the nearest possible approximation with the number 15. 

The operation of Mendelian processes in human heredity 
is further shown by the close relationship that exists 
between the appearance of albinoes and cousin marriages.  
An albino is a homozygote; that is, all its gametes are 
carrying the character of albinism and none of them bear the 
alternative character --the allelomorph---of pigmentation.  By 
pigmentation is here meant all those factors which go to its 
production.  Now such a gametic (egg or sperm) constitution 
can only result when two individuals, all or some of whose 
gametes are pure with regard to the character albinism, meet in 
fertilization.  Hence it is readily seen that it is among 
cousin marriages that the greater probabilities exist that 
two individuals bearing identical characters will meet, than 
in the population at large.  This can be illustrated in the 
following scheme.  Let A stand for a pure albino and (A)N 
for a normal person, who nevertheless carries the character 
albinism (A) recessive.  Then, in the scheme below, if Ab 
and (A)Nb are two brothers who both marry normal wives 
N, their children N(A) in the first case will be all normal 
in appearance but will be carrying albinism recessive; and 
in the second case some will be pure normal individuals 
N, and some will be like the children of the first brother, 
i.e. N(A).  Now, if one of these latter children of the 
second brother marries a cousin---a child of the first 
brother,---their offspring, if large enough, will consist of 
some pure normals N, impure normals N(A), and of albinoes A. 

                Ab X N (A)Nb X N 


                   | | 
                 N(A)               N(A)+N
                              |
                        N+2N(A)+A
No other rational explanation of the close relationship 
between albinism and cousin marriages is at present 
forthcoming.  And, when the whole facts are borne in 
mind, there can be no reasonable doubt that the Mendelian 
principles offer an intelligible solution of the problem. 

A popular conception exists that albinoes are less 
constitutionally strong than the pigmented individuals of 
the same species.  In support of this belief there is more or 
less scientifically ascertained evidence.  Conversely, there 
is, however, conclusive evidence that in some instances and 
in respect of certain qeialities the opposite belief is true. 

To deal with the former belief first, we have the remarkable 
case cited by Charles Darwin on the authority of Professor I. J. 
Wyman.  In Virginia the paint-root plant (Lachnanthes 
tinctoria) occurs abundantly, and Professor Wyman noticed 
that all the pigs in this district were black.  Upon inquiry 
of the farmers he found that all the white pigs born in a 
litter were destroyed, because they could not be reared to 
maturity.  The root of this plant, when eaten by white pigs, 
caused their bones to turn to a pink colour and their hoofs 
to fall off, but the black pigs could eat the same plant with 
impunity.  Partial albinism in this case was undoubtedly 
correlated with some inherent constitutional defect, in 
virtue of which the individuals characterized by it were 
injuriously affected by the juices of a plant quite innocuous 
to their pigmented brethren.  Heusinger has shown that 
white sheep and pigs are injured by the ingestion of certain 
plants, while the pigmented individuals may eat them without 
harm.  In Devonshire and in parts of Kent the farmers entertain 
a marked prejudice against white pigs, because ``the sun 
blisters their skin.'' More remarkable is the case of certain 
cattle, whose skin is piebald, marked by a general ground 
colour over which are scattered patches of unpigmented coat.  
In these animals, in certain inflammatory skin eruptions, 
caused by the ingestion of harmful plants, the albinotic 
areas are alone affected.  And with certain cutaneous diseases 
accompanied by constitutional disturbances which afflict 
cattle, the affection in the skin appears on the patches 
bearing white hairs, the other parts remaining apparently 
healthy.  Such cases suggest that we should be more correct 
in regarding, not albinism as correlated with constitutional 
defects, but rather pigmentation as correlated with powers 
of immunity or increased resistance against certain injurious 
processes.  In the West Indies ``the only horned cattle 
fit for work are those which have a good deal of black in 
them; the white are terribly tormented by the insects and 
they are weak and sluggish in proportion to the black.'' 

Coming to man, it is known that some albino negroes are peculiarly 
sensitive to the bites of insects; and with Europeans it is a 
generally observed fact that the fairer individuals are more 
seriously affected by the bites of fleas and bugs than are darker 
ones.  Dr Twining, in the British Association Reports for 
1845, p. 79, cites some instances described by Humboldt, who 
says that the copper-coloured natives of the high plain of 
Bogoto, and at a lower level on the Magdalena river, were 
generally free from goitre.  Professor Poffig, also cited 
by Dr Twining, states that on the east side of the Andes in 
Chile, in some of the races which live there, he did not see 
a single case of goitre, and yet in the white inhabitants, who 
live exactly as the natives, it prevails in a great degree: 

Turning now to instances of the opposite kind, it is known 
that silkworms which spin colourless cocoons are more resistant 
to the attacks of a certain deadly fungus than are those 
which spin the yellow ones.  In some parts of North America 
it is found that the white peaches are much less liable to 
the attack of a disease known as the ``yellows'' than are 
the yellow-fleshed ones.  In the region of the Mississippi, 
Farabee has observed that the albino negroes are taller and 
broader than the black-skinned individuals.  We may assume 
that increased stature and breadth imply some sort of inherent 
physical superiority, and if such an assumption is valid we 
have in man evidence that albinism is correlated not with 
constitutional defectiveness but with greater perfectness. 

But the question as to whether albinoes are more or less 
constitutionally vigorous than pigmented individuals of the 
same species may be tested by exact measurement.  In 1893 W. D. 
Halliburton and T. G. Brodie, in ascertaining the physiological 
pijoperties of nucleo-proteids, found that when they were 
intravascularly injected into pigmented rabbits, coagulation 
of the blood resulted, but of the eight albinoes which they 
used, none clotted.  At a subsequent period (1897) Halliburton 
and J. W. Pickering showed that the three synthesized colloids 
of Grimaux in the same way produced coagulation in pigmented 
animals, but failed to do so in albinoes.  Pickering, still 
later, showed, in the case of four Norway hares, two of 
which were injected while in their pigmented or summer 
coat, and two while in their albino or winter coat, that 
coagulation occurred in the former cases but not in the latter. 

Quite recently, however, the author of this article has made 
a more detailed examination of the question, operating upon 
several hundreds of rabbits.  And he found that all albinoes 
do not fail to clot when intravascularly injected with 
nucleoproteids.  Only about 9% of them thus failed absolutely 
to manifest any trace of coagulation.  But about 7% showed 
an exceedingly limited coagulation, in which the clot was 
colourless and flocculent, and confined to the heart.  The 
rest gave a typical and more or less wide-spread coagulation.  
Moreover, it was found that all the failures of coagulation 
occurred when the nucleo-proteid used was obtained from pigmented 
animals.  When it was derived from albinoes no failures 
occurred.  All pigmented animals clotted when the nucleo-proteid 
was derived from either source.  The Himalayan rabbits reacted 
like complete albinoes, and 12% of them failed to clot when 
injected with nucleo-proteid extracted from pigmented animals. 

The interesting fact was thus ascertained that all albinoes are not 
alike.  To students of heredity this is precisely what would 
have been expected.  For, as the facts above described show, 
albinoes, though apparently identical externally, are yet the 
carriers of different hereditary characters.  Among albino 
rats, for instance, the author of this article has reason to 
believe, upon theoretical grounds resting on an experimental 
basis, that probably no less than thirteen types exist.  
With rabbits and mice there must be a still larger number. 

In the intravascular coagulation experiments above described, 
all the rabbits were carefully weighed, and the amount of 
nucleoproteid injected until coagulation occurred was measured.  
This would give for albinoes and pigmented individuals the 
amount per kilogramme of body-weight required to kill in each 
case, and would afford a measurement of the relative resistance 
of the two races.  It was found that the resistance of albinoes 
towards the coagulative effects of injected nucleo-proteids 
was to that of pigmented individuals as 1.5 to 1.0. In this 
case, the greater constitutional vigour of the albino is 
thus accurately demonstrated.  But it does not necessarily 
follow that with other materials and with other constitutional 
qualities the state of things would not be reversed. 

One other feature remains to be mentioned.  Albinism appears, 
in the processes of heredity, to be sometimes indissolubly 
correlated with certain peculiar traits.  It is well known 
that the long-haired albino rabbit, called Angora, when at 
rest, has the habit of swaying its head sideways in a peculiar 
fashion.  C. C. Hurst has shown that the long-haired and 
albino characters are always accompanied in heredity with the 
swaying habit.  The Angora character never occurs without it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---G.  M. Allen, ``Heredity of Coat Colour in 
Mice,'' Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts and Sci. vol. xl.  No. 
2; W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity, a Defence 
(Cambridge, 1902); W. Bateson and E. R. Saunders, ``Experimental 
Studies in the Physiology of Heredity,'' Reports to the 
Evolution Committee of the Royal Society, Report I. (London, 
1901); W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders, R. C. Punnett and C. C. 
Hurst, Reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal 
Society, Report II. (London, 1905); W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders 
and R. C. Punnett, ``Further Experiments on Inheritance in 
Sweet-Peas and Stocks,'' Proc.  Roy. Soc. B. vol. lxxvii.; 
W. E. Castle, ``Note on Mr Farabee's Observations,'' Science, 
N.S. vol. xvii. (New York); ``Mendel's Law of Heredity'', 
Science, N.S. vol. xviii. (New York); W. E. Castle and G. M. 
Allen, ``Mendel's Law and the Heredity of Albinism,'' Proc.  
Amer.  Acad.  Arts and Sci. vol. xxxviii.; L. Cuenot, 
``L'heredite de la pigmentation chez les souris,'' Arch. 
d.  Zool.  Exper. et Gen.  Notes et Revue, ser. 3, tom. 
10, and ser. 4, tom. 1 and 2; Charles Darwin, Variation 
of Animals and Plants under Domestication, vols. i. and 
ii., 2nd ed. (London, 1899); L. Doncaster, ``Inheritance 
of Coat Colour in Rats,'' Proc.  Camb. Phil.  Soc. vol. 
xiii. (Camb., 1906); V. von Ducceschi, Rendiconti della 
R. Accad. dei Lincei, vol. ii.; Archivio di Fisiologia, 
vol. i.; Florence M. Durham, ``Tyrosinases in the Skins of 
Pigmented Vertebrates,'' Proc.  Roy. Soc. vol. lxxiv.; 
W. C. Farabee, ``Notes on Negro Albinism,'' Science, N.S. 
vol. xvii. (New York); Furth v.  Schneider, Beitr. z.  
Chem.  Phys. u.  Path. Bd. 1; W. Haacke, ``Ueber Wesen, 
Ursachen und Vererbung von Albinismus und Scheckung, &c.,', 
Biol.  Centralbl. Bd. 15; Halliburton and Brodie, Journ.  
Phys.  Camb. and Lond. vols. xiv., xvi., xvii., xviii.; 
Halliburton and Pickering, Journ.  Phys. vol. xviii.; C. C. 
Hurst, ``Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits,'' Journ.  
Lin. Soc. Sool. vol. xxix.; Geo. P. Mudge, ``Intravascular 
Coagulation and Albinism, Preliminary Note,'' Proc.  Phys.  
Soc., 1905; Packard, Memoirs of National Academy of Sciences 
(1888); Pickering, Journ.  Phys. vols. xviii. and xx.; E. B. 
Poulton, Colour of Animals (Lond., 1890); Twining, Brit.  
Assoc.  Reports, 1845; H. M. Vernon, Variation in Animals 
and Plants (London, 1903) F. H. Welch, ``Winter Coat in 
Lepus americanus,'' Proc.  Zool.  Soc., 1869. (G. P. M.) 

ALBINONI, TOMASSO (c. 1674--c. 1745), Italian musician, 
was born at Venice.  He was a prolific composer of operas 
attracting contemporary attention for their originality, 
but is more remarkable as a composer of instrumental music, 
which greatly attracted the attention of Bach, who wrote 
at least two fugues on Albinoni's themes and constantly 
used his basses for harmony exercises for his pupils.  
ALBINOVANUS PEDO, Roman poet, flourished during the Augustan 
age.  He wrote a Theseis, referred to in a letter from his 
intimate friend Ovid (Ex Ponto, iv. 10), epigrams which 
are commended by Martial (ii. 77, v. 5) and an epic poem on 
the exploits of Germanicus.  He had the reputation of being 
an excellent raconteur, and Quintilian (x. i. 90) awards him 
qualified praise as a writer of epics.  All that remains of 
his works is a beautiful fragment, preserved in the Suasoriae 
(i. 15) of the rhetorician Seneca, from a description of the 
Voyage of Germanicus (A.D. 16) through the river Ems to the 
Northern Ocean, when he was overtaken by the storm described 
by Tacitus (Ann. ii. 23). The cavalry commander spoken of 
by the historian is probably identical with the poet.  Three 
elegies were formerly attributed to Pedo by Scaliger; two 
on the death of Maecenas (In Obitum Maecenatis and De 
Verbis Maecenatis moribundi), and one addressed to Livia to 
console her for the death of her son Drusus (Consolatio ad 
Liviam de Morte Drusi or Epicedion Drusi, usually printed 
with Ovid's works); but it is now generally agreed that they 
are not by Pedo.  The Consolatio has been put down as late 
as the 15th century as the work of an Italian imitator, there 
being no MSS. and no trace of the poem before the publication 
of the editio princeps of Ovid in 1471.  There is an 
English verse translation of the elegies by Plumptre (1907). 

See Bahrens, Poetae Latini Minores (1879) and Fragmenta 
Poetarum Latinorum (1886); Haupt, Opuscula, i. (1875); 
Haube, Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Albinovanus Pedo (1880). 

ALBINUS (originally WEISS), RERNHARD SIEGFRIED 
(1697-1770), German anatomist, was born on the 24th of February 
1697, at Frankfort-on-Oder, where his father, Bernhard Albinus 
(1653-1721), was professor of the practice of medicine.  In 1702 
the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at Leiden, 
and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his studies, 
having for his teachers such men as H. Boerhaave and Nikolaus 
Bidloo.  Having finished his studies at Leiden, he went to 
Paris, where, under the instruction of Sebastien Vaillant 
(1669-1722), J. B. Winslow (1669-1760) and others, he devoted 
himself especially to anatomy and botany.  After a year's 
absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled 
in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery.  
Two years later he succeeded his father in the professorship 
of these subjects, and speedily became one of the most famous 
teachers of anatomy in Europe, his class-room being resorted 
to not only by students but by many practising physicians.  
In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of 
medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his 
brother Frederick Bernhard (1715-1778), who, as well as another 
brother, Christian Bernhard (1700-1752), attained considerable 
distinction.  Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his 
university, died on the 9th of September 1770 at Leiden. 

ALBION (in Ptolemy 'Alouion; Lat. Albion, Pliny 
4.16[30],102), the most ancient name of the British Islands, 
though generally restricted to England.  The name is perhaps 
of Celtic origin, but the Romans took it as connected 
with albus, white, in reference to the chalk-cliffs of 
Dover, and A. Holder (Alt-Keltischer Sprachschatz, 1896) 
unhesitatingly translates it Weissland, ``whiteland.'' 
The early writer (6th cent. B.C.) whose periplus is 
translated by Avienus (end of 4th cent. A.D.) does not 
use the name Britannia; he speaks of nesos 'Iernon kai 
'Albionon (``island of the Ierni and the Albiones'').  So 
Pytheas of Massilia (4th cent. B.C.) speaks of ''Albion 
and 'Ierne. From the fact that there was a tribe called 
the Albiones on the north coast ot Spain in Asturia, some 
scholars have placed Albion in that neighbourhood (see G. F. 
Unger, Rhein.  Mus. xxxviii., 1883, pp. 156-196).  The name 
Albion was taken by medieval writers from Pliny and Ptolemy. 

ALBION, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the 
Kalamazoo river, 21 m.  W. of Jackson.  Pop. (1890) 3763; 
(1900) 4519, of whom 622 were foreign-born; (1904) 4943; (1910) 
5833.  Albion is served by the Michigan Central and the 
Jackson division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 
railways, and by an inter-urban electric line.  The city has 
a public park and a public library.  The W. part of the city 
has most of the factories; the principal manufactures are 
flour, agricultural implements, windmills, gasolene engines, 
harness and proprietary medicines.  On a commanding site in 
the E. part of the city is Albion College (Methodist Episcopal; 
co-educational), embracing a College of Liberal Arts, a 
preparatory department, a conservatory of music, a school of 
art, a school of oratory, a normal course, and a commercial 
department.  The college was incorporated in 1835 as Spring 
Arbor Seminary, and in 1839 by an amended charter was located 
at Albion, where it was first opened in 1843 under the 
name of the Wesleyan Seminary of Albion; in 1849 it became 
the Wesleyan Seminary and Female Collegiate Institute, 
with power to grant degrees to women only; but in 1861 the 
present name was adopted and the college was permitted to 
grant degrees to men and women.  In 1906 it had a library 
of 16,500 volumes, a faculty of 19, and an enrolment of 483 
(211 being women).  The municipality owns and operates the 
water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian 
wells.  Albion was settled in 1831, was incorporated as 
a village in 1866 and was chartered as a city in 1885. 

ALBION, a village and the county-seat of Orleans county, New 
York, U.S.A., about 30 m.  W.N.W. of Rochester.  Pop. (1890) 
4586; (1900) 4477, (984 being foreign-born and 43 negroes); 
(1905, state census) 5174; (1910) 5016.  The village is 
served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, by the 
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester electric railway, and by the Erie 
Canal.  In Albion are the Western House of Refuge for Women 
(a state institution established in 1890), a public park, the 
Swan Library, and the county buildings, including the court 
house, the jail and the surrogate's office; and about 2 m. 
to the S.E. is the beautiful Mount Albion Cemetery.  Albion 
is the centre of the Medina sandstone industry, and lies 
in the midst of a good farming region, of which it is the 
principal shipping point, especially for apples, cabbages and 
beans.  The village manufactures agricultural implements, 
vinegar, evaporated fruit, and canned fruit and vegetables, and 
has two large cold-storage houses.  Albion was settled in 1812, 
was incorporated in 1823 and became the county-seat in 1825. 

ALBITE, a mineral of the felspar group, belonging to the 
division of the plagioclases (q.v..) It is a sodium and 
aluminium silicate, NaAlSi3O8, and crystallizes in the anorthic 
system.  Like all the felspars it possesses two cleavages, 
one perfect and the other less so, which are here inclined at 
an angle of 86 deg.  24'. On the more perfect cleavage, which is 
parallel to the basal plane (P), is a system of fine striations, 
parallel to the second cleavage (M), due to twinning according 
to the,``albite law'' (figs. 1 and 2). The hardness is 6, 
and the specific gravity 2.63.  The colour is usually pure 
white, hence the name (from the Lat. albus) for the species. 

Albite forms an essential constituent of many acidic igneous and 
                            FIG. 1.         FIG. 2.
crystalline rocks; Twinned crystals of Albite. in granites, 
diorites, andesites, &c., it occurs as a primary mineral, 
whilst in crystalline schists, phyllites and crystalline 
limestones it is of secondary (metamorphic) origin.  The 
beautifully developed crystals so abundant in crystal-lined 
crevices of Alpine granites and gneisses have been deposited, 
with other minerals, from solution; the crystals lining veins 
in the slates of Tintagel in Cornwall have the same origin. 

Several varieties of albite are distinguished, of which 
the following may be here specially mentioned. Pericline 
(from the Gr. periklines, ``sloping'') is the name given 
to large opaque white crystals from the chlorite-schists 
of the Alps; they are tabular parallel to the direction of 
perfect cleavage and are twinned according to the ``pericline 
law.'' Peristerite (from the Gr. peristera, a dove) is 
characterized by a beautiful bluish sheen, somewhat resembling 
that seen on the neck of a pigeon; it is found mainly in 
Ontario.  Aventurine and moonstone varieties occur, though 
these special appearances are more usually displayed by the 
oligoclase and orthoclase felspars respectively. (L. J. S.) 

'ALBO, JOSEPH, a Spanish Jewish theologian of the 15th 
century.  He was author of a very popular book on the philosophy 
of Judaism, entitled `Iqqarim or Fundamentals. Maimonides 
in the 12th century had formulated the principles of Judaism in 
thirteen articles; Albo reduced them to three: (i) The Existence 
of God, (ii) Revelation and (iii) Divine Retribution.  Albo 
set the example of minimizing Messianism in the formulation 
of Jewish beliefs.  Though he fully maintained the Mosaic 
authorship of the Law and the binding force of tradition, he 
discriminated between the essential and the non-essential in 
the practices and beliefs of Judaism.  An English translation 
of the `Iqqarim appeared in the Hebrew Review, vols. i.-iii. 

ALBOIN (d. 572 or 573), king of the Lombards, and conqueror 
of Italy, succeeded his father Audoin about 565. The 
Lombards were at that time dwelling in Noricum and Pannonia 
(archduchy of Austria, Styria and Hungary, west of the 
Danube).  In alliance with the Avars, and Asiatic people 
who had invaded central Europe, Alboin defeated the Gepidae, 
a powerful nation on his eastern frontier, slew their king 
Cunimund, whose skull he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and 
whose daughter Rosamund he carried off and made his wife.  
Three years later (in 568), on the alleged invitation of Narses 
(q.v.), who was irritated by the treatment he had received 
from the emperor Justin II., Alboin invaded Italy, probably 
marching over the pass of the Predil.  He overran Venetia and 
the wide district which we now call Lombardy, meeting with 
but feeble resistance till he came to the city of Ticinum 
(Pavia), which for three years (569-572) kept the Lombards at 
bay.  While this siege was in progress Alboin was also engaged 
in other parts of Italy, and at its close he was probably 
master of Lombardy, Piedmont and Tuscany, as well as of the 
regions which afterwards went by the name of the duchies 
of Spoleto and Benevento.  In 572 or 573, however, he was 
assassinated by his chamberlain Peredeo at the instigation 
of Queen Rosamund, whom Alboin had grievously insulted by 
forcing her to drink wine out of her father's skull.  After 
his death and the short reign of his successor Cleph the 
Lombards remained for more than ten years in a state of anarchy. 

The authorities for the history of Alboin are Procopius, Paulus 
Diaconus and Agnellus (in his history of the church of Ravenna). 

ALBONI, MARIETTA (1823-1894), Italian opera-singer, was 
born at Cesena, Romagna, and was trained in music at Bologna, 
where she became a pupil of Rossini.  She had a magnificent 
contralto voice, and in 1843 made her first appearance 
at La Scala, Milan, being recognized at once as a public 
favourite.  In England her reputation was established by her 
appearance at Covent Garden in 1847, and she had brilliant 
success all over Europe in the leading operatic roles; 
in 1853 she repeated these triumphs in the United States.  
Indeed, with the exception of Malibran, she had no compeer 
among the contraltos of the century, the old Italian school 
of singing finding in her a really great representative.  She 
married first Count A. Pepoh, who died in 1866, and secondly 
(1877) a French officer, M. Zieger; she lived in Paris 
after her first marriage, and died at Ville d'Avray in 1894. 

ALBORNOZ, GIL ALVAREZ DE, Spanish cardinal, was born at 
Cuenca early in the 14th Century.  He was the son of Gil Alvarez 
de Albornoz and of Dona Teresa de Luna, sister of Kimeno de 
Luna, archbishop of Toledo.  He was educated at Saragosa, 
while his uncle was bishop of that see, and studied law at 
Toulouse.  The powerful influence of his family opened him 
a public career early in life.  He was made archdeacon of 
Calatrava, and became a member of the king's council while 
young.  In 1337 he was chosen archbishop of Toledo in 
succession to his uncle by the favour of the king, Alphonso 
XI. At the battle of Tarifa he fought against a great invasion 
from Africa in 1340, and at the taking of Algeciras in 1344 
he led the armed levy of his archbishopric.  In 1343 he 
had been sent to Pope Clement VI. at Avignon to negotiate 
a grant of a tax on the revenues of the Church for the 
Crusade.  His military and diplomatic ability became known 
to the pope, who made him a cardinal in 1350.  Albornoz left 
Spain on the death of the king Alphonso XI. in that year, and 
never returned.  It has been said, but not on contemporary 
evidence, that he fled from fear of Peter the Cruel.  In 1353 
Innocent VI. sent him as a legate into Italy, with a view to 
the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the 
Church.  He was recalled in 1357, but was sent again to 
Italy after a brief interval, and in 1362 had paved the way 
for the return of Urban V. to Rome.  As legate, Albornoz 
showed himself to be an astute manager of men and effective 
fighter.  He began by making use of Rienzi, whose release 
from prison at Avignon he secured.  After the murder of 
the tribune in 1354 Albornoz pursued his task of restoring 
the pope's authority by intrigue and force with remarkable 
success.  As a mark of gratitude the pope appointed him 
legate at Bologna in 1367, but he died at Viterbo the same 
year.  According to his own desire his remains were carried 
to Toledo, where Henry of Castile caused them to be entombed 
with almost royal honours.  A work by Albornoz on the 
constitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi in 
1473, is now very rare.  The college of St Clement at Bologna 
was founded by Albornox for the benefit of Spanish students. 

See ``De Vita et Rebus Gestis Aegidii Albornotii,'' in Sepulveda's 
Opera Omnia, vol. iv. (1780); Cardenal Albornoz der zweite 
Begrunder des Kirchenstaates, by Dr H. J. Wurm (1892). 

ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GEORG (1736-1809), Austrian 
musician, was born at Kloster-Neuburg, near Vienna, on the 3rd 
of February 1736.  He studied musical composition under the 
court organist, Mann, and became one of the most learned and 
skilful contrapuntists of his age.  After being employed as 
organist at Raab and Maria-Taferl, he was appointed in 1772 
organist to the court of Vienna, and in 1792 Kapellmeister 
of St Stephen's cathedral.  His fame as a theorist attracted 
to him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, 
some of whom afterwards became eminent musicians.  Among 
these were Beethoven, Hummel, Moscheles and Josef Weigl 
(1766-1846).  Albrechtsberger died in Vienna on the 7th of March 
1809.  His published compositions consist of preludes, fugues 
and sonatas for the piano and organ, string quartets, &c.; but 
the greater proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, 
exists only in manuscript.  They are in the library of the 
Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Probably the most 
valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical 
Works.  In 1790 he published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, 
of which a third edition appeared in 1821.  A collection 
of his writings on harmony, in three volumes, was published 
under the care of his pupil Ignaz von Seyfried (1776-1841) in 
1826.  There is an English version of this published by 
Novello in 1855.  Beethoven knew his own needs when he put 
himself under Albrechtsberger on finding that Haydn was not 
thoroughly disposed for the trouble of training him; and 
though Albrechtsberger could see nothing in him, and warned his 
other pupils against ``that young man who would never turn out 
anything in good style,'' he justified Beethoven's confidence. 

ALBRET. The lordship (seigneurie) of Albret (Labrit, 
Lebret), situated in the Landes, gave its name to one of 
the most powerful feudal families of France in the middle 
ages.  Its members distinguished themselves in the local wars 
of that apoch; and during the 14th century they espoused the 
English cause for some time, afterwards transferring their 
support to the side of France.  Arnaud Amanieu, lord of 
Albret, helped to take Guienne from the English.  His son 
Charles became constable of France, and was killed at the 
battle of Agincourt in 1415.  Alain the Great, lord of Albret 
(d. 1522), wished to marry Anne of Brittany, and to that end 
fought against Charles VIII.; but his hopes being defeated by 
the betrothal of Anne to Maximilian of Austria, he surrendered 
Nantes to the French in 1486.  At that time the house of 
Albret had attained considerable territorial importance, due 
in great part to the liberal grants which it had obtained 
from successive kings of France.  John of Albret, son of 
Alain, became king of Navarre by his marriage with Catherine of 
Foix.  Their son Henry, king of Navarre, was created duke 
of Albret and peer of France in 1550.  By his wife Margaret, 
sister of the French king, Francis I., he had a daughter, Jeanne 
d'Albret, queen of Navarre, who married Anthony de Bourbon, 
duke of Vendome, and became the mother of Henry IV., king of 
France.  The dukedom of Albret, united to the crown of France 
by the accession of this prince, was granted to the family of 
La Tour d'Auvergne in 1651, in exchange for Sedan and Raucourt. 

To a younger branch of this house belonged Jean d'Albret, 
seigneur of Orval, count of Dreux and of Rethel, governor 
of Champagne (d. 1524), who was employed by Francis I. 
in many diplomatic negotiations, more particularly in his 
intrigues to get himself elected emperor in 1519. (M. P.*) 

ALBRIGHT, JACOB (1759-1808), American clergyman, was 
born near Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of May 
1759.  He was of ``Pennsylvania-German'' parentage, his name 
being originally Albrecht, and was educated in the Lutheran 
faith.  At an early age he became a tile-burner.  In 1790 
he was converted to Methodism, and in 1796 determined to 
devote himself to preaching that faith among the Pennsylvania 
Germans.  His efforts met with great success, and in 1800 
he founded what was virtually a new and independent church 
organization on the Methodist system, of which he became 
the presiding elder, and eventually (1807) bishop.  This 
church is officially the Evangelical Association, but its 
adherents have been variously known as ``New Methodists.'' 
``Albrights,'' and ``Albright Brethren.'' Albright died 
on the 18th of May 1808, at Muhlbach, Pennsylvania. 

ALBUERA, or ALBUHERA, LA, a small village of Spain, 
in the province of Badajoz, 13 m.  S.E. of the town of that 
name.  Pop. (1900) 820. Albuera is celebrated on account of the 
victory gained there on the 16th of May 1811 by the British, 
Portuguese and Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the 
French army commanded by Marshal Soult. (See PENINSULAR WAR.) 

ALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 m.  S. of Valencia in 
Spain, about 12 m. in length and 4 in breadth, 12 ft. being 
its greatest depth.  It communicates with the sea by a narrow 
outlet, which can be opened or closed at pleasure.  The lake 
is crown property, and is of great value from the fish and 
wild-fowl with which it abounds.  Rice is grown in large 
quantities by the inhabitants of the adjoining villages.  In 
1812 Marshal Suchet was created duke of Albufera by Napoleon 
for his conquest of Valencia, and invested with the domain; but 
the battle of Vittoria in 1813 deprived him of his possession, 
though he still retained the title.  Subsequently the revenues 
of Albufera were conferred upon the duke of Wellington in token 
of the gratitude of the Spanish nation. (See PENINSULAR WAR.) 

ALBULAE AQUAE, a group of springs, 4 m.  W. of Tibur, the 
water of which is bluish, strongly impregnated with sulphur and 
carbonate of lime, and rises at a temperature of about 75 deg.  F. 
Remains of a Roman thermal establishment exist near the principal 
spring, the so-called Lago della Regina (which is continually 
diminishing in size owing to the deposit left by the water), 
and dedicatory inscriptions in honour of the waters have been 
found.  The baths are still frequented by the Romans, though 
the modern establishment is about 1 m.  S. on the high road. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 117. 

ALBULA PASS, now the principal route from the N. to the Upper 
Engadine in the Swiss Canton of the Grisons.  It was already 
frequented in the 13th century, while a carriage road (highest 
point, 7595 ft.) was constructed across it in 1865, but for a 
long time it was not as much used as the easier and more direct 
Julier Pass (7504 ft.), until the opening of the railway in 
1903, which has vastly increased its practical importance.  
Starting from Coire the Rhine valley is followed to Reichenau 
(6 1/4 m.), and then that of the Hinter Rhine to Thusis (10 1/2 
m.).  The line then runs through the grand Schyn gorge (cut by 
the Albula torrent) to Tiefenkastell (7 1/2 m.), where it leaves 
the Julier road on the right (S.) and continues to follow the 
course of the Albula past Filisur and Bergun (12 1/2 m.) to 
the mouth (5879 ft.) of the great tunnel (3 3/4 m. in length; 
highest point, 5987 ft.) which has been pierced below the 
pass.  The descent lies through the Bevers glen to Bevers (2 1/2 
m.), where the Upper Engadine is reached, about 5 m. below St. 
Moritz, which is 56 m. from Coire by this route. (W. A. B. C.) 

ALBUM (Lat. albus, white), in ancient Rome, a board 
chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts and other 
public notices were inscribed in black.  The Annales Maximi 
of the Pontifex Maximus, the annual edicts of the praetor, 
the lists of Roman and municipal senators (decuriones) and 
jurors (album indicum) were exhibited in this manner.  In 
medieval and modern times album denotes a book of blank 
pages in which verses, autographs, sketches, photographs 
and the like are collected.  It is also applied to the 
official list of matriculated students in a university, and 
to the roll in which a bishop inscribes the names of his 
clergy.  In law, the word is the equivalent of mailles 
blanches, for rent paid in silver (``white'') money. 

ALBUMAZAR, more properly ABU-MAASCHAR (805-885), Arab 
astronomer, was born at Balkh, flourished at Bagdad, 
and died at Wasid in Central Asia.  His principal works 
are: De Magnis Conjunctionibus (Augsburg, 1489); 
Introductorium in Astronomiam (Venice, 1506); and 
Flores Astrologici (Augsburg, 1488).  He maintained in the 
first that the world, created when the seven planets were 
in conjunction in the first degree of Aries, will come to 
an end at a like conjunction in the last degree of Pisces. 

See Biog.  Universelle (Jourdain); Lalande, Bibliographie 
Astronomique; Poggendorff, Biog. literarisches 
Handworterbuch; Houzeau, Bibl.  Astronomique. 

ALBUMIN, or ALBUMEN (Lat. albus, white), an organic 
substance typical of a group of bodies (albumins or 
albuminates) of very complicated chemical composition.  They 
are sometimes called the histogenetic bodies or proteids, 
because they are essential to the building up of the animal 
organism.  The vegetable kingdom is the original source of 
albuminous substances, the albumins being found in greatest 
quantity in the seed.  They also occur in the fluids of the 
living organism.  The chemistry of the albumins is one of 
the most complicated and difficult in the whole domain of 
organic chemistry.  It has attracted the attention of many 
workers, and has formed the subject of a huge literature.  
In this field Bechamp, Cohnheim, Albrecht Kossel, and, 
especially, Emil Fischer and his pupils have been extremely 
active.  The general trend of these researches lies in the 
study of the decomposition or ``breaking down'' products of 
the albumin molecules; once these are accurately determined, 
the synthesis of an albumin is but a matter of time.  Already 
we have proceeded far in our knowledge of the decomposition 
products, and certain simple proteids have been synthesized. 

General characters. 

The albumins contain in all cases the elements carbon, hydrogen, 
nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen; their composition, however, 
varies within certain limits: C = 50-55%, H = 6.9-7.3%, N. = 
15-19%, S = 0.3-2.4%, O = 19-24%, crystallized albumin is C = 
51.48%, H = 6.76%, N = 8.14%, S = 0.96%, O = 22.66%, which 
points to the formula C720H1134N218S5O248, 
corresponding to the molecular weight 16,954.  A high molecular 
weight characterizes these substances, but so far no definite 
value has been determined by either physical or chemical means; 
A. P. Sabanezhev obtained the value 15,000 by Raoult's method 
for purified egg albumin.  All albumins are laevo-rotatory; and 
on incineration a small amount of inorganic ash is invariably 
left.  They are usually insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; 
and their presence as solutes in vegetable and animal fluids 
is not yet perfectly understood, but it is probably to be 
connected with the presence of salts or other substances.  A 
remarkable change occurs when many albumins are boiled with 
water, or treated with certain acids, their solubility and 
general characters being entirely altered, and the fluid becoming 
coagulated.  This change is seen in the transformation of the 
``white'' of an egg on boiling.  Albumins are generally detected 
by taking advantage of this property, or of certain colour 
changes.  The reagents in common use are: Millon's reagent, 
a solution of mercuric nitrate containing nitrous acid, this 
gives a violet-red coloration; nitric acid, which gives a 
yellow colour, turning to gold when treated with ammonia 
(xanthoproteic reaction); fuming sulphuric acid, which gives 
violet solutions; and caustic potash and copper sulphate, which, 
on warming, gives a red to violet coloration (biuret reaction). 

Decomposition products. 

Boiling with dilute mineral acids, or baryta water, decomposes 
albumins into carbon dioxide, ammonia and fatty amino- and other 
acids.  These decomposition products include: glycocoll or 
aminoacetic acid, NH2CH2COOH, alanine or aminopropionic 
acid, CH3.CH(NH2).COOH, a-aminobutyric acid, 
a-aminovalerianic acid, leucin or isobutyl-a-aminoacetic 
acid, (CH3)2CH.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH, isoleucin, probably 
b-aminocaproic acid, serin or a-amino- b-hydroxypropionic 
acid, HO.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH, aspartic acid or aminosuccinic 
acid, HOOC.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH, glutaminic acid or a-amino-
n-glutaric acid, HOOC.(CH2)2.CH(NH2).COOH, diaminoacetic acid, 
a-b-diaminopropionic acid, lysin. or a-e-diamino-n-caproic 
acid, NH2(CH2)4.CH(NH2).COOH, arginin or guanidine-a-amino-
n-valerianic acid, (NH)(NH2)C.NH.(CH2)3.CH(NH2).COOH, 
ornithin or ad-diamino valerianic acid, 
NH2.(CH2)3.CH(NH2).COOH, histidin or a-amino- b-imidazol- 
                                               _________________
                                               |               |
propionic acid HOOC.CH(NH2).CH2.C:CH.N:CH.NH, proline
                                              _________________________________
                                              |                               |
or a-pyrrolidin carboxylic acid, HOOC.CH.NH.CH2.CH2.CH2,
hydroxyproline, phenyl alanine or phenyl-a-aminopropionic 
acid, C6H5.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH, tyrosine or p-hydroxyphenyl-
a- aminopropionic acid, phenyl ethylamine, p-hydroxyphenyl 
ethylamine, tryptophane or indol aminopropionic acid, 
A. cystin (protein-cystin) or a-amino-b-thioglyceric 
acid ``disulphide,'' (S.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH)2, B. 
cystin (stone-cystin), or a-thio-b-aminoglyceric acid 
``disulphide,'' (NH2.CH2.CH:S.COOH)2.  This list is 
not exhaustive; other products are given in Gustav Mann, 
Chemistry of the Proteids (1906), to which reference should 
be made for a complete account of this class of compounds. 

Classification of albumins. 

The complexity of composition militates in a great measure 
against a rational classification of albumins by purely chemical 
considerations.  Such classifications have been attempted by 
A. Kossel and by W. Kuhne and E. P. Pick; but in the present 
state of our knowledge, however, the older classification 
of E. Dreschel and F. Hoppe- Seyler, based primarily on 
solubilities and distribution, may be conveniently retained.  
This classification is with certain modifications as follows:- 


 
 I. Albumins proper: characterized by having colloidal solutions.
     (1) Albumins: serum-albumin, egg-albumin, albumin.
     (2) Globulins: serum-globulin, egg-globulin, lacto-
          globulin, cell-globulins.
     (3) Plant-globulins and plant-vitellines.
     (4) Fibrinogen.
     (5) Myosin.
     (6) Phosphorus containing albumins (nucleo-albumins),
          caseins, vitellines, nucleo-albumins of the cell-
          protoplasm, mucoid nucleo-albumins.
     (7) Histones.
     (8) Protamines.
 
 II. Transformation products of the albumins proper.
     (1) Acid-albumins, alkali albuminates.
     (2) Albumoses, peptones and peptides.
     (3) Halogen-albumins, oxyprotein, oxyprotsulphonic
          acid, &c.
 
 III. Proteids.
     (1) Nucleo-proteids.
     (2) Haemoglobin and allied substances.
     (3) Glyco-proteids, mucins, mucoids, helico-proteid.
 
 IV. Albuminoids.
     (1) Collagen.
     (2) Keratin.
     (3) Elastin.
     (4) Fibroin.
     (5) Spongin, &c.
     (6) Amyloid.
     (7) Albumoid.
     (8) Colouring matters derived from albumin.
 

Albumins proper.--Albumins (as classified above) are 
soluble in water, dilute acids and alkalies, and in 
saturated neutral salt solutions; they are coagulated by 
heat. ``Serum- albumin,'' or ``blood-albumin,'' possibly 
C450H720N116S6O140, occurs in blood-serum, 
lymph, chyle, milk, &c.; its coagulation temperature is about 
67 deg. .  It differs from egg-albumin in its specific rotation 
(-57 deg.  to -64 deg. ), and in being slowly coagulated by alcohol and 
ether.  Egg-albumin is the chief constituent of the white 
of egg; this fluid also contains a globulin and a mucoid.  
It coagulates at about 56 deg. , and its specific rotation is 
-30.70 deg. . ``Lact-albumin'' occurs in all kinds of milk.  
The globulins are insoluble in water and in dilute acids, 
but soluble in alkalies and in neutral salt solutions; these 
solutions are coagulated on boiling. ``Serum-globulin,'' also 
termed globulin or fibrino-plastic globulin, paraglobulin and 
paraglobin, occurs in blood serum; ``cell-globulins'' occur 
in many organs--liver, kidneys, pancreas and the thyroid 
gland, also in muscle-plasma; ``crystalline,'' a globulin 
occurring in two forms a and b, is found in the lens 
of the eye; ``egg-globulin'' and ``lacto- globulin'' occur 
respectively in the white of egg and in milk.  Plant albumins 
or phyto-albumins have been chiefly investigated in the case 
of those occurring in seeds; most are globulins, insoluble 
in pure water, but soluble in salt solutions; ``edestin,'' 
a globulin of this class, is very widely distributed.  Other 
varieties or classes of these compounds are: plant caseins, 
phyto-vitellines, legumins and conglutins.  Fibrinogen 
occurs in the blood plasma, and is changed by a ferment into 
fibrin, to which the clotting of blood is due.  Fibrinogen 
is insoluble in water, but soluble in salt solutions; it 
has three different coagulation temperatures, 56 deg. , 67 deg. , 
75 deg. .  Fibrin, produced from fibrinogen by a ferment, is 
a jelly-like substance, coagulable by heat, alcohol, &c. 
The muscle-albumins include ``myosin'' or paramyosinogen, a 
globulin, which by coagulation induces rigor mortis, and 
the closely related ``myosinogen'' or myogen; myoglobulin and 
myoalbumin are also found in muscles.  The nucleo-albumins 
or phospho-globulins are insoluble in water and acids, but 
soluble in alkalies, and have an acid reaction. ``Caseinogen'' 
(after W. D. Halliburton) is the chief albumin of milk; 
its composition varies with the animal.  It is insoluble in 
water, while its salts are readily soluble. ``Eucasein'' is 
the ammonium salt; ``nutrose'' and ``plasmon'' are sodium 
salts.  By the rennet ferment caseinogen is converted into 
casein, a substance resembling caseinogen in being soluble 
in water, but differing in having an insoluble calcium 
salt.  The formation of casein involves the curdling of 
milk.  Other phosphoglobulins are vitelline, found in the 
yolk of hens' eggs, and ichthulin, found in the eggs of 
fish. Histones are a class of albumins soluble in water 
and acids, but essentially basic in character; hence they 
are precipitated by alkalies.  It is remarkable that many 
histones are soluble in an excess of alkali.  They do not 
exist in a free state, but in combination with a ``prosthetic 
group'' (after A. Kossel) they give rise to important cell 
constituents--haemoglobin, nucleo-proteids, &c. ``Thymus histone'' 
occurs in the thymus gland; globin occurs in combination as 
haemoglobin; other histones have been extracted from the red 
blood corpuscles of the goose and the testes of fishes and 
other animals.  The protamines are a well-characterized 
class of albumins found in the ripe spermatozoa of fishes. 

Albumoses and Peptones.--The primary products of the dissociation 
of albumins are the albumoses, characterized by not being 
coagulable by heat, more soluble than the albumins, having a 
far less complex composition, and capable of being ``salted 
out'' by certain salts, and the peptones, similar to albumoses 
but not capable of being ``salted out''; moreover, peptones 
are less complex than albumoses.  By further decomposition 
peptones yield peptides, a certain number of which have been 
synthesized by Emil Fischer and his collaborators.  Albumoses 
and peptones are white powders, readily soluble in water, with 
the exception of the hetero-albumoses--a subdivision of primary 
albumoses.  They give the biuret and xanthoproteic reactions, 
and form salts with both acids and bases.  Albumoses and 
peptones are obtained by peptic digestion, the latter being 
termed peptic- peptones; tryptic digestion also produces 
peptones.  Acids and moist heat induce similar changes. 

Proteids.--These substances are combinations of one or more 
albumins with a radical of an essentially different nature, 
termed by Kossel a ``prosthetic group.'' It is convenient 
to classify proteids by those groups. ``Nucleo-proteids,'' 
constituents of the cell-nucleus, are combinations of albumins 
and nucleic acid; they always contain iron.  They are loose, 
white, non-hygroscopic powders, soluble in water and salt 
solutions, and have an acid reaction; they give the colour 
reactions of albumins.  Nucleic acid is at present of unknown 
constitution; decomposition products are: phosphoric acid, uracil 
or 2.6-dioxy-pyrimidin,1 cytosin or 2-oxy-6-amino-pyrimidin, 
thymin (nucleosin) or 2.6-dioxy-5-methyl pyrimidin hypoxanthin1 
or 6-oxypurin, xanthin or 2.6-dioxypurin, adenine or 6 
amino-purin, guanine or 2-amino-6-oxypurin, pentoses 
(l-xylose), laevulinic acid, ammonia, etc.  The nucleic acids 
vary with the source of the proteids, there being considerable 
differences in chemical composition.  In general they are 
white, loose powders, slightly soluble in cold water, more 
soluble in hot water; they are precipitated by mineral acids, 
but dissolve in an excess.  They are dextrorotatory, and 
the specific rotation is numerically greater than that of 
albumin; hence the proteids are, in general, dextrorotatory. 

An important nucleo-proteid is haemoglobulin or haemoglobin, 
the colouring matter of the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates; 
a related substance, haemocyanin, in which the iron of 
haemoglobin is replaced by copper, occurs in the blood of 
cephalopods and crayfish.  Haemoglobin is composed of a 
basic albumin and an acid substance haematin; it combines 
readily with oxygen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide to 
form loose compounds (see NUTRITION.) It coagulates at 
64 deg. .  By a dilute acid haemoglobin is decomposed into 
globin, and ``haematin,'' a ferri-pyrrol derivative of the 
probable formula C34H34N4FeO5; under certain conditions 
the iron-free ``haematoporphyrin'' is obtained.  This last 
substance may be reduced to mesoporphyrin, C34H38O4N4, 
which by further reduction gives haemo-pyrrol, C8H13N, 
possibly methyl-propyl-pyrrol or butyl-pyrrol.  Other 
derivatives are haemin, haemochromogen and the haematinic acids. 

``Glyco-proteids'' differ from nucleo-proteids in containing 
a carbohydrate radical, which is liberated only by boiling 
with mineral acids or alkalies.  The mucins and mucoids belong 
to this group; they are acid and contain no phosphorus; they 
give the albumin colour reactions but are not coagulated by 
heat.  Mucins occur in most of the slimy fluids of the body; they 
vary in composition with their source.  Mucoids resemble mucins 
in their composition and reactions, but differ, in general, in 
their physical properties.  They occur in tendons, bones and 
cartilage.  The ``phospho-glyco-proteids'' resemble the mucins 
and mucoids in containing a carbohydrate residue, but differ 
in containing phosphorus.  Ichthulin (see above) maybe placed 
in this group; ``helico-proteid,'' found in the serous gland 
of Helix pomatia, the vineyard snail, also belongs here. 

Albuminoids is the anatomical name given to albuminous 
substances forming the connective tissues.  Chemically they 
resemble the albumins, being split up by acids or ferments 
into albumoses, peptones and amino-acids, forming salts, and 
giving the same colour reactions.  They are quite insoluble 
in water and in salt solutions, and difficultly soluble 
in dilute acids and alkalies.  Typical albuminoids are 
gelatin, keratin, elastin, fibroin, spongin and conchiolin. 

``Collagen'' (Gr. kolla, glue, and root gen- of gennaein, 
to produce, gignesthai, to become), the ground-substance 
of bones and tissues, is decomposed by boiling water or on 
warming with acids into substances named gelatin, glutin or 
glue.  Gelatin forms a white amorphous powder; the commercial 
product, however, generally forms glassy plates.  The 
decomposition products are generally the same as with the 
general albumin; it gives the biuret reaction; forms salts 
with acids and alkalies, but is essentially acid in nature.  
Immersed in cold water gelatin does not dissolve but swells 
up; it dissolves readily in hot water, forming, according to 
the quantity present, a thick jelly which solidifies to a hard 
mass on cooling (the ``glue'' of the wood- worker), or a thin 
jelly (used in cookery).  Gelatin occurs also in the cornea 
and the sclerotic coat of the eye; and in fish scales, the 
latter containing 80% of collagen, and 20% of ichthylepidin, 
a substance differing from gelatin in giving a well-marked 
Millon's reaction.  Keratin (Gr. keras, a horn), the chief 
constituent of horny material, occurs in hair, nails, hoofs and 
feathers.  It is quite insoluble in water, dilute acids and 
alkalies.  Related to this substance are ``neuro-keratin,'' 
found in the medullary sheath of nerves, and ``gorgonin,'' 
the matrix of the axial skeleton of the coral Gorgonia 
Cavolinii. Elastin occurs either as thick strands or as 
membranes; it constitutes the ``elastic tissue'' of the 
anatomist.  Its insolubility is much the same as keratin. 
``Fibroin'' and silk-glue or sericin occur in natural silk 
fibres.  Fibroin is insoluble in water, acids and alkanes; 
silk-glue resembles gelatin in its solubility, but it is less 
readily gelatinized. ``Spongin,'' the matrix of bath-sponge, is 
insoluble in water and dilute acids, but soluble in concentrated 
mineral acids. ``Conchiolin,'' the matrix of shells of the 
mollusca, is only slightly soluble in acids. ``Cornein'' forms 
the framework of corals. ``Amyloid'' occurs as a pathological 
product, and also in the healthy aorta and in old cartilage.  
It is an albumin, and not a carbohydrate as was formerly held; 
and gives most of the colour reactions of albumins.  It forms 
shiny, homogeneous masses, quite insoluble in cold water and 
in salt solutions, but soluble in alkalies.  The albumoids 
include, according to Cohnheim, substances which possess 
certain properties in common, but differ from the preceding 
groups.  In general they resemble coagulated albumin, and also the 
gelatin-yielding tissues, but they themselves do not yield gelatin. 

Colouring matters derived from albumins include the 
``melanins'' (Gr. melas, black), substances which differ 
very considerably in composition, the sulphur and iron 
content being by no means constant; they do not give the 
reactions of albumins.  The black colouring matter of hair, 
the skin of negroes, and of the ink bag of Sepia have been 
examined.  Melanins obtained from tumours form black, 
shiny masses; they are insoluble in water, neutral salt 
solutions, dilute acids and in the common organic solvents. 


 
                                         1   6
                                        /N = C\
  1 The pyrimidin ring is numbered 2C       C5   For the purin
  ring, see PURIN.                \\N - C//
                                         3   4
 


ALBUMINURIA (Physiological or Functional), a term indicating 
the presence of albumin in the urine.  This may depend on 
a number of morbid conditions, of which kidney troubles, 
acute illnesses and venous congestion are some of the 
commoner.  But after exclusion of all known pathological 
causes, there still remains a large class of cases among 
subjects who appear to be in perfect health.  This form 
has been called functional or physiological albuminuria, 
intermittent albuminuria, &c. Its recognition is of extreme 
importance, as it must be distinguished from the albuminuria 
due to Bright's disease and other troubles.  The following 
are the main forms that have been described:--(1) Dietetic 
Albuminuria.  This form affects some people after partaking 
of a meal consisting largely of albuminous foods, such as 
eggs.  In others any extra indulgence in the pleasures of the 
table may give rise to it. (2) Cyclic Albuminuria.  This name 
was first used by the physiologist Pavy, but other observers 
have called the same condition ``postural albuminuria.'' It 
occurs in people enjoying perfect health, and is characterized 
by the presence of albumin in the urine at certain times of the 
day.  It has been shown to depend entirely on the assumption 
of the erect position, and it disappears as a result of 
the recumbent position at night. (3) Albuminuria from 
exercise.  This form affects some people after any unusual 
muscular exertion. (4) Prolonged mental strain or worry may 
give rise to a transient form of albuminuria. (5) Adolescent 
albuminuria is met with in some subjects, especially boys.  
The question of the real significance of ``physiological'' 
albuminuria is one about which there is much difference of 
opinion.  But its importance and recognition--especially 
in questions of life insurance--admits of no question. 

ALBUQUERQUE, ALPHONSO D, (in Old Port. AFFONSO 
D'ALBOQUERQUE) (1453-1515), surnamed THE GREAT, and 
THE PORTUGUESE MARS, was born in 1453 at Alexandria, near 
Lisbon.  Through his father, Gonzalvo, who held an important 
position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent 
with the royal family of Portugal.  He was educated at the 
court of Alphonso V., and after the death of that monarch 
seems to have served for some time in Africa.  On his return 
he was appointed estribeiro-mor (chief equerry) to John 
II. In 1503 he set out on his first expedition to the East, 
which was to be the scene of his future triumphs.  In company 
with his kinsman Francisco he sailed round the Cape of Good 
Hope to India, and succeeded in establishing the king of 
Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining in return for this 
service permission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and 
thus laying the foundation of his country's empire in the 
East.  He returned home in July 1504, and was well received 
by King Emmanuel, who entrusted him with the command of a 
squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which sailed 
for India in 1506 under Tristan da Cunha.  After a series of 
successful attacks on the Arab cities on the east coast of 
Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with 
his squadron against the island of Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, 
which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the 
East.  He arrived on the 25th of September 1507, and soon 
obtained possession of the island, though he was unable long 
to maintain his position.  With his squadron increased by 
three vessels, he reached the Malabar coast at the close 
of the year 1508, and immediately made known the commission 
he had received from the king empowering him to supersede 
the governor Francisco de Almeida.  The latter, however, 
refused to recognize Albuquerque's credentials and cast him 
into prison, from which he was only released, after three 
months' confinement, on the arrival of the grand-marshal of 
Portugal with a large fleet.  Almeida having returned home, 
Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his 
character.  An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut in January 
1510, in which the commander- in-chief received a severe 
wound, was immediately followed by the investment and capture 
of Goa. Albuquerque, finding himself unable to hold the town 
on his first occupation, abandoned it in August, to return with 
the reinforcements in November, when he obtained undisputed 
possession.  He next directed his forces against Malacca, 
which he subdued after a severe struggle.  He remained in 
the town nearly a year in order to strengthen the position 
of the Portuguese power.  In 1512 he sailed for the coast of 
Malabar.  On the voyage a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's 
vessel, the ``Flor de la Mar,'' which carried the treasure 
he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, and he himself 
barely escaped with his life.  In September of the same year 
he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt 
headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security 
and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing of 
the Portuguese settlements in India.  Albuquerque had been for 
some time under orders from the home government to undertake 
an expedition to the Red Sea, in order to secure that channel 
of communication exclusively to Portugal.  He accordingly 
laid siege to Aden in 1513, but was repulsed; and a voyage 
into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European fleet, led 
to no substantial results.  In order to destroy the power of 
Egypt, he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting 
the course of the Nile and so rendering the whole country 
barren.  His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon 
Ormuz in 1515.  The island yielded to him without resistance, 
and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until 
1622.  Albuquerque's great career had a painful and ignominious 
close.  He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who 
lost no opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of the king 
against him, and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct 
on several occasions served their end only too well.  On his 
return from Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he 
met a vessel from Europe bearing despatches announcing that 
he was superseded by his personal enemy Soarez.  The blow was 
too much for him and he died at sea on the 16th of December 
1515.  Before his death he wrote a letter to the king in 
dignified and affecting terms, vindicating his conduct and 
claiming for his son the honours and rewards that were justly 
due to himself.  His body was buried at Goa in the Church 
of our Lady, and it is perhaps the most convincing proof 
possible of the justice of his administration that, many years 
after, Mussulmans and Hindus used to go to his tomb to invoke 
protection against the injustice of his successors.  The 
king of Portugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and 
endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had 
treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son Alfonso.  
The latter published a selection from his father's papers under 
the title Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque . 

See the Cartas de Albuquerque, published by the Lisbon Academy 
(vol. i., 1884); also Morse Stephens' Life of Albuquerque; 
an article in the Bolitim of the Lisbon Geographical 
Society (January to June 1902) on ``O antigo Imperialismo 
portuguez, &c.,'' has especial reference to Albuquerque. 

ALBUQUERQUE, a city and the county-seat of Bernalillo 
county, New Mexico, U.S.A., situated in the central part of the 
state, about 325 m.  S. by W. of Denver, on the E. bank of 
the Rio Grande, at an altitude of 4950 ft.  Pop. (1890) 3785; 
(1900) 6238 (956 foreign-born and 226 negroes); (1910 census) 
11,020.  In 1900 Albuquerque was the largest city in New 
Mexico.  It is the connecting point of two main lines of the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway system.  A short distance 
E. of the city is the university of New Mexico, under state 
control, founded in 1889 and opened in 1892; in 1908 it had 
a college of letters and science, a school of engineering, 
a school of education, a preparatory school and a commercial 
school.  Albuquerque is also the seat of the Harwood Industrial 
School (Methodist) for Mexican girls, of the Menaul Mission 
School (Presbyterian) for Mexican boys, and of a government 
Indian training school (1881) for boys and girls.  The 
city has a public library.  The excellent climate has given 
Albuquerque and the surrounding country a reputation as a 
health resort.  The city is an important railway centre, has 
extensive railway repair shops and stock-yards, and exports 
large quantities of live-stock, hides and wool.  The largest 
industrial establishment is the American Lumber Company's 
plant, including a saw-mill, a sash, door and blind factory 
and a box factory.  The timber used, chiefly white pine, is 
obtained from the Zuni mountains.  The city has also flour and 
woollen mills, breweries and ice factories.  The old Spanish 
town of Albuquerque (pop. in 1900 about 1200) lies about 1 
m.  W. of the present city; it was founded in 1706, and was 
named in honour of the duke of Albuquerque, viceroy of New 
Spain from 1702 to 1710.  During the Civil War it was occupied, 
late in February 1862, by Confederate troops under General 
Henry Hopkins Sibley (1816-1886), who soon afterwards advanced 
with his main body into northern New Mexico.  In his retreat 
back into Texas he made a stand on the 8th of April 1862 at 
Albuquerque, where during the whole day there was a fight 
at long range and with few casualties against a detachment 
of Union soldiers commanded by Colonel Edward R. S. Canby 
(1819-1873).  The modern city dates its origin from the 
completion of the first railway to Albuquerque in 1880. 

ALBURNUM (sapwood), the outermost and youngest part of the 
wood of a tree, through which the sap rises.  It is distinguished 
from the harder inner and older wood, the duramen or heart-wood. 

ALBURY, a town in Goulburn county, New South Wales, Australia, 
386 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney.  Pop. (1901) 5821.  It stands 
near the border of Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray 
river, here crossed by two bridges, one built of wood carrying 
a road, the other of iron bearing the railway.  The Murray 
is navigable for small steamers from this town to its mouth, 
a distance of 1800 miles.  Albury is the centre of a sheep- 
rearing and agricultural district; grapes, cereals and tobacco 
are largely grown, and the wine produced here is held in high 
repute throughout Australia.  The tree under which the first 
explorers encamped here in November 1824 is still standing 
in an enclosed space.  Albury became a municipality in 1859. 

ALCAEUS (ALKAIOS), Greek lyric poet, an older contemporary 
of Sappho, was a native of Mytilene in Lesbos and flourished 
about 600 B.C. His life was greatly mixed up with 
the political disputes and internal feuds of his native 
city.  He belonged to one of the noble families, and sided 
with his class against the ``tyrants'' who at that time set 
themselves up in Mytilene.  He was in consequence obliged to 
leave his native country, and spent a considerable time in 
exile.  He is said to have become reconciled to Pittacus, the 
ruler set up by the popular party, and to have returned to 
Lesbos.  The date of his death is unknown.  The subjects of 
his poems, which were composed in the Aeolic dialect, were 
of various kinds: some were hymns to the gods; others were of 
a martial or political character; others breathed an ardent 
love of liberty and hatred of tyrants; lastly, some were 
love-songs.  Alcaeus was allotted the second place among the 
nine lyric poets in the Alexandrian canon.  The considerable 
number of fragments extant, and the well-known imitations 
of Horace, who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, enable 
us to form a fair idea of the character of his poems.  A 
new fragment has recently been discovered, together with 
some fragments of Sappho (Classical Review, May 1902). 

See Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882); also The Songs 
of Alcaeus, by J. Easby-Smith (Washington, 1901); Plehn, 
Lesbiacorum Liber (1826); Flach, Geschichte der griechischen 
Lyrik (1883-1884); Farnell, Greek Lyric Poets (1891). 

ALCAICS, in ancient poetry, a name given to several kinds 
of verse, from Alcaeus, their reputed inventor.  The first 
kind consists of five feet, viz. a spondee or iambic, an 
iambic, a long syllable and two dactyles; the second of two 
dactyles and two trochees.  Besides these, which are called 
dactylic Alcaics, there is another, simply styled Alcaic, 
consisting of an epitrite, two choriambi and a bacchius; thus-- 

 Cur timet fla|vum Tiberim | tangere, cur | olivum? 

The Alcaic ode is composed of several strophes, each 
consisting of four verses, the first two of which are always 
eleven-syllable alcaics of the first kind; the third verse 
is an iambic dimeter hypercatalectic consisting of nine 
syllables; and the fourth verse is a ten-syllable alcaic 
of the second kind.  The following strophe is of this 
species, which Horace calls Alcaei minaces camenae-- 

 Non possidentem multa vocaveris 
Recte beatum; rectius occupat
   Nomen beati, qui deorum
      Muneribus sapienter uti.
There is also a decasyllabic variety of the Alcaic metre. 

The Alcaic measure was one of the most splendid inventions 
of Greek metrical art.  In its best examples it gives 
an impression of wonderful vigour and spontaneity.  
Tennyson has attempted to reproduce it in English in his 

 O mighty-mouthed inventor of harmonies, 
O skilled to sing of time or eternity,
   God-gifted organ-voice of England,
       Milton, a name to resound for ages.
German is, however, the only modern literature in which alcaics 
have been written with much success.  They were introduced by 
Klopstock, and used by Holderlin, by Voss in his translations 
of Horace, by A. Kopisch and other modern German poets. 

ALCALA (Moorish al Kala, the ``Fortress'' or ``Castle''), 
the name of thirteen Spanish towns, all founded or named by the 
Moors.  Alcala de Henares (pop. (1900) 11,206) is separately 
described on account of its historical importance.  Alcala 
la Real (15,973), a picturesque town with a fine abbey, is 
situated in mountainous country in the extreme south-west of 
Jaen.  Its distinctive name la Real, ``the Royal,'' was 
conferred in memory of its capture by Alphonso XI. of Leon in 
1340.  In 1810 the French under Count Sebastiani here defeated 
the Spaniards.  Alcala de los Gazules (8877), on the river 
Barbate, in the province of Cadiz, has a thriving trade in 
cork and agricultural produce.  Alcala de Guadaira (8198), 
on the river Guadaira, near Seville, is popularly called 
Alcala de los Panadores, or ``Alcala of the Bakers,'' 
because it supplies Seville with large quantities of 
bread.  Alcala de Chisbert (6293) is situated on the coast 
of Castellon de la Plana; Alcala del Rio (3006), on the 
Guadalquivir, 6 m.  N. of Seville; Alcala del Jucar (2968), 
on the Jucar, in Albacete; Alcala de la Selva (1490), on 
the southern slopes of the Sierra del Gudar, in Teruel; 
Alcala de la Vega (712), on the river Cabriel, in Cuenca; 
Alcala de Gurrea (632), on the river Seton, in Huesca; 
Alcala del Obispo (432), in the same province; Alcala de 
Ebro (388) and Alcala de Moncayo (367), both in Saragossa. 

ALCALA DE HENARES, a town of Spain, in the province of 
Madrid, 17 m.  E.N.E. of Madrid, on the river Henares, and 
the Madrid-Saragossa railway.  Pop. (1900) 11,206.  Alcala 
de Henares contains a military academy and various public 
institutions, but its commercial importance is slight and its 
main interest is historical.  The town has been identified 
with the Roman Complutum, which was destroyed about the year 
1000, and was rebuilt by the Moors in 1083.  In later times 
it was renowned for its richly endowed university, founded by 
Cardinal Jimenes de Cisneros in 1510, which at the height of 
its prosperity numbered 12,000 students, and was second only 
to that of Salamanca.  Here the famous edition of the Bible 
known as the Complutensian Polyglot was prepared from 1514 to 
1517.  The college of San Ildefonso, completed in 1583, was 
the chief university building.  Its modernized Gothic church, 
the Colegiata, contains the 16th century marble monument of 
Jimenes (d. 1517) and a fine reredos.  The greatest of Spanish 
writers, Cervantes, was born at Alcala de Henares, and baptized 
in the otherwise insignificant church of S. Maria on the 9th 
of October 1547.  A tablet, set up in 1840, marks the house 
in which he is said to have been born.  Other illustrious 
natives of the town were the emperor Ferdinand I. (1503-1564) 
and the Spanish dramatist and historian Antonio de Solis 
(1610-1686).  After the removal of the university to Madrid 
in 1836 the town rapidly declined, and the government turned 
most of the principal buildings erected by Cardinal Jimenes 
in the 16th century into a depot for the archives of various 
state departments.  Here are kept very complete and curious 
documents of the Inquisition, showing all its workings 
from the 15th to the 19th century.  One of the principal 
libraries is the former palace of the archbishops of Toledo. 

For a fuller description of Alcala see the Guia del viajero 
en Alcala de Henares, by L. A. de la Torre (Alcala, 
1882).  The following works are mainly of historical 
interest:--M. de Ayala and F. Sastre, Alcala de Henares 
(Madrid, 1890); J. C. Garcia, Ensayo de una Tipografia 
Complutense (Madrid, 1889); M. Portilla y Esquivel, Historia 
de la ciudad de Compluto (Alcala, 1725-1728); and the 
``Annales Complutenses'' and ``Chronicon Complutense'' in 
Espana Sagrada, by H. Florez and others (Madrid, 1754-1879). 

ALCALDE (from the Arab. al-quadi, the ``Cadi'' or 
``judge,'), the title in Spanish for officials of somewhat 
varied functions, in which, however, there is always a judicial 
element. Alcalde de corte was a judge of the palace 
court, having jurisdiction in and about the residence of the 
king.  But the mayor of a town or village who discharged the 
functions of a justice of the peace was also an alcalde. It 
is in this sense that the title is now exclusively used.  He 
is subject to yearly election and the post has often been an 
undesirable one in Spain.  The title of alcalde must be carefully 
distinguished from alcaide, which is derived from the Arabic 
al-quaid, a general, and means the governor of a fortress. 

ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens.  He was 
a younger contemporary of Pheidias and noted for the delicacy 
and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus and an 
Aphrodite ``of the Gardens'' were conspicuous.  Pausanias 
says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the pediments 
of the temple of Zeus at Olympia (see GREEK ART), but this 
seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility.  At Pergamum 
there was discovered in 1903 a copy of the head of the Hermes 
``Propylaeus'' of Alcamenes (Athenische Mittheilungen, 
1904, p. 180).  As, however, the deity is represented in 
an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot 
be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual 
style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive 
and original artist.  It is safer to judge him by the 
sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, in which he must almost 
certainly have taken a share under the direction of Pheidias. 

ALCAMO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 24 
m.  W.S.W. of Palermo direct (51 1/2 m. by rail).  Pop. (1881) 
37,497; (1901) 51,809.  It was founded in A.D. 828 by the 
Saracenic chief Al-Kamuk, who erected the castle (which still 
stands, though considerably altered), but was christianized 
by the emperor Frederick II. in 1233, who removed the 
site lower down.  It possesses some medieval buildings of 
interest.  The surrounding district is very fertile 
and the trade in agricultural products is considerable. 

ALCANTARA, a small seaport of Brazil, in the state of Maranhao, 
on the W. shore of the bay of Sao Marcos, 16 m. from the city of 
Maranhao by water.  It has a fairly good harbour, and excellent 
cotton and rice are grown in the vicinity and shipped thence. 

ALCANTARA, a town of western Spain, in the province of 
Caceres, situated on a rocky height on the left bank of the 
river Tagus, 7 m. from the Portuguese frontier.  Pop. (1900) 
3248.  Alcantara (in Arab. ``the bridge'') owes its name 
to the magnificent Roman bridge which spans the Tagus on the 
north-west.  This was originally built about A.D. 105, 
in honour of the Roman emperor Trajan and at the cost of 
eleven Lusitanian communities.  It is entirely constructed 
of granite blocks, without cement, and consists of six 
arches of various sizes, with a total length of 616 feet 
and a height of about 190 ft. in the middle piers, which are 
surmounted by a fortified gateway.  One of the arches was 
broken down in 1213 and rebuilt in 1553; another was blown 
up by the British troops in 1809, and, though temporarily 
reconstructed, was again destroyed in 1836, to prevent the 
passage of the Carlist forces.  But in 1860 the whole was 
restored.  A small Roman temple, dedicated to Trajan and 
other deified emperors, stood on the left bank, adjoining the 
bridge.  It is doubtful, however, if Alcantara marks the 
site of any Roman town, though archaeologists have sometimes 
identified it either with Norba Caesarea or with Interamnium. 
It first became famous about 1215 as the stronghold of the 
knightly Order of Alcantara.  Many of the grand masters of 
this order lie buried in the 13th-century Gothic church.  
The town possesses another interesting church built in 1506. 

See Antiguedades y santos de la muy noble villa de Alcantara, 
by J. Arias de Quintanaduenas (Madrid, 1661); and Retrato 
politico de Alcantara, by L. Santibanez (Madrid, 1779). 

ALCAVALA (Spanish, from Arab. al-quabalah, ``tax,'' 
quabula, ``to receive''; cf.  Fr. gabelle), a duty 
formerly charged in Spain and its colonies on all transfers 
of property, whether public or private.  Originally imposed 
in 1341 by Alphonso XI. to secure freedom from the Moors, 
it was an ad valorem tax of 10, increased afterwards to 
14%, on the selling price of all commodities, whether raw 
or manufactured, chargeable as often as they were sold or 
exchanged.  It subjected every farmer, manufacturer, merchant 
and shopkeeper to the continual visits and examination 
of the tax-gatherers, whose number was necessarily very 
great.  This monstrous impost was permitted to ruin the 
industry and commerce of the greater part of the kingdom 
up to the time of the invasion of Napoleon.  Catalonia 
and Aragon purchased from Philip V. an exemption from the 
alcavala, and, though still burdened with other heavy taxes, 
were in consequence in a comparatively flourishing state. 

ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN, or ALCAZAR, a town of Spain, in 
the province of Ciudad Real, in the plain of La Mancha, at 
the junction of the Madrid-Manzanares and Madrid-Albacete 
railways.  Pop. (1900) 11,499.  Owing to its position on two 
important railways, Alcazar has a flourishing transit-trade 
in the wines of Estremadura and Andalusia; the soda and 
alkali of La Mancha are used in the manufacture of soap; and 
gunpowder, chocolate and inlaid daggers are also made here.  
Alcazar is sometimes identified with the Roman Alce. captured 
by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 180 B.C. It derives its 
existing name from its medieval Moorish castle (al-kasr), 
which was afterwards garrisoned by the knights of St John.  
The townsfolk contend that the great Cervantes was a native 
of Alcazar; and, although this claim must be disallowed, much 
of the action of his masterpiece, Don Quixote, takes place 
in the neighbourhood.  El Toboso, for instance, a village 12 
m.  E.N.E. [pop. ( 1900) 1895], was the home of the Lady 
Dulcinea del Toboso; Argamasilla de Alba (3505), 22 m.  S.E., 
is declared by tradition to be the birthplace of Don Quixote 
himself.  Local antiquaries even identify the knight with Don 
Rodrigo de Pacheco, whose portrait adorns the parish church; 
and the same authorities hold that part of the romance was 
written while Cervantes was a prisoner in their town.  An 
edition of Don Quixote was published at Argamasilla in 1864. 

ALCESTER, FREDERICK BEAUCHAMP PAGET SEYMOUR, BARON 
(1821-1895), British admiral, son of Colonel Sir Horace 
Beauchamp Seymour and cousin of Francis George Hugh Seymour, 
5th marquess of Hertford, was born on the 12th of April 
1821.  Entering the navy in 1834, he served in the Mediterranean 
and the Pacific, was for three years flag-lieutenant to his 
uncle Sir George Seymour, and was promoted to be commander in 
1847.  He served in Burma as a volunteer in 1852, was made 
a captain in 1854, took the ``Meteor'' ironclad battery out 
to the Black Sea and home again in 1856, was captain of the 
``Pelorus'' on the Australian station from 1857 to 1863, 
and commanded the naval brigade in New Zealand during the 
Maori War, 1860-61, for which he was made a C.B. He became 
a rear-admiral in 1870; in 1871-1872 he commanded the flying 
squadron, was a lord of the admiralty in 1872-1874, and 
commanded the Channel fleet, 1874-1876.  On the 31st of December 
1876 he was made a vice-admiral, a K.C.B. on the 2nd of June 
1877.  In 1880-1883 he was commander-in-chief of the fleet 
in the Mediterranean, and in 1880 had also the chief command 
of the European squadron sent to the coast of Albania as 
a demonstration to compel the Porte to cede Dulcigno to 
Montenegro.  On the 24th of May 1881 he was made a G.C.B., 
and on the 6th of May 1882 was promoted to the rank of 
admiral.  In July 1882 he commanded at the bombardment of 
Alexandria and in the subsequent operations on the coast of 
Egypt, for which service he was raised to the peerage as 
Baron Alcester of Alcester in the county of Warwick, received 
a parliamentary grant of L. 25,000, the freedom of the city 
of London and a sword of honour.  On his return from the 
Mediterranean he was for a couple of years again at the 
admiralty, and in 1886 he was placed on the retired list.  For 
the next nine years he lived chiefly in London, but latterly 
his health was much broken, and he died on the 30th of March 
1895.  He was unmarried and the peerage became extinct. 

ALCESTER [pronounced Auster, a market-town in the 
Stratford-on-Avon parliamentary division of Warwickshire, 
England, 16 m.  W.S.W. from Warwick by the Great Western 
railway, served also by the Birmingham-Evesham branch of 
the Midland railway.  Pop. (1901) 2303.  It is pleasantly 
situated among low wooded hills at the junction of the small 
stream Alne with the Arrow, a northern tributary of the 
Avon.  The church of St Nicholas, with the exception of the 
Decorated tower, is a reconstruction of 1734; among several 
monuments is a fine example of Chantrey's work, to the 2nd 
marquess of Hertford (d. 1822).  There are a picturesque 
town hall (1641), raised on stone columns, and a free grammar 
school.  The manufacture of needles is less important than 
formerly, having been absorbed into the centre of the industry 
at Redditch in the neighbouring county of Worcestershire.  There 
are implement works and cycle works, and brewing is prosecuted. 

The name (Alnecestre, Alyncester) signifies ``the camp on the 
Alne.'' A small Romano-British town or village was situated 
here, on the road which runs from Derby and Wall, near Lichfield, 
to join the Fosse Way near Cirencester.  Its name is not 
known.  A relief figure in stone, some pavements, potsherds, 
coins and burials have been found, but nothing to indicate an 
important station.  No written document relating to Alcester 
exists before the reign of Henry I. No mention occurs in 
Domesday, but it is given in a list of serjeanties of the 
reign of Henry III. as having been a royal borough in the time 
of Henry I., and in 1177 it rendered four marks' aid with the 
other boroughs of the county.  However, there is no evidence 
of the grant of a royal charter, and the title of borough soon 
lapsed.  In the reign of Henry III. a moiety of the manor 
was purchased by Sir Walter Beauchamp, who granted a charter 
to the inhabitants of ihe town establishing a Tuesday market 
for corn, cattle, and all kinds of merchandise, and also 
obtained grants of fairs at the feasts of St Giles (afterwards 
transferred to the feast of St Faith) and St Barnabas.  In 
1444 Sir John Beauchamp purchased the remaining moiety of the 
manor, and was granted an additional fair at the feast of St 
Dunstan.  From this date the Beauchamps were lords of the 
whole manor until it passed by female descent to the Grevilles 
in the reign of Henry VIII. in 1140 a Benedictine monastery 
was founded here by Falph Boteler of Oversley, and received 
the name of the Church of Our Lady of the Isle, owing to its 
insulation by a moat meeting the river Arrow.  The monastery 
was suppressed among the smaller houses in 1536.  Traces of 
the moat and the foundations are still to be seen in Priory 
Close.  The ancient fairs survived to the end of the 19th century. 
in 1830 the needle-manufacture employed nearly a thousand hands. 

ALCESTIS (ALKESTIS), in Greek legend the daughter of 
Pelias and Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Pherae in 
Thessaly.  She consented to die in place of her husband, 
and was afterwards rescued by Heracles.  This beautiful 
story of conjugal devotion forms the subject of the 
Alcestis of Euripides, which furnished the basis of 
Robert Browning's Balaustion's Adventure. Sophocles 
also wrote an Alcestis, of which only fragments remain. 

See Dissel, Der Mythos von Admetus und Alkestis, 1882. 

ALCHEMY. In the narrow sense of the word, alchemy is the 
pretended art of making gold and silver, or transmuting the 
base metals into the noble ones.  The idea of such transmutation 
probably arose among the Alexandrian Greeks in the early 
centuries of the Christian era; thence it passed to the 
Arabs, by whom it was transmitted to western Europe, and its 
realization was a leading aim of chemical workers down to the 
time of Paracelsus and even later.  But ``alchemy'' was something 
more than a particularly vain and deluded manifestation of 
the thirst for gold, as it is sometimes represented; in its 
wider and truer significance it stands for the chemistry of 
the middle ages.  The idea of transmutation, in the country 
of its origin, had a philosophical basis, and was linked 
up with the Greek theories of matter there current; thus, 
by supplying a central philosophical principle, it to some 
extent unified and focussed chemical effort, which previously, 
so far as it existed at all, had been expended on acquiring 
empirical acquaintance with a mass of disconnected technical 
processes.  Alchemy in this sense is merely an early phase of 
the development of systematic chemistry; in Liebig's words, it 
was ``never at any time anything different from chemistry.'' 

Regarding the derivation of the word, there are two main views 
which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent, the 
prefix al being the Arabic article.  But according to one, 
the second part of the word comes from the Greek chumeia, 
pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the 
juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations 
in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned 
spellings ``chymist'' and ``chymistry.'' The other view 
traces it to khem or khame, hieroglyph khmi, which 
denotes black earth as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in 
Plutarch as chumeia; on this derivation alchemy is explained 
as meaning the ``Egyptian art.'' The first occurrence of 
the word is said to be in a treatise of Julius Firmicus, an 
astrological writer of the 4th century, but the prefix al 
there must be the addition of a later copyist.  Among the 
Alexandrian writers alchemy was designated as e tes chrusou 
te kai argurou poieseos techne theia kai iera or 
e episteme iera.  In English, Piers Plowman (1362) 
contains the phrase ``experimentis of alconomye,'' with 
variants ``alkenemye'' and ``alknamye.'' The prefix al 
begins to be dropped about the middle of the 16th century. 

Origins of Alchemy.--Numerous legends cluster round the 
origin of alchemy.  According to one story, it was founded 
by the Egyptian god Hermes (Thoth), the reputed inventor of 
the arts and sciences, to whom, under the appellation Hermes 
Trismegistus, Tertullian refers as the master of those who 
occupy themselves with nature; after him later alchemists 
called their work the ``hermetic art,'' and the seal of 
Hermes, which they placed upon their vessels, is the origin 
of the common phrase ``hermetically sealed.'' Another legend, 
given by Zosimus of Panopolis, an alchemistical writer said 
to date from the 3rd century, asserts that the fallen angels 
taught the arts to the women they married (cf. Genesis vi. 
2), their instruction being recorded in a book called 
Chema. A similar story appears in the Book of Enoch, 
and Tertullian has much to say about the wicked angels who 
revealed to men the knowledge of gold and silver, of lustrous 
stones, and of the power of herbs, and who introduced the 
arts of astrology and magic upon the earth.  Again, the 
Arabic Kitab-al-Fihrist, written by al-Nadim towards the 
end of the 10th century, says that the ``people who practise 
alchemy, that is, who fabricate gold and silver from strange 
metals, state that the first to speak of the science of the 
work was Hermes the Wise, who was originally of Babylon, but 
who established himself in Egypt after the dispersion of the 
peoples from Babel.'' Another legend, also to be found in Arabic 
sources, asserts that alchemy was revealed by God to Moses and 
Aaron.  But there is some evidence that, in accordance with 
the strong and constant tradition among the alchemists, the 
idea of transmutation did originate in Egypt with the Greeks of 
Alexandria.  In the Leiden museum there are a number of papyri 
which were found in a tomb at Thebes, written probably in the 
3rd century A.D., though their matter is older.  Some are 
in Greek and demotic, and one, of peculiar interest from the 
chemical point of view, gives a number of receipts, in Greek, 
for the manipulation of base metals to form alloys which simulate 
gold and are intended to be used in the manufacture of imitation 
jewellery.  Possibly this is one of the books about gold 
and silver of which Diocletian decreed the destruction about 
A.D. 290--an act which Gibbon styles the first authentic 
event in the history of alchemy (Decline and Fall, chap. 
xiii.).  The author of these receipts is not under any 
delusion that he is transmuting metals; the MS. is merely 
a workshop manual in which are described processes in daily 
use for preparing metals for false jewellery, but it argues 
considerable knowledge of methods of making alloys and colouring 
metals.  It has been suggested by M. P. E. Berthelot that 
the workers in these processes, which were a monopoly of the 
priestly caste and were kept strictly secret, though fully 
aware that their products were not truly gold, were in time 
led by their success in deceiving the public to deceive 
themselves also, and to come to believe that they actually 
had the power of making gold from substances which were not 
gold.  Philosophical sanction and explanation of this belief 
was then found by bringing it into relation with the theory 
of the prima materia, which was identical in all bodies 
but received its actual form by the adjunction of qualities 
expressed by the Aristotelian elements--earth, air, fire and 
water.  Some support for this view is gained from study 
of the alchemistical writings of the period.  Thus, in the 
treatise known as Physica et Mystica and falsely ascribed 
to Democritus (such false attributions are a constant feature 
of the literature of alchemy), various receipts are given 
for colouring and gilding metals, but the conception of 
transmutation does not occur.  This treatise was probably 
composed at a date not very different from that of the Leiden 
papyrus.  Later, however, as in the Commentary on this 
work written by Synesius to Dioscorus, priest of Serapis at 
Alexandria, which probably dates from the end of the 4th 
century, a changed attitude becomes apparent; the more 
practical parts of the receipts are obscured or omitted, 
and the processes for preparing alloys and colouring 
metals, described in the older treatise, are by a mystical 
interpretation represented as resulting in real transmutation. 

But while there are thus some grounds for supposing that the 
idea of transmutation grew out of the practical receipts of 
Alexandrian Egypt, the alchemy which embraced it as a leading 
principle was also strongly affected by Eastern influences 
such as magic and astrology.  The earliest Greek alchemistical 
writings abound with references to Oriental authorities and 
traditions.  Thus the pseudo-Democritus, who was reputed the 
author of the Physica et Mystica, which itself concludes 
each of its receipts with a magical formula, was believed 
to have travelled in Chaldaea, and to have had as his master 
Ostanes1 the Mede, a name mentioned several times in the 
Leiden papyrus, and often by early Christian writers such as 
Tertullian, St Cyprian and St Augustine.  The practices of 
the Persian adepts also are appealed to in the writings of the 
pseudo-Democritus, Zosimus and Synesius.  The philosopher's 
egg, as a symbol of creation, is both Egyptian and 
Babylonian.  In the Greek alchemists it appears as the symbol 
at once of the art and of the universe, enclosing within 
itself the four elements; and there is sometimes a play of 
words between to on and to won.  The conception of 
man, the microcosm, containing in himself all the parts 
of the universe or macrocosm, is also Babylonian, as again 
probably is the famous identification of the metals with the 
planets.  Even in the Leiden papyrus the astronomical symbols 
for the sun and moon are used to denote gold and silver, and 
in the Meteorologica of Olympiodorus lead is attributed to 
Saturn, iron to Mars, copper to Venus, tin to Hermes (Mercury) 
and electrum to Jupiter.  Similar systems of symbols, but 
elaborated to include compounds, appear in Greek MSS. of 
the 10th century, preserved in the library of St Mark's at 
Venice.  Subsequently electrum (an alloy of gold and silver) 
disappeared as a specific metal, and tin was ascribed to Jupiter 
instead, the sign of mercury becoming common to the metal and the 
planet.  Thus we read in Chaucer (Chanouns Yemannes Tale):-- 

 The bodies sevene eek, lo! hem heer anoon: 
Sol gold is, and Luna silver we threpe,
Mars yren, Mercurie quik-silver we clepe,
Saturnus leed and Jupiter is tin,
And Venus coper, by my fader kin!
Literature of Alchemy.--A considerable body of Greek chemical 
writings is contained in MSS. belonging to the various great 
libraries of Europe, the oldest being that at St Mark's, just 
mentioned.  The contents of these MSS. are all of similar 
composition, and in Berthelot's opinion represent a collection 
of treatises made at Constantinople in the 8th or 9th 
century.  The treatises are nearly all anterior to the 7th 
century, and most appear to belong to the 3rd and 4th centuries; 
some are the work of authentic authors like Zosimus and 
Synesius, while of others, such as profess to be written by 
Moses, Democritus, Ostanes, &c., the authorship is clearly 
fictitious.  Some of the same names and the same works can 
be identified in the lists of the Kitab-al- Fihrist. But 
the Arabs did not acquire their knowledge of this literature 
at first hand.  The earliest Hellenic culture in the East was 
Syrian, and the Arabs made their first acquaintance with 
Greek chemistry, as with Greek philosophy, mathematics, 
medicine, &c., by the intermediary of Syriac translations. 
(See ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY and SYRIAC LITERATURE.) Examples 
of such translations are preserved in MSS. at the British 
Museum, partly written in Syriac, partly in Arabic with Syriac 
characters.  In Berthelot's opinion, the Syriac portions 
represent a compilation of receipts and processes undertaken in 
the Syrian school of medicine at Bagdad under the Abbasids in 
the 9th or 10th century, and to a large extent constituted by 
the earlier translations made by Sergius of Resaena in the 6th 
century.  They contain, under the title Doctrine of Democritus, 
a fairly methodical treatise in ten books comprising the 
Argyropoeia and Chrysopoeia of the pseudo-Democritus, 
with many receipts for colouring metals, making artificial 
precious stones, effecting the diplosis or doubling of 
metals, &c. They give illustrations of the apparatus employed, 
and their close relationship to the Greek is attested by 
the frequent occurrence of Greek words and the fact that 
the signs and symbols of the Greek alchemists appear almost 
unchanged.  The other portion seems of somewhat later date.  
Another Syriac MS., in the library of Cambridge University, 
contains a translation of a work by Zosimus which is so far 
unknown in the original Greek.  Berthelot gives reproductions 
of the British Museum MSS. in vol. ii. of La Chimie au moyen 

Several alchemistical treatises, written in Arabic, exist 
in manuscript in the National Library at Paris and in the 
library of the university of Leiden, and have been reproduced 
by Berthelot, with translations, in vol. iii. of La Chimie 
au moyen age. They fall into two groups: those in one are 
largely composed of compilations from Greek sources, while 
those in the other have rather the character of original 
compositions.  Of the first group the most interesting and 
possibly the oldest is the Book of Crates; it is remarkable 
for containing some of the signs used for the metals by the 
Greek alchemists, and for giving figures of four pieces of 
apparatus which closely resemble those depicted in Greek 
MSS., the former being never, and the latter rarely, found 
in other Arabic MSS. Its concluding words suggest that its 
production was due to Khalid ben Yezid (died in 708), who 
was a pupil of the Syrian monk Marianus, and according to 
the Kitab-al-Fihrist was the first Mussulman writer on 
alchemy.  The second group consists of a number of treatises 
professing to be written by Jaber, celebrated in Latin alchemy 
as Geber (q.v..) Internal evidence suggests that they are not 
all from the same hand or of the same date, but probably they 
are not earlier than the 9th nor later than the 12th century.  
The Arabic chroniclers record the names of many other writers 
on alchemy, among the most famous being Rhazes and Avicenna. 

But the further development of alchemy took place in the West 
rather than in the East.  With the spread of their empire 
to Spain the Arabs took with them their knowledge of Greek 
medicine and science, including alchemy, and thence it passed, 
strengthened by the infusion of a certain Jewish element, to 
the nations of western Europe, through the medium of Latin 
translations.  The making of these began about the 11th 
century, one of the earliest of the translators, Constantinus 
Africanus, wrote about 1075, and another, Gerard of Cremona, 
lived from 1114 to 1187.  The Liber de compositione alchemiae, 
which professes to be by Morienus--perhaps the same as the 
Marianus who was the teacher of Khalid--was translated by 
Robertus Castrensis, who states that he finished the work in 
1182, and speaks as if he were making a revelation--``Quid 
sit alchemia nondum cognovit vestra Latinitas.'' The earlier 
translations, such as the Turba Philosophorum and other 
Works printed in collections like the Artis auriferae quam 
chemiam vocant (1572), Theatrum chemicum (1602), and 
J. J. Manget's Bibliotheca chemica curiosa (1702), are 
confused productions, written in an allegorical style, but 
full of phrases and even pages taken literally from the Greek 
alchemists, and citing by name various authorities of Greek 
alchemy.  They were followed by treatises of a different 
character, clearer in matter, more systematic in arrangement, 
and reflecting the methods of the scholastic logic; these are 
farther from the Greek tradition, for although they contain 
sufficient traces of their ultimate Greek ancestry, their 
authors do not know the Greeks as masters and cite no Greek 
names.  So far as they are Latin versions of Arabico-Greek 
treatises, they must have been much remodelled in the course 
of translation; but there is reason to suppose that many of 
them, even when pretending to be translations, are really 
original compositions.  It is curious that although we possess 
a certain number of works on alchemy written in Arabic, and 
also many Latin treatises that profess to be translated from 
Arabic, yet in no case is the existence known of both the 
Arabic and the Latin version.  The Arabic works of Jaber, as 
contained in MSS. at Paris and Leiden, are quite Aissimiiar 
from the Latin works attributed to Geber, and show few if any 
traces of the positive chemical knowledge, as of nitric acid 
(aqua dissolutiva or fortis) or of the mixture of nitric 
and hydrochloric acids known as aqua regis or regia, that 
appears in the latter.  The treatises attributed to Geber, in 
fact, appear to be original works composed not earlier than the 
13th century and fathered on Jaber in order to enhance their 
authority.  If this view be accepted, an entirely new light 
is thrown on the achievements of the Arabs in the history of 
chemistry.  Gibbon asserts that the Greeks were inattentive 
either to the use or to the abuse of chemistry (Decline and 
Fall, chap. xiii.), and gives the Arabs the credit of the 
origin and improvement of the science (chap. lii.).2 But 
the chemical knowledge attributed to the Arabs has been so 
attributed largely on the basis of the contents of the Latin 
Geber, regarded as a translation from the Arabic Jaber.  If, 
then, those contents do not represent the knowledge of Jaber, 
and if the contents of other Latin translations which there 
is reason to believe are really made from the Arabic, show 
little, if any, advance on the knowledge of the Alexandrian 
Greeks, evidently the part played by the Arabs must be less, and 
that of the Westerns greater, than Gibbon is prepared to admit. 

The descent of alchemistical doctrine can thus be traced 
with fair continuity for a thousand years, from the Greeks 
of Alexandria down to the time when Latin alchemy was 
firmly established in the West, and began to be written 
of by historical authors like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon 
and Arnoldus Villanovanus in the 13th century.  But side 
by side with this literary transmission Berthelot insists 
that there was another mode of transmission, by means of the 
knowledge of practical receipts and processes traditional 
among jewellers, painters, workers in glass and pottery, and 
other handicraftsmen.  The chemical knowledge of Egyptian 
metallurgists and jewellers, he holds, was early transmitted 
to the artisans of Rome, and was preserved throughout the 
dark ages in the workshops of Italy and France until about 
the 13th century, when it was mingled with the theories of 
the Greek alchemists which reached the West by way of the 
Arabs.  Receipts given in the Leiden papyrus reappear in 
the Compositiones ad Tingenda and the Mappae Clavicula, 
both workshop receipt books, one known in an 8th-century 
MS. at Lucca, and the other in a 10th-century MS. in the 
library of Schlettstadt; and again in such works as the De 
Artibus Romanorum of Eraclius and the Schedula Diversarum 
Artium of Theophilus, belonging to the 11th or 12th century. 

Theory of Transmutation.--The fundamental theory of the 
transmutation of metals is to be found in the Greek alchemists, 
although in details it was modified and elaborated by the 
Arabs and the Latin alchemists.  Regarding all substances as 
being composed of one primitive matter--the prima materia, 
and as owing their specific differences to the presence of 
different qualities imposed upon it, the alchemist hoped, by 
taking away these qualities, to obtain the prima materia 
itself, and then to get from it the particular substance he 
desired by the addition of the appropriate qualities.  The 
prima materia was early identified with mercury, not ordinary 
mercury, but the ``mercury of the philosophers,'' which was the 
essence or soul of mercury, freed from the four Aristotelian 
elements--earth, air, fire and water--or rather from the 
qualities which they represent.  Thus the operator had to 
remove from ordinary mercury, earth or an earthy principle or 
quality, and water or a liquid principle, and to fix it by 
taking away air or a volatile principle.  The prima materia 
thus obtained had to be treated with sulphur (or with sulphur 
and arsenic) to confer upon it the desired qualities that were 
missing.  This sulphur again was not ordinary sulphur, but some 
principle derived from it, which constituted the philosopher's 
stone or elixir--white for silver and yellow or red for 
gold.  This is briefly the doctrine that the metals are 
composed of mercury and sulphur, which persisted in one form 
or another down to the 17th century.  Of course there were 
numerous variations and refinements.  Thus in the Speculum 
Naturale of Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1250) it is said that 
there are four spirits--mercury, sulphur, arsenic and sal 
ammoniac-- and six bodies--gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and 
iron.3 Of these bodies the two first are pure, the four last 
impure.  Pure white mercury, fixed by the virtue of white 
non-corrosive sulphur, engenders in mines a matter which 
fusion changes into silver, and united to pure clear red 
sulphur it forms gold, while with various kinds of impure 
mercury and sulphur the other bodies are produced.  Vincent 
attributes to Rhazes the statement that copper is potentially 
silver, and any one who can eliminate the red colour will 
bring it to the state of silver, for it is copper in outward 
appearance, but in its inmost nature silver.  This statement 
represents a doctrine widely held in the 13th century, and 
also to be found in the Greek alchemists, that everything 
endowed with a particular apparent quality possesses a hidden 
opposite quality, which can be rendered apparent by fire.  
Later, as in the works attributed to Basil Valentine, sulphur, 
mercury and salt are held to be the constituents of the metals. 

It must be noted that the processes described by the alchemists 
of the 13th century are not put forward as being miraculous 
or supernatural; they rather represent the methods employed by 
nature, which it is the end of the alchemist's art to reproduce 
artificially in the laboratory.  But even among the late 
Arabian alchemists it was doubted whether the resources of 
the art were adequate to the task; and in the West, Vincent of 
Beauvais remarks that success had not been achieved in making 
artificial metals identical with the natural ones.  Thus he 
says that the silver which has been changed into gold by the 
projection of the red elixir is not rendered resistant to the 
agents which affect silver but not gold, and Albertus Magnus 
in his De Mineralibus --the De Alchemia attributed to him 
is spurious--states that alchemy cannot change species but 
merely imitates them--for instance, colours a metal white to 
make it resemble silver or yellow to give it the appearance of 
gold.  He has, he adds, tested gold made by alchemists, and 
found that it will not withstand six or seven exposures to 
fire.  But scepticism of this kind was not universal.  Roger 
Bacon--or more probably some one who usurped his name--declared 
that with a certain amount of the philosopher's stone he could 
transmute a million times as much base metal into gold, and 
on Raimon Lull was fathered the boast, ``Mare tingerem si 
mercurius esset.'' Numerous less distinguished adepts also 
practised the art, and sometimes were so successful in their 
deceptions that they gained the ear of kings, whose desire 
to profit by the achievements of science was in several 
instances rewarded by an abundant crop of counterfeit coins. 

Later History of Alchemy.--In the earlier part of the 
16th century Paracelsus gave a new direction to alchemy by 
declaring that its true object was not the making of gold but 
the preparation of medicines, and this union of chemistry with 
medicine was one characteristic of the iatrochemical school 
of which he was the precursor.  Increasing attention was paid 
to the investigation of the properties of substances and of 
their effects on the human body, and chemistry profited by 
the fact that it passed into the hands of men who possessed 
the highest scientific culture of the time, Still, belief 
in the possibility of transmutation long remained orthodox, 
even among the most distinguished men of science.  Thus it 
was accepted, at least academically, by Andreas Libavius (d. 
1616); by F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614-1672), though not by 
his pupil Otto Tachenius, and by J. R. Glauber (1603-1668); 
by Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and, for a time at least, by Sir 
Isaac Newton and his rival and contemporary, G. W. Leibnitz 
(1646-1716); and by G. E. Stahl (1660-1734) and Hermann Boerhaave 
(1668-1738).  Though an alchemist, Boyle, in his Sceptical 
Chemist (1661), cast doubts on the ``experiments whereby 
vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their salt, 
sulphur and mercury to be the true principles of things,'' 
and advanced towards the conception of chemical elements 
as those constituents of matter which cannot be further 
decomposed.  With J. J. Becher (1635-1682) and G. E. Stahl, 
however, there was a reversion to earlier ideas.  The former 
substituted for the salt, sulphur and mercury of Basil 
Valentine and Paracelsus three earths--the mercurial, the 
vitreous and the combustible--and he explained combustion 
as depending on the escape of this last combustible element; 
while Stahl's conception of phlogiston--not fire itself, 
but the principle of fire--by virtue of which combustible 
bodies burned, was a near relative of the mercury of the 
philosophers, the soul or essence of ordinary mercury. 

Perhaps J. B. van Helmont (1577-1644) was the last distinguished 
investigator who professed actually to have changed mercury 
into gold, though impostors and mystics of various kinds 
continued to claim knowledge of the art long after his 
time.  So late as 1782, James Price, an English physician, 
showed experiments with white and red powders, by the aid 
of which he was supposed to be able to transform fifty 
and sixty times as much mercury into silver and gold.  The 
metals he produced are said to have proved genuine on assay; 
when, however, in the following year he was challenged to 
repeat the experiments he was unable to do so and committed 
suicide.  In the course of the 19th century the idea that 
the different elements are constituted by different groupings 
or condensations of one primal matter--a speculation which, 
if proved to be well grounded, would imply the possibility 
of changing one element into another--found favour with 
more than one responsible chemist; but experimental research 
failed to yield any evidence that was generally regarded as 
offering any support to this hypothesis.  About the beginning 
of the 20th century, however, the view was promulgated 
that the spontaneous production of helium from radium may 
be an instance of the transformation of one element into 
another. (See RADIOACTIVITY; also ELEMENT and MATTER.) 

See M. P. E. Berthelot, Les Origines de l'alchimie (1885); 
Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (text and 
translation, 3 vols., 1887-1888); Introduction a l'etude de 
la chimie des anciens et du moyen age (1889): La Chimie au 
moyen age (text and translation of Syriac and Arabic treatises 
on alchemy, 3 vols., 1893).  Much bibliographical and other 
information about the later writers on alchemy is contained 
in Bibliotheca Chemica (2 vols., Glasgow, 1906), a catalogue 
by John Ferguson of the books in the collection of James 
Young of Kelly (printed for private distribution). (H. M. R.) 

1 An alchemistical work bearing the name of Ostanes 
speaks of a divine water which cures all maladies--an early 
appearance of the universal panacea or elixir of life. 

2 ``Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted in the 
temples and monasteries of Egypt: much useful experience might 
have been acquired in the practice of arts and manufactures, 
but the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement 
to the industry of the Saracens.  They first invented 
and named the alembic for the purposes of distillation, 
analyzed the substances of the three kingdoms of nature, 
tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis and acids, 
and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and salutary 
remedies.  But the most eager search of Arabian chemistry 
was the transmutation of metals, and the elixir of immortal 
health: the reason and the fortunes of thousands were 
evaporated in the crucibles of alchemy, and the consummation 
of the great work was promoted by the worthy aid of mystery, 
fable and superstition.'' It may be noted that the word 
``alembic'' is derived from the Greek ambix, ``cup,'' 
with the Arabic article prefixed, and that the instrument 
is figured in the MSS. of some of the Greek alchemists. 

3 Cf. Chaucer, Chanouns Yemannes Tale, where, 
however, mercury figures both as a spirit and a body:-- 

 ``The firste spirit quik-silver called is, 
  The second orpiment, the thridde ywis
  Sal armoniak, and the ferthe brimstoon.''
ALCIATI, ANDREA (1492-1550), Italian jurist, was born at 
Alzano, near Milan, on the 12th of January 1492.  He displayed 
great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was 
one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, 
languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original 
research for the servile interpretations of the glossators.  He 
published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus.  
His Emblems, a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, has 
been greatly admired, and translated into French, Italian and 
Spanish.  Alciati's history of Milan, under the title Rerum 
Potriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV., was published 
posthumously at Milan in 1625.  He died at Pavia in 1550. 

ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.C.), Athenian general and 
politician, was born at Athens.  He was the son of Cleinias and 
Deinomache, who belonged to the family of the Alcmaeonidae.  
He was a near relative of Pericles, who, after the death 
of Cleinias at the battle of Coroneia (447), became his 
guardian.  Thus early deprived of his father's control, possessed 
of great personal beauty and the heir to great wealth, which 
was increased by his marriage, he showed himself self-willed, 
capricious and passionate, and indulged in the wildest freaks 
and most insolent behaviour.  Nor did the instructors of 
his early manhood supply the corrective which his boyhood 
lacked.  From Protagoras, Prodicus and others he learnt to 
laugh at the common ideas of justice, temperance, holiness and 
patriotism.  The laborious thought, the ascetic life of his 
master Socrates, he was able to admire, but not to imitate or 
practise.  On the contrary, his ostentatious vanity, his amours, 
his debaucheries and his impious revels became notorious.  
But great as were his vices, his abilities were even greater. 

He took part in the battle of Potidaea (432), where his 
life was saved by Socrates, a service which he repaid at 
the battle of Delium (424).  As the reward of his bravery, 
the wealthy Hipponicus bestowed upon him the hand of his 
daughter.  From this time he took a prominent part in Athenian 
politics during the Peloponnesian war.  Originally friendly to 
Sparta, he subsequently became the leader of the war party in 
opposition to Nicias, and after the peace of 421 he succeeded 
by an unscrupulous trick in duping the Spartan ambassadors, 
and persuading the Athenians to conclude an alliance (420) with 
Argos, Elis and Mantineia (Thuc. v. 56, 76). On the failure 
of Nicias in Thrace (418-417) he became the chief advocate 
of the Sicilian expedition, seeing an opportunity for the 
realization of his ambitious projects, which included the 
conquest of Sicily, to be followed by that of Peloponnesus 
and possibly of Carthage (though this seems to have been an 
afterthought).  The expedition was decided upon with great 
enthusiasm, and Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamachus were appointed 
joint commanders.  But, on the day before the expedition 
sailed, there occurred the mysterious mutilation of the Hermae, 
and Alcibiades was accused not only of being the originator 
of the crime, but also of having profaned the Eleusinian 
mysteries.  His request for an immediate investigation being 
refused, he was obliged to set sail with the charge still 
hanging over him.  Almost as soon as he reached Sicily 
he was recalled to stand his trial, but he escaped on the 
journey home and made his way to Sparta.  Learning that he 
had been condemned to death in his absence and his property 
confiscated, he openly joined the Spartans, and persuaded 
them to send Gylippus to assist the Syracusans and to 
fortify Decelea in Attica.  He then passed over to Asia 
Minor, prevailed upon many of the Ionic allies of Athens to 
revolt, and concluded an alliance with the Persian satrap 
Tissaphernes.  But in a few months he had lost the confidence 
of the Spartans, and at the instigation of Agis II., whose 
personal hostility he had excited, an order was sent for his 
execution.  Receiving timely information of this order he 
crossed over to Tissaphernes (412), and persuaded him to 
adopt the negative policy of leaving Athens and Sparta to 
wear themselves out by their mutual struggles.  Alcibiades 
was now bent on returning to Athens, and he used his supposed 
influence with Tissaphernes to effect his purpose.  He entered 
into negotiations with the oligarch Peisander, but when these 
led to no result he attached himself to the fleet at Samos 
which remained loyal to the democracy, and was subsequently 
recalled by Thrasybulus, although he did not at once return to 
Athens.  Being appointed commander in the neighbourhood of the 
Hellespont, he defeated the Spartan fleet at Abydos (411) 
and Cyzicus (410), and recovered Chalcedon and Byzantium.  
On his return to Athens after these successes he was welcomed 
with unexpected enthusiasm (407); all the proceedings against 
him were cancelled, and he was appointed general with full 
powers.  His ill success, however, at Andros, and the 
defeat at Notium (407) of his lieutenant Antiochus, led the 
Athenians to dismiss him from his command.  He thereupon 
retired to the Thracian Chersonesus.  After the battle of 
Aegospotami, and the final defeat of Athens, he crossed 
the Hellespont and took refuge with Pharnabazus in Phrygia, 
with the object of securing the aid of Artaxerxes against 
Sparta.  But the Spartans induced Pharnabazus to put him out 
of the way; as he was about to set out for the Persian court 
his residence was set on fire, and on rushing out on his 
assassins, dagger in hand, he was killed by a shower of arrows 
(404).  There can be no doubt that his advice to Sparta in 
connexion with Syracuse and the fortification of Decelea 
was the real cause of his country's downfall, though it is 
only fair to him to add that had he been allowed to continue 
in command of the Sicilian expedition he would undoubtedly 
have overruled the fatal policy of Nicias and prevented the 
catastrophe of 413. His belated attempt to repair his fatal 
treachery only exposed the essential selfishness of his 
character.  Though he must have known that his influence 
over the Persian satraps was slender in the extreme, he 
used it with the most flagrant dishonesty as a bait first to 
Sparta, then to the Athenian oligarchs, and finally to the 
democracy.  Superficial and opportunist to the last, he 
owed the successes of his meteoric career purely to personal 
magnetism and an almost incredible capacity for deception. 

There are lives of Alcibiades by Plutarch and Cornelius 
Nepos, and monographs by Hertzberg, A. der Staatsmann 
und Feldherr (1833), and Houssaye, Histoire d'Alcibiade 
(1873); but the best accounts will be found in the histories 
of Greece by G. Grote (also notes in abridged ed., 1907), 
Ed. Meyer, and works quoted under GREECE, Ancient 
History, sect. ``Authorities''; also PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

ALCIDAMAS, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetorician, 
flourished in the 4th century B.C. He was the pupil and 
successor of Gorgias and taught at Athens at the same time 
as Isocrates, whose rival and opponent he was.  We possess 
two declamations under his name: Peri Sofiston, directed 
against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore 
over written speeches (a recently discovered fragment of 
another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); 
'Odusseus, in which Odysseus accuses Palamedes of treachery 
during the siege of Troy (this is generally considered 
spurious).  According to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the 
orator was the power of speaking extempore on every conceivable 
subject.  Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 3) criticizes his writings 
as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use 
of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors.  
Of other works only fragments and the titles have survived: 
Messeniakos, advocating the freedom of the Messenians and 
containing the sentiment that ``all are by nature free''; 
a Eulogy of Death, in consideration of the wide extent of 
human sufferings; a Techne or instruction-book in the art 
of rhetoric; and a Fusikos lolos. Lastly, his Mouseion 
(a word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the 
contest between Homer and Hesiod, two fragments of which are 
found in the 'Agon `Omerou kai `Esiodou, the work of 
a grammarian in the time of Hadrian.  A 3rd-century papyrus 
(Flinders Petrie, Papyri, ed.  Mahaffy, 1891, pl. xxv.) probably 
contains the actual remains of a description by Alcidamas. 

See the edition by Blass, 1881; fragments in Muller, 
Oratores Attici, ii. (1858); Vahlen, Der Rhetor 
Alkidamas (1864); Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit. 

ALCINOUS (ALKINOOS), in ancient Greek legend, king of 
the fabulous Phaeacians, in the island of Scheria, was the 
son of Nausithous and grandson of Poseidon.  His reception 
and entertainment of Odysseus, who when cast by a storm on 
the shore of the island was relieved by the king's daughter, 
Nausicaa, is described in the Odyssey (vi.-xiii.).  The 
gardens and palace of Alcinous and the wonderful ships of 
the Phaeacian mariners were famous in antiquity.  Scheria was 
identified in very early times with Corcyra, where Alcinous 
was reverenced as a hero; In the Argonautic legend, his 
abode was the island of Drepane (Apoll.  Rhodius iv. 990). 

ALCINOUS, the Platonic philosopher, lived probably in the 
time of the Caesars.  He was the author of an 'Epitome 
ton Platonos dogmaton, an analysis of Plato's philosophy 
according to later writers.  It is rather in the manner of 
Aristotle, and freely attributes to Plato any ideas of other 
philosophers which appeared to contribute to the system.  He 
produced in the end a synthesis of Plato and Aristotle with an 
admixture of Pythagorean or Oriental mysticism, and is closely 
allied to the Alexandrian school of thought.  He recognized 
a God who is unknowable, and a series of beings (daimones) 
who hold intercourse with men.  He recognized also Ideas and 
Matter, and borrowed largely from Aristotle and the Stoics. 

The 'Epitome has been translated by Pierre Balbi 
(Rome, 1469) and by Marsilio Ficino; into French by J. I. 
Combes-Dounous (Paris, 1800), and into English by Thomas 
Stanley in his History of Philosophy. Editions: Heinsius 
(Leiden, 1630); Fischer (Leipzig, 1783); in Aldine Edition 
of Apuleius (Venice, 1521; Paris, 1532); Fell (Oxford, 
1667).  See Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie, iv. 249. 

ALCIONIO, PIETRO, or PETRUS ALCYONIUS (c. 1487-1527), 
Italian classical scholar, was born at Venice.  After having 
studied Greek under Marcus Musurus of Candia, he was employed 
for some time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press, 
and in 1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence 
through the influence of Giulio de' Medici.  When his patron 
became pope in 1523 under the title of Clement VII., Alcionio 
followed him to Rome and remained there until his death.  
Alcionio published at Venice, in 1521, a Latin translation 
of several of the works of Aristotle, which was shown by the 
Spanish scholar Sepulveda to be very incorrect.  He wrote a 
dialogue entitled Medices Legatus, sive de Exilio (1522), 
in connexion with which he was charged with plagiarism by 
his personal enemy, Paulus Manutius.  The accusation, which 
Tiraboschi has shown to be groundless, was that he had taken 
the finest passages in the work from Cicero's lost treatise 
De Gloria, and had then destroyed the only existing copy of 
the original in order to escape detection.  His contemporaries 
speak very unfavourably of Alcionio, and accuse him of 
haughtiness, uncouth manners, vanity and licentiousness. 

ALCIPHRON, Greek rhetorician, was probably a contemporary of 
Lucian (2nd century A.D..) He was the author of a collection 
of fictitious letters, of which 124 (118 complete and 6 
fragments) have been published; they are written in the purest 
Attic dialect and are considered models of style.  The scene 
is throughout at Athens; the imaginary writers are country 
people, fishermen, parasites and courtesans, who express 
their sentiments and opinions on familiar subjects in elegant 
language.  The ``courtesan'' letters are especially valuable, 
the information contained in them being chiefly derived 
from the writers of the New Comedy, especially Menander. 

EDITIONS.--Editio princeps (44 letters), 1499; 
Bergler (1715); Seiler (1856); Hercher (1873); Schepers 
(1905).  English translation by Monro and Beloe (1791). 

ALCIRA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; 
on the left bank of the river Jucar, and on the Valencia- 
Alicante railway.  Pop. (1900) 20,572.  Alcira is a walled 
town, surrounded by palm, orange and mulberry groves, and by 
low-lying rice-swamps, which render its neighbourhood somewhat 
unhealthy.  Silk, fruit and rice are its chief products.  
It is sometimes identified w;th the Roman Saetabicula.  In 
the middle ages it was a prosperous Moorish trading-station. 

ALCMAEON, of Argos, in Greek legend, was the son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle.  When his father set out with the expedition 
of the Seven against Thebes, which he knew would be fatal 
to him, he enjoined upon his sons to avenge his death by 
slaying Eriphyle and undertaking a second expedition against 
Thebes.  After the destruction of Thebes by the Epigoni, 
Alcmaeon carried out his father's injunctions by killing 
his mother, as a punishment for which he was driven mad 
and pursued by the Erinyes from place to place.  On his 
arrival at Psophis in Arcadia, he was purified by its king 
Phegeus, whose daughter Arsinoe (or Alphesiboea) he married, 
making her a present of the fatal necklace and the peplus of 
Harmonia.  But the land was cursed with barrenness, and the 
oracle declared that Alcmaeon would never find rest until he 
reached a spot on which the sun had never shone at the time 
he slew his mother.  Such a spot he found at the mouth of 
the river Achelous, where an island had recently been formed 
by the alluvial deposit; here he settled and, forgetting 
his wife Arsinoe, married Callirrhoe, the daughter of the 
river-god.  His new wife longed for the necklace and peplus, 
and Alcmaeon, returning to Psophis, obtained possession of 
them, on the pretence that he desired to dedicate them at 
Delphi.  When the truth became known he was pursued and 
slain by Phegeus and his sons.  After his death Alcmaeon was 
worshipped at Thebes; his tomb was at Psophis in a grove of 
cypresses.  His story was the subject of an old epic and 
of several tragedies, but none of these has been preserved. 

Homer, Odyssey xv. 248; Apollodorus iii. 7; Thucydides ii, 68, 
102; Pausanias viii. 24, x. 10; Ovid, Metam. ix. 400 et seq. 

ALCMAEONIDAE, a noble Athenian family, claiming descent 
from Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nestor, who emigrated 
from Pylos to Athens at the time of the Dorian invasion of 
Peloponnesus.  During the archonship of an Alcmaeonid Megacles 
(? 632 B.C.), Cylon, who had unsuccessfully attempted to 
make himself ``tyrant''' was treacherously murdered with his 
followers.  The curse or pollution thus incurred was frequently 
in later years raked up for political reasons; the Spartans 
even demanded that Pericles should be expelled as accursed at 
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war.  All the members of 
the family went into banishment, and having returned in the 
time of Solon (594) were again expelled (538) by Peisistratus 
(q.v..) Their great wealth enabled them during their exile 
to enhance their reputation and secure the favour of the 
Delphian Apollo by rebuilding the temple after its destruction 
by fire in 548. Their importance is shown by the fact that 
Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, gave his daughter Agariste 
in marriage to the Alcmaeonid Megacles in preference to all 
the assembled suitors after the undignified behaviour of 
Hippocleides.  Under the statesman Cleisthenes (q.v.), the 
issue of this union, the Alcmaeonids became supreme in Athens 
about 510 B.C. To them was generally attributed (though 
Herodotus disbelieves the story--see GREECE, Ancient 
History, sect. ``Authorities,'' II.) the treacherous raising 
of the shield as a signal to the Persians at Marathon, 
but, whatever the truth of this may be, there can be little 
doubt that they were not the only one of the great Athenian 
families to make treasonable overtures to Persia.  Pericles 
and Alcibiades were both connected with the Alcmaeonidae.  
Nothing is heard of them after the Peloponnesian war. 

See Herodotus vi. 121-131. 

ALCMAN, or ALCMAEON (the former being the Doric form 
of the name), the founder of Doric lyric poetry, to whom 
was assigned the first place among the nine lyric poets 
of Greece in the Alexandrian canon, flourished in the 
latter half of the 7th century B.C. He was a Lydian of 
Sardis, who came as a slave to Sparta, where he lived in 
the family of Agesidas, by whom he was emancipated.  His 
mastery of Greek shows that he must have come very early to 
Sparta, where, after the close of the Messenian wars, the 
people were able to bestow their attention upon the arts of 
peace.  Alcman composed various kinds of poems in various 
metres; Parthenia (maidens' songs), hymns, paeans, prosodia 
(processionals), and love-songs, of which he was considered the 
inventor.  He was evidently fond of good living, and traces 
of Asiatic sensuousness seem out of place amidst Spartan 
simplicity.  The fragments are scanty, the most considerable 
being part of a Parthenion found in 1855 on an Egyptian 
papyrus; some recently discovered hexameters are attributed 
to Alcman or Erinna (Oxyrhynchus papyri, i. 1898). 

For general authorities see ALCAEUS. 

ALCMENE, in ancient Greek mythology, the daughter of 
Electryon, king of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon.  She 
was the mother of Heracles by Zeus, who assumed the likeness 
of her husband during his absence, and of Iphicles by 
Amphitryon.  She was regarded as the ancestress of the 
Heracleidae, and worshipped at Thebes and Athens. 

See Winter, Alkmene und Amphitryon (1876). 

ALCOBACA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria, 
formerly included in the province of Estremadura, on the Alcoa 
and Baca rivers, from which it derives its name.  Pop. (1900) 
2309.  Alcobaca is chiefly interesting for its Cistercian 
convent, now partly converted into schools and barracks.  
The monastic buildings, which form a square 725 ft. in 
diameter, with a huge conical chimney rising above them, were 
founded in 1148 and completed in 1222.  During the middle 
ages it rivalled the greatest European abbeys in size and 
wealth.  It was supplied with water by an affluent of the 
Alcoa, which still flows through the kitchen; its abbot 
ranked with the highest Portuguese nobles, and, according 
to tradition, 999 monks continued the celebration of mass 
without intermission throughout the year.  The convent was 
partly burned by the French in 1810, secularized in 1834 
and afterwards gradually restored.  Portions of the library, 
which comprised over 100,000 volumes, including many precious 
MSS., were saved in 1810, and are preserved in the public 
libraries of Lisbon and Braga.  The monastic church (1222) is 
a good example of early Gothic, somewhat defaced by Moorish 
and other additions.  It contains a fine cloister and the 
tombs of Peter I. (1357-1367) and his wife, Inez de Castro. 

ALCOCK, JOHN (c. 1430-1500), English divine, was born at 
Beverley in Yorkshire and educated at Cambridge.  In 1461 he was 
made dean of Westminster, and henceforward his promotion was rapid 
in church and state.  In the following year he was made master 
of the rolls, and in 1470 was sent as ambassador to the court of 
Castile.  He was consecrated bishop of Rochester in 1472 and was 
successively translated to the sees of Worcester (1476) and Ely 
(1486).  He twice held the office of lord chancellor, and 
exhibited great ability in the negotiations with James III. of 
Scotland.  He died at Wisbech Castle on the 1st of October 
1500.  Alcock was one of the most eminent pre-Reformation 
divines; he was a man of deep learning and also of great 
proficiency as an architect.  Besides founding a charity 
at Beverley and a grammar school at Kingston-upon-Hull, he 
restored many churches and colleges; but his greatest enterprise 
was the erection of Jesus College, Cambridge, which he 
established on the site of the former Convent of St Radigund. 

Alcock's published writings, most of which are extremely 
rare, are: Mons Perfectionis, or the Hill of Perfection 
(London, 1497); Gallicontus Johannis Alcock episcopi 
Eliensis ad frates suos curatos in sinodo apud Barnwell 
(1498), a good specimen of early English printing and quaint 
illustrations; The Castle of Labour, translated from the French 
(1536), and various other tracts and homilies.  See J. Bass 
Mullinger's Hist. of the University of Cambridge, vol. i. 

ALCOCK, SIR RUTHERFORD (1809-1897), British consul and 
diplomatist, was the son of Dr Thomas Alcock, who practised 
at Ealing, near London, and himself followed the medical 
profession.  In 1836 he became a surgeon in the marine 
brigade which took part in the Carlist war, and gaining 
distinction by his services was made deputy inspector-general 
of hospitals.  He retired from this service in 1837, and 
seven years later was appointed consul at Fuchow in China, 
where, after a short official stay at Amoy, he performed the 
functions, as he himself expressed it, ``of everything from 
a lord chancellor to a sheriff's officer.'' Fuchow was one 
of the ports opened to trade by the treaty of 1842, and Mr 
Alcock, as he then was, had to maintain an entirely new position 
with the Chinese authorities.  In so doing he was eminently 
successful, and earned for himself promotion to the consulate at 
Shanghai.  Thither he went in 1846 and made it an especial 
part of his duties to superintend the establishment, and 
laying out of the British settlement, which has developed 
into such an important feature of British commercial life in 
China.  In 1858 he was appointed consul-general in the newly 
opened empire of Japan, and in the following year was promoted 
to be minister plenipotentiary.  In those days residence in 
Japan was surrounded with many dangers, and the people were 
intensely hostile to foreigners.  In 1860 Mr Alcock's native 
interpreter was murdered at the gate of the legation, and 
in the following year the legation was stormed by a body 
of Ronins, whose attack was repulsed by Mr Alcock and his 
staff.  Shortly after this event he returned to England on 
leave.  Already he had been made a C.B. (1860); in 1862 he 
was made a K.C.B., and in 1863 hon.  D.C.L.  Oxon.  In 1864 
he returned to Japan, and after a year's further residence 
he was transferred to Pekin, where he represented the British 
government until 1871, when he retired.  But though no longer 
in official life his leisure was fully occupied.  He was 
for some years president of the Royal Geographical Society, 
and he served on many commissions.  He was twice married, 
first in May 1841 to Henrietta Mary, daughter of Charles 
Bacon, who died in 1853, and secondly (July 8, 1862) to the 
widow of the Rev. John Lowder, who died on the 13th of March 
1899.  He was the author of several works, and was one of the 
first to awaken in England an interest in Japanese art; his 
best-known book is The Capital of the Tycoon, which appeared in 
1863.  He died in London on the 2nd of November 1897. (R. K. D.) 

ALCOFORADO, MARIANNA (1640-1723), Portuguese authoress, 
writer of the Letters of a Portuguese Nun, was the daughter 
of a landed proprietor in Alemtejo.  Beja, her birthplace, 
was the chief garrison town of that province, itself the 
principal theatre of the twenty-eight years' war with Spain 
that followed the Portuguese revolution of 1640, and her 
widowed father, occupied with administrative and military 
commissions, placed Marianna in her childhood in the wealthy 
convent of the Conception for security and education.  
She made her profession as a Franciscan nun at sixteen or 
earlier, without any real vocation, and lived a routine 
life in that somewhat relaxed house until her twenty-fifth 
year, when she met Noel Bouton.  This man, afterwards marquis 
de Chamilly, and marshal of France, was one of the French 
officers who came to Portugal to serve under the great captain, 
Frederick, Count Schomberg, the re-organizer of the Portuguese 
army.  During the years 1665-1667 Chamilly spent much of his 
time in and about Beja, and probably became acquainted with 
the Alcoforado family through Marianna's brother, who was a 
soldier.  Custom then permitted religious to receive and entertain 
visitors, and Chamilly, aided by his military prestige and some 
flattery, found small difficulty in betraying the trustful 
nun.  Before long their intrigue became known and caused a 
scandal, and to avoid the consequences Chamilly deserted Marianna 
and withdrew clandestinely to France.  The letters to her 
lover which have earned her renown in literature were written 
between December 1667 and June 1668, and they described the 
successive stages of faith, doubt and despair through which she 
passed.  As a piece of unconscious psychological self-analysis, 
they are unsurpassed; as a product of the Peninsular heart 
they are unrivalled.  These five short letters written by 
Marianna to ``expostulate her desertion'' form one of the few 
documents of extreme human experience, and reveal a passion 
which in the course of two centuries has lost nothing of its 
heat.  Perhaps their dominant note is reality, and, sad reading 
as they are from the moral standpoint, their absolute candour, 
exquisite tenderness and entire self-abandonment have excited 
the wonder and admiration of great men and women in every 
age, from Madame de Sevigne to W. E. Gladstone.  There are 
signs in the fifth letter that Marianna had begun to conquer 
her passion, and after a life of rigid penance, accompanied 
by much suffering, she died at the age of eighty-three.  The 
letters came into the possession of the comte de Guilleragues, 
director of the Gazette de France, who turned them into 
French, and they were published anonymously in Paris in January 
1669.  A Cologne edition of the same year stated that Chamilly 
was their addressee, which is confirmed by St Simon and Duclos, 
but the name of their authoress remained undivulged.  In 1810, 
however, Boissonade discovered Marianna's name written in a copy 
of the first edition by a contemporary hand, and the veracity 
of this ascription has been placed beyond doubt by the recent 
investigations of Luciano Cordeiro, who found a tradition 
in Beja connecting the French captain and the Portuguese 
nun.  The letters created a sensation on their first appearance, 
running through five editions in a year, and, to exploit 
their popularity, second parts, replies and new replies were 
issued from the press in quick succession.  Notwithstanding 
that the Portuguese original of the five letters is lost, 
their genuineness is as patent as the spuriousness of their 
followers, and though Rousseau was ready to wager they were 
written by a man, the principal critics of Portugal and France 
have decided against him.  It is now generally recognized that 
the letters are a verbatim translation from the Portuguese. 

The foreign bibliography of the Letters, containing almost 
one hundred numbers, will be found in Cordeiro's admirable 
study, Soror Marianna, A Friera Portugueza, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 
1891).  Besides the French editions, versions exist in Dutch, 
Danish, Italian and German; and the English bibliography is 
given by Edgar Prestage in his translation The Letters of 
a Portuguese Nun (Marianna Alcoforado), 3rd ed. (London, 
1903).  The French text of the editio princeps was printed 
in the first edition (1893) of this book.  Edmund Gosse in 
the Fortnightly Review, vol. xlix. (old series) p. 506, 
shows the considerable influence exercised by the Letters on 
the sentimental literature of France and England. (E. PR.) 

ALCOHOL, in Commerce, the name generally given to ``spirits 
of wine''; in systematic organic chemistry it has a wider 
meaning, being the generic name of a class of compounds 
(hydroxy hydrocarbons) of which ordinary alcohol (specifically 
ethyl alcohol) is a typical member (see ALCOHOLS.) 

Etymology. 

The word ``alcohol'' is of Arabic origin, being derived 
from the particle al and the word kohl, an impalpable 
powder used in the East for painting the eyebrows.  For many 
centuries the word was used to designate any fine powder; its 
present-day application to the product of the distillation 
of wine is of comparatively recent date.  Thus Paracelsus 
and Libavius both used the term to denote a fine powder, the 
latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony.  At 
the same time Paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid; 
alcool Or alcool vini occurs often in his writings, and 
once he adds ``id est vino ardente.'' Other names have 
been in use among the earlier chemists for this same liquid. 
Eau de vie (``elixir of life'') was in use during the 13th 
and 14th centuries; Arnoldus Villanovanus applied it to the 
product of distilled wine, though not as a specific name. 

Ethyl alcohol. 

Ordinary alcohol, which we shall frequently refer to by its 
specific name, ethyl alcohol, seldom occurs in the vegetable 
kingdom; the unripe seeds of Heracleum giganteum and H. 
Sphondylium contain it mixed with ethyl butyrate.  In the 
animal kingdom it occurs in the urine of diabetic patients and 
of persons addicted to alcohol.  Its important source lies in 
its formation by the ``spirituous'' or ``alcoholic fermentation'' 
of saccharine juices.  The mechanism of alcoholic fermentation 
is discussed in the article FERMENTATION, and the manufacture 
of alcohol from fermented liquors in the article SPIRITS. 

The qualitative composition of ethyl alcohol was ascertained by 
A. L. Lavoisier, and the quantitative by N. T. de Saussure in 
1808.  Sir Edward Frankland showed how it could be derived 
from, and converted into, ethane; and thus determined it 
to be ethane in which one hydrogen atom was repiaced by a 
hydroxyl group.  Its constitutional formula is therefore 
CH3.CH2.OH.  It may be synthetically prepared by any 
of the general methods described in the article ALCOHOLS. 

Pure ethyl alcohol is a colourless, mobile liquid of an agreeable 
odour.  It boils at 78.3 deg.  C. (760 mm.); at -90 deg.  C. it 
is a thick liquid, and at -130 deg.  it solidifies to a white 
mass.  Its high coefficient of thermal expansion, coupled with 
its low freezing point, renders it a valuable thermometric 
fluid, especially when the temperatures to be measured are 
below -39 deg.  C., for which the mercury thermometer cannot be 
used.  It readily inflames, burning with a blue smokeless flame, 
and producing water and carbon dioxide, with the evolution of 
great heat; hence it receives considerable application as a 
fuel.  It mixes with water in all proportions, the mixing 
being attended by a contraction in volume and a rise in 
temperature; the maximum contraction corresponds to a mixture 
of 3 molecules of alcohol and 1 of water.  Commercial alcohol 
or ``spirits of wine'' contains about 90% of pure ethyl 
alcohol, the remainder being water.  This water cannot be 
entirely removed by fractional distillation, and to prepare 
anhydrous or ``absolute'' alcohol the commercial product 
must be allowed to stand over some dehydrating agent, such as 
caustic lime, baryta, anhydrous copper sulphate, &c., and then 
distilled.  Calcium chloride must not be used, since it forms 
a crystalline compound with alcohol.  The quantity of alcohol 
present in an aqueous solution is determined by a comparison 
of its specific gravity with standard tables, or directly by 
the use of an alcoholometer, which is a hydrometer graduated so 
as to read per cents by weight (degrees according to Richter) 
or volume per cents (degrees according to Tralles).  Other 
methods consist in determining the vapour tension by means 
of the vaporimeter of Geissler, or the boiling point by the 
ebullioscope.  In the United Kingdom ``proof spirit'' is 
defined as having a specific gravity at 51 deg.  of  12/13 (.92308) 
compared with water at the same temperature.  The ``quantity 
at proof'' is given by the formula:-- quantity of sample 
X (degrees over or under proof + 100) divided by 100. 

The presence of water in alcohol may be detected in several 
ways.  Aqueous alcohol becomes turbid when mixed with 
benzene, carbon disulphide or paraffin oil; when added to 
a solution of barium oxide in absolute alcohol, a white 
precipitate of barium hydroxide is formed.  A more delicate 
method consists in adding a very little anthraquinone and 
sodium amalgam; absolute alcohol gives a green coloration, 
but in the presence of minute traces of water a red coloration 
appears.  Traces of ethyl alcohol in solutions are detected 
and estimated by oxidation to acetaldehyde, or by conversion 
into iodoform by warming with iodine and potassium hydroxide.  
An alternative method consists in converting it into ethyl 
benzoate by shaking with benzoyl chloride and caustic soda. 

Alcohol is extensively employed as a solvent; in fact, 
this constitutes one of its most important industrial 
applications.  It dissolves most organic compounds, resins, 
hydrocarbons, fatty acids and many metallic salts, sometimes 
forming, in the latter case, crystalline compounds in which 
the ethyl alcohol plays a role similar to that of water of 
crystallization.  This fact was first noticed by T. Graham, and, 
although it was at first contradicted, its truth was subsequently 
confirmed.  In general, gases dissolve in it more readily 
than in water; 100 volumes of alcohol dissolve 7 volumes of 
hydrogen, 25 volumes of oxygen and 16 volumes of nitrogen. 

Reactions. 

Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in ethyl alcohol 
with the production of alcoholates of the formula C2 H5 
OK(Na).  These are voluminous white powders.  Sulphuric acid 
converts it into ethyl sulphuric acid (see ETHER, and sulphur 
trioxide gives carbyl sulphate.  The phosphorous haloids 
give the corresponding ethyl haloid.  Ethyl chloride (from 
the phosphorus chlorides and alcohol) is an ethereal liquid 
boiling at 12.5 deg.  C., soluble in alcohol, but sparingly so in 
water.  Oxidation of ethyl alcohol gives acetaldehyde 
and acetic acid.  Chlorine oxidizes it to acetaldehyde, 
and under certain conditions chloral (q.v.) is formed. 

Industrial alcohol. 

In almost all countries heavy taxes are levied on manufactured 
alcohol mainly as a source of revenue.  In the United Kingdom 
the excise duty is eleven shillings per proof gallon of alcohol, 
while the customs duty is eleven shillings and fivepence; the 
magnitude of these imposts may be readily understood when one 
remembers that the proof gallon costs only about sevenpence to 
manufacture.  The great importance of alcohol in the arts has 
necessitated the introduction of a duty-free product which is 
suitable for most industrial purposes, and at the same time 
is perfectly unfit for beverages or internal application. 

Methylated spirit. 

In the United Kingdom this ``denaturized'' alcohol is known 
as methylated spirit as a distinction from pure alcohol or 
``spirits of wine.'' It was first enacted in 1855 that methylated 
spirit, a specific mixture of pure alcohol and wood- naphtha, 
should be duty-free; the present law is to be found in the 
Customs and Inland Revenue Act of 1890, and the Finance Act 
(sect. 8) of 1902.  From 1858 to 1861 methylated spirit was 
duty-free when it was required for manufacturing processes, 
and the methylation or ``denaturizing'' was carried out in 
accordance with a prescribed process.  During the next three 
decades (1861-1891) the law was extended, and methylated spirit 
was duty-free for all purposes except for use as beverages and 
internal medicinal applications.  This spirit (``unmineralized 
methylated spirit'') consisted of 90 parts of alcohol of 
60-66 over-proof (91-95% of pure alcohol) and 10 parts of 
wood-naphtha.  It was found, however, that certain classes 
were addicted to drinking this mixture, and since 1891 the 
sale of such spirit has been confined to manufacturers who 
must purchase it in bulk from the ``methylators.'' For retail 
purposes the ``ordinary'' methylated spirit is mixed with .357% 
of mineral naphtha, which has the effect of rendering it quite 
undrinkable.  The Finance Act of 1902 allows a manufacturer to 
obtain a license which permits the use of duty-free alcohol, 
if he can show that such alcohol is absolutely essential for 
the success of his business, and that methylated spirit is 
unsuitable.  Notwithstanding this permission there have 
been many agitations on the part of chemical manufacturers 
to obtain a less restricted use of absolute alcohol, and 
in 1905 an Industrial Alcohol Committee was appointed to 
receive evidence and report as to whether any modification 
of the present law was advisable.  In the United States 
the same question was considered in 1896 by a Joint Select 
Committee on the use of alcohol in the manufactures and arts.  
Reference should be made to the reports of these committees 
for a full account of the use, manufacture and statistics 
of ``denaturized'' spirits in various European countries. 

In Germany, the use of duty-free spirit is only allowed to state 
and municipal hospitals, and state scientific institutions, 
and for the manufacture of fulminates, fuzes and smokeless 
powders.  The duty-free ``denaturized'' spirits may be 
divided into two groups--``completely denaturized'' and 
``incompletely denaturized.'' In the first category there 
are two varieties:--(1) A mixture of 100 litres of spirit and 
2 1/2 litres of a mixture of 4 parts of wood-naphtha and 1 of 
pyridine bases; this spirit, the use of which is practically 
limited to heating and lighting purposes, may be mixed with 50 
grs. of lavender or rosemary, in order to destroy the noxious 
odour of the pyridine bases. (2) A mixture of 100 litres of 
spirit, 1 1/4 litres of the naphtha-pyridine mixture described 
above,  1/4 litre of methyl violet solution, and from 2 to 
20 litres of benzol; this fluid is limited to combustion 
in motors and agricultural engines.  The second category, 
or ``incompletely denaturized'' spirits, include numerous 
mixtures.  The ``general'' mixture consists of 100 litres of 
spirit, and 5 litres of wood spirit or  1/2 litre of pyridine.  
Of the ``particular'' varieties, we can only notice those used 
in the colour industry.  These consist of 100 litres of spirit 
mixed with either 10 litres of sulphuric ether, or 1 litre of 
benzol, or  1/2 litre of turpentine, or .025 litre of animal oil. 

The German regulations are apparently based on a keen appreciation 
of the fact that while one particular denaturizing agent may 
have little or no effect on one industry, yet it would be 
quite fatal to the success of another; there is consequently 
a great choice of denaturizing agents, and in certain cases 
it is sufficient to mix the alcohol with a reagent necessary 
for the purpose in hand, or even with a certain amount 
of the final product, it being only necessary to satisfy 
the state that the spirit is not available as a beverage. 

In France, the general denaturizing agent is wood-spirit of 
at least 58 over-proof, and containing 25% of acetone and 
2.5% of ``impurites pyrogenees''; 10 litres of this spirit 
denaturizes 100 litres of alcohol.  This mixture is supplied 
to manufacturers and corresponds to the British unmineralized 
methylated spirit; but the regulations are more stringent.  When 
sold for lighting and heating purposes, it is further admixed 
with 0.5% of heavy benzene boiling at 150 deg. -200 deg.  C. Provisions 
are also made for special denaturizing processes as in Germany. 

In America the internal revenue tax on denaturized alcohol 
(formerly duty-free only to scientific institutions) 
was removed by Congress in 1906 (act of June 7th). 

Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics of Alcohol.-- 
Alcohol is of great medicinal value as a solvent, being 
used to form solutions of alkaloids, resins, volatile oils, 
iodoform, &c. In strength of about 10% and upwards it is an 
antiseptic.  If applied to the skin it rapidly evaporates, 
thereby cooling the skin and diminishing the amount of sweat 
excreted.  This refrigerant and anhidrotic action is employed to 
soothe many forms of headache by bathing the forehead with eau de 
Cologne.  If, on the other hand, the alcohol be rubbed into the 
skin, or if its evaporation be prevented--as by a watch-glass--it 
absorbs water from the tissues and thus hardens them. 

Thoroughly rubbed into the skin alcohol dilates the blood- 
vessels and produces a mild counter-irritant effect.  Many 
alcoholic liniments are therefore employed for the relief of 
pain, especially muscular pains, as in lumbago and other forms 
of so-called ``muscular rheumatism.'' Given internally in 
small quantities and in sufficient dilution, alcohol causes 
dilatation of the gastric blood-vessels, increased secretion 
of gastric juice, and greater activity in the movements of 
the muscular layers in the wall of the stomach.  It also tends 
to lessen the sensibility of the stomach and so may relieve 
gastric pain.  In a 50% solution or stronger--as when neat 
whisky is taken--alcohol precipitates the pepsin which is 
an essential of gastric digestion, and thereby arrests this 
process.  The desirable effects produced by alcohol on 
the stomach are worth obtaining only in cases of acute 
diseases.  In chronic disease and in health the use of 
alcohol as an aid to digestion is without the support of 
clinical or laboratory experience, the beneficial action 
being at least neutralized by undesirable effects produced 
elsewhere.  The continued use of large doses of alcohol produces 
chronic gastritis, in which the continued irritation has led 
to overgrowth of connective tissue, atrophy of the gastric 
glands and permanent cessation of the gastric functions. 

A single dose of concentrated alcohol (e.g. brandy) produces 
very valuable reflex effects, the heart beating more rapidly and 
forcibly, and the blood-pressure rising.  Hence the immediately 
beneficial effect produced in the cases of ``fainting'' or 
syncope.  After absorption, which is very rapid, alcohol 
exerts a marked action upon the blood.  The oxygen contained 
in that fluid, and destined for consumption by the tissues, 
is retained by the influence of alcohol in its combination 
with the haemoglobin or colouring matter of the red blood 
corpuscles.  Hence the diminished oxidation of the tissues, 
which leads to the accumulation of unused fat and so to the 
obesity which is so often seen in those who habitually take 
much alcohol.  The drug exerts a noteworthy action upon the 
body-temperature.  As it dilates the blood-vessels of the 
skin it increases the subjective sensation of warmth.  The 
actual consequence, however, is that more heat than before 
is necessarily lost from the surface of the body.  Alcohol 
also diminishes the oxidation which is the main source of the 
body-heat.  It follows that the drug is an antipyretic, and 
it is hence largely used in fevers as a means of reducing the 
temperature.  This reduction of the temperature, carried to an 
undesirable extreme, is the reason why the man who has copiously 
consumed spirits ``to keep out the cold'' is often visited with 
pneumonia.  The largest amount of alcohol that can be burnt up 
within the healthy body in twenty-four hours is 1 1/2 oz., but 
it must be consumed in great dilution and divided into small 
doses taken every four hours.  Otherwise the alcohol will for 
the most part leave the body unused in the urine and the expired 
air.  In fever the case is different.  The raised temperature 
appears to facilitate the oxidation of the substance, so that 
quantiries may be taken and completely utilized which would 
completely intoxicate the individual had his temperature been 
normal.  It follows that alcohol is a food in fever, and its 
value in this regard is greatly increased by the fact that 
it requires no primary digestion, but passes without changes, 
and without needing change, to the tissues which are to use 
it.  According to Sir Thomas Fraser nothing else can compete 
with alcohol as a food in desperate febrile cases, and to 
this use must be added its antipyretic power already explained 
and its action as a soporific.  During its administration in 
febrile cases the drug must be most carefully watched, as its 
action may prove deleterious to the nervous system and the 
circulation in certain classes of patient.  The state of the 
pulse is the best criterion of the action of alcohol in any 
given case of fever.  The toxicology of alcohol is treated 
in other articles.  It includes acute alcoholism (i.e. 
intoxication), chronic alcoholism, delirium tremens, and 
all the countless pathological changes--extending to every 
tissue but the bones, and especially marked in the nervous 
system-- which alcohol produces. (See DRUNKENNESS: DELIRIUM.) 

After death the presence of alcohol can be detected in all the body 
fluids.  Its especial affinity for the nervous system is indicated 
by the fact that, when all traces of it have disappeared elsewhere, 
it can still be detected with ease in the cerebro-spinal fluid. 

ALCOHOLS, in organic chemistry, a class of compounds which may 
be considered as derived from hydrocarbons by the replacement of 
one or more hydrogen atoms by hydroxyl groups.  It is convenient 
to restrict the term to compounds in which the hydroxyl group is 
attached to an aliphatic residue; this excludes such compounds 
as the hydroxy-benzenes, naphthalenes, &c., which exhibit many 
differences from the compounds derived from the aliphatic alkyls. 

Alcohols are classified on two distinct principles, one depending 
upon the number of hydroxyl groups present, the other on the 
nature of the remaining groups attached to the carbon atom which 
carries the hydroxyl group.  Monatomic or monohydric alcohols 
contain only one hydroxyl group; diatomic, two, known as glycols 
(q.v.); triatomic, three, known as glycerols (q.v.); and so on. 

The second principle leads to alcohols of three distinct 
types, known as primary, secondary and tertiary.  The genesis 
and formulation of these types may be readily understood by 
considering the relation which exists between the alcohols 
and the parent hydrocarbon.  In methane, CH4, the hydrogen 
atoms are of equal value, and hence only one alcohol, 
viz.  CH3OH, can be derived from it.  This compound, 
methyl alcohol, is the simplest primary alcohol, and it is 
characterized by the grouping .CH2OH.  Ethane, C2H6, in 
a similar manner, can only give rise to one alcohol, namely 
ethyl alcohol, CH3CH2OH, which is also primary.  Propane, 
CH3CH2CH3, can give rise to two alcohols --a primary 
alcohol, CH3CH2CH2OH (normal propyl alcohol), formed 
by replacing a hydrogen atom attached to a terminal carbon 
atom, and a secondary alcohol, CH3.CH(OH).CH3 (isopropyl 
alcohol), when the substitution is effected on the middle carbon 
atom.  The grouping CH.OH characterizes the secondary alcohols; 
isopropyl alcohol is the simplest member of this class.  
Butane, C4H10, exists in the two isomeric forms--normal 
butane, CH3.CH2.CH2.CH3, and iso-butane, CH(CH3)3.  
Each of these hydro-carbons gives rise to two alcohols: 
n-butane gives a primary and a secondary; and iso-butane a 
primary, when the substitution takes place in one of the 
methyl groups, and a tertiary, when the hydrogen atom of the 
:CH group is substituted.  Tertiary alcohols are thus seen to 
be characterized by the group :C.OH, in which the residual 
valencies of the carbon atom are attached to alkyl groups. 

In 1860 Hermann Kolbe predicted the existence of secondary and 
tertiary alcohols from theoretical considerations.  Regarding 
methyl alcohol, for which he proposed the name carbinol, as 
the simplest alcohol, he showed that by replacing one hydrogen 
atom of the methyl group by an alkyl residue, compounds of the 
general formula R.CH2.OH would result.  These are the primary 
alcohols.  By replacing two of the hydrogen atoms, either 
by the same or different alkyls, compounds of the formula 
(R.R1)CH.OH (i.e. secondary alcohols) would result; while 
the replacement of the three hydrogen atoms would generate 
alcohols of the general formula (R.R1.R2)C.OH, i.e. 
tertiary alcohols.  Furthermore, he exhibited a comparison 
between these three types of alcohols and the amines.  Thus:-- 

 R.NH2 (R1R2)NH (R1R2R3)N 
R.CH2OH     (R1R2)CH.OH   (R1R2R3)C.OH
 Primary.           Secondary.             Tertiary.
To distinguish Priinary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols.-- 
Many reactions serve to distinguish these three types of 
alcohols.  Of chief importance is their behaviour on oxidation.  
The primary alcohols are first oxidized to aldehydes (q.v.), 
which, on further oxidation, yield acids containing the same 
number of carbon atoms as in the original alcohol.  Secondary 
alcohols yield ketones q.v.), which are subsequently 
oxidized to a mixture of two acids, Tertiary alcohols yield 
neither aldehydes nor ketones, but a mixture of two or more 
acids.  Another method is based upon the different behaviour 
of the corresponding nitro-alkyl with nitrous acid.  The 
alcohol is first acted upon with phosphorus and iodine, and 
the resulting alkyl iodide is treated with silver nitrite, 
which gives the corresponding nitro-alkyl.  The nitro-alkyl is 
then treated with potassium nitrite dissolved in concentrated 
potash, and sulphuric acid is added.  By this treatment a 
primary nitro-alkyl yields a nitrolic acid, the potassium 
salt of which forms an intense red solution; a secondary 
nitro-alkyl forms a pseudo nitrol, which gives an intense blue 
solution, while the tertiary compound does not act with nitrous 
acid.  The reactions outlined above may be thus represented:-- 


 
 
                                                 //NOH
  R.CH2OH   --> R.CH2I   --> R.CH2.NO2   --> R.C<
  Primary alcohol.                               \NO2
                                               Nitrolic acid.
 
      R\                  R\                                        R\    /NO2
        >CH.OH  -->    >CH.I  -->  >CH.NO2 -->     >C<
  R1/              R1/                                     R1/    \NO
  Secondary alcohol.                                             Pseudo nitrol.
 
  (R1R2R3)C.OH  --> (R1R2R3)C.I  --> (R1R2R3)C.NO2
  Tertiary alcohol.
 

By heating to the boiling point of naphthalene (218 deg. ) tertiary 
alcohols are decomposed, while heating to the boiling point of 
anthracene (360 deg. ) suffices to decompose secondary alcohols, the 
primary remaining unaffected.  These changes can be followed out by 
determinations of the vapour density, and so provide a method for 
characterizing alcohols (see Compt.  Rend. 1904, 138, p. 984). 

Preparation. 

Alcohols may be readily prepared from the corresponding alkyl 
haloid by the action of moist silver oxide (which behaves as 
silver hydroxide): by the saponification of their esters; or 
by the reduction of polyhydric alcohols with hydriodic acid, 
and the subsequent conversion of the resulting alkyl iodide 
into the alcohol by moist silver oxide.  Primary alcohols 
are obtained by decomposing their sulphuric acid esters (from 
sulphuric acid and the olefines) with boiling water; by the 
action of nitrous acid on primary amines; or by the reduction 
of aldehydes, acid chlorides or acid anhydrides.  Secondary 
alcohols result from the reduction of ketones; and from the 
reaction of zinc alkyls on aldehydes or formic acid esters. 


 
                                 /C2H5                         /C2H5
  CH3CHO --> CH3.CH<                --> CH3.CH<
                                 \OZnC2H5                      \OH
  Acetaldehyde.                                     Methyl ethyl carbinol.
 
     //O                      /OZnCH3                /CH3                    /CH3
  HC HC<-CH3     --> R.C<-OZnCH3   --> R.C<-OH
     \OC2H5             \Cl                       \CH3                    \CH3
  Formic ester.                                                  Isopropyl alcohol.
 

Tertiary alcohols may be synthesized by a method devised 
by A. Butlerow in 1864, who thus discovered the tertiary 
alcohols.  By reacting with a zinc alkyl (methyl or ethyl) on 
an acid chloride, an addition compound is first formed, which 
decomposes with water to give a ketone.  If, however, a second 
molecule of a zinc alkyl be allowed to react, a compound is 
formed which gives a tertiary alcohol when decomposed with water. 


 
         //O             /CH3                       /CH3                    /CH3
  R.C R.C<-OZnCH3  --> R.C<-OZnCH3   --> R.C<-OH
         \Cl             \Cl                           \CH3                    \CH3
  Acid chloride.                                                        Tertiary alcohol.
 

It is interesting to note that, whereas zinc methyl and ethyl 
give tertiary alcohols, zinc propyl only gives secondary 
alcohols.  During recent years (1900 onwards) many brilliant 
syntheses have been effected by the aid of magnesium-alkyl-haloids. 

Properties. 

The alcohols are neutral in reaction, and the lower members 
possess the property of entering into combination with salts, in 
which the alcohol plays the role of water of crystallization.  
Sodium or potassium dissolves in them with the formation of 
alcoholates, the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group being replaced by 
the metal.  With strong acids water is split off and esters are 
formed.  The haloid esters of the paraffin alcohols formed by 
heating the alcohols with the halogen acids are the monohaloid 
derivatives of the paraffins, and are more conveniently 
prepared by the action of the phosphorous haloid on the 
alcohol.  Energetic dehydration gives the olefine hydrocarbons, 
but under certain conditions ethers (see ETHER) are obtained. 

The physical properties of the alcohols exhibit a gradation 
with the increase of molecular weight.  The lower members 
are colourless mobile liquids, readily soluble in water and 
exhibiting a characteristic odour and taste.  The solubility 
decreases as the carbon content rises.  The normal alcohols 
containing 1 to 16 carbon atoms are liquids at the ordinary 
temperatures; the higher members are crystalline, odourless 
and tasteless solids, closely resembling the fats in 
appearance.  The boiling points of the normal alcohols 
increase regularly about 10 deg.  for each CH2 increment; 
this is characteristic of all homologous series of organic 
compounds.  Of the primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols 
having the same empirical formula, the primary have the 
highest, and the tertiary the lowest boiling point; this 
is in accordance with the fairly general rule that a gain 
in symmetry is attended by a fall in the boiling point. 

The following monatomic alcohols receive special treatment 
under their own headings:--ALCOHOL (ETHYL), ALLYL 
ALCOHOL, AMYL, ALCOHOLS, BEN zsqrt. L ALCOHOL, BUTYL 
ALcohols, METHY L ALcohol, and PROPYL ALCOHOLS. 

ALCOTT, AMOS BRONSON (1799-1888), American educationalist 
and writer, born on Spindle Hill, in the town of Wolcott, 
New Haven county, Connecticut, on the 29th of November 
1799.  His father, Joseph Chatfield Alcox, was a farmer 
and mechanic whose ancestors, then bearing the name of 
Alcocke, had setlled in eastern Massachusetts in colonial 
days.  The son adopted the spelling ``Alcott'' in his early 
youth.  Self-educated and early thrown upon his own resources, 
he began in 1814 to earn his living by working in a clock 
factory in Plymouth, Conn., and for many years after 1815 
he peddled books and merchardise, chiefly in the southern 
states.  He began teaching in Bristol, Conn., in 1823, and 
subsequently conducted schools in Cheshire, Conn., in 1825-1827, 
again in Bristol in 1827-1828, in Boston in 1828-1830, in 
Germantown, now part of Philadelphia, in 1831-1833, and 
in Philadelphia in 1833.  In 1830 he had mariied Abby May, 
the sister of Samuel J. May (1797-1871), the reformer and 
abolitionist.  In 1834 he opened in Boston a school which 
became famous because of his original methods; his plan being 
to develop self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with 
an ever-present desire on his own part to stimulate the child's 
personality.  The feature of his school which attracted most 
attention, perhaps, was his scheme for the teacher's receiving 
punishment, in certain circumstances, at the hands of an offending 
pupil, whereby the sense of shame might be quickened in the 
mind of the errant child.  The school was denounced in the 
press, was not pecuniarily successful, and in 1839 was given 
up, although Alcott had won the affection of his pupils, and 
his educational experiments had challenged the attention of 
students of pedagogy.  The school is perhaps best described 
in Miss E. P. Peabody's A Record of Mr Alcott's School 
(1835).  In 1840 Alcott removed to Concord, Massachusetts.  
After a visit to England, in 1842, he started with two English 
associates, Charles Lane and Henry C. Wright, at ``Fruitlands,'' 
in the town of Harvard, Massachusetts, a communistic experiment 
at farm-living and nature-meditation as tending to develop the 
best powers of body and soul.  This speedily came to naught, 
and Alcott returned (1844) to his home near that of Emerson in 
Concord, removing to Boston four years later, and again living 
in Concord after 1857.  He spoke, as opportunity offered, 
before the ``lyceums'' then common in various parts of the 
United States, or addressed groups of hearers as they invited 
him.  These ``conversations,'' as he called them, were more 
or less informal talks on a great range of topics, spiritual, 
aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the ideas of 
the school of American Transcendentalists led by Emerson, who 
was always his supporter and discreet admirer.  He dwelt upon 
the illumination of the mind and soul by direct communion with 
the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual and poetic monitions 
of external nature; and upon the benefit to man of a serene 
mood and a simple way of life.  As regards the trend and 
results of Alcott's philosophic teaching, it must be said 
that, like Emerson, he was sometimes inconsistent, hazy or 
abrupt.  But though he formulated no system of philosophy, and 
seemed to show the influence now of Plato, now of Kant, or of 
German thought as filtered through the brain of Coleridge, he 
was, like his American master, associate and friend, steadily 
optimistic, idealistic, individualistic.  The teachings of 
William Ellery Channing a little before, as to the sacred 
inviolability of the human conscience--anticipating the later 
conclusions of Martineau--really lay at the basis of the work 
of most of the Concord transcendentalists and contributors 
to The Dial, of whom Alcott was one.  In his last years, 
living in a serene and beautiful old age in his Concord 
home, the Orchard House,where every comfort was provided by 
his daughter Louisa (q.v.), Alcott was gratified at being 
able to become the nominal, and at times the actual, head 
of a Concord ``Summer School of Philosophy and Literature,'' 
which had its first session in 1879, and in which --in 
a rudely fashioned building next his house--thoughtful 
listeners were addressed during a part of several successive 
summer seasons on many themes in philosophy, religion and 
letters.  Of Alcott's published works the most important is 
Tablets (1868); next in order of merit is Concord Days 
(1872).  His Sonnets and Canzonets (1882) are chiefly 
interesting as an old man's experiments in verse.  He left 
a large collection of personal jottings and memorabilia, 
most of which remain unpublished.  He died in Boston on the 
4th of March 1888.  Alcott was a Garrisonian abolitionist. 

See A. Bronson Alcott, His Life and Philosophy (2 vols., Boston, 
1893), by F. B. Sanborn and William T. Harris; New Connecticut: 
an Autobiographical Poem (Boston, 1887), edited by F. B. Sanborn; 
and Lowell's criticism in his Fable for Critics. (C. F. R.) 

ALCOTT, LOUISA MAY (1832-1888), American author, was the 
daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, and though of New England 
parentage and residence, was born in Germantown, now part of 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 29th of November 1832.  
She began work at an early age as an occasional teacher and 
as a writer--her first book was Flower Fables (1854), tales 
originally written for Ellen, daughter of R. W. Emerson.  In 
1860 she began writing for the Atlantic Monthly, and she was 
nurse in the Union Hospital at Georgetown, D.C., for six weeks in 
1862-1863.  Her home letters, revised and published in the 
Commonwealth and collected as Hospital Sketches (1863, 
republished with additions in 1869), displayed some power of 
observation and record; and Moods, a novel (1864), despite 
its uncertainty of method and of touch, gave considerable 
promise.  She soon turned, however, to the rapid production 
of stories for girls, and, with the exception of the cheery 
tale entitled Work (1873), and the anonymous novelette 
A Modern Mephistopheles (1877), which attracted little 
notice, she did not return to the more ambitious fields of the 
novelist.  Her success dated from the appearance of the first 
series of Little Women: or Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy (1868), 
in which, with unfailing humour, freshness and lifelikeness, 
she put into story form many of the sayings and doings of 
herself and sisters. Little Men (1871) similarly treated 
the character and ways of her nephews in the Orchard House in 
Concord, Massachusetts, in which Miss Alcott's industry had 
now established her parents and other members of the Alcott 
family; but most of her later volumes, An Old-Fashioned 
Girl (1870), Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag (6 vols., 1871-1879), 
Rose in Bloom (1876), &c., followed in the line of Little 
Women, of which the author's large and loyal public never 
wearied.  Her natural love of labour, her wide-reaching 
generosity, her quick perception and her fondness for sharing 
with her many readers that cheery humour which radiated from 
her personality and her books, led her to produce stories of 
a diminishing value, and at last she succumbed to overwork, 
dying in Boston on the 6th of March 1888, two days after 
the death of her father in the same city.  Miss Alcott's 
early education had partly been given by the naturalist 
Thoreau, but had chiefly been in the hands of her father; 
and in her girlhood and early womanhood she had fully shared 
the trials and poverty incident to the life of a peripatetic 
idealist.  In a newspaper sketch entitled ``Transcendental 
Wild Oats,'' afterwards reprinted in the volume Silver 
Pitchers (1876), she narrated, with a delicate humour, which 
showed what her literary powers might have been if freed from 
drudgery, the experiences of her family during an experiment 
towards communistic ``plain living and high thinking'' at 
``Fruitlands,'' in the town of Harvard, Massachusetts, in 1843. 

The story of her career has been fully and frankly 
told in Mrs Ednah D. Cheney's Louisa May Alcott: Her 
Life, Letters and Journals (Boston, 1889). (C. F. R.) 

ALCOVE (through the Span. alcova, from the Arab. al-, the, 
and quobbah, a vault), an architectural term for a recess in 
a room usually screened off by pillars, balustrade or drapery. 

ALCOY, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of 
Alicante, on the small river Serpis, and at the terminus of a 
branch railway connected with the Barcelona-Valencia-Alicante 
line.  Pop. (1900) 32,053.  Alcoy is built on high ground 
at the entrance to a gorge in the Moncabrer range (4547 
ft.).  It is a thriving industrial town, devoid of any great 
antiquarian or architectural interest, though founded by the 
Moors.  It owes its prosperity to its manufacture of linen, 
woolen goods and paper, especially cigarette paper.  Many of 
the factories derive their motive power from the falls of a 
mountain torrent, known as the Salto de las Aguas.  Labour 
disturbances are frequent, for, like Barcelona, Alcoy has 
become one of the centres of socialistic and revolutionary 
agitation, while preserving many old-fashioned customs and 
traditions, such as the curious festival held annually in 
April in honour of St George, the patron saint of the town. 

COCENTAINA (pop. 1900, 7093) is a picturesque and ancient 
town, 4 m.  N.E. by rail.  It is surrounded by Roman walls, 
which were partly rebuilt by the Moors, and it contains an 
interesting fortified palace, owned by the dukes of Medinaceli. 

For an account of the festival of St George of Alcoy, 
see Apuntes historicos acerca de las fiestas que 
celebra cada ano la ciudad de Alcoy a su patron San 
Jorge, by J. A. Llobet y Vallosera (Alcoy, 1853). 

ALCUIN (ALCHUINE), a celebrated ecclesiastic and man of 
learning in the 8th century, who liked to be called by the 
Latin name of ALBINUS, and at the Academy of the palace 
took the surname of FLACCUS, was born at Eboracum (York) 
in 735. He was related to Willibrord, the first bishop of 
Utrecht, whose biography he afterwards wrote.  He was 
educated at the cathedral school of York, under the celebrated 
master AElbert, with whom he also went to Rome in search of 
manuscripts.  When AElbert was appointed archbishop of York in 
766, Alcuin succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal 
school.  He again went to Rome in 780, to fetch the pallium 
for Archbishop Eanbald, and at Parma met Charlemagne, who 
persuaded him to come to his court, and gave him the possession 
of the great abbeys of Ferrieres and of Saint-Loup at 
Troyes.  The king counted on him to accomplish the great 
work which was his dream, namely, to make the Franks familiar 
with the rules of the Latin language, to create schools 
and to revive learning.  From 781 to 790 Alcuin was his 
sovereign's principal helper in this enterprise.  He had 
as pupils the king of the Franks, the members of his family 
and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel; he was 
the life and soul of the Academy of the palace, and we have 
still, in the Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charlemagne) and 
Alcuin, a sample of the intellectual exercises in which they 
indulged.  It was under his inspiration that Charles wrote his 
famous letter de litteris colendis (Boretius, Capitularia, 
i. p. 78), and it was he who founded a fine library in the 
palace.  In 790 Alcuin returned to his own country, to which he 
had always been greatly attached, and stayed there some time; 
but Charlemagne needed him to combat the Adoptianist heresy, 
which was at that time making great progress in the marches of 
Spain.  At the council of Frankfort in 794 Alcuin upheld the 
orthodox doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the heresiarch 
Felix of Urgel.  After this victory he again returned to his 
own land, but on account of the disturbances which broke out 
there, and which led to the death of King AEthelred (796), 
he bade farewell to it for ever.  Charlemagne had just given 
him the great abbey of St Martin at Tours, and there, far 
from the disturbed life of the court, he passed his last 
years.  He made the abbey school into a model of excellence, 
and many students flocked to it; he had numerous manuscripts 
copied, the calligraphy of which is of extraordinary beauty 
(v. Leopold Delisle in the Memoires de l'Academie des 
Inscriptions, vol. xxxii., 1st part, 1885) . He wrote 
numerous letters to his friends in England, to Arno, bishop 
of Salzburg, and above all to Charlemagne.  These letters, 
of which 311 are extant, are filled chiefly with pious 
meditations, but they further form a mine of information as 
to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are 
the most reliable authority for the history of humanism in 
the Carolingian age.  He also trained the numerous monks of 
the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits 
that he was struck down by death on the 19th of May 804. 

Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the Carolingian Renaissance, 
in which have been distinguished three main periods: in the 
first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the 
Italians occupy the chief place; in the second, Alcuin and 
the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in 
804, the influence of the Goth Theodulf is preponderant.  
Alcuin transmitted to the ignorant Franks the knowledge of 
Latin culture which had existed in England since the time of 
Bede.  We still have a number of his works.  His letters have 
already been mentioned; his poetry is equally interesting.  
Besides some graceful epistles in the style of Fortunatus, he 
wrote some long poems, and notably a whole history in verse 
of the church at York: Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis 
Eboracensis ecclesiae. We owe to him, too, some manuals used 
in his educational work; a grammar and works on rhetoric and 
dialectics.  They are written in the form of dialogues, 
and in the two last the interlocutors are King Charles and 
Alcuin.  He wrote, finally, several theological treatises: 
a treatise de Fide Trinitatis, commentaries on the Bible, 
&c. The complete works of Alcuin have been edited by Froben: 
Alcuini opera, 1 vol. in 4 parts (Regensburg, 1777); this 
edition is reproduced in Migne's Patrolog. lat. vols. c. and 
ci.  The letters have been published by Jaffe and Dummler in 
Jaffe's Bibliotheca rerum germonicarum, vol. vi. pp. 132-897 
(1873).  E. Dummler has also published an authoritative 
edition, Epistolae aevi Carolini, vol. ii. pp. 1-481, in the 
Monumenta Germaniae, and has edited the poems in the same 
collection: Poetae latini aevi Carolini, vol. i. pp. 169-341. 

AUTHORITIES.--Monnier, Alcuin et Charlemagne (Paris, 
1863); K. Werner, Alkuin und sein Jahrhundert (Paderborn, 
1876); J. Bass Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great 
and the Restoration of Education in the 9th Century 
(London, 1877); Aug. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de 
France, vol. i. p. 191; G, Monod, Etudes critiques sur les 
sources de l'histoire carolingienne, part i. (Paris, (1898); 
C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin: His Life and his Work (London, 
1903).  See further U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources, 
&c., biobibliographie, s.v. Alcuin; Wattenbach, Deutschlands 
Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904), i, p. 186. (C. PF.) 

ALCYONE, or HALCYONE, in Greek mythology, daughter of 
Aeolus and wife of Ceyx.  For their presumption in calling 
themselves Zeus and Hera they were changed into birds--Alcyone 
into a diver, Ceyx into a kingfisher.  According to another 
story, Ceyx was drowned and his body cast on the shore.  
His wife found the body, and the gods, out of compassion, 
changed both her and her husband into kingfishers.  By command 
of Zeus (or Aeolus) the winds ceased to blow during their 
brooding-time, for seven days before and after the shortest 
day, that their eggs might not be carried away by the 
sea.  Hence the expression ``halcyon days,'' used in ancient 
and modern times to denote a period of calm and tranquillity. 

Apollonius Rhodius i. 1087; Ovid, Metam. 
xi. 410 et seq.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 65. 

ALDABRA, the collective name of a group of islands in 
the Indian Ocean, forming part of the British colony of 
Seychelles.  They lie in 9 deg.  30' S., 46 deg.  E., are 265 m.  
N.W. of the northern point of Madagascar and 690 m.  S.W. of 
Mahe, the principal island of the Seychelles archipelago.  The 
Comoro Islands lie 220 m.  S. by W. of Aldabra.  The Aldabra 
Islands constitute an atoll consisting of an oval ring of 
land, some 40 m. in circumference and about 1 1/2 m. broad, 
enclosing a shallow lagoon.  Channels divide the ring into four 
islands.  Grande Terre or South Island forms three-fifths of the 
circumference.  The other islands are West Island or Ile 
Picard, Polymnie and Middle Island.  There are in addition 
several islets in the lagoon, the most important being Ile 
Michel.  The total land area is estimated at about 60 sq. m., the 
lagoon, 16 m. long and 4 m. wide, covering a somewhat larger 
area.  Pop. (1906) 127. The islands rise from 20 to 80 ft. 
above the sea, and consist of rugged coral rock and limestone, 
there being very little soil.  The sea-face is generally 
overhanging cliff, but in a few places are sandy beaches 
and low sandhills.  Dense scrub covers most of the land, but 
the inner (lagoon) shore is everywhere bounded by mangrove 
swamps.  The flora and fauna of the islands present features 
of unusual interest.  They are chiefly noted as the habitat 
of the gigantic land tortoise (Testudo elephantina), now 
carefully preserved, and of several rare and peculiar birds, 
including a rail (Dryolimnas aldabranus), an ibis (Ibis 
abbottii) and a dove (Alectroenas sganzini.) Crustacea are 
abundant.  They include oysters, crabs of great size, and a 
small mussel, found in enormous numbers.  The flora includes 
mangroves, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae and other forms requiring 
more than pure coralline material for their growth.  Writing 
of the fauna and flora generally, Mr R. Dupont, curator of the 
Botanic station at Mahe, who visited Aldabra in 1906. says: 
``The specimens represented, besides being partly peculiar, 
mostly belong to the Mascarenes, Madagascar and Comoros 
species.  Many species are also common to East Africa and to 
India. . . . The predominant species are Madagascar plants and 
birds, which are carried by the currents and the winds. . . . 
There are comparatively few (10) species of plants which are 
endemic as far as the flora has been investigated, and it is 
probable that most of them are also existing in the Comoros, 
where the flora is not well known. . . . Endemic inferior 
animals and mammals are practically non-existent, except two 
bats and one scorpion, which are allied to Madagascar species 
or introduced.  The reptiles (tortoises) are also nearly 
allied to the Mascarenes and Madagascar species which once 
existed.  With regard to birds and land shells the relation is 
much closer to the Comoros species, and the latter, of which 
I have collected seven species besides Rachis aldabrae, may 
serve to point out more than the birds the land connexion of 
Aldabra with the neighbouring countries.'' Aldabra, however, 
although situated in that region of the Indian Ocean which 
forms part of the site of the Indo-Madagascar continent 
of the Secondary period, is not a peak of the submerged 
land.  It has been built up from the sunken remains of the 
old continent by a deposit, in the opinion of Professor A. 
Voeltzkow, of foraminiferal remains (mostly coccoliths and 
rhabdoliths).  In any case, however Aldabra was formed, 
there can be no suggestion of its ever having been joined 
to any other land (Stanley Gardiner).  Dupont states that 
at Aldabra the coral foundation is totally above water.  
The coral limestone of the atoll has a peculiar vitrified 
appearance and gives out a ringing sound when struck or 
simply walked on.  The coral is generally reddish, but 
the colouring ranges from light yellow to chocolate-brown. 

Aldabra was visited by Portuguese navigators in 1511.  The 
islands were already known to the Arabs, from whom they get 
their name.  They became in the middle of the 18th century 
dependencies of the French establishments at Bourbon (Reunion), 
whence expeditions were made for the capture of the giant 
tortoises.  In 1810 with Mauritius, Bourbon, the Seychelles 
and other islands, Aldabra passed into the possession of 
Great Britain.  The inhabitants are emigrants from the 
Seychelles.  Goats are bred and coco-nuts cultivated, 
but fishing is the chief industry.  With other outlying 
islands Aldabra is held under lease from the Seychelles 
government, the lessees having exclusive trading privileges. 

See R. Dupont, Report on a Visit of Investigation to . . . 
the Aldabra Group of the Seychelles Islands (Seychelles, 
1907); Dr Abbott in Proceedings, United States National Museum 
(Washington, 1894); A. Voeltzkow in Abh. der Senckenbergischen 
Naturferschenden Ges. vol. xxvi. part iv. (1901); J. S. 
Gardiner, ``The Indian Ocean,'' Geo. Journ. Oct. 1906. 

ALDBOROUGH, a village in the Ripon parliamentary division 
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m.  W.N.W. of 
York, and 1 m.  E. of the market town of Boroughbridge, which 
has a station on a branch of the North-Eastern railway.  
Aldborough formerly returned two members to parliament, but 
was disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832.  The place is 
remarkable from its numerous ancient remains.  It was the 
Isurium Brigantum of the Romans, originally perhaps a capital 
of the Brigantes tribe, and afterwards a Romano-British town 
of considerable size.  Inscriptions, beautiful mosaics and 
other traces of comfortable houses have been found, with 
many potsherds, coins and bronze, iron and other objects; 
and a large part of the town walls, several mosaics and 
parts of buildings, can be seen.  A fine collection is kept 
in the Museum Isurianum in the grounds of the manor-house. 

ALDEBURGH [ALDBOROUGH], a market town and municipal 
borough in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 
the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 99 1/2 
m.  N.E. by E. from London.  Area, 1629 acres.  Pop. (1901) 
2405.  The surrounding district is open and somewhat bleak, 
but a fine stretch of sand fringes the shallow inlet of 
the North Sea known as Aldeburgh Bay. To the W. the river 
Alde broadens as if into an estuary, but its outflow is 
here prevented by the sand, and it runs south for nearly 
10 m. parallel with the shore.  The sandbanks have arrested 
the encroachments of the sea, which submerged a former 
site of Aldeburgh.  The church of St Peter and St Paul is 
Perpendicular, largely restored, and contains a monument to 
the poet George Crabbe, born here on the 24th of December 
1754.  A small picturesque Moot Hall of the 16th century is 
used for corporation meetings.  Slaughden Quay on the Alde 
admits small vessels, and fishing is carried on.  Aldeburgh 
is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. 

Aldeburgh (Aldburc) takes its name from the river Alde 
on which it stands.  It is not mentioned in pre-Conquest 
records, but at the Domesday survey most of the land was held 
by Robert Malet, a Norman.  In 1155 the manor was granted 
to the abbey of St John of Colchester, later to Cardinal 
Wolsey, and on his disgrace, to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, 
to whom Elizabeth in 1567 granted a market on Saturday.  
In the 16th century Aldeburgh was a place of considerable 
commercial importance, due, no doubt, to its position on the 
sea-coast.  Aldeburgh claims to be a borough by prescription: 
the earliest charter is that granted by Henry VIII. in 
1529.  Edward VI. in 1548 raised it to the rank of a free 
borough, granting a charter of incorporation and a market on 
Wednesday.  Later charters were granted by Philip and Mary in 
1553, by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1567, by James I. (who granted 
two annual fairs) in 1606, and by Charles I. in 1631 and 
1637.  The corporation included 2 bailiffs, 10 capital and 
24 inferior burgesses, until the Municipal Corporations Act 
1883.  The fairs and markets became so unimportant that 
they were discontinued about the middle of the 19th 
century.  The town returned two members to Elizabeth's 
parliament of 1572, and continued to be so represented 
till the Reform Bill of 1832 disfranchised it.  Frequent 
disastrous incursions of the sea in the 18th century reduced 
Aldeburgh to a mere fishing village.  In recent years it 
has grown as a seaside resort, with excellent golf-links. 

See John Kirby, The Suffolk Traveller (2nd ed., 1764); N. F. Hele, 
Notes about Aldeburgh (1870); Victoria County History--Suffolk. 

ALDEGREVER, or ALDEGRAF, HEINRICH (1502-1558), German 
painter and engraver, was born at Paderborn, from which he 
removed in early life to Soest, where he died.  From the close 
resemblance of his style to that of Albrecht Durer he has 
sometimes been called the Albert of Westphalia.  His numerous 
engravings, chiefly from his own designs, are delicate and 
minute, though somewhat hard in style, and entitle him to a 
place in the front rank of the so-called ``Little Masters.'' 
There is a good collection in the British Museum.  Specimens 
of his painting are exceedingly rare.  Five pictures are 
in continental galleries, but the genuineness of the works 
in the Vienna and Munich collections attributed to him is 
at least doubtful, the only unchallenged example being a 
portrait of Engelbert Therlaen (1551) in the Berlin Museum. 

ALDEHYDES, a class of chemical compounds of the general 
formula R.CHO (R = an alkyl or an aryl group).  The name is 
derived from alcohol dehydrogenatum in allusion to the fact 
that they may be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols.  The 
lower members of the series are neutral liquids possessing 
a characteristic smell; they are soluble in water and are 
readily volatile (formaldehyde, however, is a gas at ordinary 
temperatures).  As the carbon content of the molecule 
increases, they become less soluble in water, and their smell 
becomes less marked with the increase in boiling point, the 
highest members of the series being odourless solids, which 
can only be distilled without decomposition in vacuo. 

The aldehydes may be prepared by the careful oxidation of 
primary alcohols with a mixture of potassium dichromate and 
sulphuric acid,--3R.CH2OH + K2 Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 = K2SO4 
+ Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3R.CHO; by distilling the calcium 
salts of the fatty acids with calcium formate; and by hydrolysis 
of the acetals.  L. Bouveault (Bull. soc. chim., 1904 [3], 
31, p. 1306) prepares aldehydes by the gradual addition of 
disubstituted formamides (dissolved in anhydrous ether) to 
magnesium alkyl haloids, the best yields being obtained by 
the use of diethyl formamide.  Secondary reactions take place 
at the same time, yielding more particularly hydrocarbons 
of the paraffin series.  G. Darzens (Comptes Rendus, 1904, 
139, p. 1214) prepares esters of disubstituted glycidic acids, 
by condensing the corresponding ketone with monochloracetic 
ester, in the presence of sodium ethylate.  These esters on 
hydrolysis yield the free acids, which readily decompose, 
with loss of carbon dioxide and formation of an aldehyde, 


 
     /R                                                 /CRR1                       /CRR1
  OC<       +  Cl.CH2.COOC2H5  --> O<  |                   --> O<  |
     \R1                                             \CH.COOC2H5           \CH.COOH
 
  --> CO2 + CHRR1.CHO.
 

In the German Patent 157573 (1904) it is shown that by 
the action of at least two molecular proportions of an alkyl 
formate on two molecular proportions of a magnesium alkyl 
or aryl haloid, a complex addition compound is formed, which 
readily decomposes into a basic magnesium salt and an aldehyde, 

 C6H5MgBr + HCOOR --> RO.CH.C6H5.OMgBr --> MgBr.OR + C6H5CHO. 

The aldehydes are characterized by their great chemical 
reactivity.  They act as reducing agents, silver nitrate 
in the presence of ammonia being rapidly reduced to the 
condition of metallic silver.  They are easily oxidized to the 
corresponding fatty acid, in many cases simply by exposure to 
air.  Nascent hydrogen reduces them to primary alcohols, 
and phosphorus pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by 
chlorine.  They form many addition compounds, combining with 
ammonia to form aldehyde ammonias of the type R.CH(OH).NH2.  
These are colourless crystalline compounds, which are most readily 
prepared by passing ammonia gas into an ethereal solution of the 
aldehyde.  With sodium bisulphite they form the so-called 
bisulphite compounds R.CH(OH).SO3Na, which are readily resolved 
into their components by distillation with dilute acids, and 
are frequently used for the preparation of the pure aldehyde. 

With hydrocyanic acid aldehydes form the cyanhydrins R.CH(OH).CN.  
They react with hydroxylamine and phenylhydrazine, with the 
formation of aldoximes and hydrazones. (For the isomerism of 
the aldoximes see OXIMES.) The hydrazones are crystalline 
substances which are of value in the characterization of the 
aldehydes.  Both oximes and hydrazones, on boiling with dilute 
acid, regenerate the parent aldehyde.  The hydrazones are 
best prepared by mixing the aldehyde with phenylhydrazine 
in dilute acetic acid solution, in the absence of any free 
mineral acid.  Semioxamazid, NH2.CO.CO.NH.NH2, has 
also been employed for the identification of aldehydes 
(W. Kerp and K. Unger, Berichte, 1897, 30. p. 585).  
Aldehydes are converted into resins by the action of caustic 
alkalies.  On heating with alcohols to 100 deg.  C. they form 
acetals, and they also form condensation products with 
para-amido-di-methyl-aniline (A. Calm, Berichte, 1884, 17, p. 
2939).  They react with the zinc alkyls to form addition products, 
which are decomposed by water with formation of secondary 
alcohols (K. Thurnlach, Annalen, 1882, 213, p. 369) thus:-- 
            Zn(C2H5)2                   H2O
                                    /C2H5                       /C2H5
CH3.CHO  --> CH3.CH<              --> CH3.CH<              + ZnO + C2H6. 
                                    \OZnC2H5                    \OH
The reaction is a general one for all aldehydes with zinc methyl 
and zinc ethyl, but not with the higher zinc alkyls.  V. Grignard 
(Comptes Rendus, 1900 et seq.) showed that aldehydes combine 
with magnesium alkyl iodides (in absolute ether solution) to 
form addition products, which are decomposed by water with 
the formation of secondary alcohols, thus from acetaldehyde 
and magnesium methyl iodide, isopropyl alcohol is obtained. 

                                                     H2O
                                               /CH3
CH3.CHO + CH3MgI --> CH3.CH<      --> (CH3)2CH.OH + MgI.OH.
                                               \OMgI
The lower members of the aliphatic series are characterized 
by their power of polymerization (see FORMALIN, and the 
account of Acetaldehyde below), and also by the so-called 
``aldol'' condensation, acetaldehyde in this way forming 
aldol, CH3.CHOH.CH2.CHO.  These aldols generally lose 
the elements of water readily and pass into unsaturated 
compounds; aldol itself on distillation at ordinary 
atmospheric pressure gives crotonaldehyde, CH3.CH:CH.CHO. 

Aldehydes are characterized by the reddish-violet colour which 
they give with a solution of fuchsine that has been decolorized 
by sulphurous acid (H. Schiff, Ann., 1866, 140, p. 131).  
With diazobenzene sulphonic acid in the presence of alkali 
and a trace of sodium amalgam, a reddish-violet coloration 
is formed on standing (E. Fischer, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 
657).  A. Angeli (Gazz. chim.  Ital., 1896, 22, ii. 17) has 
shown that aldehydes in the presence of nitrohydroxylaminic 
acid form hydroxamic acid.  The aldehydes condense readily 
with acetoacetic ester in the presence of ammonia, to pyridines 
(see PYRIDINE), whilst O. Doebner and W. v.  Miller (Ber., 
1892, 25, p. 2864; 1896, 29, p. 59) have shown that in the 
presence of aniline and sulphuric acid they give substituted 
quinolines. (See also C. Beyer, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1908).  
The chief aldehydes are shown in the following table:-- 


 
 _____________________________________________________________________________
 |     Name.          |              Formula              | Boiling | Melting| 
 |                    |                                   |  Point. |  Point.|
 |--------------------|-----------------------------------|---------|--------|
 |   Formaldehyde     |                      H.CHO     |-21 deg.   |        |
 |   Acetaldehyde     |                 CH3.CHO     | 20.8 deg. |        |
 |   Propyl aldehyde  |       CH3.CH2.CHO     | 49 deg.   |        |
 | n-Butyl     ''     | CH3.(CH2)2.CHO     | 75 deg.   |        |
 | iso- ''     ''     |     (CH3)2.CH.CHO     | 61 deg.   |        |
 | n-Valeryl   ''     | CH3.(CH2)3.CHO     |103 deg.   |        |
 | iso- ''     ''     |            (C4H9.CHO     | 92 deg.   |        |
 |   Oenanthyl ''     | CH3.(CH2)5.CHO     |155 deg.   |        |
 |   Capric    ''     | CH3.(CH2)8.CHO     |121 deg.   |        |
 |   Lauric    ''     | CH3.(CH2)10.CHO |         |44.5 deg. |
 |   Myristic  ''     | CH3.(CH2)12.CHO |         |52.5 deg. |
 |   Palmitic  ''     | CH3.(CH2)14.CHO |         |58.5 deg. |
 |   Stearic   ''     | CH3.(CH2)16.CHO |         |63.5 deg. |
 |--------------------|-----------------------------------|---------|--------|
 |   Acrolein         |                                   |         |        |
 |     ally aldehyde  |         CH2 : CH.CHO        | 52 deg.   |        |
 |   Crotonic  ''     |   CH3.CH : CH.CHO        |104 deg.   |        |
 |   Tiglic    ''     |                                   |         |        |
 |     (guaiacol)     | CH3.CH : C.CH3.CHO |116 deg.   |        |
 |--------------------|-----------------------------------|---------|--------|
 |   Proargylic A.    |              CH : C.CHO        | 59 deg.   |        |
 |--------------------|-----------------------------------|---------|--------|
 |   Benzaldehyde     |               C6H5.CHO   |179 deg.   |        |
 |                 {o |                                   |200 deg.   |        |
 |   Toluicaldehyde{m |     C6H4.CH3.CHO   |199 deg.   |        |
 |                 {p |                                   |204 deg.   |        |
 |   Cumic     ''     | C6H4.C3H7.CHO   |235 deg.   |        |
 |   Cinnamic  ''     |    C6H5.CH : CH.CHO   |247 deg.   |        |
 |____________________|___________________________________|_________|________|
 

For formaldehyde see FORMALIN. Acetaldehyde, CH3.CHO, 
was first noticed by C. Scheele in 1774 and isolated and 
investigated by J. v.  Liebig (Annalen, 1835, 14, p. 
133).  It is prepared by oxidizing ethyl alcohol with dilute 
sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, and is a colourless 
liquid of boiling point 20.8 deg.  C., possessing a peculiar 
characteristic smell.  Its specific gravity is 0.8009 (0 deg.  
C.). It is miscible in all proportions with alcohol, ether and 
water.  It is readily polymerized, small quantities of 
hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride, carbonyl chloride, &c. 
converting it, at ordinary temperatures, into paraldehyde, 
(C2H4O)3, a liquid boiling at 124 deg.  C. and of specific 
gravity 0.998 (15 deg.  C.). Paraldehyde is moderately soluble in 
water, and when distilled with sulphuric acid is reconverted 
into the ordinary form.  Metaldehyde, (C2H4O)3, is produced 
in a similar way to paraldehyde, but at lower temperatures 
(e.g. in presence of a freezing mixture).  It is a crystalline 
solid, which sublimes at 112 deg. -115 deg.  C. It is insoluble 
in water, and is only slightly soluble in alcohol and 
ether.  When heated in a sealed tube at 120 deg.  C. it is 
completely converted into the ordinary form.  Paraldehyde 
is oxidized by dilute nitric acid, with formation of much 
glyoxal, (CHO)2. (For trichloracetaldehyde see CHLORAL.) 

By the action of acetaldehyde on alcohol at 100 deg.  C., 
acetal, CH3.CH(OC2H5)2, is produced.  It may also be 
prepared by oxidizing ethyl alcohol with manganese dioxide 
and sulphuric acid (A. Wurtz).  It is a colourless liquid 
of specific gravity 0.8314 (20 deg. /4 deg. ) (J. W. Bruhl) and 
boiling point 104 deg.  C. Dilute acids readily transform it 
into alcohol and aldehyde, and chromic acid oxidizes it to 
acetic acid.  Chlor- and brom-acetals have been described. 

Thioaldehydes are also known, and are obtained by leading 
sulphuretted hydrogen into an aqueous solution of acetaldehyde.  
By this means a mixture is obtained which by distillation 
or the action of hydrochloric acid yields trithioaldehyde, 
(C2H4S)3.  For the constitution of these substances 
see E. Baumann and E. Fromm (Berichte, 1891, 24, p. 
1426).  Aldehyde ammonia, CH3.CH(OH).NH2, is formed 
when dry ammonia gas is passed into an ethereal solution of 
acetaldehyde.  It crystallizes in glistening rhombohedra, 
melting at 70 deg. -80 deg.  C., and boiling at 100 deg.  C. It is completely 
resolved into its components when warmed with dilute acids. 

The higher aldehydes of the series resemble acetaldehyde 
in their general behaviour.  Unsaturated aldehydes are also 
known, corresponding to the olefine alcohols; they show the 
characteristic properties of the saturated aldehydes and 
can form additive compounds in virtue of their unsaturated 
nature.  The simplest member of the series is acrolein, C3H4O 
or CH2 : CH.CHO, which can be prepared by the oxidation 
of allyl alcohol, or by the abstraction of the elements of 
water from glycerin by heating it with anhydrous potassium 
bisulphate.  It is also produced by the action of sodium on 
a mixture of epichlorhydrin and methyl iodide, C3H5OCl + 
CH3I + 2Na = C3H4O + NaI + NaCl + CH4.  It is a colourless 
liquid, with a very pungent smell, and attacks the mucous 
membrane very rapidly.  It boils at 52.4 deg.  C. and is soluble in 
water.  It oxidizes readily: exposure to air giving acrylic 
acid, nitric acid giving oxalic acid, bichromate of potash 
and sulphuric acid giving carbon dioxide and formic acid.  
It combines with bromine to form a dibromide, from which E. 
Fischer, by the action of baryta water, obtained the synthetic 
sugars a- and b-acrose (Berichte, 1889, 22, p. 360).  
Metacrolein, (C3H4O)3, is a polymer of acrolein.  By passing 
acrolein vapour into ammonia, acrolein ammonia, C6H9NO, is 
obtained.  It is a reddish amorphous mass, insoluble in 
alcohol, and when distilled yields picoline (methyl pyridine) 
(A. Baeyer, Ann., 1870, 155, p. 283).  Citronellal, rhodinal 
and geranial are also unsaturated aldehydes (see TERPENES.) 

The aromatic aldehydes resemble the aliphatic aldehydes in most 
respects, but in certain reactions they exhibit an entirely 
different behaviour.  They do not polymerize, and in the 
presence of caustic alkalies do not resinify, but oxidize 
to alcohols and acids (see BENZALDEHYDE for Cannizzaro's 
reaction).  When heated with alcoholic potassium cyanide 
they are converted into benzoins (q.v..) Vanillin does 
not give the Cannizzaro reaction, but with alcoholic potash 
forms vanillic acid, HOOC(1).C6H3.OCH3 (3).OH(4), and 
vanilloin.  With ammonia, benzaldehyde does not form an aldehyde 
ammonia, but condenses to hydrobenzamide, ( C6H5CH)3N2, 
with elimination of water.  Cumic aldehyde (cuminol), 
(CH3)2CH(1)C6H4.CHO(4), is found in Roman caraway oil and 
in oil of the water hemlock.  It is a liquid, boiling at 235 deg.  
C., and has a specific gravity of 0.973.  On distillation with 
zinc dust it forms cymene (1.4 methyl isopropyl benzene). 

Salicylic aldehyde (ortho-hydroxybenzaldehyde), HO(1).  
C6H4.CHO(2), an aromatic oxyaldehyde, is a colourless liquid 
of boiling point 196 deg.  C. and specific gravity 1.172 (15 deg. ).  
It is found in the volatile oils of Spiraea, and can be obtained 
by the oxidation of the glucoside salicin, (C13H18O7), 
which is found in willow bark.  It is usually prepared by the 
so-called ``Reimer'' reaction (Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1268), in which 
chloroform acts on phenol in the presence of a caustic alkali, 

C5H5OH + CHCl3 + 4KHO = 3KCl + 3H2O + KO.C6H4.CHO, 
some para-oxybenaldehyde being formed at the same time.  It 
is volatile (para-oxybenzaldehyde is not) and gives a violet 
coloration with ferric chloride.  For dioxybenzaldehydes 
and their derivatives see PIPERONAL and VANILLIN. 

Cinnamic aldehyde (b-phenyl acrolein), C6H5.CH : CH.CHO, 
an unsaturated aromatic aldehyde, is the chief constituent of 
cinnamon oil.  It is prepared by oxidizing cinnamyl alcohol, or 
by the action of sodium ethylate on a mixture of benzaldehyde and 
acetaldehyde.  It is a colourless aromatic-smelling oily liquid, 
which boils at 247 deg.  C. and readily oxidizes on exposure. 

By condensation of aldehydes with pyruvic acid and 
naphthylamines, the a-alkyl-naphthoquinoline-g-carboxylic 
acids are produced; the same reaction takes place with the 
aromatic amines generally (O. Doebner, Ann. 1804, 281, p. 1), 


 
                                                 COOH
                                                 |
    / \           COOH                      / \ / \
   |   |      +  |            + R.CHO = |   |   |  + 2H2O + 2H.
    \ / \NH2  CO.CH3               \ / \N/ \R
 

ALDEN, JOHN (1599?-1687), one of the ``Pilgrims'' who in 
1620 emigrated to America on the ``Mayflower'' and founded 
the Plymouth Colony.  According to William Bradford's 
History of the Plimoth Plantation, he was hired as a 
cooper at Southampton, ``where the ship victuled,'' just 
before the voyage, ``and being a hopfull yong man, was much 
desired.'' He was one of the first settlers of Duxbury, 
Massachusetts, where he lived during the greater part of his 
life, and from 1633 until 1675 he was an ``Assistant'' to 
the governor of the colony, frequently serving as acting 
governor.  At the time of his death, at Duxbury, on the 
12th of September 1687, he was the last male survivor of 
the signers of the ``Mayflower Compact'' of 1620, and with 
the exception of Mary Allerton was the last survivor of the 
``Mayflower'' company.  He is remembered chiefly because of 
a popular legend, put into verse as The Courtship of Miles 
Standish by Henry W. Longfellow, concerning his courtship 
of Priscilla Mullins, whom he married in 1623, after having 
wooed her first on behalf of his friend, Miles Standish. 

ALDER, a genus of plants (Alnus) belonging to the order 
Betulaceae, the best-known of which is the common alder (A. 
glutinosa.) The genus comprises a few species of shrubs or 
trees, seldom reaching a large size, distributed through 
the North Temperate zone, and in the New World passing 
along the Andes southwards to Chile.  The British species 
A. glutinosa is confined to the Old World.  This tree 
thrives best in moist soils, has a shrubby appearance, and 
grows under favourable circumstances to a height of 40 or 50 
ft.  It is characterized by its short-stalked roundish leaves, 
becoming wedge-shaped at the base and with a slightly toothed 
margin.  When young they are somewhat glutinous, whence the 
specific name, becoming later a dark olive green.  As with 
other plants growing near water it keeps its leaves longer 
than do trees in drier situations, and the glossy green foliage 
lasting after other trees have put on the red or brown of 
autumn renders it valuable for landscape effect.  The stout 
cylindrical male catkins are pendulous, reddish in colour 
and 2 to 4 in. long; the female are smaller, less than an 
inch in length and reddish-brown in colour, suggesting young 
fir-cones.  When the small winged fruits have been scattered the 
ripe, woody, blackish cones remain, often lasting through the 
winter.  The alder is readily propagated by seeds, but throws 
up root-suckers abundantly.  It is important as coppice-wood 
on marshy ground.  The wood is soft, white when first cut and 
turning to pale red; the knots are beautifully mottled.  Under 
water the wood is very durable, and it is therefore used for 
piles.  The supports of the Rialto at Venice, and many buildings 
at Amsterdam, are of alder-wood.  Furniture is sometimes made 
from the wood, and it supplies excellent charcoal for gunpowder.  
The bark is astringent; it is used for tanning and dyeing. 

ALDER-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the family 
Sialidae, related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous 
antennae and four large wings, of which the anterior pair is 
rather longer than the posterior.  The females lay a vast number 
of eggs upon grass stems near water.  The larvae are aquatic, 
active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by 
means of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments.  When 
full sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent pupal 
stage on the land before metamorphosis into the sexually mature 
insect. Sialis lutaria is a well-known British example.  In 
America there are two genera, Corydalis and Chauliodes, 
which are remarkable for their relatively gigantic size and 
for the immense length and sabre-like shape of the mandibles. 

ALDERMAN (from A.-S. ealdorman, compounded of the 
comparative degree of the adjective eald, old, and man), 
a term implying the possession of an office of rank or 
dignity, and, in modern times, applied to an office-bearer 
in the municipal corporations and county councils of England 
and Wales,and in the municipal corporations of Ireland and 
the United States.  Among the Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors 
of provinces and other persons of distinction received this 
title.  Thus we read of the aldermannus totius Angliae, who 
seems to have corresponded to the officer afterwards styled 
capitalis justiciarius Angliae, or chief-justice of England; 
the aldermannus regis, probably an occasional magistrate, 
answering to the modern justice of assize, or perhaps an officer 
whose duty it was to prosecute for the crown; and aldermannus 
comitatus, a magistrate with a middle rank between what was 
afterwards called the earl and the sheriff, who sat at 
the trial of causes with the bishop and declared the common 
law, while the bishop proceeded according to ecclesiastical 
law.  Besides these, we meet with the titles of aldermannus 
civitatis, burgi, castelli, hundredi sive wapentachii, &c. 
In England, before the passing of the Municipal Corporations 
Act, their functions varied according to the charters of the 
different boroughs.  By the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, 
and other acts, consolidated by the Municipal Corporations Act 
1882, the aldermen are elected by the councillors for six 
years, one-half going out every three years.  The number 
of councillors in each borough varies according to its 
magnitude.  One-fourth of the municipal council consists of 
aldermen and three-fourths of councillors.  In the counties, 
too, the number of aldermen is one-third of the number of 
councillors, except in London, where it is one-sixth.  In the 
municipal corporations of Scotland there is no such title as 
alderman, the office-bearers of corresponding rank there being 
termed bailies.  The corporation of the city of London was 
not included in the Borough Reform Act, and the antiquated 
system remains there in full force.  The court of aldermen 
consists of twenty-six, twenty-five of whom are elected for 
life by the freemen of the respective wards, who return two 
persons, one of whom the court of aldermen elect to supply the 
vacancy.  The city is divided into twenty-six wards; twenty-four 
of these send up one alderman each, the other two combine 
to choose a twenty-fifth.  The twenty-sixth alderman serves 
for the independent borough of Southwark (q.v.) and is 
appointed by the other aldermen, who generally select the 
senior from among themselves when a vacancy occurs.  The lord 
mayor is elected from such of the aldermen as have served the 
office of sheriff; of these the Common Hall, which consists 
of the freemen of the different wards, select two, and the 
aldermen elect one of these to the mayoralty.  The court of 
aldermen has the power of appointment to certain offices, 
exercises judicial functions in regard to licensing and in 
disputes connected with the ward election, has some power of 
disposal over the city cash and possesses magisterial control 
over the city, each alderman being a judge and magistrate 
for the whole city, and by virtue of his office exercising 
the functions of a justice of the peace.  The aldermen are 
members of the court of common council, the legislative body 
of the corporation, which consists in all of 232 members, 
the remainder being elected annually by the freemen.  In the 
United States aldermen form as a rule a legislative rather 
than a judicial body, although in some cities they hold 
courts and possess very considerable magisterial powers. 

ALDERNEY (Fr. Aurigny), one of the Channel Islands, the 
northernmost of the principal members of the group, belonging to 
England.  It lies in 49 deg.  43' N. and 2 deg.  12' W., 9 m.  W. 
of Cape La Hague on the coast of Normandy.  The harbour, on 
the north coast in the bay of Braye, is 25 m. from St Peter 
Port, Guernsey, by way of which outer communications are 
principally carried on, and 55 m.  S. by E. of Portland 
Bill, the nearest point of England.  The length of the 
island from N. E. to S. W. is 3 1/2 m., its average breadth 1 
m., its area 1962 acres, and its population (1901) 2062. 

The strait between the island and Cape La Hague, called 
the Race of Alderney (French Raz Blanchard), confined by 
numerous rocks and reefs off either coast, is rendered very 
dangerous in stormy weather by conflicting currents.  Through 
this difficult channel the scattered remnant of the French 
fleet under Tourville escaped after the defeat of La Hogue in 
1692.  To the west is the narrower and also dangerous channel 
of the Swinge (Sinige), between Alderney and the uninhabited 
islets of Burhou, Ortach and others.  West of these again are the 
Casquets, a group of rocks to which attaches a long record of 
shipwreck.  Rocks and reefs fringe all the coasts of Alderney.  The 
island itself is a level open tableland, which on the south-west 
and south falls abruptly to the sea in a majestic series of 
cliffs.  The greatest elevation of the land is about 300 
ft.  Towards the north-west, north and east the less rocky 
coast is indented by several bays, with open sandy shores, of 
which those of Crabby, Brave, Corblets and Longy are the most 
noteworthy.  South-west of Longy Bay, where the coast rises 
boldly, there is a remarkable projecting block of sandstone, 
called La Roche Pendante (Hanging Rock) overhanging the 
cliff.  Sandstone (mainly along the north-east coast), 
granite and porphyry are the chief geological formations.  
There are a few streams, but water is obtained mainly from 
wells.  Trees are scarce.  The town of St Anne stands almost in 
the centre of the island overlooking and extending towards the 
harbour.  Here are the courthouse, a gateway commemorating 
Albert, prince-consort, the clock tower, which belonged to 
the ancient parish church, and the modern church (1850), 
in Early English style, an excellent example of the work of 
Sir Gilbert Scott.  The church is a memorial to the family 
of Le Mesurier, in which the hereditary governorship of 
the island was vested until the abolition of the office in 
1825.  There is a chain of forts round the north coast from 
Clanque Fort on the west to Fort Essex on the east; the largest 
is Fort Albert, above Brave Bay. In 1847 work was begun on 
a great breakwater west of the harbour, the intention being 
to provide a harbour of refuge, but although a sum exceeding 
one and a half million sterling was spent the scheme was 
unsuccessful.  The soil of Alderney is light, fertile and 
well cultivated; grain and vegetables are grown and early 
potatoes are exported.  A large part of the island is under 
grass, affording pasture for cattle.  The well-known term 
``Alderney cattle,'' however, has lost in great measure 
its former signification of a distinctive breed.  Alderney 
is included in the bailiwick of Guernsey.  It has a court 
consisting of a judge and six jurats, attorney-general, 
prevot, greffiero and sergent; but as a judicial court 
it is subordinate to that of Guernsey, and its administrative 
powers are limited to such matters as the upkeep of roads. 

For its relations to the constitution of the bailiwick, 
and for the history of the island, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. 

ALDERSHOT, an urban district in the Basingstoke parliamentary 
division of Hampshire, England, 34 m.  S.W. by W. of London, 
on the London & South-Western and the South- Eastern & Chatham 
railways.  It was a mere village till 1855, when Aldershot 
camp was established.  Pop. (1891) 25,595; (1901) 30,974.  Its 
germ is to be found in the temporary camp on Chobham Ridges, 
formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, the commander-in-chief, the 
success of which convinced him of the necessity of giving 
troops practical instruction in the field and affording the 
generals opportunities of manoeuvring large bodies of the three 
arms.  He therefore advised the purchase of a tract of waste 
land whereon a permanent camp might be established.  His 
choice fell on Aldershot, a spot also recommended by strategic 
reasons, being situated on the flank of any army advancing upon 
London from the south.  Nothing came of Lord Hardinge's proposal 
till the experience of the Crimean campaign fully endorsed his 
opinion.  The lands at Aldershot, an extensive open heath 
country, sparsely dotted by fir-woods and intersected by the 
Basingstoke canal, were then acquired by the crown.  Wooden 
huts were erected in 1855, and permanent buildings to replace 
them were begun in 1881.  Under the Barracks Act 1890, and the 
Military Works Act of 1897 and 1899, large sums were provided 
for completing the work.  The former division of North and 
South camps and permanent barracks no longer obtains.  North 
camp is now named Marlborough Lines, with a field artillery 
barrack and five infantry barracks called after Marlborough's 
victories.  South camp is now named Stanhope Lines, after Mr 
Stanhope, who was secretary of state for war when the Barracks 
Act 1890 was passed and the reconstruction commenced in 
earnest.  They contain barracks for the Royal Engineers and 
Army Service Corps, the general parade, which stretches east 
and west, and five infantry barracks called after battles 
(other than those of Wellington), of the wars with France, 
1793-1815.  There are also barracks for the Royal Army Medical 
Corps.  The old permanent barracks (which were built for the 
most part about 1857) have been renamed Wellington Lines, with 
cavalry and artillery barracks; and three infantry barracks 
called after Wellington's victories in the Peninsula.  For 
the sick there are the Connaught Hospital in the Marlborough 
Lines, the Cambridge Hospital in Stanhope Lines, and the Union 
Hospital in Wellington Lines, besides the Louise Margaret Hospital 
for women and children and the isolated infection hospital. 

The drainage of the station is all modern, and the sewage is 
disposed of on a sewage farm under the direction of the war 
department.  The water supply is partly from the Aldershot Water 
Company, and partly from springs and reservoirs collecting 
water from a reserved area of war department property. 

Most of the barracks can accommodate not only the units they are 
constructed for, but also detachments going through courses of 
instruction.  The total of men, women and children for 
whom quarters are provided is at times as high as 24,000. 

Besides the regimental buildings there are a large number of 
buildings for garrison purposes, such as quarters and offices 
for general, staff and departmental officers, with the warrant 
and non-commissioned officers employed under them; the supply 
depot with abattoir and bakery; the ordnance stores; barrack 
stores for furniture and bedding, shops and stores for R. E. 
services; the balloon establishment; the detention barracks; 
fire brigade stations; five churches; recreation grounds 
for officers and men; schools; and especially the military 
technical schools of army cooking, gymnastics, signalling, 
ballooning and of mounted infantry, Army Service Corps, 
Royal Army Medical Corps and veterinary duties.  The work of 
these schools is, however, only a small part of the military 
training afforded at Aldershot; of greater importance is the 
field and musketry training, for the carrying out of which a 
considerable extent of land is essential.  The land required 
for these purposes extends at present over an area about 9 1/4 
m. in extreme length by 7 3/4 m. in extreme width.  In addition 
to this there is the land at Sandhurst and the Staff College 
(Camberley) about 6 1/2 m. distant, and at Woolmer Forest, 12 m. 
distant.  The musketry practice of the troops at Aldershot 
is carried out at the Ash ranges, 2 m. east of the barracks, 
while the Pirbright ranges, alongside those of the National 
Rifle Association at Bisley, are utilized by the Household 
Cavalry and Guards, who are encamped there in succession.  
Suitable grounds in the vicinity of the barracks, of which 
Caesar's Camp, the Long Valley and Laffan's Plain are best 
known, are utilized for company, battalion and brigade training 
of infantry, while the mounted branches work over a wider 
area, and the engineers carry out their practices where most 
convenient.  For the field-days of the combined arms, the 
whole of the war department property is available.  Aldershot 
is the headquarters of the ``Aldershot Army Corps,'' which is 
the largest organized force maintained in the United Kingdom. 

Besides the troops in barracks, during the drill season there 
is often a considerable force in camp, both regular troops from 
other stations and militia and volunteer units, so that, including 
the regular garrison, sometimes as many as 40,000 troops have 
been concentrated at the station for training and manoeuvres. 

ALDHELM (c. 640-709), bishop of Sherborne, English 
scholar, was born before the middle of the 7th century.  He 
is said to have been the son of Kenten, who was of the royal 
house of Wessex, but who was certainly not, as Aldhelm's 
early biographer Faritius asserts, the brother of King Ine. 
He received his first education in the school of an Irish 
scholar and monk, Maildulf, Maeldubh or Meldun (d. c. 675), 
who had settled in the British stronghold of Bladon or Bladow 
on the site of the town called Mailduberi, Maldubesburg, 
Meldunesburg, &c., and finally Malmesbury,1 after him.  In 
668 Pope Vitalian sent Theodore of Tarsus to be archbishop of 
Canterbury, and about the same time came the African scholar 
Hadrian, who became abbot of St Augustine's at Canterbury.  
Aldhelm was one of his disciples, for he addresses him as 
the ``venerable preceptor of my rude childhood.'' He must, 
nevertheless, have been thirty years of age when he began 
to study with Hadrian.  His studies included Roman law, 
astronomy, astrology, the art of reckoning and the difficulties 
of the calendar.  He learned, according to the doubtful 
statements of the early lives, both Greek and Hebrew.  He 
certainly introduces many Latinized Greek words into his 
works.  Ill-health compelled him to leave Canterbury, and he 
returned to Malmesbury, where he was a monk under Maildulf 
for fourteen years, dating probably from 661, and including 
the period of his studies with Hadrian.  When Maildulf 
died, Aldhelm was appointed in 675, according to a charter 
of doubtful authenticity cited by William of Malmesbury, by 
Leutherius, bishop of Dorchester from 671 to 676, to succeed 
to the direction of the monastery, of which he became the first 
abbot.  He introduced the Benedictine rule, and secured the 
right of the election of the abbot to the monks themselves.  
The community at Malmesbury increased, and Aldhelm was able to 
found two other monasteries to be centres of learning at Frome 
and at Bradford on Avon.  The little church of St Lawrence at 
Bradford dates back to his time and may safely be regarded as 
his.  At Malmesbury he built a new church to replace Maildulf's 
modest building, and obtained considerable grants of land for the 
monastery.  His fame as a scholar rapidly spread into other 
countries.  Artwil, the son of an Irish king, submitted his 
writings for Aldhelm's approval, and Cellanus, an Irish monk 
from Peronne, was one of his correspondents.  Aldhelm was the 
first Englishman, so far as we know, to write in Latin verse, 
and his letter to Acircius (Aldfrith or Eadfrith, king of 
Northumbria) is a treatise on Latin prosody for the use of his 
countrymen.  In this work he included his most famous productions, 
101 riddles in Latin hexameters.  Each of them is a complete 
picture, and one of them runs to 83 lines.  That his merits 
as a scholar were early recognized in his own country is shown 
by the encomium of Bede (Eccl.  Hist. v. 18), who speaks of 
him as a wonder of erudition.  His fame reached Italy, and at 
the request of Pope Sergius I. (687-701) he paid a visit to 
Rome, of which, however, there is no notice in his extant 
writings.  On his return, bringing with him privileges for 
his monastery and a magnificent altar, he received a popular 
ovation.  He was deputed by a synod of the church in Wessex 
to remonstrate with the Britons of Domnonia (Devon and 
Cornwall) on their differences from the Roman practice in 
the shape of the tonsure and the date of Easter.  This he 
did in a long and rather acrimonious letter to their king 
Geraint (Geruntius), and their ultimate agreement with Rome 
is referred by William of Malmesbury to his efforts.  In 
705, or perhaps earlier, Haeddi, bishop of Winchester, died, 
and the diocese was divided into two parts.  Sherborne was 
the new see, of which Aldhelm reluctantly became the first 
bishop.  He wished to resign the abbey of Malmesbury which he 
had governed for thirty years, but yielding to the remonstrances 
of the monks he continued to direct it until his death.  He 
was now an old man, but he showed great activity in his new 
functions.  The cathedral church which he built at Sherborne, 
though replaced later by a Norman church, is described by 
William of Malmesbury.  He was on his rounds in his diocese 
when he died in the church of Doulting on the 25th of May 
709. The body was taken to Malmesbury, and crosses were 
set up by the pious care of his friend, Bishop Ecgwine of 
Worcester, at the various halting- places.  He was buried in 
the church of St Michael.  His biographers relate miracles due 
to his sanctity worked during his lifetime and at his shrine. 

Aldhelm wrote poetry in Anglo-Saxon also, and set his own 
compositions to music, but none of his songs, which were 
still popular in the time of Alfred, have come down to us.  
Finding his people slow to come to church, he is said to have 
stood at the end of a bridge singing songs in the vernacular, 
thus collecting a crowd to listen to exhortations on sacred 
subjects.  Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent 
Latin, which soon came to be regarded as barbarous.  Much 
admired as he was by his contemporaries, his fame as a scholar 
therefore soon declined, but his reputation as a pioneer 
in Latin scholarship in England and as a teacher remains. 

Aldhelm's works were collected in J. A. Giles's Patres 
eccl.  Angl. (Oxford, 1844), and reprinted by J. P. 
Migne in his Patrologiae Cursus, vol. 89 (1850).  The 
letter to Geraint, king of Domnonia, was supposed to have 
been destroyed by the Britons (W. of Malmesbury, Gesta 
Pontificum, p. 361), but was discovered with others of 
Aldhelm's in the correspondence of St Boniface, archbishop of 
Mainz.  A long letter to Eahfrid, a scholar just returned from 
Ireland (first printed in Usserii Veterum Epistt.  Hiber. 
Sylloge, 1632), is of interest as casting light on the 
relations between English and Irish scholars.  Next to the 
riddles, Aldhelm's best-known work is De Laude Virginitatis 
sive de Virginitate Sanctorum, a Latin treatise addressed 
about 705 to the nuns of Barking,2 in which he commemorates 
a great number of saints.  This was afterwards turned by 
Aldhelm into Latin verse (printed by Delrio, Mainz, 1601).  
The chief source of his Epistola ad Acircium sive liber de 
septenario, et de metris, aenigmatibus ac pedum regulis 
(ed. A. Mai, Class.  Auct. vol. v.) is Priscian.  For the 
riddles included in it, his model was the collection known 
as Symposii aenigmata. The acrostic introduction gives the 
sentence, ``Aldhelmus cecinit millenis versibus odas,'' whether 
read from the initial or final letters of the lines.  His 
Latin poems include one on the dedication of a basilica built 
by Bugge (or Eadburga), a royal lady of the house of Wessex. 

AUTHORITIES.--Faritius (d. 1117), an Italian monk of 
Malmesbury, afterwards abbot of Abingdon, wrote a Vita S. 
Aldhelmi (MS. Cotton, Faustina, B. 4), printed by Giles and 
Migne, also in Original Lives of Anglo-Saxons (Caxton 
Soc., 1834); but the best authority is William of Malmesbury, 
who in the fifth book, devoted to St Aldhelm, of the Gesta 
Pontificum proposes to fill up the outline of Faritius, 
using the church records, the traditions of Aldhelm's 
miracles preserved by the monks of Malmesbury, and the lost 
``Handboc'' or commonplace book of King Alfred.  His narrative 
is divided into four parts: the birth and attainments of 
Aldhelm, the religious houses he had established and endowed, 
the miracles recorded of him, and the history of the abbey 
down to the writer's own time (see De Gestis Pontificum, 
ed.  N. E. S. A. Hamilton, 1870, for the Rolls Series. pp. 
330-443).  The life by John Capgrave in his Legenda 
Nova (1516) is chiefly an abridgment of Malmesbury's 
narrative.  Consult also L. Bonhoff, Aldhelm von Malmesbury 
(Dresden, 1894); T. D. Hardy. Descriptive Catalogue 
(1862), vol. i. pp. 389-396; T. Wright, Biog. Brit.  Lit. 
(A.-S.  Period, 1842); G. F. Browne, bishop of Bristol, St 
Aldhelm; his Life and Times (1903); and W. B. Wildman, 
Life of S. Ealdhelm, frst Bishop of Sherborne (1905), 
containing many interesting local details.  For some poems 
attributed to Aldhelm, and printed in Dummler's edition of 
the letters of St Boniface and Lul in Monumenta Germaniae 
Historica (epistt. tom. iii.), see H. Bradley in Eng. 
Hist.  Review, xv. p. 291 (1900), where they are attributed 
to Aldhelm's disciple AEthilwald.  The very varied sources 
and the chronology of Aldhelm's work are discussed in ``Zu 
Aldhelm und Baeda,'' by Max Manitius, in Sitzungsberichte 
der kaiserlichen Akad. der Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1886). 

An excellent account of his ecclesiastical importance is 
given by W. Bright in Chapters on Early English Church 
History (Oxford, 1878).  For his position as a writer 
of Latin verse consult A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte 
d.  Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande, vol. i. new 
edition (1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich- 
lateinischen Poesie &c. (Stuttgart, 1891), pp. 487-496; 
also H. Hahn, Bonifaz und Lul ihre angelsachsischen 
Korrespondenten, chap. i. (Leipzig, 1883).  The two last-named 
works contain many further bibliographical references. 

1 For the disputed etymology of Malmesbury, 
which some connect with Aldhelm's name, see Bishop 
Browne, St Aldhelin: his Life and Times, p. 73. 

2 Cuthburga, sister of King Ine of Wessex, and therefore 
related to Andhelm, left her husband Aldfrith, king of 
Northumbria, to enter the nunnery at Barking.  She afterwards 
founded the nunnery of Wimborne, of which she became abbess. 

ALDINE PRESS, the printing office started by Aldus Manutius 
at the end of the 15th century in Venice, from which were issued 
the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. (See 
MANUTIUS.) The Aldine Press is famous in the history of typography 
(q.v.), among other things, for the introduction of italics. 

ALDINI, GIOVANNI (1762--1834), Italian physicist, born 
at Bologna on the 10th of April 1762, was a brother of the 
statesman Count Antonio Aldini (1756-1826) and nephew of L. 
Galvani, whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with 
notes in 1791.  He became professor of physics at Bologna in 
1798, in succession to his teacher Sebastiano Canterzani 
(1734-1819).  His scientific work was chiefly concerned with 
galvanism and its medical applications, with the construction 
and illumination of lighthouses, and with experiments for 
preserving human life and material objects from destruction by 
fire.  He wrote in French and English in addition to his 
native Italian.  In recognition of his merits, the emperor 
of Austria made him a knight of the Iron Crown and a 
councillor of state at Milan, where he died on the 17th 
of January 1834.  He left by will a considerable sum to 
found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna. 

ALDRED, or EALDRED (d. 1069), English ecclesiastic, 
became abbot of Tavistock about 1027, in 1044 was made 
bishop of Worcester, and in 1060 archbishop of York.  He 
had considerable influence over King Edward the Confessor, 
and as his interests were secular rather than religious he 
took a prominent part in affairs of state, and in 1046 led 
an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh.  In 1050 he 
was largely instrumental in restoring Sweyn, the son of Earl 
Godwin, to his earldom, and about the same time went to Rome 
``on the king's errand.'' In 1054 he was sent to the emperor 
Henry III. to obtain that monarch's influence in securing 
the return to England of Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, 
who was in Hungary with King Andrew I. In this mission he 
was successful and obtained some insight into the working of 
the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II., 
archbishop of Cologne.  After his return to England he took 
charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury, although not 
appointed to these bishoprics; and in 1058 made a pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem, being the first English bishop to take this 
journey.  Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, 
Aldred was elected archbishop of York in 1060, and in 1061 
he proceeded to Rome to receive the pallium.  On his arrival 
there, however, various charges were brought against him by a 
synod, and Pope Nicholas II. not only refused his request 
but degraded him from the episcopate.  The sentence was, 
however, subsequently reversed, and Aldred received the pallium 
and was restored to his former station.  It is stated by 
Florence of Worcester that Aldred crowned King Harold II. in 
1066, although the Norman authorities mention Stigand as the 
officiating prelate.  After the battle of Hastings Aldred 
joined the party who sought to bestow the throne upon Edgar 
the AEtheling, but when these efforts appeared hopeless he 
was among those who submitted to William the Conqueror at 
Berkhampstead.  Selected to crown the new king he performed 
the ceremony on Christmas Day 1066, and in 1068 performed 
the same office at the coronation of Matilda, the Conqueror's 
wife.  But though often at court, he seems to have been no 
sympathiser with Norman oppression, and is even said to have 
bearded the king himself.  He died at York on the 11th of 
September 1069 and was buried in his own cathedral.  Aldred 
did much for the restoration of discipline in the monasteries 
and churches under his authority, and was liberal in his 
gifts for ecclesiastical purposes.  He built the monastic 
church of St Peter at Gloucester, and rebuilt a large part of 
that of St John at Beverley.  At his instigation, Folcard, a 
monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley. 

See The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer 
(Oxford, 1892-1899); Florence of Worcester, Chronicon ex 
Chronicis, edited by B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849); William 
of Malmesbury, De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum, edited 
by N. E. S. A. Hamilton (London, 1870); W. H. Dixon, Fasti 
Eboracenses, vol. i., edited by J. Raine (London, 1863); T. 
Stubbs, Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Eboracensis, edited by 
J. Raine (London, 1879-1894); E. A. Freeman, History of the 
Norman Conquest, vols. ii., iii., iv. (Oxford, 1867-1879). 

ALDRICH, HENRY (1647-1710), English theologian and philosopher, 
was born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated at the 
collegiate school there, under Dr Busby.  In 1662 he entered 
Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1689 was made dean in succession 
to the Roman Catholic, John Massey, who had fled to the 
continent.  In 1692 he was vice-chancellor of the University.  In 
1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shropshire, but continued 
to reside at Oxford, where he died on the 14th of December 
1710.  He was buried in the cathedral without any memorial 
at his own desire.  Aldrich was a man of unusually varied 
gifts.  A classical scholar of fair merits, he is best known 
as the author of a little book on logic (Compendium Artis 
Logicae), a work of little value in itself, but used at Oxford 
(in Mansel's revised edition) till long past the middle of the 
19th century.  Aldrich also composed a number of anthems and 
church services of high merit, and adapted much of the music of 
Palestrina and Carissimi to English words with great skill and 
judgment.  To him we owe the well-known catch, ``Hark, the 
bonny Christ Church bells.'' Evidence of his skill as an 
architect may be seen in the church and campanile of All 
Saints, Oxford, and in three sides of the so-called Peckwater 
Quadrangle of Christ Church, which were erected after his 
designs.  He bore a great reputation for conviviality, 
and wrote a humorous Latin version of the popular ballad-- 

 A soldier and a sailor, 
A tinker and a tailor, &c.
Another specimen of his wit is furnished by the 
following epigram of the five reasons for drinking:-- 

 Si bene quid memini, causae sunt quinque bibendi; 
Hospitis adventus, praesens sitis atque futura,
Aut vini bonitas, aut quaelibet altera causa.
The translation runs:-- 

 If on my theme I rightly think, 
There are five reasons why men drink:--
Good wine; a friend; because I'm dry;
Or lest I should be by and by;
Or--any other reason why.
ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (1841- ), American politician, 
was born at Foster, Rhode Island, on the 6th of November 
1841.  His first political service was as a member (1869-1875) 
and president (1871-1872) of the Providence common council.  
He was a member of the lower house of the Rhode Island 
legislature in 1875 and 1876, and speaker in the latter 
year.  By this time he had become a power in Republican 
state politics, and in 1878 and 1880 was elected to 
Congress.  Early in his second term he was chosen United 
States senator, and was re-elected in 1886, 1892, 1898 and 
1905.  In the Senate he was looked upon as the special 
representative of the high protective industries and moneyed 
interests, and he took a prominent part in all legislation 
dealing with the tariff, banking and the merchant marine. 

ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1907), American author, was 
born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 11th of November 
1836.  When he was but a child his father moved to New Orleans, 
but after ten years the boy was sent back to Portsmouth--the 
``Rivermouth'' of several of his stories--to prepare for 
college.  This period of his life is partly described in his 
Story of a Bad Boy (1870), of which ``Tom Bailey'' is the 
juvenile hero.1 His father's death in 1852 compelled Aldrich to 
abandon the idea of college and enter a business office in New 
York.  Here he soon became a constant contributor to the 
newspapers and magazines, and the intimate friend of the young 
poets, artists and wits of the metropolitan Bohemia of the 
early'sixties, among whom were E. C. Stedman, R. H. Stoddard, 
Bayard Taylor and Walt Whitman.  From 1856 to 1859 he was 
on the staff of the Home Journal, then edited by N. P. 
Willis, while during the Civil War he was himself editor of 
the New York Illustrated News. In 1865 he moved to Boston 
and was editor for ten years for Ticknor and Fields--then 
at the height of their prestige--of the eclectic weekly 
Every Saturday, discontinued in 1875.  From 1881 to 1890 
he was editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Meanwhile Aldrich 
had written much, both in prose and verse.  His genius was 
many-sided, and it is surprising that so busy an editor and 
so prolific a writer should have attained the perfection of 
form for which he was remarkable.  His successive volumes of 
verse, chiefly The Ballad of Babie Bell (1856), Pampinea, 
and Other Poems (1861), Cloth of Gold (1874), Flower 
and Thorn (1876), Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (1881), 
Mercedes and Later Lyrics (1883), Wyndham Towers (1889), 
and the collected editions of 1865, 1882, 1897 and 1900, 
showed him to be a poet of lyrical skill, dainty touch and 
felicitous conceit, the influence of Herrick being constantly 
apparent.  He repeatedly essayed the long narrative or 
dramatic poem, but seldom with success, save in such earlier 
work as Garnaut Hall. But no American poet has shown more 
skill in describing some single picture, mood, conceit or 
episode.  His best things are such lyrics as ``Hesperides,'' 
``When the Sultan goes to Ispahan,'' ``Before the Rain,'' 
``Nameless Pain,'' ``The Tragedy,'' ``Seadrift,'' ``Tiger 
Lilies,'' ``The One White Rose,'' ``Palabras Carinosas,'' 
``Destiny,'' or the eight-line poem ``Identity,'' which did 
more to spread Aldrich's reputation than any of his writing 
after Babie Bell. Beginning with the collection of stories 
entitled Marjorie Daw and Other People (1873), Aldrich 
applied to his later prose work that minute care in composition 
which had previously characterized his verse--taking a 
near, new or salient situation, and setting it before the 
reader in a pretty combination of kindly realism and reticent 
humour.  In the novels, Prudence Palfrey (1874), The 
(Queen of Sheba (1877), and The Stillwater Tragedy (1880), 
there is more rapid action; but the Portsmouth pictures 
in the first are elaborated with the affectionate touch 
shown in the shorter humourous tale, A Rivermouth Romance 
(1877).  In An Old Town by the Sea (1893) the author's 
birthplace was once more commemorated, while travel and 
description are the theme of From Ponkapog to Pesth 
(1883).  Aldrich died at Boston on the 19th of March 1907. 

His Life was written by Ferris Greenslet (1908). 

1 This book has been translated into French as Education et 
recreation, and into German as a specimen of American humour. 

ALDRINGER (ALTRINGER, ALDRINGEN), JOHANN, COUNT 
VON (1588-1634), Austrian soldier, was born at Diedenhofen 
(Thionville) in Lorraine.  After travelling as page to a 
nobleman in France, Italy and the Netherlands, he went to 
the university of Paris.  In 1606 he entered the service of 
Spain, in which he remained until 1618, when he joined the 
imperial army.  Here he distinguished himself in the field 
and in the cabinet.  Made a colonel in 1622, two years later 
he was employed on the council of war and on diplomatic 
missions.  At the bridge of Dessau in 1626 he performed very 
distinguished service against Ernst von Mansfeld.  He and 
his constant comrade Matthias Gallas (q.v.) were ennobled 
on the same day, and in the course of the Italian campaign 
of 1630 the two officers married the two daughters of Count 
d'Arco.  Aldringer served as Count Rambold Collalto's 
major-general in this campaign and was present at the taking of 
Mantua.  The plunder of the duke of Mantua's treasures made 
Gallas and Aldringer wealthy men.  Back in Germany in 1631, 
he served after Breitenfeld as Tilly's artillery commander, 
and, elevated to the dignity of count of the Empire, he was 
present at the battle of the Lech, where he was wounded.  
When Tilly died of his wounds Aldringer succeeded to the 
command.  Made field-marshal after the assault of the Alte 
Veste near Nuremberg, at which he had been second in command 
under Wallenstein, duke of Friedland (with whom he was a 
great favourite), he was next placed at the head of the corps 
formed by Maximilian I. of Bavaria to support Wallenstein.  
In this post his tact and diplomatic ability were put to a 
severe test in the preservation of harmony between the two 
dukes.  Finally Count Aldringer was won over by the court 
party which sought to displace the too successful duke of 
Friedland.  After Wallenstein's death Aldringer commanded 
against the Swedes on the Danube, and at the defence of Landshut 
he fell (July 22, 1634).  His great possessions descended to 
his sister, and thence to the family of Clary and Aldringen. 

See Brohm, Johann von Aldringen (Halle, 1882), and 
Hermann Hallwich, Johann von Aldringen (Leipzig, 1885); 
also Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, s.v.  Gallas, 
correcting earlier biography of Aldringer in the same work. 

ALDROVANDI, ULISSI (1522-1605), Italian naturalist, was, 
born of noble parentage at Bologna on the 11th of September 
1522.  He was apprenticed to a merchant in Brescia, but a 
commercial career being distasteful to him, he turned his 
attention to law and medicine, studying first in his native 
town and afterwards at Padua.  In 1550 he was accused of 
heresy, but succeeded in clearing himself before the 
Inquisition.  In 1553 he took his doctor's degree in 
medicine at Bologna, and in the following year was appointed 
professor of philosophy and also lecturer on botany at the 
university.  In 1560 he was transferred to the chair of natural 
history.  At his instance the senate of Bologna established in 
1568 a botanical garden, of which he was appointed the first 
director.  About the same time he became inspector of drugs, and 
in that capacity published in 1574 a work entitled Antidotarii 
Bononiensis Epitome, which formed the model for many subsequent 
pharmacopoeias.  He was also instrumental in founding the public 
museum of Bologna, which contains, especially in the natural 
history department, a large number of specimens collected by 
him.  The results of his various researches were embodied 
in a magnum opus, which was designed to include everything 
that was known about natural history.  The first three 
volumes, comprising his ornithology, were published in 1599, 
and a fourth, treating of insects, appeared in 1602.  After 
his death a number of other volumes were compiled from his 
manuscript materials, under the editorship of several of his 
pupils, to whom the task was entrusted by the senate of 
Bologna.  The work was enriched by a large number of 
illustrations prepared at great expense, the author having, 
it is said, employed several celebrated artists for thirty 
years.  Among these were Lorenzo Benini of Florence and 
Christopher Coriolanus of Nuremberg.  It has been said, 
indeed, that the cost of the undertaking was so great as to 
exhaust its author's means, and that he died penniless and 
blind in the public hospital of Bologna.  This, however, is 
probably incorrect, at least as regards the allegation of 
poverty.  Published records of the senate of Bologna show 
that it liberally supported Aldrovandi in his undertaking, 
doubling his salary soon after his appointment as professor, 
and bestowing on him from time to time sums amounting in 
all to 40,000 crowns.  If, therefore, he died in the public 
hospital, he probably went there for the better treatment of 
his disease.  His death occurred on the 10th of May 1605.  
Aldrovandi was chiefly remarkable for laborious and patient 
research.  He seems to have been totally destitute of the 
critical faculty, and hardly any attempt is made in his great 
work to classify facts or to distinguish between the true and 
the fabulous, the important and the trivial.  Much is thus 
included that is of no scientific value, but it also contains 
much information of very great interest to the naturalist. 

ALE, an old word for a fermented liquor obtained chiefly from 
malt.  In England ``ale'' is nowadays practically synonymous 
with ``beer.'' Before the introduction of hops into England 
from Flanders in the 16th century ale was the name exclusively 
applied to malt liquor, the term beer being gradually 
introduced to describe liquor brewed with an infusion of 
hops.  This distinction does not apply at the present time, 
except in so far as the term ale is not applied to black 
beers (stout and porter) nor to lager beer.  In the United 
States, however, it is customary to confine the designation 
beer to the article obtained by the bottom fermentation 
process.  In former times the Welsh and Scots had two distinct 
kinds of ale, called common and spiced ales, the relative 
values of which were appraised by law in the following terms: 
``If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced 
ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask of mead.'' 
There are numerous varieties of English ales, such as mild 
ale, which is a full, sweetish beer, of a dark colour and with 
relatively little hop; pale ale, which is relatively dry, of 
light colour and of a more pronounced hop flavour than the 
mild ale; and bitter and stock ales, the latter term being 
generally reserved for superior beers, such as are used for 
bottling.  The terms pale, bitter, stock, light, &c., 
are to be regarded as trade distinctions and not as exact 
definitions of quality or type. (See BEER and BREWING.) 

Parish Ales.--In old England an ``ale'' was synonymous with 
a parish festival or merry-making at which ale was the chief 
drink.  The word was generally used in composition.  Thus 
there were leet-ales (that held on leet or manorial court day); 
lamb-ales (that held at lamb-shearing); Whitsun-ales, clerk-ales, 
church-ales and so on.  The word bridal is really bride-ale, 
the wedding feast.  Bid-ales, once very common throughout 
England, were ``benefit'' feasts to which a general invitation 
was given, and all the neighbours attending were expected to 
make some contribution to help the object of the ``benefit.'' 
(See ``Bidding-Weddings'' under BRIDE.) These parish festivals 
were of much ecclesiastical and social importance in medieval 
England.  The chief purpose of church-ales and clerk-ales, at 
least, was to facilitate the collection of parish-dues, or 
to make an actual profit for the church from the sale of the 
liquor by the church wardens.  These profits kept the parish 
church in repair, or were distributed as alms to the poor.  At 
Sygate, Norfolk, on the gallery of the church is inscribed-- 

 God speed the plough 
And give us good ale enow . . .
Be merry and glade,
With good ale was this work made.
On the beam of a screen in the church of Thorpe-le-Soken, 
Essex, is the following inscription in raised Gothic 
letters, on a scroll held by two angels--``This cost is the 
bachelers made by ales thesn be ther med.'' The date is about 
1480.  The feast was usually held in a barn near the church 
or in the churchyard.  In Tudor times church-ales were held on 
Sundays.  Gradually the parish-ales were limited to the 
Whitsun season, and these still have local survivals.  
The colleges of the universities used formerly to brew 
their own ales and hold festivals known as college-ales.  
Some of these ales are still brewed and famous, like 
``chancellor'' at Queen's College, and ``archdeacon'' at Morton 
College, Oxford, and ``audit ale'' at Trinity, Cambridge. 

See Brand's Popular Antiquities of Great 
Britain (Wm. Carew Hazlitt's edition, 1905). 

ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO (HIERONYMUS ALEANDER) (1480- 1542), Italian 
cardinal, was born at Motta, near Venice, on the 13th of February 
1480.  He studied at Venice, where he became acquainted with 
Erasmus and Aldus Manutius, and at an early age was reputed 
one of the most learned men of the time.  In 1508 he went to 
Paris on the invitation of Louis XII. as professor of belles 
lettres, and held for a time the position of rector in the 
university.  Entering the service of Eberhard, prince-bishop 
of Liege, he was sent by that prelate on a mission to 
Rome, where Pope Leo X. retained him, giving him (1519) the 
office of librarian of the Vatican.  In the following year 
he went to Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the 
coronation of Charles V., and was also present at the diet of 
Worms, where he headed the opposition to Luther, advocating 
the most extreme measures to repress the doctrines of the 
reformer.  His conduct evoked the fiercest denunciations of 
Luther, but it also displeased more moderate men and especially 
Erasmus.  The edict against the reformer, which was finally 
adopted by the emperor and the diet, was drawn up and proposed 
by Aleandro.  After the close of the diet the papal nuncio 
went to the Netherlands; where he kindled the flames of 
persecution, two monks of Antwerp, the first martyrs of the 
Reformation, being burnt in Brussels at his instigation.  In 
1523 Clement VII., having appointed him archbishop of Brindisi 
and Oria, sent him as nuncio to the court of Francis I. He 
was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the battle of 
Pavia (1525), and was released only on payment of a heavy 
ransom.  He was subsequently employed on various papal missions, 
especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in preventing the 
German princes from making a truce with the reformers, or in 
checking to any extent the progress of the new doctrines.  He 
was created cardinal in 1536 by Paul III. (at the same time as 
Reginald Pole) and died at Rome on the 1st of February 1542. 

Aleandro compiled a Lexicon Graeco-Latinum (Paris, 1512), 
and wrote Latin verse of considerable merit inserted in 
M. Tuscanus's Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italiorum. The 
Vatican library contains a volume of manuscript letters and 
other documents written by him in connexion with his various 
missions against Luther.  They were utilized by Pallavicino 
in his Istoria del Concilio Tridentino (i. 23-28), 
who gives a very partial account of the Worms conference. 

Aleandro, who is sometimes called ``the elder,'' must be 
distinguished from his grand-nephew, also called Girolamo 
Aleandro (1374-1629).  The younger Aleandro was a very 
distinguished scholar, and wrote Psalmi poenitentiales 
versibus elegiacis expressi (Treves, 1593), Gaii, veteris 
juris consulti Institutionum fragmenta, cum commentario 
(Venice, 1600), Explicatio veteris tabulae marmorcae 
solis effigie symbolisque exculptae (Rome, 1616). 

ALEARDI, ALEARDO, COUNT (1812-1878), Italian poet, was 
born at Verona on the 4th of November 1812, and thus soon 
after his birth became an Austrian subject.  Inspired from 
his cradle with a hatred of the foreigner, he found himself 
disqualified for the position in the public service to which 
his rank would have entitled him, and unable to publish 
his patriotic verses. Arnaldo da Rocca, a narrative poem, 
nevertheless appeared in 1842, and the revolutionary year 
1848 made an opening for his Lettere a Maria. He took an 
active part in the popular uprising, and was for some time 
imprisoned.  In 1856 he produced the finest of his pieces, 
an ode to the maritime cities of Italy, and in 1858 a poem 
on his own misfortunes.  After the expulsion of the Austrians 
from Lombardy he returned to Verona, published his poems in 
a collected edition (1862), became professor at the Academy 
of Fine Art, member of the Italian parliament and eventually 
senator.  He died on the 17th of July 1878.  Aleardi's 
warmth of patriotic feeling hardly finds adequate expression 
in his poetry; it is his merit to excel in description, 
but his fault to substitute description for action. 

ALE-CONNER, an officer appointed yearly at the court-leet of 
ancient English manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures.  
The gustatores cervisiae--called in different localities 
by the different names ``ale-tasters,'' ``ale-founders,'' and 
``ale- conners''--were sworn to examine beer and ale, to take 
care that they were good and wholesome and were sold at proper 
prices.  In London four ale-conners, whose duty it is to examine 
the measures used by beer and liquor sellers to guard against 
fraud, are still chosen annually by the liverymen in common 
hall assembled on Midsummer Day. Since ale and beer have become 
excisable commodities the custom of appointing ale-tasters has 
in most places fallen into disuse. (See also ADULTERATION.) 

ALECSANDRI, or ALEXANDRI, VASILE (1821-1890), Rumanian 
lyric poet, was born at Bacau in Moldavia on the 21st of July 
1821.  His father was the Spatar Alecsandri, of Jewish and 
Italian origin, who had settled in Moldavia in the 18th 
century.  Vasile was educated first in Jassy and afterwards 
(1834-1839) in Paris.  In 1839 he started on a long journey 
through the Carpathian Mountains, and was the first to 
collect Rumanian popular songs, no doubt influenced by Western 
examples.  He first published his collection in 1844.  His 
Doine si Lacrimioare, lyrical poems, appeared at Paris in 
1852, and in 1852-1853 he produced at Jassy a fuller collection 
of popular ballads and songs.  He then adapted some French plays 
for the newly founded Rumanian theatre, and wrote some original 
pieces.  His connexion with the revolutionary movement of 
1848 compelled him to seek shelter in the west of Europe, 
and he visited England. where a beautifully illuminated 
edition of his poems was printed in the original Rumanian 
language.  In 1867 he published some fugitive pieces, written 
in a lighter vein, and entitled Pastele; these were followed 
in 1871 by the Legende of similar character.  More serious 
are his dramatic writings which began with Despot Voda and 
culminated in Ovid. In later life Alecsandri took an active 
part in politics; he became minister for foreign affairs from 
1859 to 1860, and in 1885 was appointed Rumanian minister in 
Paris.  He died on the 26th of August 1890 at his country seat, 
Mircesti.  His best title to fame consists in the fact that 
he gave the first impetus to the collection of Rumanian popular 
songs and first drew attention to their inimitable charm. 

See L. Sainsanu, Autorii Romani moderni (1891), pp. 
90 and 318. A complete edition of Alecsandri's writings in 
nine volumes was published at Bucharest in 1875 seq. (M. G.) 

ALEMAN, LOUIS (c. 1390-1450), French cardinal, was born 
of a noble family at the castle of Arbent near Bugey about the 
year 1390.  He was successively bishop of Maguelonne (1418), 
archbishop of Arles (1423) and cardinal priest of St Cecilia 
(1426).  He was a prominent member of the council of Basel, 
and, together with Cardinal Julian, led the party which 
maintained the supremacy of general councils over the pope's 
authority.  In 1440 Aleman obtained the support of the emperor 
Sigismund and of the duke of Milan to his views, and proclaiming 
the deposition of Pope Eugenius IV., placed the tiara upon 
the head of Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy (henceforward known 
as antipope Felix V.). Eugenius retorted by.excommunicating 
the antipope and depriving Aleman of all his ecclesiastical 
dignities.  In order to make an end of the schism, Felix V. 
finally abdicated on Aleman's advice, and Nicholas V., who had 
succeeded in 1447, restored the cardinal to all his honours 
and employed him as legate to Germany in 1449.  On his return 
he retired to his diocese of Arles, where he devoted himself 
zealously to the instruction of his people.  He died on the 16th 
of September 1450, and was beatified by Pope Clement VII. in 1527. 

See U. Chevalier, Repert. des sources hist. (Paris, 1905), p. 130. 

ALEMAN, MATEO (1547-1609?), Spanish novelist and man of 
letters, was born at Seville in 1547.  He graduated at Seville 
University in 1564, studied later at Salamanca and Alcala, 
and from 1571 to 1588 held a post in the treasury; in 1594 he 
was arrested on suspicion of malversation, but was speedily 
released.  In 1599 he published the first part of Guzman de 
Alfarache, a celebrated picaresque novel which passed through 
not less than sixteen editions in five years; a spurious sequel 
was issued in 1602, but the authentic continuation did not 
appear till 1604.  In 1608 Aleman emigrated to America, and 
is said to have carried on business as a printer in Mexico; 
his Ortografia castellana (1609), published in that city, 
contains ingenious and practical proposals for the reform 
of Spanish spelling.  Nothing is recorded of Aleman after 
1609, but it is sometimes asserted that he was still living in 
1617.  He married, unhappily, Catalina de Espinosa in 1571, 
and was constantly in money difficulties, being imprisoned 
for debt at Seville at the end of 1602.  He is the author 
of a life (1604) of St Antony of Padua, and versions of 
two odes of Horace bear witness to his taste and metrical 
accomplishment.  His chief title to remembrance, however, 
is Guzman de Alfarache, which was translated into French 
in 1600, into English in 1623 and into Latin in 1623. 

See J. Hazanas y la Rua, Discursos leidos en la Real 
Academia Sevillana de Buenas letras el 25 de mar zo 
de 1892 (Sevilla, 1892); J. Gestoso y Perez, Nuevos 
datos para`ilustrar las biografias del Maestro Juan de 
Malara y de Mateo Aleman (Sevilla, 1896). (J. F.-K.) 

ALEMBERT, DEAN LE ROND D' (1717-1783), French mathematician 
and philosopher, was born at Paris in November 1717.  He was a 
foundling, having been exposed near the church of St Jean le 
Rond, Paris, where he was discovered on the 17th of November.  
It afterwards became known that he was the illegitimate son of 
the chevalier Destouches and Madame de Tencin.  The infant was 
entrusted to the wife of a glazier named Rousseau who lived close 
by.  He was called Jean le Rond from the church near which he 
was found; the surname Alembert was added by himself at a later 
period.  His father, without disclosing himself, having settled 
an annuity on him, he was sent at four years of age to a 
boarding-school.  In 1730 he entered the Mazarin College 
under the Jansenists, who soon perceived his exceptional 
talent, and, prompted perhaps by a commentary on the Epistle 
to the Romans which he produced in the first year of his 
philosophical course, sought to direct it to theology.  His 
knowledge of the higher mathematics was acquired by his own 
unaided efforts after he had left the college.  This fact 
naturally led to his crediting himself with many discoveries 
which he afterwards found had been already established, 
often by more direct and elegant processes than his own. 

On leaving college he returned to the house of his foster-mother, 
where he continued to live for thirty years.  Having studied law, 
he was admitted as an advocate in 1738, but did not enter upon 
practice.  He next devoted himself to medicine, but his natural 
inclination proved too strong for him, and within a year he 
resolved to give his whole time to mathematics.  In 1741 he 
received his first public distinction in being admitted a 
member of the Academy of Sciences, to which he had previously 
presented several papers, including a Memoire sur le calcul 
integral (1739).  In his Memoire sur le refraction des 
corps solides (1741) he was the first to give a theoretical 
explanation of the phenomenon which is witnessed when a body 
passes from one fluid to another more dense in a direction 
not perpendicular to the surface which separates the two 
fluids.  In 1743 he published his Traite de dynamique, 
a work famous as developing the mechanical principle, known 
as ``Alembert's Principle,'' first enunciated in 1742 (see 
MECHANICS.) In 1744 Alembert applied this principle to the 
theory of the equilibrium and the motion of fluids (Traite 
de l'equilibre et du mouvement des fluides), and all the 
problems before solved by geometricians became in some measure 
its corollaries.  This discovery was followed by that of the 
calculus of partial differences, the first trials of which 
were published in his Reflexion sur la cause generale 
des vents (1747).  This work was crowned by the Academy of 
Berlin, and was dedicated to Frederick the Great, who made 
several unsuccessful attempts to induce him to settle in 
Berlin.  In 1763 he visited Berlin, and on that occasion 
finally refused the office of president of the Academy of 
Berlin, which had been already offered to him more than 
once.  In 1747 he applied his new calculus to the problem 
of vibrating chords, the solution of which, as well as the 
theory of the oscillation of the air and the propagation of 
sound, had been given but incompletely by the geometricians 
who preceded him.  In 1749 he furnished a method of applying 
his principles to the motion of any body of a given figure; 
and in 1754 he solved the problem of the precession of the 
equinoxes, determined its quantity and explained the phenomenon 
of the nutation of the earth's axis.  In 1752 he published 
an Essai d'une nouvelle theorie sur la resistance des 
fluides, which contains a large number of original ideas 
and new observations.  In 1746 and 1748 he published in the 
Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin ``Recherches sur le calcul 
integral,'' a branch of mathematical science which is greatly 
indebted to him.  In his Recherches sur differents points 
importants du systeme du monde (1754-1756) he perfected the 
solution of the problem of the perturbations of the planets, 
which he had presented to the academy some years before. 

Alembert's association with Diderot in the preparation 
of the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique led him to take a 
someuhat wider range than that to which he had previously 
confined himself.  He wrote for that work the Discours 
preliminaire on the rise, progress and affinities of the 
various sciences, which he read to the French Academy on 
the day of his admission as a member, the 18th of December 
1754.  He also wrote several literary articles for the first 
two volumes of the Encyclopaedia, and to the remaining volumes 
he contributed mathematical articles chiefly.  One of the 
few exceptions was the article on ``Geneva,'' which involved 
him in a somewhat keen controversy in regard to Calvinism 
and the suppression of theatrical performances within the 
town.  During the time he was engaged on the Encyclopaedia 
he wrote a number of literary and philosophical works which 
extended his reputation and also exposed him to criticism and 
controversy, as in the case of his Melanges de Philosophie, 
d'Histoire, et de Litterature. His Essai sur la societe 
des gens de lettres avec les grands was a worthy vindication 
of the independence of literary men, and a thorough exposure 
of the evils of the system of patronage.  He broke new ground 
and showed great skill as a translator in his Traduction 
de quelques morceaux choisis de Tacite. One of his most 
important works was the Elements de Philosophie published in 
1759, in which he discussed the principles and methods of the 
different sciences.  He maintained that the laws of motion were 
necessary, not contingent.  A treatise, Sur la destruction 
des Jesuites (1765), involved him in a fresh controversy, 
his own share in which was rendered very easy by the violence 
and extravagance of his adversaries.  The list of his more 
noteworthy literary works is completed by the mention of the 
Histoire des membres de l'Academie francaise, containing 
biographical notices of all the members of the Academy who 
died between 1700 and 1772, the year in which he himself became 
secretary.  Alembert was much interested in music both as 
a science and as an art, and wrote Elements de musique 
theorique et pratique (1779), which was based upon the system 
of J. P. Rameau with important modifications and differences. 

Alembert's fame spread rapidly throughout Europe and procured 
for him more than one opportunity of quitting the comparative 
retirement in which he lived in Paris for more lucrative and 
prominent positions.  The offer of Frederick the Great has 
already been mentioned.  In 1762 he was invited by Catherine 
of Russia to become tutor to her son at a yearly salary of 
100,000 francs.  On his refusal the offer was repeated with 
the additional inducement of accommodation for as many of 
his friends as he chose to bring with him to the Russian 
capital.  Alembert persisted in his refusal, and the letter 
of Catherine was ordered to be engrossed in the minutes 
of the French Academy.  In 1755, on the recommendation 
of Pope Benedict XIV., he was admitted a member of the 
Institute of Bologna.  A legacy of L. 200 from David Hume 
showed the esteem in which he was held by that philosopher. 

Alembert continued to the end to lead the quiet and frugal 
life dictated by his limited means as well as his simple 
tastes.  His later years were saddened by circumstances connected 
with a romantic attachment he had formed for Mademoiselle de 
Lespinasse, whose acquaintance he made at the house of Madame 
du Deffand, a noted resort of literary men and savants.  She 
nursed him assiduously during an illness he had in 1765, and 
from that period till her death in 1776 they lived in the same 
house without any scandal.  On her part there seems to have 
been from first to last nothing more than warm friendship, 
but his feelings towards her were of a stronger kind and her 
death deeply affected him.  He never recovered his elasticity 
of spirits, though he continued to occupy himself with his 
favourite pursuits, and to frequent the society of his brother 
philosophers.  After the death of Voltaire (1778), whose friend 
and correspondent he had been for more than thirty years, he 
was regarded as the leader of the philosophical party in the 
Academy.  He died at Paris on the 29th of October 1783. 

The chief features of Alembert's character were benevolence, 
simplicity and independence.  Though his income was never 
large, and during the greater part of his life was very meagre, 
he contrived to find means to support his foster-mother in 
her old age, to educate the children of his first teacher, 
and to help various deserving students during their college 
career.  His cheerful conversation, his smart and lively 
sallies, a singular mixture of malice of speech with goodness 
of heart, and of delicacy of wit with simplicity of manners, 
rendered him a pleasing and interesting companion; and 
if his manner was sometimes plain almost to the extent of 
rudeness, it probably set all the better an example of a 
much-needed reform to the class to which he belonged.  The 
controversy as to the nature of his religious opinions, 
arising as it did chiefly out of his connexion with the 
Encyclopaedia, has no longer any living interest now that 
the Encyclopaedists generally have ceased to be regarded 
with unqualified suspicion by those who count themselves 
orthodox.  It is to be observed, moreover, that as Alembert 
confined himself chiefly to mathematical articles, his work 
laid him less open to charges of heresy and infidelity than 
that of some of his associates.  The fullest revelation of 
his religious convictions is given in his correspondence 
with Voltaire, which was published along with that with 
Frederick the Great in Bossange's edition of his works. 

The scientific works of Alembert have never been published in a 
collected form.  The most important of them have been mentioned 
above, with the exception of the Opuscules mathematiques 
(1761-1780), 8 vols. 4to. His literary and philosophical 
works were collected and edited by Bastien (Paris, 1805, 
18 vols. 8vo).  A better edition by Bossange was published 
at Paris in 1821 (5 vols. 8vo).  The best account of the 
life and writings of Alembert is contained in Condorcet's 
Eloge, presented to the Academy and published in 1784. 

ALEMBIC (Arab. al, definite article, anbiq, a still; 
cognate to the Gr. ambix, a cup), an apparatus for 
distillation, used chiefly by the alchemists, and now superseded 
by the retort and the worm-still.  It varied considerably 
in form and construction, but consisted essentially of three 
parts--a vessel containing the material to be distilled and 
called, from its gourd-like shape, the cucurbit or mattrass; 
a vessel to receive and condense the vapour, called the head 
or capital; and a receiver for the spirit, connected by a 
pipe with the capital.  The entire apparatus was sometimes 
constructed of glass, but it was more usual to make the cucurbit 
of copper or earthenware, and the capital alone of glass. 

ALEMTEJO (i.e. ``Beyond the Tagus''), an ancient province of 
central and southern Portugal; bounded on the N. by Beira, E. by 
Spanish Estremadura and Andalusia, S. by Algarve and W. by the 
Atlantic Ocean and Portuguese Estremadura.  Pop. (1900) 416,105; 
area 9219 sq. m.  Alemtejo is traversed by several mountain 
ranges, whose height does not generally rise much above 2000 
ft.  The low and sandy coast has a length of less than 25 m. 
and includes no harbour, except at the unimportant town of Villa 
Nova de Milfontes (pop. 1900, 825), which overlooks the Mira 
estuary.  The principal rivers are the Tagus, which divides 
Alemtejo from Beira; its tributary the Zatas, or Sorraia, fed 
by a whole system of lesser affluents; the Guadiana, which, 
crossing the Spanish frontier, flows southwards through the 
province; the Sado, which rises in the Serra de Monchique, 
and flows to the north; and the Mira, which waters the valley 
between the Caldeirao and Monchique ranges.  There are 
several extensive plains, notably those of Alemtejo, lying 
south-west of the Serra de Portalegre; of Beja, between the 
Sado and Guadiana; and of Ourique, farther south between the 
same rivers.  Some portions of these plains are fruitful, 
others marshy, while large tracts are mere desolate wastes. 

The climate in the lower parts of the country is exceedingly 
hot and is rendered unhealthy in summer by the stagnant 
marshes.  Towards the Spanish frontier the soil is fertile, 
and in the south the country is covered by extensive forests of 
oak, pine, chestnut, cork and ilex, especially on the sides 
of the Mezquita and Caldeirao ranges.  In the more fertile 
parts, grapes, figs, citrons, pomegranates and other fruits are 
produced.  Wheat, maize and rice are grown, and some attention 
is given to the rearing of mules, asses, goats, cattle and 
sheep; while the Alter breed of horses, named after the villages 
of Alter do Chao and Alter Pedroso (3971), near Portalegre, 
is often accounted the best in the kingdom.  Agriculture, 
however, is in a backward state, the sparse population being 
mostly concentrated in the towns, leaving extensive districts 
uncultivated and almost uninhabited.  Droves of swine are 
fed on the waste lands, growing to a great size and affording 
excellent hams.  The mineral wealth of Alemtejo is little 
exploited, although there are copper and iron mines and marble 
quarries.  Medicinal springs exist at Aljustrel (3790), 
Castello de Vide (5192), Mertola (3873), Portalegre, Vimieiro 
(1838) and elsewhere.  Chief among the local industries 
are the preparation of exceptionally fine olive oil, and 
the manufacture of cloth, pottery and leather.  Alemtejo is 
traversed by three very important main lines of railway, the 
Madrid-Caceres-Lisbon, Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Lisbon-Faro; 
while the two last are connected by a branch line from Casa 
Branca to Evora and Elvas.  For administrative purposes the 
province is divided into the districts of Portalegre in the 
north, Evora in the central region and Beja in the south; 
but the titles of these new districts have not superseded the 
ancient name of Alemtejo in ordinary usage.  The chief towns 
Beja (8885), Elvas (13,981), Estremoz (7920), Evora (16,020) 
and Portalegre (11,820) are described in separate articles. 

ALENCON, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The first line of the counts 
of Alencon was founded by Yves, lord of Bellesme, who in the 
middle of the 10th century possessed and fortified the town of 
Alencon.  His successors, involved in all the wars of the 
kings of England in Normandy, were alternately deprived and 
repossessed of their domains, according to the fluctuations 
of fortune between the rival parties.  Mabille, countess 
of Alencon and heiress of this family (d. 1082 ), married 
Roger of Montgomery, and from them descended a second house 
of Alencon which became extinct in the person of Robert 
IV.; the county of Alencon was then joined to the royal 
domain.  It was successively granted as an appanage to 
Peter, son of St Louis (1268), and to Charles, count of 
Valois, brother of Philip the Fair (1293).  The third house 
of Alencon sprang from Charles, second son of the count of 
Valois, who was killed at the battle of Crecy in 1346.  The 
countship of Alencon was raised to a peerage in 1367 and into 
a dukedom in 1414.  John, 1st duke of Alencon, was killed 
at Agincourt on the 25th of October 1415, after having with 
his own hand slain the duke of York.  His son, also named 
John, was dispossessed of his duchy by the king of England, 
but reconquered it in 1449.  In 1524 the dukedom of Alencon 
reverted to the crown, in consequence of the death of the 
duke Charles IV. without issue of his marriage with Margaret, 
sister of Francis I. It was given as a jointure to Catherine 
de'Medici in 1559, and as an appanage to her son Francis in 
1566.  It was pawned by Henry IV. to the duke of Wurttemberg, 
and subsequently it passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans, by 
grant of Louis XIII.; to Elizabeth of Orleans, duchess of 
Guise; to Charles, duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. 
(1710); and to Monsieur (Louis XVIII.), brother of Louis XVI. 

The title of duc d'Alencon was given to Ferdinand of Orleans, son 
of the duc de Nemours, and grandson of Louis-Philippe. (M. P.*) 

ALENCON, a town of north-western France, capital of the 
department of Orne, 36 m.  N. of Le Mans on a branch line 
of the Western railway.  Pop (1906) 14,378.  Alencon, a 
clean, regularly built town with broad handsome streets, 
is situated in a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe 
at its confluence with the Briante.  The only remains of 
the ancient castle of Alencon are two towers of the 15th 
century, which serve as a prison, and a third of the 14th 
century known as the Tour Couronnee, to which they are 
united.  Notre-Dame, the chief church, dates from the 15th 
century.  It is remarkable for a porch ornamented in the 
richest Gothic style, and for its stained windows of the 16th 
century.  Alencon has a large circular corn-market and a cloth- 
market.  The manufacture of the point d'Alencon lace has 
greatly diminished.  The weaving and bleaching of cloth, 
which is of less importance than formerly, the manufacture of 
vehicles, and tanning are carried on; there is a large trade 
in the horses of the district, and granite is worked in the 
neighbourhood.  Alencon is the seat of a prefect and 
a court of assizes.  It has tribunals of first instance 
and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycee, 
training-colleges and a chamber of arts and manufactures. 

ALENIO, GIULIO (1582-1649), Italian Jesuit missionary, was 
born at Brescia.  He entered the Society of Jesus and was sent 
to the East.  He landed at Macao in 1610, and while waiting a 
favourable opportunity to penetrate into China busied himself 
for three years in teaching mathematics.  His thirty years' 
residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal and considerable 
success.  He adopted the dress and manners of the country, 
was the first Christian missionary in Kiang-si, and built 
several churches in Fo-Kien.  He wrote in Chinese a Life of 
Christ (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. 
in 1887 in 3 vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries) 
and a cosmography (Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow, 1623, 6 
vols.), which was translated into Manchu under the title The 
True Origin of 10,000 Things, a copy of which was sent 
from Pekin to Paris in 1789.  Alenio died at Fu-chow in 1649. 

For bibliography see de Backer and Sommervogel, 
Bibl. de la Cie. de Jesus, i. 158-160. 

ALEPPO (native Haleb.) (1) A vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, 
comprising N. Syria and N.W. Mesopotamia, with an extension N. 
of Taurus to the neighbourhood of Gorun.  It comprises three 
sanjaks, Aleppo, Marash and Urfa.  About half is mountain, but 
there are fertile plains of great extent N. of Antakia, S. of 
Marash and around the city of Aleppo (see below).  The only 
seaport of importance is Alexandretta (q.v..) The exports 
are, on the average, over one million sterling, and imports 
about double in value.  The settled population is barely a 
million; but there is a considerable unsettled element in the 
S.E. which cannot well be estimated.  The Christians, mainly 
Jacobite Syrian, but including also Armenians of several 
denominations (e.g. those of Marash and Zeitun), Maronites 
and Greeks, form about one-fifth.  There are some 20,000 
Jews, resident chiefly in the provincial capital; and of the 
Moslem majority the bulk is Arab, Turkoman and Ansarieh.  
In the N.W. and N. is a considerable Kurdish population. 

(2) The provincial capital (anc. Khalep; Gr. Chaljbon- 
Beroea), situated on a plateau in the valley of the 
Kuwaik (anc. Chalus) about 10 m. above its dissipation 
in the great salt-marsh of Matkh.  Pop. about 130,000, 
three-quarters Moslem.  Aleppo is about midway between 
the sea and the Euphrates, a little nearer the latter. 

The modern city stands on both banks of the Kuwaik, and the 
older portions are contained within a Saracenic wall, 3 1/2 m. in 
circuit with seven gates.  The European residents and Christians 
live outside in the Kitab and new Azizieh quarters, and the 
Jews in that of Bahsita.  A modern citadel occupies the N.W., 
the medieval castle on its mound (partly artificial and not a 
strong position, according to Istakhri) being almost deserted 
but still forbidden to visitors.  There are two mosques of 
special interest--the Umawi (or Zakaria) on the site of 
a church ascribed to the empress Helena and containing a tomb 
reputed to be that of the Baptist's father, and the Kakun. 
Many minor ones serve the needs of a population traditionally 
fanatical.  Gardens extend for miles along the river, and 
the bazaars and khans are unusually large.  The climate is 
cold, dry and healthy, despite the prevalence of the famous 
``Aleppo button,'' a swelling which appears either on the 
face or on the hands, and breaks into an ulcer which lasts 
a year and leaves a permanent scar.  It has been ascribed 
to a fly, to the water and to other causes; but it is not 
peculiar to Aleppo, being rife also at Aintab, Bagdad, &c. 

The attempt made by the British Euphrates expedition in 
1841 to connect Aleppo with the sea by steamer through the 
nearest point on the Euphrates, Meskine, failed owing to 
the obstructed state of the stream and the insecurity of the 
riparian districts.  The latter drawback has been minimized 
by the continued success of the Aleppo administration in 
inducing the Anazeh Bedouins to become fellahin; but river 
traffic has not been resumed.  A railway, however, connects 
southward with the Beirut-Damascus line at Rayak.  Aleppo is 
an important consular station for all European powers, the 
residence of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchs of Antioch, 
and of Jacobite and Maronite bishops, and a station of Roman 
Catholic and Protestant missions.  It is the emporium of N. 
Syria, and manufactures textiles in silk, cotton and wool, 
carpets and leather commodities, besides being the centre of 
a large district growing cereals, pistachios and fruit.  The 
Turks regard it as one of the strongholds of their dominion and 
faith, and a future capital of their empire should they be 
forced into Asia.  As a centre from which good natural roads 
lead N., N.E., W. and S., Aleppo would make a good capital. 

History and Remains.--The site lies high (1400 ft.) on eight 
hillocks in a fertile oasis plain, beyond which stretch on the 
S. and S.E. grassy steppes merging ere long into desert, and 
on the other quarters rather sterile downs.  It has superseded 
Antioch as the economic centre of N. Syria, and Palmyra as 
the great road-station for eastern caravans.  But it is rather 
a revived than a new capital; Khalep was a very ancient 
Syrian and probably ``Hittite'' city of importance, known from 
Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian records.  Seleucus Nicator 
gave it a Macedonian name, Beroea; but Chalcis, some distance 
S., was the capital of the province, Chalcidice (later, 
Kinnasrin), in which it lay, and the centre of that hellenized 
region, now a vast field of ruins, which stretches W. to the 
Orontes.  Khalep-Beroea, we may infer, remained a native 
town and a focus of Aramaic influence, a fact which will 
explain the speedy oblivion of its Macedonian name and the 
permanent revival of its ancient title, even by Greeks. 

As Beroea we hear of the place in Seleucid wars and 
dissensions.  There Menelaus, the fomenter of war with the 
Asmoneans, was put to death by Lysias in 164 B. C., ``as the 
manner is in that place'' (Macc. ii. 13. 4), being thrown 
into a lofty tower full of cinders.  There Heracleon, the court 
favourite and murderer of Antiochus Grypus, was born and made 
himself a principality (96 B.C.); and there the son of the 
latter king besieged his brother Philip in the last struggle 
for the heritage of Seleucus.  As Chalybon, the town is 
called by Ptolemy head of a district, Chalybonitis; but 
we continue to hear of it as Beroea up to the Arab conquest, 
e.g. in the history of Julian's eastward march in A.D. 
363, and in that of the Persian raid of 540. It was occupied 
in 611 by Chosroes II. Overwhelmed by the Saracen flood in 
A.D. 638, Beroea disappears, and as Moslem society settles 
down Halep emerges again as the great gathering-place of 
caravans passing from Asia Minor and Syria to Mesopotamia, 
Bagdad and the Persian and Indian kingdoms.  Like Antioch 
it suffered from earthquakes, and late in the 12th century, 
after a terrible shock, had to be rebuilt by Nur ed-Din.  
But neither earthquakes nor the plague, to which it was also 
peculiarly liable, could divert trade and prosperity from 
it.  It belonged to the Eastern Caliphate (the Hanidanids) 
until temporarily reoccupied by John Zimisces, emperor of 
Byzantium and a native of neighbouring Hierapolis (q.v.), 
A.D. 974, after an abortive attempt by Nicephorus thirteen 
years earlier.  Thirteen years later it recognized and 
received the Fatimites, and passed under various Moslem 
dynasties, forming part of the Seljuk dominion from 1090 to 
1117.  The crusading princes of Antioch never held the place, 
though they attacked it in 1124; and Saladin, who took it in 
1183, made it a stronghold against them and the northern capital 
of himself and his successors until the Tatar invasion of 
1260.  Thereafter the Mamelukes took and kept possession, 
despite the renewed Tatar inroad of 1401, until the final 
conquest by the Ottomans in 1517.  Under the strong hand of 
the latter the trade of Aleppo with the East revived.  One of 
the first provincial factories and consulates of the British 
Turkey (Levant) Company was established there in the reign of 
James I.; and a British agent had been in residence there even 
in Elizabeth's time.  As the eastern outpost of the company's 
operations, it was connected with the western outpost of the 
East India Company in Bagdad by a private postal service, 
and its name became very familiar in England from the part 
that its merchants (largely Jewish) bore in the transmission 
of Eastern products to Europe (cf., e.g. Shakespeare, 
Macb. i. 3. 7; Oth. v. 2. 352).  Through it passed the 
silks of Bambyce, called bombazines, the light textiles 
of Mosul (mosulines--muslins) and many other commodities 
for the wealthy and luxurious.  The first blow was struck at 
this trade by the discovery of the Cape route to India; the 
second by the opening of a land route through Egypt to the 
Red Sea; the third and final one by the making of the Suez 
Canal.  Long ere this last event, however, Aleppo had been 
declining from internal causes.  In the latter part of the 
18th century and the first years of the 19th it was constantly 
the scene of bloody dissensions between two rival parties, 
one led by the local janissaries, the other by the sherifs 
(religious); and the Ottoman governors took the side, now 
of one, now of the other, in order to plunder a distracted 
city, too far removed from the centre to be controlled by the 
sultans, and too near the rebellious pashalik of Acre and 
the unsettled district of Lebanon not to be affected by the 
disorders natural to a frontier province.  This state of things 
led to the suspension of the British consulate by the Turkey 
Company in 1791; and it was not revived till 1800, after which 
date till 1825 it was maintained jointly by the East India 
Company.  In 1803 Jezzar of Acre advanced as near as Hamah; 
but his death occurred in the following year; and after a 
sanguinary rising in 1805, Aleppo settled down, but was not at 
peace, even after a local janissary massacre in 1814, till 
Mahmud II. had dealt finally with the corps at headquarters 
(1826).  Meanwhile there had been a frightful earthquake in 
1822, and a visitation of cholera in the following year.  More 
cholera in 1827 and 1832 and another earthquake in 1830 had 
left the place a wreck, with only half its former population, 
when Mehemet Ali of Cairo invaded and took Syria.  Aleppo 
shared, and to some extent headed, the Syrian discontent 
with Egyptian rule, and was strongly held by troops whose 
huge barracks are still one of the sights of the city.  Ready 
to rise behind Ibrahim Pasha in 1839, it was only prevented 
by the news of Nezib.  Tumults and massacres of Christians 
occurred in 1850 and 1862, accompanied by great destruction 
of property; but on the whole, since the consolidation of 
Ottoman rule over Syria by Abdul Mejid's ministers, Aleppo has 
been reviving, although its trade is more local than of old. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F.  R. Chesney, The Euphrates Expedition (1850) 
H. Guys, Statistique du Pachalik d'Alep (1853), and Esquisse de 
l'etat de la Syrie (1862); E. B. B. Barker, Syria and Egypt 
(1876); W. F. Ainsworth, Personal Narrative of the Euphrates 
Expedition (1888); E. R. Bevan, Heuse of Seleucas (1902); G. 
le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems (1890). (D. G. H.) 

ALES (ALESIUS), ALEXANDER (1500-1565), Scottish divine 
of the school of Augsburg, whose family name was ALANE, 
was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of April 1500.  He studied 
at St Andrews in the newly-founded college of St Leonard's, 
where he graduated in 1515.  Some time afterwards he was 
appointed a canon of the collegiate church, and at first 
contended vigorously for the scholastic theology as against 
the doctrines of the Reformers.  His views were entirely 
changed, however, on the execution of Patrick Hamilton, abbot 
of Fern, in 1528.  He had been chosen to meet Hamilton in 
controversy, with a view to convincing him of his errors, 
but the arguments of the Scottish proto-martyr, and above 
all the spectacle of his heroism at the stake, impressed 
Alesius so powerfully that he was entirely won over to the 
cause of the Reformers.  A sermon which he preached before 
the Synod at St Andrews against the dissoluteness of the 
clergy gave great offence to the provost, who cast him into 
prison, and might have carried his resentment to the extremest 
limit had not Alesius contrived to escape to Germany in 
1532.  After travelling in various countries of northern 
Europe, he settled down at Wittenberg, where he made the 
acquaintance of Luther and Melanchthon, and signed the Augsburg 
confession.  Meanwhile he was tried in Scotland for heresy and 
condemned without a hearing.  In 1533 a decree of the Scottish 
clergy, prohibiting the reading of the New Testament by the 
laity, drew from Alesius a defence of the right of the people, 
in the form of a letter to James V. A reply to this by John 
Cochlaeus, also addressed to the Scottish king, occasioned 
a second letter from Alesius, in which he not only amplifies 
his argument with great force, but enters into more general 
questions connected with the Reformation.  In August 1534 
he and a few others were excommunicated at Holyrood by the 
deputy of the archbishop of St Andrews.  When Henry VIII. 
broke with the church of Rome Alesius was induced to go to 
England, where he was very cordially received (August 1535) 
by the king and his advisers Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell.  
After a short residence at Lambeth he was appointed, through 
the influence of Cromwell, then chancellor of the university, 
to lecture on theology at Cambridge; but when he had delivered 
a few expositions of the Hebrew psalms, he was compelled by 
the opposition of the papal party to desist.  Returning to 
London he supported himself for some time by practising as a 
physician.  In 1537 he attended a convocation of the clergy, 
and at the request of Cromwell conducted a controversy with 
Stokesley, bishop of London, on the nature of the sacraments.  
His argument was afterwards published under the title Of 
the Auctorite of the Word of God concerning the number of 
the Sacraments. In 1539 Alesius was compelled to flee for 
the second time to Germany, in consequence of the enactment 
of the statute of the Six Articles.  He was appointed to a 
theological chair in the university of Frankfort-on-Oder, 
where he was the first professor who taught the reformed 
doctrines.  In 1543 he quitted Frankfort for a similar 
position at Leipzig, his contention that it was the duty of 
the civil magistrate to punish fornication, and his sudden 
departure, having given offence to the authorities of the 
former university.  He was in England again for a short 
time during Edward VI.'s reign, and was commissioned by 
Cranmer to make a Latin version of the First Prayer-Book 
(1549) for the information of Bucer, whose opinion was 
desired.  He died at Leipzig on the 17th of March 1565. 

Alesius was the author of a large number of exegetical, 
dogmatic and polemical works, of which over twenty are 
mentioned by Bale in his List of English Writers. (See also 
the British Museum catalogue.) In his controversial works he 
upholds the synergistic views of the Scottish theologian John 
Major.  He displayed his interest in his native land by the 
publication of a Cohortatio ad Concordiam Pietatis, missa in 
Patriam suam (1544), which had the express approval of Luther, 
and a Cohortatio ad Pietatis Concordiam ineundam (1559). 

The best early account of Alesius is the Oratio de Alexandro 
Alesio of Jacob Thomasius (April 1661), printed in the 
latter's Orationes (No. XIV., Leipzia, 1683): the best 
modern account is by Dr A. W. Ward in the Dictionary of 
National Biography. See also A. F. Mitchell's introduction 
to Gau's Richt Vay (Scottish Text Society, 1888). 

ALESIA, the ancient name for a hill in central France, now 
Alise-Ste-Reine (department Cote d'Or), where in 52 B.C. 
Caesar besieged the Gaulish national leader Vercingetorix 
within enormous entrenchments, forced him to surrender, and thus 
practically ended his conquest of Gaul.  The siege-works have 
been excavated by Napoleon III. and others, down to the present 
day.  The site seems to have been inhabited also during the 
Roman empire, but its importance is limited to Caesar's siege. 

ALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO (ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO) (1461-1523), 
Italian jurist, was born at Naples about the year 1461.  
He studied law at Naples and Rome, and afterwards practised 
for a time as advocate in both cities.  He is said to have 
been royal proto-notary at Naples in 1490.  Dissatisfied, 
according to his own account, with the corrupt administration 
of justice, he at length quitted the bar and devoted himself 
entirely to literary pursuits, especially to the study of 
philology and antiquities.  A sinecure appointment, which 
he owed to the favour of the pope, enabled him to lead a 
life of learned leisure at Rome, where he died on the 2nd 
of October 1523.  His work entitled Dies Geniales appeared 
at Rome in 1522, and was constructed after the model of the 
Noctes Atticae of Aulus Gellius, and the Saturnalia of 
Macrobius.  It consists of a confused mass of heterogeneous 
materials relating to philology, antiquities, law, dreams, 
spectres, &c., and is characterized by considerable credulity. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, 
capital of a province which bears its name, situated on the 
river Tanaro, 57 m.  E. by S. of Turin by rail.  Pop. (1901) 
71,298, of which about half reside in the actual town: the 
rest are distributed over the suburbs.  Alessandria was founded 
in 1168 by the inhabitants of the district in order to defend 
themselves against the marquis of Monferrato and the town of 
Pavia, at whose request it was besieged in 1174 by Frederick 
Barbarossa for six months, but without success.  The Lombard 
League now included it among the allied cities and named it 
Alessandria, after Pope Alexander III. The traditional account 
of its foundation by the Lombard League has been disproved 
by F. Graf, Die Grundung Alessandrias: ein Beitrag zur 
Geschichte des Lombardenbunides (1888).  After falling 
into various hands, it was ceded to Savoy by the peace of 
Utrecht in 1713, and its citadel was begun in 1728.  During 
the French occupation (1800-1814), which began after the 
battle of Marengo, it was still more strongly fortified; the 
works were entirely destroyed by the Austrians in 1815, but 
were afterwards reconstructed, and Alessandria is still an 
important fortress and the headquarters of the second army 
corps.  The citadel is on the left bank of the Tanaro, the 
town being on the right bank.  It is regularly built and 
contains few buildings of architectural interest, but is a 
flourishing and important commercial town, not merely owing 
to its own manufactures (which are miscellaneous) but for 
the products of the district, and one of the greatest railway 
centres in Italy.  Lines diverge from it to Turin via Asti, 
to Valenza (and thence to Vercelli, Mortara--for Novara or 
Milan--and Pavia), to Tortona, to Novi, to Acqui and to Bra. 

ALESSI, GALEAZZO (1512-1572), Italian architect, was born 
at Perugia, and was probably a pupil of Caporali.  He was an 
enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style gained 
for him a European reputation.  Genoa is indebted to him for 
a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of his 
skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa Vittoria 
at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial, and in numerous 
churches and palaces throughout Sicily, Flanders and Germany. 

See Rossi, Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie (Perugia, 1873). 

ALETHIOLOGY (from the Gr. aletheia, truth), an 
uncommon expression for the doctrine of truth, used by Sir 
William Hamilton in his philosophic writings when treating 
of the rules for the discrimination of truth and error. 

ALETRIUM (mod. Alatri), a town of the Hernici, about 6 
m. due N. of Frusino, Italy, mentioned in 306 B.C. for its 
fidelity to Rome.  In Cicero's time it was a municipium, 
and continued in this position throughout the imperial 
period.  It is chiefly remarkable for its finely preserved 
fortifications constructed of tetrahedral and polygonal blocks 
of local limestone well jointed, with maximum dimensions 
of about 3 by 1 1/2 ft.; the outer circuit of the city wall 
measures about 2 1/2 m.  It is almost entirely an embanking 
wall, as is the rule in the cities of this part of Italy, with 
a maximum height, probably, of about 30 ft.  Two of the gates 
(of which there were perhaps five) are still to some extent 
preserved, and three posterns are to be found.  In the centre 
of the city rises a hill (1647 ft.) which was adopted as the 
citadel.  Remains of the fortifications of three successive 
periods can be traced, of which the last, perhaps a little more 
recent than that of the city wall, is the best preserved.  In 
the first two periods the construction is rough, while in the 
third the blocks are very well and finely jointed, and the 
faces smoothed; they are mostly polygonal in form and are much 
larger (the maximum about 10 by 6 ft.) than those of the city 
wall.  A flat surface was formed partly by smoothing off the 
rock and partly by the erection of huge terrace walls which 
rise to a height of over 50 ft., enclosing a roughly rectangular 
area of 235 by 115 yds.  Two approaches to the citadel were 
constructed, both passing through the wall; the openings of 
both are rectangular.  The architrave of the larger, known 
as Porta di Civita, measures about 17 ft. in length, 5 ft. 
in height, 6 ft. in thickness; while that of the smaller 
is decorated with three phalli in relief.  Later, though 
probably in ancient times, a ramp was added on the northern 
side.  In the centre of the arx was a building on the site 
of the present cathedral, of which only a small portion is 
preserved.  Remains of a high-pressure aqueduct, which 
supplied the town with water and was constructed with other 
public buildings (Corp.  Inscr.  Lat. x., Berlin, 1883, 
p. 5807) by L. Betilienus Varus, may still be traced.  A 
temple was excavated in 1889 about  1/2 m. to the north of 
the town and many fragments of the painted terra-cottas 
with which it was decorated were found.  A reconstruction of 
it has been erected in the Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome.  
The present town (pop. in 1901, 15,322) has a picturesque 
aspect, and contains many buildings in the Gothic style. 

See R. Bassel, Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 1881, 121, 
p. 134; H. Winnefeld, Romische Mitteilungen, 1889, 126; 
G. Fiorelli in Notizie degli Scavi, 1882, 417. (T. As.) 

ALEURITES (Gr. aleuritus, pertaining to aleuron, ground 
meal, from alein, to grind), a genus of trees belonging 
to the natural order Euphorbiaceae. Aleurites moluccana, 
or triloba, is widely cultivated throughout the tropical 
and sub-tropical parts of the world for its fruit, which 
is about the size of a walnut, and contains several seeds 
which are rich in oil.  The oil is extracted and used 
for food and light; it is known in India as kekuna, and 
the tree as the ``candle-nut.'' In the Sandwich Islands 
the nuts are strung upon strips of wood and used as 
torches.  The oil is exported to Europe for candle-making. 
A. cordata flourishes in China, where it is known as the 
varnish- tree, on account of the lac contained in its seeds. 

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS (possibly from Chukchi aliat, ``island''), 
a chain of small islands situated in the Northern Pacific 
Ocean, and extending about 1200 m. westward from the 
extremity of the Alaskan peninsula toward the peninsula of 
Kamchatka; they constitute part of the District of Alaska, 
U.S.A.  The islands, of which an alternative collective 
name is the Catherine Archipelago, comprise four groups--the 
Fox, Andreanof, Rat and Near Islands.  They are all included 
between 52 deg.  and 55 deg.  N. lat. and 172 deg.  E. and 163 deg.  W. long. 

The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska 
has a S.W. trend, but near the 129th meridian its direction 
changes to the N.W. This change of direction corresponds 
to a curve in the line of volcanic fissures which have 
contributed their products to the building of the islands.  
Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in 
the Kurile Islands, the Japanese chain, the Philippines, 
&c. The general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands 
and least in the western.  The island chain is really a 
western continuation of the Aleutian Range on the mainland. 

The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of 
volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on 
the north side of the chain, some of them active; many of 
the islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain 
crystalline or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of 
lignite.  The coasts are rocky and surf-worn and the 
approaches are exceedingly dangerous, the land rising 
immediately from the coasts to steep, bold mountains. 

The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and 
fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall.  Fogs are 
almost constant.  The summers are much cooler than on the 
mainland at Sitka (q.v.), but the winter temperature of 
the islands and of south-eastern Alaska is very nearly the 
same.  The mean annual temperature for Unalaska, the most 
important island of the group, is about 38 deg.  F.; being about 
30 deg.  for January and about 52 deg.  for August.  The highest 
and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 deg.  and 
5 deg. .  The average annual amount of rainfall is about 80 in., 
and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said 
to be the rainiest place within the territory of the United 
States.  The growing season lasts about 135 days, from early 
in May till late in September, but agriculture is limited 
to the raising of a few vegetables.  With the exception of 
some stunted willows the islands are practically destitute of 
trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage, 
including grasses, sedges and many flowering plants.  On the 
less mountainous islands the raising of sheep and reindeer 
is believed to be practicable.  The principal occupations 
of the natives have always been fishing and hunting, and the 
women weave basketry of exquisite fineness.  From the end 
of the 18th century the Russian fur traders had settlements 
here for the capture of the seal and the sea otter and the 
blue and the Arctic fox.  Under the American regime seal 
fishing off the Aleutians save by the natives has never been 
legal, but the depletion of the Pribilof herd, the almost 
complete extinction of the sea otter, and the rapid decrease 
of the foxes and other fur animals, have threatened the 
Aleuts (as the natives are commonly called) with starvation.  
In recent years enterprising traders have raised foxes by 
culture and by especially protecting certain small islands, 
and this has furnished employment to whole communities of 
natives.  Fish and sea-fowl are extremely abundant. 

The natives are rather low in stature, but plump and well 
shaped, with short necks, swarthy faces, black eyes and long 
black hair.  They are a branch of the Esquimauan family, but 
differ greatly from the Eskimo of the mainland in language, 
habits, disposition and mental ability.  They were good 
fighters until they were cowed by the treatment of the Russians, 
who practically reduced them to slavery.  Sporadic efforts 
to Christianize the Aleuts were made in the latter half of 
the 18th century, but little impression was made before the 
arrival in 1824 of Father Ivan Venyaminov, who in 1840 became 
the first Greek bishop of Alaska.  While the missionaries 
of the Greek Church have nominally converted the natives to 
Christianity, white adventurers have more effectually converted 
them to various bad habits.  In dress and mode of life they 
have adopted outwardly civilized customs.  From the position 
of the Aleutian islands, stretching like a broken bridge 
from Asia to America, some ethnologists have supposed that by 
means of them America was first peopled.  Raised shore-lines, 
occasional earthquakes, and slow measurable elevation of the 
land about active volcanoes, indicate that elevation is now in 
progress, but the geological evidence shows no sign of former 
submergence of a connecting isthmus.  There is granite at the 
core of the Shaler range of mountains in southern Unalaska. 

It is stated that before the advent of the Russians there were 
25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago, but that the barbarities of the 
traders eventually reduced the population to one-tenth of this 
number.  The number of Aleuts in 1890 was reported as 968; 
the total population of the archipelago in 1900 was 2000. 

The principal settlements are on the Unalaska Island.  Of 
these Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), the oldest, settled in 
1760-1775, has a custom house, a Russian-Greek Church, and a 
Methodist Mission and orphanage, and is the headquarters for 
a considerable fleet of United States revenue cutters which 
patrol the sealing grounds of the Pribilofs; adjacent is Dutch 
Harbor (so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the 
first to enter it), which is an important port for Bering Sea 
commerce.  The volcano Makushin (5691 ft.) is visible from 
Iliuliuk, and the volcanic islets Bogoslof and Grewingk, which 
rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 
m.  W. of the bay.  The latter is still active; in 1906 a new 
cone rose between the two earlier islets, and in 1907 still 
another: these were nearly demolished by an explosive eruption 
on the 1st of September 1907.  The population of Unalaska 
Island in 1900 was 575 Aleuts and 66 whites.  The Commander 
Islands group near the Asiatic coast is geographically, 
but since the acquisition of the Russian possessions in 
America not politically, a part of the Aleutian system. 

In 1741 the Russian government sent out Vitus Bering, a 
Dane, and Alexei Chirikov, a Russian, in the ships ``Saint 
Peter'' and ``Saint Paul'' on a voyage of discovery in 
the Northern Pacific.  After the ships were separated by a 
storm, Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the 
Aleutian group, and Bering discovered several of the western 
islands, finally being wrecked and losing his life on the 
island of the Commander group that now bears his name.  
The survivors of Bering's party reached Kamchatka in a boat 
constructed from the wreckage of their ship, and reported 
that the islands were rich in fur-bearing animals.  Siberian 
fur hunters at once flocked to the Commander Islands and 
gradually moved eastward across the Aleutian Islands to the 
mainland.  In this manner Russia gained a foothold on the 
north-western coast of North America.  The Aleutian Islands 
consequently belonged to Russia, until that country in 1867 
transferred to the United States all its possessions in 
America.  During his third and last voyage, in 1778, Captain 
James Cook surveyed the eastern portion of the Aleutian 
archipelago, accurately determined the position of some of 
the more important islands and corrected many errors of former 
navigators.  Some preliminary surveys have been made by the United 
States government with a view to establishing a naval station 
on the island Kiska, in the western part of the Aleutian Chain. 

ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893), first 
prince of Bulgaria, was the second son of Prince Alexander 
of Hesse and the Rhine by his morganatic marriage with 
Julia, countess von Hauke.  The title of princess of 
Battenberg, derived from an old residence of the grand-dukes 
of Hesse, was conferred, with the prefix Durchlaucht or 
``Serene Highness,'' on the countess and her descendants in 
1858.  Prince Alexander, who was born on the 5th of April 
1857, was nephew of the tsar Alexander II., who had married 
a sister of Prince Alexander of Hesse; his mother, a daughter 
of Count Moritz von Hauke, had been lady-in-waiting to the 
tsaritsa.  In his boyhood and early youth he was frequently 
at St Petersburg, and he accompanied his uncle, who was 
much attached to him, during the Bulgarian campaign of 
1877.  When Bulgaria under the Berlin Treaty was constituted 
an autonomous principality under the suzerainty of Turkey, the 
tsar recommended his nephew to the Bulgarians as a candidate 
for the newly created throne, and Prince Alexander was elected 
prince of Bulgaria by unanimous vote of the Grand Sobranye 
(April 29, 1879).  He was at that time serving as a lieutenant 
in the Prussian life-guards at Potsdam.  Before proceeding 
to Bulgaria, Prince Alexander paid visits to the tsar at 
Livadia, to the courts of the great powers and to the sultan; 
he was then conveyed on a Russian warship to Varna, and after 
taking the oath to the new constitution at Tirnova (July 
8, 1879) he repaired to Sofia, being everywhere greeted with 
immense enthusiasm by the people. (For the political history 
of Prince Alexander's reign, see BULGARIA.) Without any 
previous training in the art of government, the young prince 
from the outset found himself confronted with difficulties 
which would have tried the sagacity of an experienced ruler.  
On the one hand he was exposed to numberless humiliations on 
the part of the representatives of official Russia, who made 
it clear to him that he was expected to play the part of a 
roi faineant; on the other he was compelled to make terms 
with the Bulgarian politicians, who, intoxicated with newly won 
liberty, prosecuted their quarrels with a crude violence which 
threatened to subvert his authority and to plunge the nation in 
anarchy.  After attempting to govern under these conditions 
for nearly two years, the prince, with the consent of the tsar 
Alexander III., assumed absolute power (May 9, 1881), and a 
suspension of the ultra-democratic constitution for a period 
of seven years was voted by a specially convened assembly 
(July 13). The experiment, however, proved unsuccessful; the 
Bulgarian Liberal and Radical politicians were infuriated, and 
the real power fell into the hands of two Russian generals, 
Sobolev and Kaulbars, who had been specially despatched from St 
Petersburg.  The prince, after vainly endeavouring to obtain 
the recall of the generals, restored the constitution with the 
concurrence of all the Bulgarian political parties (September 
18, 1883).  A serious breach with Russia followed, which was 
widened by the part which the prince subsequently played in 
encouraging the national aspirations of the Bulgarians.  The 
revolution of Philippopolis (September 18, 1885), which brought 
about the union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria, was carried 
out with his consent, and he at once assumed the government of 
the revolted province.  In the anxious year which followed, the 
prince gave evidence of considerable military and diplomatic 
ability.  He rallied the Bulgarian army, now deprived of 
its Russian officers, to resist the Servian invasion, and 
after a brilliant victory at Slivnitza (November 19) pursued 
King Milan into Servian territory as far as Pirot, which he 
captured (November 27). Although Servia was protected from the 
consequences of defeat by the intervention of Austria, Prince 
Alexander's success sealed the union with Eastern Rumelia, 
and after long negotiations he was nominated governor-general 
of that province for five years by the sultan (April 5, 
1886).  This arrangement, however, cost him much of his 
popularity in Bulgaria, while discontent prevailed among a 
certain number of his officers, who considered themselves 
slighted in the distribution of rewards at the close of the 
campaign.  A military conspiracy was formed, and on the night 
of the 20th of August the prince was seized in the palace at 
Sofia, and compelled to sign his abdication; he was then 
hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo, transported on his yacht to 
Reni, and handed over to Russian authorities, by whom he was 
allowed to proceed to Lemberg.  He soon, however, returned to 
Bulgaria, owing to the success of the counter- revolution led 
by Stamboloff, which overthrew the provisional government set 
up by the Russian party at Sofia.  But his position had become 
untenable, partly owing to an ill-considered telegram which 
he addressed to the tsar on his return; partly in consequence 
of the attitude of Prince Bismarck, who, in conjunction 
with the Russian and Austrian governments, forbade him to 
punish the leaders of the military conspiracy.  He therefore 
issued a manifesto resigning the throne, and left Bulgaria 
on the 8th of September 1886.  He now retired into private 
life.  A few years later he married Fraulein Loisinger, an 
actress, and assumed the style of Count Hartenau (February 6, 
1889).  The last years of his life were spent principally at 
Gratz, where he held a local command in the Austrian army.  
Here, after a short illness, he died on the 23rd of October 
1893.  His remains were brought to Sofia, where they received 
a public funeral, and were eventually deposited in a mausoleum 
erected in his memory.  Prince Alexander possessed much 
charm and amiability of manner; he was tall, dignified and 
strikingly handsome.  His capabilities as a soldier have been 
generally recognized by competent authorities.  As a ruler 
he committed some errors, but his youth and inexperience and 
the extreme difficulty of his position must be taken into 
consideration.  He was not without aptitude for diplomacy, 
and his intuitive insight and perception of character 
sometimes enabled him to outwit the crafty politicians by 
whom he was surrounded.  His principal fault was a want 
of tenacity and resolution; his tendency to unguarded 
language undoubtedly increased the number of his enemies. 

See Drandar, Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg en Bulgarie 
(Paris, 1884); Koch, Furst Alexander von Bulgarien 
(Darmstadt, 1887); Matveyev, Bulgarien nach dem Berliner 
Congress (Petersburg, 1887); Bourchier, ``Prince Alexander of 
Battenberg,'' in Fortnightly Review, January 1894. (J. D. B.) 

ALEXANDER I., king of Epirus about 342 B.C., brother of 
Olympias the mother of Alexander the Great, and son-in-law 
of Philip of Macedon, whose daughter Cleopatra he married 
(336).  In 332 he crossed over to Italy to assist the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, Bruttians and Samnites.  
He gained considerable successes and made an arrangement 
with the Romans for a joint attack upon the Samnites; but 
the Tarentines, suspecting him of the design of founding 
an independent kingdom, turned against him.  Although the 
advantage at first rested with Alexander, he gradually lost 
it, and his supporters dwindled away.  In 330 (or earlier) 
he was defeated at Pandosia and slain by a Lucanian emigrant. 

See Justin viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2; Livy viii. 3, 17, 24; 
Aulus Gellius xvii. 21; and article MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

ALEXANDER II., king of Epirus, succeeded his father Pyrrhus, 
272 B.C. He attacked Antigonus Gonatas and conquered the 
greater part of Macedonia, but was in turn driven out of both 
Epirus and Macedonia by Demetrius the son of Antigonus.  He 
subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Acarnanians 
and Aetolians.  He died about 260 (Polybius ii. 45, ix. 34; 
Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 9; Justin xviii. 1, xxvi. 2, xxviii. 1). 

See Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. viii.; 
Droysen, Hellenismus; B. Niese, Gesch. d. griech. u. 
maked.  Staaten; J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch. vol. iii. 

ALEXANDER III., known as THE GREAT1 (356-323 B.C.), 
king of Macedon, was the son of Philip II. of Macedon, and 
Olympias, an Epirote princess.  His father was pre-eminent 
for practical genius, his mother a woman of half-wild blood, 
weird, visionary and terrible; and Alexander himself is singular 
among men of action for the imaginative splendours which guided 
him, and among romantic dreamers for the things he achieved. 

Youth. 

We was born in 356 B.C., probably about October (Hogarth, 
pp. 284 ff.).  The court at which he grew up was the focus 
of great activities, for Philip, by war and diplomacy, was 
raising Macedon to the headship of the Greek states, and 
the air was charged with great ideas.  To unite the Greek 
race in a war against the Persian empire was set up as the 
ultimate mark for ambition, the theme of idealists.  The 
great literary achievements of the Greeks in the 5th century 
lay already far enough behind to have become invested with a 
classical dignity; the meaning of Hellenic civilization had 
been made concrete in a way which might sustain enthusiasm for 
a body of ideal values, authoritative by tradition.  And upon 
Alexander in his fourteenth year this sum of tradition was 
brought to bear through the person of the man who beyond all 
others had gathered it up into an organic whole: in 343-342 
Aristotle (q.v.) came to Pella at Philip's bidding to 
direct the education of his son.  We do not know what faculty 
the master-thinker may have had for captivating this ardent 
spirit; at any rate Alexander carried with him through life 
a passion for Homer, however he may have been disposed to 
greyer philosophic theory.  But his education was not all from 
books.  The coming and going of envoys from many states, Greek 
and Oriental, taught him something of the actual conditions 
of the world.  He was early schooled in war.  At the age of 
sixteen he commanded in Macedonia during Philip's absence 
and quelled a rising of the hill-tribes on the northern 
border; in the following year (338) he headed the charge 
which broke the Sacred Band at Chaeronea.  Then came family 
dissensions such as usually vex the polygamous courts of the 
East.  In 337 Philip repudiated Olympias for another wife, 
Cleopatra, Alexander went with his mother to her home in Epirus, 
and, though he soon returned and an outward reconciliation 
between father and son was contrived, their hearts were 
estranged.  The king's new wife was with child; her kinsmen 
were in the ascendant; the succession of Alexander was 
imperilled.  Some negotiations which Pixodarus, the satrap 
of Caria, opened with the Macedonian court with a view to 
effecting a marriage alliance between his house and Philip's, 
brought Alexander into fresh broils.  In 336 Philip was 
suddenly assassinated whilst celebrating at Aegae the marriage 
of his daughter to Alexander I. of Epirus in the presence of 
a great concourse from all the Greek world.  It is certain 
that the hand of the assassin was prompted by some one in the 
background; suspicion could not fail to fall upon Alexander among 
others.  But guilt of that sort would hardly be consistent 
with his character as it appears in those early day's. 

Accession. 

Alexander was not the only claimant to the vacant throne, 
but, recognized by the army, he soon swept all rivals from 
his path.  The newly born son of Philip by Cleopatra, and 
Alexander's cousin Amyntas, were put to death, and Alexander 
took up the interrupted work of his father.  That work was on 
the point of opening its most brilliant chapter by an invasion 
of the great king's dominions; the army was concentrated 
and certain forces had already been sent on to occupy the 
opposite shore of the Hellespont.  The assassination of 
Philip delayed the blow, for it immediately made the base, 
Macedonia, insecure, and in such an enterprise, plunging into 
the vast territories of the Persian empire, a secure base was 
everything.  Philip's removal had made all the hill-peoples 
of the north and west raise their heads and set the Greek 
states free from their fears.  A demonstration in Greece, 
led by the new king of Macedonia, momentarily checked the 
agitation, and at the diet at Corinth Alexander was recognized 
as captain-general (egemon autokrator) of the Hellenes 
against the barbarians, in the place of his father Philip. 

Leader of the Hellenes. 

In the spring of 335 he went out from Macedonia northwards, 
struck across the Balkans, probably by the Shipka Pass, 
frustrating the mountain warfare of its tribes by a precision 
of discipline which, probably, no other army of the time could 
have approached, and traversed the land of the Triballians 
(Rumelia) to the Danube.  To gratify his own imagination or 
strike the imagination of the world he took his army over 
the Danube and burnt a settlement of the Getae upon the other 
side.  Meanwhile the Illyrians had seized Pelion (Pliassa), 
which commanded the passes on the west of Macedonia, and from 
the Danube Alexander marched straight thither over the hills.  
He had hardly restored Macedonian prestige in this quarter 
when he heard that Greece was aflame.  Thebes had taken up 
arms.  By a forced march he took the Thebans completely by 
surprise, and in a few days the city, which a generation before 
had won the headship of Greece, was taken.  There were to 
be no half-measures now; the city was wiped out of existence 
with the exception of its temples and the house which had been 
Pindar's.  Greece might now be trusted to lie quiet for some 
time to come.  The Panhellenic alliance (from which Sparta 
still stood aloof) against the barbarians was renewed.  Athens, 
although known to be hostile at heart to the cities of Macedonian 
power, Alexander treated all through with eager courtesy. 

Invasion of Asia Minor. 

In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed with an army of between 
30,000 and 40,000 men, Macedonians, Illyrians, Thracians and 
the contingents of the Greek states, into Asia.  The place of 
concentration was Arisbe on the Hellespont.  Alexander himself 
first visited the site of Troy and there went through those 
dramatic acts of sacrifice to the Ilian Athena, assumption 
of the shield believed to be that of Achilles; and offerings 
to the great Homeric dead, which are significant of the 
poetic glamour shed, in the young king's mind, over the whole 
enterprise, and which men will estimate differently according 
to the part they assign to imagination in human affairs. 

Battle of Granicus. 

To meet the invader the great king had in Asia Minor an 
army slightly larger, it would seem, than Alexander's, 
gathered under the satraps of the western provinces at 
Zeleia.  He had also, what was more serious, command of the 
Aegean.  Alexander could communicate with his base only by 
the narrow line of the Hellespont, and ran the risk, if he 
went far from it, of being cut off altogether.  To draw him 
after them, while avoiding a conflict, was sound strategy 
for the Persian generals.  It was urged upon them by their 
colleague the Rhodian Memnon.  But strategic considerations 
were cancelled by the Persian barons' code of chivalry, and 
Alexander found them waiting for him on the banks of the 
Granicus.  It was a cavalry melee, in which the common code 
of honour caused Macedonian and Persian chieftains to engage 
hand to hand, and at the end of the day the relics of the 
Persian army were in flight, leaving the high-roads of Asia 
Minor clear for the invader.  Alexander could now accomplish 
the first part of the task belonging to him as captain-general 
to the Hellenes, that liberation of the Greek cities of Asia 
Minor, for which Panhellenic enthusiasts had cried out so 
long.  He first went to take possession of the old Lydian capital 
Sardis, the headquarters of the Persian government on this 
side of the Taurus, and the strong city surrendered without a 
blow.  And now in all the Greek cities of Aeolis and Ionia 
the oligarchies or tyrants friendly to Persia fell, and 
democracies were established under the eye of Alexander's 
officers.  Only where the cities were held by garasons in 
the Persian service, garrisons composed mainly of Greek 
mercenaries, was the liberator likely to meet with any 
resistance.  From Ephesus indeed the garrison fled upon 
the news of Granicus, but Miletus required a siege.  The 
Persian fleet in vain endeavoured to relieve it, and Miletus 
did not long hold out against Alexander's attack.  It was 
at Halicarnassus that Alexander first encountered stubborn 
resistance, at Halicarnassus where Memnon and the satraps of 
Caria had rallied what land-forces yet belonged to Persia in the 
west.  When winter fell, Alexander had captured indeed the city 
itself, but the two citadels still held out against his blockade. 

Meanwhile Alexander was making it plain that he had come not 
merely as captain-general for a war of reprisals, but to take 
the Persian's place as king of the land.  The conquered provinces 
were organized under Macedonian governors and in Caria a 
dethroned princess of the native dynasty, Ada, was restored to 
power.  In the winter, whilst Parmenio advanced upon the central 
plateau to make the occupation of Phrygia effective, Alexander 
himself passed along the coast to receive the submission of the 
Lycians and the adherence of the Greek cities of the Pamphylian 
sea-board.  The hills inland were the domain of fighting 
tribes which the Persian government had never been able to 
subdue.  To conquer them, indeed, Alexander had no time, but 
he stormed some of their fortresses to hold them in check, 
and marched through their territory when he turned north from 
Pamphylia into the interior.  The point of concentration for 
next year's campaign had been fixed at Gordium, a meeting-place 
of roads in Northern Phrygia.  The story of Alexander's cutting 
the fatal ``Gordian knot'' on the chariot of the ancient 
Phrygian king Gordius is connected with his stay in this place. 

Extension of Alexander's power. 

Whilst Alexander had been grounding his power in Asia Minor, 
he had run a narrow risk of losing his base in Europe.  He had 
after the siege of Miletus disbanded the Graeco- Macedonian 
fleet, surrendering for the time all attempts to challenge 
the command of the Aegean.  Memnon the Rhodian, now in supreme 
command of the Persian fleet, saw the European coasts exposed 
and set out to raise Greece, where discontent always smouldered 
in Alexander's rear.  But Memnon died at the critical moment 
whilst laying siege to Mytilene and the great plan collapsed.  
A Persian fleet still held the sea, but it effected little, and 
presently fresh Graeco-Macedonian squadrons began to hold it in 
check.  It was, however, the need to ensure command of the sea 
and free all lines of communication behind him that determined 
Alexander's plan for the next campaign.  If he mastered the 
whole coast-line of the Levant, the enemy's fleet would find 
itself left in the air.  The Syrian coast was accordingly 
his immediate objective when he broke up from Gordium for the 
campaign of 333. He was through the Cicilian Gates before the 
Persian king, Darius III., had sent up a force adequate to hold 
them.  His passage through Cilicia was marked by a violent 
fever that arrested him for a while in Tarsus, and meantime 
a great Persian army was waiting for him in northern Syria 
under the command of Darius himself.  In the knot of mountains 
which close in about the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta, 
Alexander, following hard by the coast, marched past the 
Persian army encamped on the plains to the east.  To cut 
Alexander's communications with the rear, Darius now committed 
the error of entangling his large force in the mountain defiles. 

Battle of Issus. 

Alexander turned, and near the town of Issus fought his second 
pitched battle, sending Darius and the relic of his army in 
wild flight back to the east.2 It was an incident which did 
not modify Alexander's plan.  He did not press the pursuit 
far, although the great king's camp with his harem fell into his 
hands.  The chivalrous courtesy which he showed to the captive 
princesses was a favourite theme for later rhetoricians.  
He went on his way to occupy Syria and Phoenicia.  It is now 
that we get definite evidence as to the reach of Alexander's 
designs; for Darius opened negotiations in which he ultimately 
went so far as to offer a partition of the empire, all west 
of the Euphrates, to be Alexander's.  Alexander refused the 
bargain and definitely claimed the whole.3 The conquest 
of the Phoenician coast was not to be altogether easy, for 
Tyre shut its gates and for seven months Alexander had to 
sit before it--one of those obstinate sieges which mark the 
history of the Semitic races.  When it fell, Alexander had 
the old Tyrian people scattered to the winds, 30,000 sold as 
slaves.  Gaza offered a resistance equally heroic, lasting 
two months, and here too the old population was dispersed.  
The occupation of the rest of Syria and Palestine proceeded 
smoothly, and after the fall of Gaza Alexander's way lay 
open into Egypt.4 Egypt was the last of the Mediterranean 
provinces to be won, and here no defence was made.  To the 
native Egyptians Alexander appeared as a deliverer from the 
Persian tyranny, and he sacrificed piously to the gods of 
Memphis.  The winter (332-331) which Alexander spent in Egypt 
saw two memorable actions on his part.  One was the expedition 
(problematic in its motive and details) to the oracle of Zeus 
Ammon (Oasis of Siwa), where Alexander was hailed by the priest 
as son of the god, a belief which the circle of Alexander, 
and perhaps Alexander himself, seem hereafter to have liked to 
play with in that sort of semi-serious vein which still allowed 
him in the moments of every-day commonplace to be the son of 
Philip.  The other action was the foundation of Alexandria 
at the Canopic mouth of the Nile, the place destined to 
be a new commercial centre for the eastern Mediterranean 
world which Alexander had now taken in possession, to rise 
to an importance which the founder, although obviously 
acting with intention, can hardly have foreseen (E. Keller, 
Alex. d.  Grosse nach der Schlacht bei Issus, 1904). 

Invasion of Persia. 

In the spring of 331 Alexander could at last leave the 
Mediterranean to strike into the heart of the Persian empire, 
for by his occupation of the Coasts the Persian command of the 
sea had inevitably collapsed.  Returning through Syria, and 
stopping at Tyre to make final arrangements for the conquered 
provinces, he traversed Mesopotamia and struck the Tigris some 
four marches above the site of Nineveh.  It was near Nineveh 
that Darius was waiting with the immense host which a supreme 
effort could muster from all parts of the empire.  The happy 
coincidence of a lunar eclipse gives us the 20th of September 
331 as the exact day upon which the Macedonian army crossed the 
Tigris.  Alexander came within sight of the Persian host without 
having met with any opposition since he quitted Tyre.  He had 
now to settle the most serious problem which had yet faced 
him, for in the plains the Persian army was formidable by sheer 
bulk.  But the day showed the Macedonian army equal to the task. 

Battle of Arbela. 

The last army gathered by an Achaemenian king was shattered in 
the battle called popularly after the city of Arbela some 60 m. 
distant, or more precisely after the village of Gaugamela hard 
by.  Darius fled eastwards into Media and again Alexander waited 
till he had secured the provinces to the south.  He followed the 
Tigris into Babylonia, the central seat of the empire and its 
richest region, and from Babylon went on to seize the fabulous 
riches which the Persian kings had amassed in their spring 
residence, Susa.  Thence he at last ascended upon the Iranian 
plateau.  The mountain tribes on the road (the Oxii, Pers, 
Huzha), accustomed to exact blackmail even from the king's 
train, learnt by a bitter lesson that a stronger hand had 
come to wield the empire.  Alexander entered Persis, the 
cradle of the Achaemenian house, and came upon fresh masses of 
treasure in the royal city, Persepolis.  He destroyed the royal 
palace by fire, an act which has been variously estimated by 
historians.  Ostensibly a solemn revenge for the burning of Greek 
temples by Xerxes, it has been justified as a symbolical act 
calculated to impress usefully the imagination of the East, and 
condemned as a senseless and vainglorious work of destruction. 

With the spring of 330 Alexander was prepared for further 
pursuit.  Darius fled northwards from Ecbatana upon his 
approach.  At Ecbatana new masses of treasure were seized, 
but when once the necessary measures which its disposal and 
the occupation of the Median capital entailed were taken, 
Alexander continued the pursuit.  It was an exciting chase of 
king by king, in which each covered the ground by incredible 
exertions, shedding their slower-going followers as they went, 
past Rhagae (Rai) and the Caspian gates, till early one morning 
Alexander came in sight of the broken train which still clung 
to the fallen king.  He had become a puppet in the hands of his 
cousin Bessus and the Persian magnates with him (see DARIUS 
III.), and at this extremity they stabbed him and allowed 
Alexander to become master only of his corpse (summer 330). 

The pursuit had brought Alexander into that region of 
mountains to the south of the Caspian which connects western 
Iran with the provinces to the east of the great central 
desert.  To conquer this remaining portion of the empire, 
Alexander now went on through the mountain belt, teaching the 
power of his arms to the hillsmen, Tapyri and Mardi, till he 
came, passing through Zadracarta (Asterabad), to Parthia 
and thence to Aria.  In these further provinces of Iran 
the Macedonian invader had for the first time to encounter a 
serious national opposition, for in the west the Iranian rule 
had been merely the supremacy of an alien power over native 
populations indifferent or hostile.  Here the ruling race was at 
home.  In Asia Alexander learnt that Bessus, had taken the 
diadem as Darius' successor in Bactria, but so soon as he 
marched against him Aria rose in his rear, and Alexander had 
to return in all haste to bring the revolt under.  Nor did 
he, when this was accomplished, again strike directly at 
Bactria, but made a wide turning movement through Seistan 
over Kandahar into the Kabul valley.  It was on the way, in 
Seistan at Prophthasia (mod. Farrah?), that the alienation 
between Alexander and his Macedonian followers, which becomes 
sensible in the latter part of his career, first showed itself 
in an ugly form.  Alexander had come to merge the characters 
of Macedonian king and Hellenic Captain-general, with which 
he had set out, in that of Oriental despot (Spieker. Hof 
u.  Hofordnung Al. d.  Gr., 1904).  He wore on occasions of 
state the Persian dress. (According to pseudo-Plutarch, de 
fort.  Al. i. 8, it was the simpler Persian dress, not the 
Median.) A discontent began to work among the Macedonians, 
and at Prophthasia the commander of the Macedonian cavalry 
Philotas, the son of Parmenio, and certain others were arraigned 
before the army on the charge of conspiring against the king's 
life.  They were condemned and put to death.  Not satisfied 
with procuring this, Alexander had Parmenio himself, who 
had been left in command in Media, put to death by secret 
orders.  It is perhaps the worst crime, because the most 
cold-blooded and ungenerous, which can be laid to his 
charge.  By the winter of 329-328 Alexander had reached the 
Kabul valley at the foot of the Paropamisadae (Hindu Kush). 

The ordinarily received chronology makes Alexander reach 
the Kabul valley in the winter of 330-329.  That to fit 
the actions and distances covered by Alexander into such a 
scheme, assuming that he went by Seistan and Kandahar, would 
involve physical impossibilities has been pointed out by 
Count Yorck v.  Wartenburg and Mr D. G. Hogarth.  Kaerst and 
Beloch continue to give the ordinary chronology untroubled. 

Invasion of Northern India. 

In the spring of 328 Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush into 
Bactria and followed the retreat of Bessus across the Oxus and 
into Sogdiana (Bokhara).  Here Bessus was at last caught and 
treated with the barbaric cruelty which the rule of the old 
Persian monarchy prescribed for rebels.  Till the spring of 
327 Alexander was moving to and fro in Bactria and Sogdiana, 
beating down the recurrent rebellions and planting Greek 
cities.  Just as in 335 he had crossed the Danube, so he now 
made one raid across the frontier river, the Jaxartes (Sir 
Daria), to teach the fear of his name to the outlying peoples 
of the steppe (summer 328).  And meanwhile the rift between 
Alexander and his European followers continued to show itself in 
dark incidents--the murder of Clitus at Maracanda (Samarkand), 
when Alexander struck down an old friend, both being hot 
with wine; the claim that Alexander should be approached with 
prostration (proskynesis), urged in the spring of 327, and 
opposed boldly by the philosopher Callisthenes, Aristotle's 
nephew, who had come in the king's train; the conspiracy of 
the pages at Bactria, which was made an occasion for putting 
Callisthenes to death.  It was now that Alexander completed 
the conquest of the provinces north of the Hindu Kush by 
the reduction of the last mountain strongholds of the native 
princes.  In one of them he captured Roxana, the daughter 
of Oxyartes, whom he made his wife.  Before the summer of 
327 he had once more crossed the Hindu Kush on his way to 
India (for the campaigns in the N.E. see F. von Schwarz, 
Alex. d.  Grossen Feldzuge in Turkestan, 1893, v.). 

Whilst the heavier troops moved down the Kabul valley to 
Pencelaotis (Charsadda) under Perdiccas and Hephaestion, 
Alexander with a body of lighter-armed troops and cavalry pushed 
up the valleys which join the Kabul from the north--through 
the regions now known as Bajour, Swat and Buner, inhabited 
by Indian hill peoples, as fierce then against the western 
intruder as their Pathan successors are against the British 
columns.  The books give a number of their ``cities'' 
reduced by Alexander--walled mountain villages which can 
in some cases be identified more or less certainly with 
places where the clans are established to-day.  The crowning 
exploit was the reduction of Aornus,5 a stronghold perched 
on a precipitous summit above the Indus, which it was said 
that Heracles had failed to take.  How much of the story of 
Alexander's discovery of the sacred mountain of the Nysa and 
the traces of Dionysus is due to the invention of Aristobulus 
and Clitarchus (Arrian did not find it in Ptolemy) we cannot 
say.  Meantime Perdiccas and Hephaestion had built a bridge 
over the Indus, and by this in the spring of 326 Alexander 
passed into the Punjab (at Ohind, 16 m. above Attock, according 
to Foucher, Notes sur la geogr. anc. du Gandhara, 
1902).  The country into which he came was dominated by three 
principalities, that of Ambhi (Gr. Omphis, Curt. viii. 12. 
6) between the Indus and the Hydaspes (Jhelum, Jehlam), 
centred in the great city of Takkasila (Gr. Taxila), that 
of the Paurara rajah (Gr. Porus) between the Hydaspes and 
Acesines (Chenab), and that of Abhisara (Gr. Abisares) 
between the same two rivers higher up, on the confines of 
Kashmir (Stein, Rajatarangini, transl. bk. i. 180, v. 
217).  The kings of Taxila and Porus were at enmity, and for 
this cause the invader could reckon upon Omphis as a firm 
ally.  Porus was prepared to contest the passage of the 
Hydaspes with all his strength.  Abisares preferred to play 
a double game and wait upon events.  Alexander reached the 
Hydaspes just as the rains broke, when the river was already 
swollen.  Porus held the opposite bank with a powerful army, 
including 200 elephants.  Alexander succeeded in taking 
a part of his forces across the river higher up during a 
night of torrential rain, and then he fought the fourth 
and last of his pitched battles in Asia, the one which put 
to proof more shrewdly than any of the others the quality 
of the Macedonian army as an instrument of war, and yet 
again emerged victorious.  Porus fell sorely wounded into 
his hands.6 Porus had saved his honour, and now Alexander 
tried, and not in vain, to gain him as a friend.  When he 
continued his progress eastwards across the Acesines, Porus 
was an active ally.  Alexander moved along close under the 
hills.  After crossing the Hydraotes (Ravi) he once 
more came into contact with hostile tribes, and the work of 
storming petty towns began again.  Then the Hyphasis (Beas) 
was reached, and here the Macedonian army refused to go any 
farther.  It was a bitter mortification to Alexander, before 
whose imagination new vistas had just opened out eastwards, 
where there beckoned the unknown world of the Ganges and 
its splendid kings.  For three days the will of king and 
people were locked in antagonism; then Alexander gave way; 
the long eastward movement was ended; the return began. 

The return. 

Alexander left the conquered portion of India east of the 
Indus to be governed under Porus, Omphis of Taxila, and 
Abisares, the country west of the Indus under Macedonian 
governors, and set out to explore the great river to its mouth 
(for the organization of the Indian provinces, see especially 
Niese, vol. i. pp. 500 f.).  The fleet prepared on the 
Hydaspes sailed in October, while a land army moved along the 
bank.  The confluence of the Hydaspes and Acesines passed, 
the Macedonians were once more in a region of hostile tribes 
with towns to be stormed.  It was at one of these, a town 
of the Malli, that a memorable incident occurred, such as 
characterized the personality of Alexander for all succeeding 
time.  He leapt from the wall with only three companions 
into the hostile town, and, before the army behind him 
could effect an entrance, lay wounded almost to death.7 
He recovered and beat down the resistance of the tribes, 
leaving them annexed to the Macedonian satrapy west of the 
Indus.  Below the confluence of the Punjab rivers into the 
single stream of the Indus the territory of loose tribes 
was succeeded by another group of regular principalities, 
under the rajahs called by the Greeks Musicanus, Oxycanus and 
Sambus.  These opposed a national resistance to the Macedonians, 
the fires of which were fanned by the Brahmins, but still 
the strong arm of the western people prevailed.  The rajah of 
Patala at the apex of the Indus delta abandoned his country and 
fled.  It was the high summer of 325 when Alexander reached 
Patala.  From here he explored both arms of the delta 
to the ocean, now seen by the Macedonians for the first 
time.  He had determined that the Indus fleet should be 
used to explore this new world and try to find a waterway 
between the Indus and the Persian Gulf.  A great part of the 
land-forces had been already sent off under Craterus in the 
earlier summer to return west by Kandahar and Seistan; the 
fleet was to sail under the Greek Nearchus from the Indus 
mouth with the winter monsoon; Alexander himself with the rest 
of the land-forces set out in October to go by the coast of 
Baluchistan, through the appalling sand-wastes of the Mekran.8 

He would seem to have kept down to the coast until the 
headland of Ras Malan was reached, scattering before him 
the bands of Arabitae and Oritae who were the inhabitants 
of this well-provisioned tract.  For the 150 miles between 
Ras Malan and Pasni Alexander was compelled by the natural 
barriers to march inland, and it was here that his troops 
sank under the horrors of heat and thirst and sand.  The coast 
once regained, the way was easy; no such desert had to be 
traversed, when Alexander again struck inland for the chief 
city of the Gedrosians (Pura), and thence made his way into 
Carmania.  Here the spent troops rested; here the army 
of Craterus joined them, and Nearchus came to announce 
his safe arrival at the entrance of the Persian Gulf.9 

The machine of empire had not functioned altogether smoothly 
while the king had been absent, and on Alexander's re-appearance 
many incapables and rogues in high office had to be replaced 
by better men.  In Carmania, in Persis, complaints from the 
provinces continued to reach him, as well as the news of 
disorders in Macedonia and Greece.  New orders and appointments 
served to bring the empire into hand again, and at Susa in 
the spring of 324 Alexander rested, the task of conquering and 
compassing the Achaemenian realm achieved.  The task of its 
internal reorganization now began to occupy him--changes, for 
instance, in the military system which tended to assimilate 
Macedonians and Orientals.  The same policy of fusion was 
furthered by the great marriage festival at Susa, when 
Alexander took two more wives from the Persian royal house, 
married a number of his generals to Oriental princesses, and 
even induced as many as he could of the rank-and-file to take 
Asiatic wives.  This policy did not allay the discontent of 
the Macedonian army, and when Alexander in the summer of 324 
moved to the cooler region of Media, an actual mutiny of the 
Macedonians broke out on the way at Opis on the Tigris.  It 
was occasioned by the discharge of the Macedonian veterans, 
and only the personal magnetism of Alexander and his threat to 
entrust himself altogether to the Orientals availed to quell 
it.  At Ecbatana the death of Hephaestion for a time plunged 
Alexander into a passion of mourning.  But by the winter 
(324-323) he was again active, bringing the hill- tribes on 
the S.W. border of Media, the Cossaei, into subjection.  In 
the spring of 323 he moved down to Babylon, receiving on the 
way embassies from lands as far as the confines of the known 
world, for the eyes of all nations were now turned with fear 
or wonder to the figure which had appeared with so superhuman 
an effect upon the world's stage.  The embassy from Rome, 
however, is almost certainly a later, and an inevitable, 
invention.  The exploration of the waterways round about the 
empire was Alexander's immediate concern, the discovery of 
the presumed connexion of the Caspian with the Northern Ocean, 
the opening of a maritime route from Babylon to Egypt round 
Arabia.  The latter enterprise Alexander designed to conduct 
in person; under his supervision was prepared in Babylon an 
immense fleet, a great basin dug out to contain 1000 ships, 
and the water- communications of Babylonia taken in hand.  
Innovations were carried out in the tactical system of the 
army which were to modify considerably the methods of future 
battle-fields.  At last all was ready; the 20th of the month 
Daesius (? June 5) was fixed for the king's setting forth. 

Illness and death. 

On the 15th and 16th Alexander caroused deep into the night at 
the house of the favourite Medius.  On the 17th he developed 
fever; for a time he treated it as a momentary impediment to the 
expedition; but on the 27th his speech was gone, and the Macedonian 
army were suffered to pass man by man through his chamber to 
bid him farewell.  On the 28th (? June 13) Alexander died.10 

His son by Roxana, the so-called ALEXANDER ``AEGUS,'' was 
born a few months later.  He and his uncle Philip, as joint 
kings, were placed under the guardianship of Perdiccas, 
Peithon and Antipater in succession.  After the death of 
Antipater (319) Roxana fled with him to Epirus, and was 
afterwards taken back to Macedonia, together with Olympias, by 
Polyperchon.  All three fell into the hands of Cassander; 
Alexander and his mother were in 310-309 put to death by 
order of Cassander (Justin xiv. 6, xv. 2). The meaningless 
surname of Aegus, still given in some books to this 
Alexander, is derived simply from a modern misreading of 
the text of the Astronomical Canon, AIGOU for ALLOU. 

Character and policy. 

Alexander the Great is one of the instances of the vanity 
of appealing from contemporary disputes to ``the verdict of 
posterity''; his character and his policy are estimated to-day 
as variously as ever.  Certain features--the high physical 
courage, the impulsive energy, the fervid imagination--stand 
out clear; beyond that disagreement begins.  That he was a 
great master of war is admitted by most of those who judge 
his character unfavourably, but even this has been seriously 
questioned (e.g. by Beloch, Griech.  Gesch. iii. (i.), 
p. 66). There is a dispute as to his real designs.  That 
he aimed at conquering the whole world and demanded to be 
worshipped as a god is the traditional view.  Droysen denies 
the former, and Niese maintains that his ambition was limited 
by the bounds of the Persian empire and that the claim to 
divine honours is fabulous (Historische Zeitschr. lxxix., 
1897, 1 f.).  It is true that our best authority, Arrian, 
fails to substantiate the traditional view satisfactorily; 
on the other hand those who maintain it urge that Arrian's 
interests were mainly military, and that the other authorities, 
if inferior in trustworthiness, are completer in range of 
vision.  Of those, again, who maintain the traditional view, 
some, like Niebuhr and Grote, regard it as convicting Alexander 
of mad ambition and vainglory, whilst to Kaerst Alexander 
only incorporates ideas which were the timely fruit of a 
long historical development.  The policy of fusing Greeks and 
Orientals again is diversely judged.  To Droysen and Kaerst 
it accords with the historical conditions; to Grote and to 
Beloch it is a betrayal of the prerogative of Hellenism. 

Some notion of the personal appearance of Alexander may be 
got from the literature and the surviving monuments.  He is 
described as of an athletic frame, though not taller than the 
common, and a white and ruddy complexion.  The expression 
of his eyes had something ``liquid and melting'' (ton 
ommaton ten diachusin kai ugroteta), and the hair 
which stood up over his forehead gave the suggestion of a 
lion.  He had a way of carrying his head somewhat aslant. (See 
especially Plut. Alex. 4; de Alex. fort. ii. 2.) The 
greatest masters of the time executed portraits of him, Lysippus 
in sculpture, Apelles in painting and Pyrgoteles in graven 
gems.  Among surviving monuments, we have no completely 
certified portraits except the Tivoli herm (now in the Louvre) 
and the coins struck by his successors.  The herm is a dry 
work and the head upon the coins shows various degrees of 
idealization.  There are, however, a considerable number of 
works which can make out a better or worse claim either to 
be portraits of Alexander or to reproduce his type, and a 
large field of discussion is therefore open as to their values 
and classification (F. Kopp, Uber das Bildnis Alexanders 
d. Grossen (1892); K. J. Ujfalvy, Le Type physique 
d'Alexandre le Grand (1902); T. Schreiber, Studien uber das 
Bildnis Alexanders d.  Grossen (1903); J. J. Bernoulli, 
Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders d.  Grossen 
(1905).  Alexander shaved clean, and set the fashion in this 
respect for the Graeco-Roman world for the next 500 years. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The campaigns and life of Alexander did not 
lack contemporary historians, some of them eye-witnesses and even 
associates.  They included the philosopher Callisthenes, put to 
death by Alexander in 327, whose history went up to the death 
of Darius, Alexander's general Ptolemy, afterwards king in 
Egypt, Nearchus who commanded the fleet that sailed from the 
Indus to the Persian Gulf, Onesicritus who served as pilot in 
the same fleet, Aristobulus who was with Alexander in India, 
Clitarchus, a contemporary, if not an eye-witness, important 
from the fact that his highly coloured version of the life 
of Alexander became the popular authority for the succeeding 
centuries.  Besides the historical narrative, there were 
works mainly geographical or topographical left by persons 
like Baeton and Diognetus, whom Alexander had employed (as 
bematistai) to survey the roads over which he passed.  All 
such original sources have now perished.  The fragments are 
collected in the Didot edition of Arrian by Karl Muller.  Not 
reckoning scattered notices, we depend principally opon five 
later compositions, Diodorus, book xvii. (c. 20 B.C.), 
the work of Quintus Curtius (c. A.D. 42), Plutarch's (c. 
45-125 A.D.) Life of Alexander, Arrian's Anabasis and 
Indica (c. A.D. 150), and the relevant books of Justin's 
abridgment (2nd cent. A.D.) of the history of Trogus (c. 
10 B.C.?).  To these we may add the Latin Itinerarium 
Alexandri, a skeleton outline of Alexander's campaigns dedicated 
to the emperor Constantius (A.D. 324-361), printed at the 
end of the Didot edition of Arrian, and the Epitome Rerum 
Gestarum Alexandri magni, an abridgment made in the 4th or 
5th century of a lost Latin work of uncertain date, combining 
history with elements taken from the Romance (edited by O. 
Wagner, Leipzig, 1900).  The relation of these works to the 
various original sources constitutes the critical problem 
before the modern historian in reference to the history of 
Alexander.  See Droysen vol. i. appendix i.; A. Schoene, De 
rerum Alexandri Magni scriptorum imprimis Arriani & Plutarchi 
fontibus (1870); Fraenkel, Die Geschichtschreiber Alex. 
d.  Grossen (1883); O. Maas, Kleitarch und Diodor (Petersburg, 
1894); Kaerst, Ferechungen zur Gesch.  Alex. d.  Grossen 
(1887), and Gesch. d. hellenist. Zeitalters (vol. i., 1901 
), pp. 421 f.; F. L. Schoenle, Diodorstudien ( 1891 ); E. 
Schwartz, articles ``Aristobulos (14),'' ``Arrianus,'' ``Quintus 
Curtius,'' ``Diodorus'' in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie. 

For modern views of Alexander see Thirlwall, History of Greece; 
Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History (Eng. trans. rev. by 
author, 1852) Grote, History of Greece; Droysen, Histoire 
de l'Hellenisme (translation by Bouche-Leclerq); Ad. Holm, 
History of Greece (Eng. trans., 1898); B. Niese, Gesch. 
der griech. u. maked.  Staaten (vol. i.); Kaerst, Gesch. des 
hellenist.  Zeitalters (1901); J. Beloch, Griechische 
Gesch. (vol. iii., 1904); J. B. Bury, History of Greece 
(1902); A. von Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans (1888).  Among 
the mass of monographs and special articles, reference may 
be made to Freeman, Historical Essays, 2nd series, pp. 182 
f.; Dodge, Alexander (in a series called Great Captains) 
1890; Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History (1892, ch. viii.; 
D. G. Hogarth, Philip and Alexander of Macedon (1897), 
a striking effort of historical imagination to reconstruct 
Alexander as a man of the real world: Benjamin I. Wheeler, 
Alexander the Great (1900) in the ``Heroes of the Nations 
Series.'' The purely military aspect of Alexander's campaigns 
is treated in general histories of warfare (Rustow-Kochly, 
Bauer, Delbruck, Verdy du Vernois), and in special monographs 
by Hogarth, Journ. of Philol. vol. xvii., 1888, pp. 
1 foll.; H. Droysen, Untersuchungen uber A. des Gr. 
Heerwesen (1885), and Graf Yorck von Wartenburg, Kurze 
Ubersicht der Feldzuge A. de Gr. (1897).  For further 
references to the literature on Alexander, see Kaerst's article 
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1894). (E. R. B.) 

1 The use of the surname is proved as far back 
as the 1st century B.C. (Nepos, De Reg. 2). 

2 See Bauer,``Die Schlacht bei Issus'' in Jahreshefte 
d.osterr. archaol. Instit. ii. pp. 105 f.; A. Janke. Auf 
Alex. d. grossen Pfaden; Gruhn, Das Schlachtfeld von Issus; 
Lammert in Berl.  Philol.  Wochenschr. (1905), col. 1596 f. 

3 Pridik, De Alex.  Mog. epist. commercio (Dorpat, 1893); 
Schwartz, art. ``Curtius'' in Pauly-Wissowa, col. 1884. 

4 The story of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem rests 
on no better authority than a later Jewish romance. 

5 The best opinion now confirms Abbott's identification 
of Aornus with Mahaban--Deane, Journ.  R. Asiat.  Soc. 
(Oct. 1896), p. 673; them, Report of an Archaeological 
Tour with the Buner Field Force (Lahore, 1898), pp. 45-48. 

6 Beside V. Smith (cited below) see Schubert, ``Die 
Porusschlacht,'' in Rhein.  Mus. lvi., 1901, p. 543. 

7 There seems nothing to fix the exact spot of 
this town; the common identification with Multan is, 
according to Raverty and V. Smith, certainly wrong. 

8 For the indian campaigns of Alexander see especially McCrindle, 
Invasion of India by Alexander the Great (1896); Vincent A. 
Smith, Early History of India (1904), and the references 
there given to the researches of Sir T. H. Holdich, Raverty 
and Foucher; A. Anspach, De Alex.  Magni exped. ind. (1903). 

9 Tomaschek, ``Topographische Erlauterung der Kustenfahrt Nearchs'' 
in the Sitzungsberichte der kaiserl.  Akad. d.  Wissensch. 
of Vienna (Philosoph.-histor.  Klasse, vol. cxxi.); Major 
P. M. Sykes, Ten Thousand Miles in Persia (1902), pp. 166 f. 

10 For Alexander's funeral, see F. 
Jacoby in Rhein.  Mus. (1903), pp. 461 f. 

The Romance of Alexander. 

The figure of Alexander naturally impressed itself upon the 
imagination of the world which his career had shaken.  Even 
in India we are told that he was held in honour by the native 
kings who took his farthest provinces in possession.  But 
Eastern tradition, so tenacious of the old myths of primitive 
man, has a short memory for actual history, and five centuries 
later Alexander was only remembered in Iran as the accursed 
destroyer of the sacred books, whose wisdom he had at the 
same time pilfered by causing translations to be made into 
``Roman.'' That the East to-day has so much to tell about 
Alexander is only due to the fact that old mythical stories of 
gods or heroes who go travelling through lands of monsters and 
darkness, of magical fountains and unearthly oceans, became 
attached to his name in the popular literature of the Roman 
empire, and this mythical Alexander was reintroduced in the 
7th century A.D. into the farther East, where the historical 
Alexander was almost forgotten.  The romance of Alexander 
is found written in the languages of nearly all peoples from 
the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, but all these versions are 
derived, mediately or immediately, from the Greek original 
which circulated under the false name of Callisthenes.  The 
Greek pseudo-Callisthenes (otherwise Aisopos we possess in 
three recensions, based all upon a book produced in Egypt in 
the 2nd century A.D. But this book itself was a farrago of 
heterogeneous elements--pieces of genuine history, ancient 
stories once told in Babylon of Gilgamesh or Etanna, literary 
forgeries of the days soon after Alexander, like the oldest 
part of the ``Testament of Alexander,'' variations due to 
Egyptian patriotic sentiment, like that which made Alexander 
the son of the last Pharaoh, Nectanebus.  As the story was 
reproduced, variations were freely introduced according 
to the bent of different times and peoples; in the Persian 
version Alexander (Iskander) became a son of Darius; among 
the Mahommedans he turned into a prophet, hot against 
idols; the pen of Christian monks made him an ascetic saint. 

The Alexander romance found its way into Europe through the 
medium of Latin, but originated mainly from the versions of 
the pseudo-Callisthenes, not from the more sober narrative 
of Quintus Curtius.  The pseudo-Callisthenes, in a recension 
which has not been preserved, was translated into Latin by 
Julius Valerius about the end of the 3rd century, and an 
epitome of this translation, also in Latin, was made some 
time before the 9th century, and is introduced by Vincent 
de Beauvais into his Speculum historiale. Much of the 
legend is a running travesty of the true history of the 
conqueror.  The first book deals with his birth and early 
exploits.  The trace of Alexandrian influence is to be found 
in the pretence that his actual father was Nectanebus, a 
fugitive king of Egypt.  The latter was a great magician, 
able, by operating upon waxen figures of the armies and ships 
of his enemies, to obtain complete power over their real 
actions.  Obliged, however, to flee to Pella in Macedonia, he 
established himself as an astrologer, and as such was consulted 
by the childless Olympias.  Having promised that Zeus Ammon 
would visit her in the form of a dragon, he himself assumed the 
disguise.  In due course Alexander was born, and Philip's 
suspicions were overcome by a second appearance of the dragon, 
which was held to prove the divine fatherhood.  The child 
was small and somewhat deformed, but of great courage and 
intelligence.  When he was twelve years old he was instructed 
in starcraft by Nectanebus, who was killed by a fall into a 
pit, into which he had been playfully pushed by Alexander.  The 
first book also relates his conquests in Italy, Africa, Syria 
and Asia Minor; his return to Macedonia and the submission of 
Greece.  The second book continues the history of his 
conquests, and the third contains the victory over Porus, 
the relations with the Brahmins, the letter to Aristotle 
on the wonders of India, the histories of Candace and the 
Amazons, the letter to Olympias on the marvels of Farther 
Asia, and lastly the account of Alexander's death in Babylon. 

The most wide-spread Latin version of the story, however, was 
the Historia de proeliis,1 printed at Strassburg in 1486, 
which began to supersede the Epitome of Julius Valerius 
in general favour about the end of the 13th century.  It is 
said to have been written by the Neapolitan arch-presbyter 
Leo, who was sent by Johannes and Marinus, dukes of Campania 
(941-965) to Constantinople, where he found his Greek 
original.  Auxiliary sources for the medieval romance-writers 
were:--the opuscule (4th century) known as Alexandri magni 
iter ad Paradisum, a fable of Eastern origin directed 
against ambition; the Itinerarium Alexandri (340), 
based partly on Julius Valerius and dedicated to Constans, 
son of the emperor Constantine; the letter of Alexander 
to Aristotle (Epist. de situ et mirabilibus Indiae), and 
the correspondence between Alexander and the king of the 
Brahmins, Dindimus, both of which are often contained in 
MSS. of the Epitome; and the treatise (based on a lost 
history of Alexander by Onesicritus), De gentibus Indiae et 
Bragmanibus, ascribed without certainty to Palladius (d. 
c. 430), successively bishop of Helenopolis and Aspona. 

The Ethiopic versions are of great interest as a striking 
example of literary ``accommodation.'' Not only is the 
whole atmosphere Christian in colouring, but we actually 
find the Greek gods in the guise of Enoch, Elijah, &c., 
while Philip is a Christian martyr, and Alexander himself a 
great apostle, even a saint; quotations from the Bible are 
frequent.  Syriac and Armenian versions were made in the 5th 
century.  Persians and Arabs told the deeds of Iskander; and 
Firdousi made use of the story in the Shahnama. Another 
early Persian poet, Nizami, made the story specially his 
own.  The crusaders brought back fresh developments; Gog 
and Magog (partly Arab and partly Greek) and some Jewish 
stories were then added.  In the 11th century Simeon 
Seth, protovestiarius at the Byzantine court, translated 
the fabulous history from the Persian back into Greek. 

The Alexander legend was the theme of poetry in all 
European languages; six or seven German poets dealt 
with the subject, and it may be read in French, English, 
Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Flemish and Bohemian. 

French.--The earliest known French romance of Alexander, 
by Alberic of Besancon (or more properly Briancon), was, 
until the discovery of a fragment of 100 lines at Florence in 
1852, known only through the German adaptation by Lamprecht 
the preacher, who wrote towards the end of the 12th century, 
and by the version made by a Poitevin poet named Simon in 
decasyllabic lines.  Alberic followed the epitome of Julius 
Valerius.  He had some knowledge of authentic history, and 
rejected the more marvellous elements of the story.  The 
French feudal romance, Li Romans d'Alexandre, was written 
in the 12th century by Lambert li Tors of Chateaudun, 
Alexandre de Bernai, surnamed de Paris, and others.  It 
contained 20,000 lines, and was written in twelve-syllabled 
lines, whence the term ``alexandrine'' verse.  The authors 
endowed Alexander with the fashionable virtues of the 
chivalric hero, making him especially the type of lavish 
generosity.  They used as their sources Valerius, the letter 
to Aristotle and the Iter ad Paradisum, adding much of their 
own.  Pierre de Saint Cloud, the writer of the fourth section 
of the romance, was evidently acquainted with the Historia de 
proeliis. The incident of the Fuerre de Gadres (Foray of 
Gaza), interpolated in the second section, is assigned to a 
certain Eustache.  The redaction of the whole work is due to 
Alexandre de Bernai, who replaced the original assonance by 
rhyme.  According to all the traditions of romance it was 
necessary to avenge the death of Alexander.  At the end of the 
12th century Gui de Cambrai and Jean le Nevelon (or Nevelaux 
or Venelais), each wrote a Vengeance d'Alexandre. Jean le 
Nevelon relates how Alior, the son of Alexander and Candace, 
avenged his father's death on Antipater and others.  Between 
1310 and 1315 Jacques de Longuyon (or Langhion) introduced 
into the account of the Indian war Les Voeux du paon, a 
romanesque and fantastic episode very loosely connected with 
Alexander.  It is interesting for its connexion with the 
15th-century romance of Perceforest, since in it Alexander 
visits Britain, where he bestows Scotland on Gadifer and 
England on Betis (otherwise Perceforest). Les Voeux du 
paon enjoyed great popularity, and had two sequels, Le 
Restor du paon, written before 1338 by Jean Brisebarre de 
Douai, and Le Parfait du paon, written in 1340 by Jean 
de la Mote. Florimont, a 12th-century poem by Aimon de 
Varenne, relates to a fictitious personage said to have 
been the grandfather of Alexander.  This poem gave rise 
to two prose romances--La Conqueste de Grece faicte par 
Philippe de Madien, by Perrinet du Pin, first printed in 
1527, and Histoire du roi Florimond (1528).  Quintus 
Curtius was largely used for the Alexandreis (c. 1180) of 
Gaultier de Lille or de Chatillon (Galtherus ab Insulis or de 
Castellione).  It is a Latin poem in ten books of hexameters, 
and contains a curious admixture of Biblical history.  It 
was translated at the end of the next century into Flemish 
by J. van Maerlant and into German by Ulrich von Eschenbach. 

Of the French prose versions of the Historia de proeliis 
may be noticed the late romance, L'Histoire du noble et 
vaillant roy Alixandre le Grant (1506).  After an account 
of the ancient history of Macedonia and of the intrigue of 
Nectanebus we are told how Philip dies, and how Alexander 
subdues Rome and receives tribute from all European 
nations.  He then makes his Persian expedition; the Indian 
campaign gives occasion for descriptions of all kinds of 
wonders.  The conqueror visits a cannibal kingdom and finds 
many marvels in the palace of Porus, among them a vine with 
golden branches, emerald leaves and fruit of other precious 
stones.  In one country he meets with women who, after the 
burial in the winter, become alive again in the spring full 
of youth and beauty.  Having reached the ends of the earth 
and conquered all nations, he aspires to the dominion of the 
air.  He obtains a magic glass cage, yoked with eight 
griffins, flies through the clouds, and, thanks to enchanters 
who know the language of birds, gets information as to 
their manners and customs, and ultimately receives their 
submission.  The excessive heat of the upper regions compels 
him to descend, and he next visits the bottom of the sea 
in a kind of diving-bell.  The fish crowd round him and pay 
homage.  Alexander returns to Babylon, is crowned with much 
pomp and mass is celebrated.  He dies by poison soon afterwards. 

English Versions.--The Alexander cycle was no less 
popular in Great Britain.  The letter from Alexander to 
Aristotle and his correspondence with Dindimus are found 
in Early English versions dating from the 11th century.  
These are printed by O. Cockayne in his Narratiunculae 
Anglice conscriptae (1861).  The Monk (De Cas. ill. vir.) 
in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales prefaces his account of 
Alexander with the statement that his story is so common 

 That every wight that hath discrecioun 
Hath herd somewhat or all of his fortune.
There are two considerable fragments of an English 
alliterative romance on the subject written in the west 
midland dialect, and dating from the second half of the 14th 
century.  The first, The Gestes of the Worthy King and 
Emperor Alisaunder of Macedoine (ed. W. W. Skeat, E.E.T.S., 
1877, with William of Palermo) contains an account of 
the wars of Philip, of Nectanebus and of the education of 
Alexander.  A second fragment (ed. Skeat, E.E.T.S., 1878) 
contains Alexander's visit to the Gymnosophists and his 
correspondence with Dindimus.  Another alliterative poem in 
the northern dialect, of 15th-century origin, is based on 
the Historia de proeliis, and was edited by Skeat for the 
E.E.T.S. (1886) as The Wars of Alexander. Earlier than 
any of these is the rhyming Lyfe of Alisaunder (c. 1330) 
which is printed in H. Weber's Metrical Romances (vol. i., 
1810).  It is written in unusually picturesque and vigorous 
language, and is based on the Roman de toute chevalerie, 
a French compilation made about 1250 by a certain Eustace or 
Thomas of Kent.  Fragments of another rhyming poem (pr. c. 
1550) are preserved in the British Museum. The Scots Buik 
of the most noble and vailyzeand Conqueror Alexander the 
Great, printed by Alexander Arbuthnot (d. 1585) about 1580, 
reprinted in 1831 for the Bannatyne Club, is not really a 
life.  It contains three episodes of the cycle, the ``Forray 
of Gadderis'' (not taken from the Fuerre de Gadres but 
from the Assaut de Tyr in the Romans d'Alixandre), 
``The Avowes of Alexander,'' and ``The Great Battel of 
Effesoun,'' taken from the Voeux du paon. Many passages 
in John Barbour's Bruce are almost identical with this 
book, and it is suggested by G. Neilson (John Barbour, Poet 
and Translator, London, 1900) that Barbour was the author, 
although the colophon states that it was written in 1438.  
Bruce at Bannockburn makes the same oration as Alexander at 
``Effesoun.'' A Buke of the Conqueror Alexander the Great 
by Sir Gilbert Hay (fl. 1456) is in MS. at Taymouth Castle. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best sketch of the Alexander romance 
literature is by Paul Meyer. Alexandre le grand dans la 
litterature francaise au moyen age (2 vols., Paris, 
1886).  The first volume contains some French texts, and 
the second a detailed discussion of the various versions 
from the pseudo-Callisthenes downwards.  See also J. 
Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes, Forschungen zur . . . . 
Alexandersage (Halle, 1867), and for Oriental versions, 
T. Noldeke, ksl.  Akad. d.  Wissenschaben, Phil.-hist.  
Klasse, vol. 38: Vienna, 1890).  For early printed versions 
see Brunet, Manuel du libraire, s.v. ``Alexandre.'' 

The text of the pseudo-Callisthenes was edited by C. W. 
Muller from three MSS. in the Bibl.  Nat. and printed in the 
Arrian of the Coll.  Didot (Paris, 1846), and by H. Meusel 
(Leipzig, 1871) from a Leiden MS. A. Mai edited Julius 
Valerius (Milan, 1817) and the Itinerarium Alexandri 
(Class.  Auct. vol. vii.; Milan, 1835); J. Zacher, the Epitome 
Halle, 1867) and Alex. iter ad Paradisum (Regensburg, 
1859); the Oxford MS. of the Epitome was edited by G. Cilli 
(Strassburg, 1903); G. Landgraf, Die ``Vita Alexandri'' . 
. . des Archpresbyter Leo (Historia de proeliis), (Erlangen, 
1885); Alexander's letter to Aristotle and his correspondence 
with Dindimus are included in the Teubner edition of Julius 
Valerius (ed. B. Kubler, Leipzig, 1888).  A newly discovered 
anonymous Epitome was edited by O. Wagner (Leipzig, 1900). 

The fragment by Alberic was edited by P. Heyse (Berlin, 1856); 
Lamprecht's German text by H. Weismann (Frankfort, 1850) and 
by C. Kinzel (Halle, 1884); the Alexandreis of Gaultier de 
Lille, by F. A. W. Muldener (Leipzig, 1863); an Icelandic 
prose version (c. 1250) of the same, Alexanders Saga, by 
C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1848); Li Romans d'Alexandre, by 
H. Michelant (Stuttgart, 1846); the Ethiopic version by E. 
A. T. Wallis Budge (1896, 2 vols., with English translation); 
the Syriac text of pseudo-Callisthenes by Budge (Cambridge, 
1889); cp.  K. F. Weymann, Die athiopische und arabische 
Ubersetzungen des Pseudo-Kallisthenes (Kirchhain, 1901). 

Besides the English editions quoted in the text, the 
alliterative English poems were partially edited by J. Stevenson 
for the Roxburghe Club (1849).  There is a great deal of 
information on the various texts in H. L. Wood's Catalogue 
of Romances in the British Museum (1883, vol. i. pp. 94 et 
seq.).  See also A. Hermann, Untersuchungen uber das 
Scottische Alexanderbuch (1893); and Unters. uber das 
med.  Gedicht, The Wars of Alexander (Berlin, 1889).  
Among other works see E. Ronde, Der griechische Roman (2nd 
ed.  Leipzig, 1900); B. Meissner, Alexander u.  Gilgamos 
(Leipzig, 1894); F. Kampers, ``Alex. d.  Grosse und die Idee 
des Weltimperiums in Prophetic und Sage'' (in H. Granert's 
Studien, &c., Freiburg, 1901); Adolf Ausfeld, Der griechische 
Alexanderroman (Leipzig, 1907), edited after the author's 
death by W. Kroll; Wilhelm Hertz, ``Aristoteles in den 
Alex.  Dichtungen d.  Mittelalters'' (Kgl. Acad. d.  
Wissenschaften, Munich, 1891); H. Becker, Die Brahmanen 
in d.  Alex.  Sage (Konigsberg, 1889). (M. BR.) 

1 Nativitas et victoriae Alexandri magni regis was the original title. 

ALEXANDER, tagus or despot of Pherae in Thessaly, ruled 
from 369 to 358 B.C. His tyranny caused the Aleuadae of 
Larissa to invoke the aid of Alexander II. of Macedon, whose 
intervention was successful, but after his withdrawal Alexander 
treated his subjects as cruelly as before.  The Thessalians 
now applied to Thebes; Pelopidas, who was sent to their 
assistance, was treacherously seized and thrown into prison 
(368), and it was necessary to send Epaminondas with a large 
army to secure his release.  Alexander's conduct caused renewed 
intervention; in 364 he was defeated at Cynoscephalae by the 
Thebans, although the victory was dearly bought by the loss 
of Pelopidas, who fell in the battle.  Alexander was at last 
crushed by the Thebans, compelled to acknowledge the freedom 
of the Thessalian cities and to limit his rule to Pherae, and 
forced to join the Boeotian league.  He was murdered by his 
wife's brother at her instigation.  Ancient accounts agree in 
describing Alexander as a typically cruel and suspicious tyrant. 

ALEXANDER (1461-1506), king of Poland and grand- duke of 
Lithuania, fourth son of Casimir IV., king of Poland, was 
elected grand-duke of Lithuania on the death of his father 
in 1492, and king of Poland on the death of his brother 
John Albert in 1501.  His extreme impecuniosity made him 
from the first subservient to the Polish senate and nobles 
(szlachta), who deprived him of the control of the mint--then 
one of the most lucrative sources of revenue of the Polish 
kings--curtailed his prerogative, and generally endeavoured 
to reduce him to a subordinate position.  This ill-timed 
parsimony reacted injuriously upon Polish politics.  Thus, 
for want of funds, Alexander was unable to assist the Grand 
Master of the Order of the Sword against Muscovite aggression, 
or prevent Tsar Ivan III. from ravaging Lithuania with the 
Tatars.  The utmost the king could do was to garrison Smolensk 
and other fortresses and employ his wife Helena, the tsar's 
daughter, to mediate a truce between his father-in-law and 
himself.  During his reign Poland suffered much humiliation 
from the attempts of her subject principalities, Prussia and 
Moldavia, to throw off her yoke.  Only the death of Stephen, 
the great hospodar of Moldavia, enabled Poland still to hold her 
own on the Danube; while the liberality of Pope Julius II., who 
issued no fewer than 29 bulls in favour of Poland and granted 
Alexander Peter's Pence and other financial help, enabled the 
Polish king to restrain somewhat the arrogance of the Teutonic 
Order.  In Alexander the characteristic virtues of the Jagiellos, 
patience and generosity, degenerated into slothfulness and 
extravagance.  Frequently he was too poor to pay the expenses 
of his own table.  But he never felt at home in Poland, and 
bestowed his favour principally upon his fellow-countrymen, 
the most notable of whom was the wealthy Lithuanian magnate 
Michael Glinsky, who justified his master's confidence by 
his great victory over the Tatars at Kleck (August 5, 1506), 
the news of which was brought to Alexander on his deathbed. 

See V. Czerny, The Reigns of John Albert and 
Alexander Jagiello (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882). 

ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes:-- 

ALEXANDER I. was bishop of Rome from about 106 to 115. He 
has been identified, without any foundation, with Alexander, 
a martyr of the Via Nomentana, whose day is the 3rd of May. 

ALEXANDER II. (Anselmo Baggio), pope from 1061 to 1073, was 
a native of Milan.  As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic 
coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, 
and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy.  His election, which 
Hildebrand had arranged in conformity with the decree of 1059 
(see NICHOLAS II.), was not sanctioned by the imperial court of 
Germany.  This court, faithful to the practice observed by 
it in the preceding elections, nominatod another candidate, 
Cadalus, bishop of Parma, who was proclaimed at the council 
of Basel under the name of Honorius II., marched to Rome, and 
for a long time jeopardized his rival's position.  At length, 
however, he was abandoned by the Germanic court and deposed 
by a council held at Mantua; and Alexander's position remained 
unchallenged.  Alexander was succeeded by his associate 
Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregory VII. (L. D.*) 

ALEXANDER III. (Orlando Bandinelli), pope from 1159 to 
1181, was a Siennese, and as a teacher of canon law in Bologna 
composed the Stroma or the Summa Magistri Rolandi, one 
of the earliest commentaries on the Decretum Gratiani.  In 
October 1150 Eugenius III. created him cardinal deacon SS. 
Cosmae and Damiani; later he became cardinal priest of St 
Mark's.  Probably about this time he composed his Sentences, 
based on the Introductio ad theologiam of Abelard.  In 
1153 he became papal chancellor, and was the leader of the 
cardinals opposed to Frederick Barbarossa.  On the 7th of 
September 1159 he was chosen the successor of Adrian IV., 
a minority of the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal 
priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV. This 
antipope, and his successors Paschal III. (1164-1168) and 
Calixtus III. (1168-1178), had the imperial support; but after 
the defeat of Legnano, Barbarossa finally (in the peace of 
Venice, 1177) recognized Alexander as pope.  On the 12th 
of March 1178 Alexander returned to Rome, which he had been 
compelled to leave twice, namely, from 1162 until the 23rd of 
November 1165, and again in 1167.  The first period he spent 
in France, the latter chiefly in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni and 
Venice.  In March 1179 Alexander held the third Lateran synod, 
a brilliant assemblage, reckoned by the Roman church as the 
eleventh oecumenical council; its acts embody several of the 
pope's proposals for the betterment of the condition of the 
church, among them the present law requiring that no one 
may be elected pope without the votes of two-thirds of the 
cardinals.  This synod marks the summit of Alexander's 
power.  Besides checkmating Barbarossa, he had humbled 
Henry II. of England in the affair of Thomas Becket, he 
had confirmed the right of Alphonso I. of Portugal to the 
crown, and even as a fugitive had enjoyed the favour and 
protection of Louis VII. of France.  Nevertheless, soon after 
the close of the synod the Roman republic forced Alexander 
to leave the city, which he never re-entered; and on the 29th 
of September 1179 some nobles set up the antipope Innocent 
III. By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander 
got him into his power, so that he was deposed in January 
1180.  In 1181 Alexander excommunicated William the Lion of 
Scotland and put the kingdom under the interdict.  The great 
pope died at Civita Castellana on the 30th of August 1181. 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., i. 340-344; Wetzer 
and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., 1481.  The most elaborate 
biography is H. Reuter, Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kirche 
seiner Zeit (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1860). (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER IV. (Rinaldo), pope from 1254 to 1261, was, like 
Innocent III. and Gregory IX., a member of the family of the 
counts of Segni.  His uncle Gregory IX. made him cardinal deacon 
in 1227 and cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1231.  On the death of 
Innocent IV. he was elected pope at Naples on the 12th of December 
1254.  He is described as a stout man, kindly, cheerful, but 
of no great brilliancy.  He succeeded Innocent IV. as guardian 
of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, promising him 
his benevolent protection; but in less than a fortnight he 
conspired against him and bitterly opposed Conradin's uncle 
Manfred.  Alexander fulminated with excommunication and interdict 
against the party of Manfred, but in vain; nor could he enlist 
the kings of England and Norway in a crusade against the 
Hohenstaufen.  Rome itself became too Ghibelline for the pope, 
who withdrew to Viterbo, where he died on the 25th of May 
1261.  His pontificate was signalized by efforts to unite 
the Greek and Latin churches, by the establishment of the 
Inquisition in France, by favours shown to the mendicant orders, 
and by an attempt to organize a crusade against the Tatars. 

The registers of Alexander IV. are published by Bourel de la 
Ronciere and others in the Bibliotheque des Ecoles francaises 
d'Athenes et de Rome, Paris, 1895 ff. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER V. (Peter Philarges), pope 1409-1410, was born 
in Crete of unknown parents and entered the order of St 
Francis, for which, as for the other mendicant orders, 
he later manifested his affection in a striking manner.  
He was a member in turn of the universities of Oxford and 
Paris, and finally settled in Lombardy, where, thanks to the 
favour of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, he became bishop, first of 
Piacenza, then of Vincenza, then of Novara, and afterwards 
archbishop of Milan.  On being created cardinal by Innocent 
VII. he devoted all his energies from 1408 onwards to the 
realization of the union of the church, in spite of the two 
rival popes.  He was one of the promoters of the council of 
Pisa, and after that assembly had declared Gregory XII. and 
Benedict NIII. deposed, the cardinals assembled in conclave 
thought they could not do better than crown with the tiara 
this cosmopolitan prelate, who had an equal mastery of the 
Latin and Greek languages, and was renowned not only for 
his learning in theology but for his affability (June 26, 
1409).  As a matter of fact, the only effect of this election 
was to aggravate the schism by adding a third to the number 
of rival pontiffs.  During his short reign of ten months 
Alexander V.'s aim was to extend his obedience with the 
assistance of France, and, notably, of the duke Louis II. of 
Anjou, upon whom he conferred the investiture of the kingdom 
of Sicily, together with the title of gonfalonier of the 
church.  He proclaimed and promised rather than effected a 
certain number of reforms: the abandonment of the rights of 
``spoils'' and ``procurations,'' the re-establishment of the 
system of canonical election in the cathedral churches and 
principal monasteries, &c. But death came upon him almost 
without warning at Bologna, in the night of the 3rd-4th May 
1410.  A rumour went about that he had been poisoned by the 
cardinal Baldassare Cossa, impatient to be his successor, who 
succeeded him in fact under the name of John XXIII.  The crime 
has, however, never been proved, though a Milanese physician, who 
performed the task of dissecting the corpse of Peter Philarges, 
seems to have thought that he found traces of poison. (N. V.) 

ALEXANDER VI. (Rodrigo Borgia) (1431-1503), pope from 1492 
to his death, is the most memorable of the corrupt and secular 
popes of the Renaissance.  He was born (January 1, 1431) at 
Xativa, near Valencia in Spain, and his father's surname was 
Lanzol or Llancol; that of his mother's family, Borgia or 
Borja, was assumed by him on the elevation of his maternal 
uncle to the papacy as Calixtus III. (April 8, 1455).  He 
studied law at Bologna, and after his uncle's election he 
was created successively bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor 
of the church, an act of nepotism characteristic of the 
age.  He served in the Curia under five popes and acquired 
much administrative experience, influence and wealth, 
although no great power; he was economical in his habits; 
on occasion he displayed great splendour and lived in a fine 
palace.  His manners were agreeable and his appearance 
fascinating, but, like many other prelates of the day, his 
morals were far from blameless, his two dominant passions 
being greed of gold and love of women, and he was devotedly 
fond of the children whom his mistresses bore him.  Although 
ecclesiastical corruption was then at its height, his 
riotous mode of life called down upon him a very severe 
reprimand from Pope Pius II., who succeeded Calixtus III. in 
1458.  Of his many mistresses the one for whom his passion 
lasted longest was a certain Vannozza (Giovanna) dei Cattani, 
born in 1442, and wife of three successive husbands.  The 
connexion began in 1470, and she bore him many children whom 
he openly acknowledged as his own: Giovanni, afterwards duke 
of Gandia (born 1474), Cesare (born 1476), Lucrezia (born 
1480), and Goffredo or Giuffre (born 1481 or 1482).  His other 
children--Girolamo, Isabella and Pier Luigi--were of uncertain 
parentage.  Before his elevation to the papacy Cardinal 
Borgia's passion for Vannozza somewhat diminished, and she 
subsequently led a very retired life.  Her place in his 
affections was filled by the beautiful Giulia Farnese (Giulia 
Bella), wife of an Orsini, but his love for his children by 
Vannozza remained as strong as ever and proved, indeed, the 
determining factor of his whole career.  He lavished vast sums 
on them and loaded them with every honour.  A characteristic 
instance of the corruption of the papal court is the fact that 
Borgia's daughter Lucrezia (see BORGIA, LUCREZIA) lived with 
his mistress Giulia, who bore him a daughter Laura in 1492. 

On the death of Pope Innocent VIII. the three likely candidates 
for the Holy See were Cardinals Borgia, Ascanio Sforza and 
Giuliano della Rovere; at no previous or subsequent election 
were such immense sums of money spent on bribery, and Borgia 
by his great wealth succeeded in buying the largest number of 
votes, including that of Sforza, and to his intense joy he 
was elected on the 10th of August 1492, assuming the name of 
Alexander VI. Borgia's elevation did not at the time excite 
much alarm, except in some of the cardinals who knew him, and 
at first his reign was marked by a strict administration of 
justice and an orderly method of government in satisfactory 
contrast with the anarchy of the previous pontificate, as 
well as by great outward splendour.  But it was not long 
before his unbridled passion for endowing his relatives 
at the expense of the church and of his neighbours became 
manifest.  For this object he was ready to commit any crime 
and to plunge all Italy into war.  Cesare, then a youth 
of sixteen and a student at Pisa, was made archbishop of 
Valencia, his nephew Giovanni received a cardinal's hat, 
and for the duke of Gandia and Giuffre the pope proposed 
to carve fiefs out of the papal states and the kingdom of 
Naples.  Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia 
were Cervetri and Anguillara, lately acquired by Virginio 
Orsini, head of that powerful and turbulent house, with the 
pecuniary help of Ferdinand of Aragon, king of Naples (Don 
Ferrante).  This brought the latter into conflict with 
Alexander, who determined to revenge himself by making an 
alliance with the king's enemies, especially the Sforza family, 
lords of Milan.  In this he was opposed by Cardinal della 
Rovere, whose candidature for the papacy had been backed by 
Ferdinand.  Della Rovere, feeling that Rome was a dangerous 
place for him, fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at 
the Tiber's mouth, while Ferdinand allied himself with Florence, 
Milan, Venice, and the pope formed a league against Naples 
(April 25, 1493) and prepared for war.  Ferdinand appealed 
to Spain for help; but Spain was anxious to be on good terms 
with the pope to obtain a title over the newly discovered 
continent of America and could not afford to quarrel with him. 

Alexander meditated great marriages for his children.  Lucrezia 
had been married to the Spaniard Don Gasparo de Procida, 
but on her father's elevation to the papacy the union was 
annulled, and in 1493 she was married to Giovanni Sforza. lord 
of Pesaro, the ceremony being celebrated at the Vatican with 
unparalleled magnificence.  But in spite of the splendours 
of the court, the condition of Rome became every day more 
deplorable.  The city swarmed with Spanish adventurers, 
assassins, prostitutes and informers; murder and robbery were 
committed with impunity, heretics and Jews were admitted to 
the city on payment of bribes, and the pope himself shamelessly 
cast aside all show of decorum, living a purely secular and 
immoral life, and indujging in the chase, dancing, stage 
plays and indecent orgies.  One of his boon companions was 
Jem, the brother of the sultan Bayezid, detained as a hostage. 

The general political outlook in Italy was of the gloomiest, 
and the country was on the eve of the catastrophe of foreign 
invasion.  At Milan Lodovico Sforza (il Moro) ruled, 
nominally as regent for the youthful duke Gian Galeazzo, 
but really with a view to making himself master of the 
state.  He made many alliances to secure his position, but 
fearing himself isolated he sought help from Charles VIII. of 
France, and as the king of Naples threatened to come to the 
aid of Gian Galeazzo, who had married his grand- daughter, he 
encouraged the French king in his schemes for the conquest of 
Naples.  Alexander carried on a double policy, always ready 
to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family.  But through 
the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made peace with 
Naples in July 1493 and also with the Orsini; the peace was 
cemented by a marriage between the pope's son Giuffre and Dona 
Sancha, Ferdinand's grand-daughter.  In order to dominate 
the Sacred College more completely he created twelve new 
cardinals, among them his own son Cesare, then only eighteen 
years old, and Alessandro Farnese, the brother of Giulia Bella, 
one of the pope's mistresses, creations which caused much 
scandal.  On the 25th of January 1494 Ferdinand died and 
was succeeded by his son Alphonso II. Charles of France now 
advanced formal claims on the kingdom, and Alexander drew 
him to his side and authorized him to pass through Rome 
ostensibly on a crusade against the Turks, without mentioning 
Naples.  But when the French invasion became a reality he was 
alarmed, recognized Alphonso as king, and concluded an alliance 
with him in exchange for various fiefs to his sons (July 
1494).  Preparations for defence were made; a Neapolitan 
army was to advance through the Romagna and attack Milan, 
while the fleet was to seize Genoa; but both expeditions 
were badly conducted and failed, and on the 8th of September 
Charles crossed the Alps and joined Lodovico il Moro at 
Milan.  The papal states were in a turmoil, and the powerful 
Colonna faction seized Ostia in the name of France.  Charles 
rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay in Florence 
set out for Rome (November 1494).  Alexander appealed to 
Ascanio Sforza for help, and even to the sultan.  He tried 
to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his 
position was most insecure, and the Orsini offered to admit 
the French to their castles.  This defection decided the 
pope to come to terms, and on the 31st of December Charles 
entered Rome with his troops and the cardinals of the French 
faction.  Alexander now feared that the king might depose him 
for simony and summon a council, but he won over the bishop of St 
Malo, who had much influence over the king, with a cardinal's 
hat, and agreed to send Cesare, as legate, to Naples with 
the French army, to deliver Jem to Charles and to give him 
Civitavecchia (January 16, 1495).  On the 28th Charles departed 
for Naples with Jem and Cesare, but the latter escaped to 
Spoleto.  Neapolitan resistance collapsed; Alphonso fled and 
abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand II., who also had 
to fly abandoned by all, and the kingdom was conquered with 
surprising ease.  But a reaction against Charles soon set 
in, for all the powers were alarmed at his success, and on 
the 31st of March a league between the pope, the emperor, 
Venice, Lodovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain was formed, 
ostensibly against the Turks, but in reality to expel the 
French from Italy.  Charles had himself crowned king of Naples 
on the 12th of May, but a few days later began his retreat 
northward.  He encountered the allies at Fornovo, and after a 
drawn battle cut his way through them and was back in France 
by November; Ferdinand II. with Spanish help was reinstated 
at Naples soon afterwards.  The expedition, if it produced 
no material results, laid bare the weakness of the Italian 
political system and the country's incapacity for resistance. 

Alexander availed himself of the defeat of the French to 
break the power of the Orsini, following the general tendency 
of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories 
and establish a centralized despotism.  Virginio Orsini, 
who had been captured by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at 
Naples, and the pope confiscated his property.  But the 
rest of the clan still held out, and the papal troops sent 
against them under Guidobaldo duke of Urbino and the duke of 
Gandia were defeated at Soriano (January 1497).  Peace was 
made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 
ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands; the duke of 
Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the pope to pay 
his own ransom.  The Orsini still remained very powerful, 
and Alexander could count on none but his 3000 Spaniards.  
His only success had been the capture of Ostia and the 
submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli. 

Now occurred the first of those ugly domestic tragedies for 
which the house of Borgia remained famous.  On the 14th of 
June the duke of Gandia, lately created duke of Benevento, 
disappeared; the next day his corpse was found in the Tiber.  
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castle 
St Angelo, and then declared that the reform of the church 
would be the sole object of his life henceforth--a resolution 
which he did not keep.  Every effort was made to discover 
the assassin, and suspicion fell on various highly placed 
personages.  Suddenly the rumour spread about that Cesare, the 
pope's second son, was the author of the deed, and although the 
inquiries then ceased and no conclusive evidence has yet come 
to light, there is every probability that the charge was well 
founded.  No doubt Cesare, who contemplated quitting the 
church, was inspired by jealousy. of Gandia's influence with 
the pope.  Violent and revengeful, he now became the most 
powerful man in Rome, and even his father quailed before 
him.  As he needed funds to carry out his various schemes, 
the pope began a series of confiscations, of which one of the 
victims was his own secretary, in order to enrich him.  The 
process was a simple one: any cardinal, nobleman or official 
who was known to be rich would be accused of some offence; 
imprisonment and perhaps murder followed at once, and then 
the confiscation of his property.  The disorganization of the 
Curia was appalling, the sale of offices became a veritable 
scandal, the least opposition to the Borgia was punished 
with death, and even in that corrupt age the state of things 
shocked public opinion.  The story of Alexander's relations 
with Savonarola is narrated under the latter heading; it is 
sufficient to say here that the pope's hostility was due to 
the friar's outspoken invectives against papal corruption and 
to his appeals for a General Council.  Alexander, although 
he could not get Savonarola into his own hands, browbeat the 
Florentine government into condemning the reformer to death 
(May 23, 1498).  The pope was unable to maintain order in 
his own dominions; the houses of Colonna and Orsini were at 
open war with each other, but after much fighting they made 
peace on a basis of alliance against the pope.  Thus further 
weakened, he felt more than ever that he had only his own 
kin to rely upon, and his thoughts were ever turned on family 
aggrandizement.  He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage with Sforza 
in 1497, and, unable to arrange a union between Cesare and 
the daughter of Frederick, king of Naples (who had succeeded 
Ferdinand II. the previous year), he induced the latter by 
threats to agree to a marriage between the duke of Bisceglie, 
a natural son of Alphonso II., and Lucrezia.  Cesare, who 
renounced his cardinalate, was sent on a mission to France 
at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for the 
new king Louis XII., in exchange for which he obtained the 
duchy of Valentinois (hence his title of Duca Valentino) and 
a promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate 
the feudal princelings of Romagna; he married a princess of 
Navarre.  Alexander hoped that Louis's help would be more 
profitable to his house than that of Charles had been and, 
in spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he 
allied himself with France in January 1499 and was joined by 
Venice.  By the autumn Louis was in Italy and expelled 
Lodovico Sforza from the Milanese.  In order to consolidate 
his possessions still further, now that French success seemed 
assured, the pope determined to deal drastically with Romagna, 
which although nominally under papal rule was divided up 
into a number of practically independent lordships on which 
Venice, Milan and Florence cast hungry eyes.  Cesare, nominated 
gonfaloniere of the Church, and strong in French favour, 
proceeded to attack the turbulent cities one by one (for 
detail see BORGIA CESARE.) But the expulsion of the French 
from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his 
conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500.  This year 
was a jubilee year, and crowds of pilgrims flocked to the city 
from all parts of the world bringing money for the purchase 
of indulgences, so that Alexander was able to furnish Cesare 
with funds for his enterprise.  In the north the pendulum 
swung back once more and the French reoccupied Milan in April, 
causing the downfall of the Sforzas, much to Alexander's 
gratification.  But there was no end to the Vatican tragedies, 
and in July the duke of Bisceglie, whose existence was no 
longer advantageous, was murdered by Cesare's orders; this 
left Lucrezia free to contract another marriage.  The pope, 
ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, 
from whom he received 120,000 ducats, and fresh conquests 
for Cesare were considered.  But while a crusade was talked 
of, the real object was central Italy, and in the autumn 
Cesare, favoured by France and Venice, set forth with 10,000 
men to complete his interrupted enterprise.  The local despots 
of Romagna were dispossessed and an administration was set 
up, which, if tyrannical and cruel, was at least orderly and 
strong, and aroused the admiration of Machiavelli (q.v..) 
On his return to Rome (June 1501) he was created duke of 
Romagna.  Louis XII., having succeeded in the north, determined 
to conquer southern Italy as well, and concluded a treaty 
with Spain for the division of the Neapolitan kingdom, which 
was ratified by the pope on the 25th of June, Frederick 
being formally deposed.  The French army proceeded to invade 
Naples, and Alexander took the opportunity, with the help 
of the Orsini, to reduce the Colonna to obedience.  In his 
absence he left Lucrezia as regent, offering the astounding 
spectacle of a pope's natural daughter in charge of the Holy 
See. Shortly afterwards he induced Alphonso d'Este, son of 
the duke of Ferrara, to marry her, thus establishing her 
as heiress to one of the most important principalities in 
Italy (January 1502).  About this time a Borgia of doubtful 
parentage was born, Giovanni, described in some papal 
documents as Alexander's son and in others as Cesare's. 

As France and Spain were quarrelling over the division of 
Naples and the Campagna barons were quiet, Cesare set out once 
more in search of conquests.  In June he seized Camerino and 
Urbino, the news of which capture filled the pope with childish 
joy.  But his military force was uncertain, for the condottieri 
were not to be trusted.  His attempt to draw Florence into an 
alliance failed, but in July Louis of France again invaded Italy 
and was at once bombarded with complaints from the Borgia's 
enemies.  Alexander's diplomacy, however, turned the tide, and 
Cesare, in exchange for promising to assist the French in the 
south, was given a free hand in central Italy.  A new danger 
now arose in the shape of a conspiracy against him on the 
part of the deposed despots, the Orsini and some of his own 
condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and 
things looked black for the house of Borgia.  But a promise of 
French help at once forced the confederates to come to terms, 
and Cesare by an act of treachery seized the ringleaders at 
Senigallia, and put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli 
to death (Dec. 31, 1502).  As soon as Alexander heard the 
news he decoyed Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and cast him 
into a dungeon, where he died.  His goods were confiscated, 
his aged mother turned into the street and numbers of other 
members of the clan in Rome were arrested, while Giuffre 
Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and seized their 
castles.  Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, 
who had long fought for predominance in Rome and often flouted 
the pope's authority, were subjugated, and a great step 
achieved towards consolidating the Borgia's power.  Cesare 
then returned to Rome, where his father wished him to assist 
Giuffre in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; this for some 
reason he was unwilling to do, much to Alexander's annoyance, 
but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace 
with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano.  Three more 
high personages fell victims to the Borgia's greed this year, 
viz.  Cardinal Michiel, who was poisoned in April, J. da Santa 
Croce, who had helped to seize Cardinal Orsini, and Troches 
or Troccio, one of the family's most faithful assassins; 
all these murders brought immense sums to the pope.  About 
Cardinal Ferrari's death there is more doubt; he probably 
died of fever, but the pope immediately confiscated his goods. 

The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples 
dragged on, and Alexander was ever intriguing, ready to ally 
himself with whichever power promised at the moment most 
advantageous terms.  He offered to help Louis on condition that 
Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in 
exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna.  Cesare was preparing 
for another expedition into central Italy in July 1503, when, 
in the midst of all these projects and negotiations, both 
he and his father were taken ill with fever.  The occurrence 
was of course attributed to poison, although quite without 
foundation, being merely due to malaria, at that time very 
prevalent in Rome.  On the 18th of August Alexander died 
at the age of 72. His death was followed by scenes of wild 
disorder, and Cesare, being himself ill, could not attend 
to business, but sent Don Michelotto, his chief bravo, to 
seize the pope's treasures before the demise was publicly 
announced.  When the body was exhibited to the people the next 
day it was in a shocking state of decomposition, which of course 
strengthened the suspicion of poison.  At the funeral a brawl 
occurred between the soldiers and the priests, and the coffin 
having been made too short the body without the mitre was 
driven into it by main force and covered with an oil-cloth.  
Alexander's successor on the chair of St Peter was Francesco 
Todeschini-Piccolomini, who assumed the name of Pius III. 

Alexander VI. has become almost a mythical character, and 
countless legends and traditions are attached to his name.  As 
a matter of fact he cannot be regarded in any sense as a great 
man.  His career shows no great political ideas, and none 
of his actions indicate genius.  His one thought was family 
aggrandizement, and while it is unlikely that he meditated 
making the papacy hereditary in the house of Borgia, he 
certainly gave away its temporal estates to his children 
as though they belonged to him.  The secularization of the 
church was carried to a pitch never before dreamed of, and 
it was clear to all Italy that he regarded the papacy as an 
instrument of worldly schemes with no thought of its religious 
aspect.  During his pontificate the church was brought to its 
lowest level of degradation.  The condition of his subjects was 
deplorable, and if Cesare's rule in Romagna was an improvement 
on that of the local tyrants, the people of Rome have seldom 
been more oppressed than under the Borgia.  Alexander was not 
the only person responsible for the general unrest in Italy 
and the foreign invasions, but he was ever ready to profit by 
them.  Even if we do not accept all the stories of his murders 
and poisonings and immoralities as true, there is no doubt 
that his greed for money and his essentially vicious nature 
led him to commit a great number of crimes.  For many of 
his misdeeds his terrible son Cesare was responsible, but of 
others the pope cannot be acquitted.  The one pleasing aspect 
of his life is his patronage of the arts, and in his days a 
new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the coming of 
Bramante.  Raphael, Michelangelo and Pinturicchio all worked 
for him, and a curious contrast, characteristic of the age, 
is afforded by the fact that a family so steeped in vice and 
crime could take pleasure in the most exquisite works of art. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief contemporary authorities for this 
reign are: the diary of Alexander's master of ceremonies, 
Johannes Burchardus, edited by L. Thuasne (Paris, 1883-1884), 
which is characterized by accuracy and extraordinary candour 
often amounting to gross indecency; the despatches of 
Giustiniani, the Venetian ambassador, edited by P. Villari 
(Florence, 1876), which show great insight and are based on 
the most accurate information; and Paolo Cappelli's ``Diarii'' 
in E. Alberi's Relazioni, series ii., iii.  Among modern 
works the most important are: F. Gregorovius's Geschichte 
der Stadt Rom (3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1881), a work of immense 
research and admirable synthesis, giving a very unfavourable 
view of the Borgia; A. von Reumont's Geschichte der Stadt 
Rom (Berlin, 1867-1870), also a valuable book; M. Creighton's 
History of the Papacy (London, 1897) is very learned and 
accurate, but the author is more lenient towards Alexander; F. 
Gregorovius's Lucrezia Borgia (Stuttgart, 1874) contains a 
great deal of information on the Borgia family; P. Villari's 
Machiavelli (English translation, new ed., 1892) deals 
with the subject at some length.  Of the Catholic writers L. 
Pastor, Geschichte der Papste (Freiburg i.  B, 1886) should 
be consulted, for although the author tries to extenuate 
the pope to some extent, on the whole he is fair. (L. V.*) 

ALEXANDER VII. (Fabio Chigi), pope from 1655 to 1667, was 
born at Siena on the 13th of February 1599.  He was successively 
inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara and nuncio in Cologne 
(1639-1651).  Though expected to take part in the negotiations 
which led in 1648 to the peace of Westphalia, he refused to 
deliberate with heretics, and protested against the treaties 
when completed.  Innocent X. subsequently made him cardinal 
secretary of state.  When Innocent died, Chigi, the candidate 
favoured by Spain, was elected pope on the 7th of April 
1655.  The conclave believed he was strongly opposed to the 
nepotism then prevalent.  In the first year of his reign 
Alexander VII. forbade his relations even to visit Rome; but 
in 1656 he gave them the best-paid civil and ecclesiastical 
offices, also palaces and princely estates.  Alexander disliked 
business of state, preferring literature and philosophy; a 
collection of his Latin poems appeared at Paris in 1656 under 
the title Philomathi Labores Juveniles. He also encouraged 
architecture, and in particular constructed the beautiful 
colonnade in the piazza of St Peter's.  He favoured the 
Jesuits, especially in their conflict with the Jansenists, 
forbade in 1661 the translation of the Roman Missal into 
French, and in 1665 canonized Francis of Sales.  His pontificate 
was marked by protracted controversies with France and 
Portugal.  He died on the 22nd of May 1667. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni), pope from 1689 to 1691, 
was born in 1610 of a noble Venetian family, was created 
cardinal, and then successively bishop of Brescia and datary.  
The ambassador of Louis XIV. succeeded in procuring his election 
on the 6th of October 1689 as successor to Innocent XI.; 
nevertheless, after months of negotiation Alexander finally 
condemned the declaration made in 1682 by the French clergy 
concerning the liberties of the Gallican church.  Charities 
on a large scale and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal 
treasury.  He bought the books and manuscripts of Queen Christina 
of Sweden for the Vatican library.  Alexander condemned in 1690 
the doctrines of so-called philosophic sin, taught in the Jesuit 
schools.  He died on the 1st of February 1691. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER I. (ALEKSANDER PAVLOVICH) (1777-1825), emperor 
of Russia, son of the grand-duke Paul Petrovich, afterwards 
Paul I., and Maria Fedorovna, daughter of Frederick Eugene of 
Wurttemberg, was born on the 28th of December 1777.  The 
strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one 
of the most interesting as he is one of the most important 
figures in the history of the 19th century.  Autocrat and 
``Jacobin,'' man of the world and mystic, he was to his 
contemporaries a riddle which each read according to his own 
temperament.  Napoleon thought him a ``shifty Byzantine,'' 
and called him the Talma of the North, as ready to play 
any conspicuous part.  To Metternich he was a madman to be 
humoured.  Castlereagh, writing of him to Lord Liverpool, 
gives him credit for ``grand qualities,'' but adds that he 
is ``suspicious and undecided.'' His complex nature was, in 
truth, the outcome of the complex character of his early 
environment and education.  Reared in the free-thinking 
atmosphere of the court of Catherine II. he had imbibed from 
his Swiss tutor, Frederic Cesar de Laharpe, the principles 
of Rousseau's gospel of humanity; from his military governor, 
General Soltikov, the traditions of Russian autocracy; while 
his father had inspired him with his own passion of military 
parade, and taught him to combine a theoretical love of 
mankind with a practical contempt for men.  These contradictory 
tendencies remained with him through life, revealed in 
the fluctuations of his policy and influencing through him 
the fate of the world.  Another element in his character 
discovered itself when in 1801 he mounted the throne over 
the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable 
at any moment to issue in extravagant action.  At first, 
indeed, this exercised but little influence on the emperor's 
life.  Young, emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and 
egotistic, Alexander displayed from the first an intention of 
playing a great part on the world's stage, and plunged with all 
the ardour of youth into the task of realizing his political 
ideals.  While retaining for a time the old ministers who 
had served and overthrown the emperor Paul, one of the first 
acts of his reign was to appoint a secret committee, called 
ironically the ``Comite du salut public,'' consisting of 
young and enthusiastic friends of his own--Victor Gavovich 
Kochubey, Nikolai Nikolaevich Novosiltsov, Paul Alexandrovich 
Strogonov and Adam Czartoryski--to draw up a scheme of internal 
reform.  Their aims, inspired by their admiration for English 
institutions, were far in advance of the possibilities of 
the time, and even after they had been raised to regular 
ministerial positions but little of their programme could be 
realized.  For Russia was not ripe for liberty; and Alexander, 
the disciple of the revolutionist Laharpe, was--as he 
himself said--but ``a happy accident'' on the throne of the 
tsars.  He spoke, indeed, bitterly of ``the state of barbarism 
in which the country had been left by the traffic in men.'' 
``Under Paul,'' he said, ``three thousand peasants had been 
given away like a bag of diamonds.  If civilization were more 
advanced, I would abolish this slavery, if it cost me my 
head.''1 But the universal corruption, he complained, had 
left him no men; and the filling up of the government offices 
with Germans and other foreigners merely accentuated the 
sullen resistance of the ``old Russians'' to his reforms.  
That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise of 
amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chains of 
the Russian people was, however, due less to the corruption and 
backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the tsar 
himself.  His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact 
unreal.  It flattered his vanity to pose before the world as 
the dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical liberalism was 
mated with an autocratic will which brooked no contradiction. 
``You always want to instruct me!'' he exlaimed to Derzhavin, 
the minister of justice, ``but I am the autocratic emperor, 
and I will this, and nothing else!'' ``He would gladly have 
agreed,'' wrote Adam Czartoryski, ``that every one should be 
free, if every one had freely done only what he wished.'' 
Moreover, with this masterful temper was joined an infirmity 
of purpose which ever let ``I dare not wait upon I would,'' 
and which seized upon any excuse for postponing measures the 
principles of which he had publicly approved.  The codification 
of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his 
reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of 
the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by Speranski, 
and passed by the emperor, remained unsigned.  Alexander, in 
fact, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed 
in full measure the tyrant's characteristic distrust of men 
of ability and independent judgment, lacked also the first 
requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; 
and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually 
realized.  He experimented in the outlying provinces of his 
empire; and the Russians noted with open murmurs that, not content 
with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring 
on Poland, Finland and the Baltic provinces benefits denied to 
themselves.  In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried 
out; but they could not survive the suspicious interference 
of the autocrat and his officials.  The newly created council 
of ministers, and the senate, endowed for the first time 
with certain theoretical powers, became in the end but the 
slavish instruments of the tsar and his favourites of the 
moment.  The elaborate system of education, culminating in the 
reconstituted, or new-founded, universities of Dorpat, Vilna, 
Kazan and Kharkov, was strangled in the supposed interests of 
``order'' and of orthodox piety; while the military colonies 
which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both soldiers 
and state were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army 
with pitiless cruelty.  Even the Bible Society, through which 
the emperor in his later mood of evangelical zeal proposed 
to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless 
lines.  The Roman archbishop and the Orthodox metropolitans 
were forced to serve on its committee side by side with 
Protestant pastors; and village popes, trained to regard any 
tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the 
church as mortal sin, became the unwilling instruments for 
the propagation of what they regarded as works of the devil. 

Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly 
attracted by the great questions of European politics than 
by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded 
his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute 
power.  On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the 
policy of Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made 
peace with England (April 1801), at the same time opening 
negotiations with Austria.  Soon afterwards at Memel he 
entered into a close alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted 
from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true chivalry, 
out of friendship for the young king Frederick William and 
his beautiful wife.  The development of this alliance was 
interrupted by the short-lived peace of October 1801; and for 
a while it seemed as though France and Russia might come to an 
understanding.  Carried away by the enthusiasm of Laharpe, 
who had returned to Russia from Paris, Alexander began 
openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions 
and for the person of Bonaparte.  Soon, however, came a 
change.  Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to 
the tsar his Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship 
for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his 
eyes, and revealed Bonaparte ``as not a true patriot,'' but 
only as ``the most famous tyrant the world has produced.'' 
His disillusionment was completed by the murder of the duc 
d'Enghien.  The Russian court went into mourning for the last of 
the Condes, and diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off. 

The events of the war that followed belong to the general 
history of Europe; but the tsar's attitude throughout is 
personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous 
for the world.  In opposing Napoleon, ``the oppressor of 
Europe and the disturber of the world's peace,'' Alexander 
in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine 
mission.  In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special 
envoy in London, the tsar elaborated the motives of his policy 
in language which appealed as little to the common sense of 
Pitt as did later the treaty of the Holy Alliance to that of 
Castlereagh.  Yet the document is of great interest, as in it 
we find formulated for the first time in an official despatch 
those exalted ideals of international policy which were to 
play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the 
close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of 
the 19th century in the Rescript of Nicholas II.2 and the 
conference of the Hague.  The outcome of the war, Alexander 
argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the 
universal triumph of ``the sacred rights of humanity.'' To 
attain this it would be necessary ``after having attached the 
nations to their government by making these incapable of acting 
save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the 
relations of the states amongst each other on more precise 
rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect.'' A 
general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of 
the states forming ``the European Confederation''; and this, 
though ``it was no question of realizing the dream of universal 
peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion 
of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear 
principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations.'' ``Why 
could not one submit to it,'' the tsar continued, ``the positive 
rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert 
the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources 
which the mediation of a third party could offer have been 
exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective 
grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles 
as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, 
and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would 
form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, 
sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, 
would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the 
cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would 
risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union.''3 

Meanwhile Napoleon, little deterred by the Russian autocrat's 
youthful idealogy, never gave up hope of detaching him from 
the coalition.  He had no sooner entered Vienna in triumph 
than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after 
Austerlitz.  Russia and France, he urged, were ``geographical 
allies''; there was, and could be, between them no true 
conflict of interests; together they might rule the world.  But 
Alexander was still determined ``to persist in the system of 
disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which 
he had thus far followed,'' and he again allied himself with 
Prussia.  The campaign of Jena and the battle of Eylau followed; 
and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, 
stirred up Poles, Turks and Persians to break the obstinacy of 
the tsar.  A party too in Russia itself, headed by the tsar's 
brother the grand-duke Constantine, was clamorous for peace; 
but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, 
summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as 
the enemy of the orthodox faith.  The outcome was the rout of 
Friedland (June 13 and 14, 1807).  Napoleon saw his chance and 
seized it.  Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the 
chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. 

The two emperors met at Tilsit on the 25th of June.  Alexander, 
dazzled by Napoleon's genius and overwhelmed by his apparent 
generosity, was completely won.  Napoleon knew well how to 
appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend.  
He would divide with Alexander the empire of the world; as a 
first step he would leave him in possession of the Danubian 
principalities and give him a free hand to deal with Finland; 
and, afterwards, the emperors of the East and West, when the 
time should be ripe, would drive the Turks from Europe and 
march across Asia to the conquest of India.  A programme so 
stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition 
to which he had hitherto been a stranger.  The interests of 
Europe were forgotten. ``What is Europe?'' he exclaimed to the 
French ambassador. ``Where is it, if it is not you and we?''4 

The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind 
Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused 
to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for 
suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. ``We have made 
loyal war,'' he said, ``we must make a loyal peace.'' It 
was not long before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to 
wane.  Napoleon was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their 
fulfilment.  The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on 
the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith.  
Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and 
Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped 
that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between 
them.  The meeting took place at Erfurt in October 1808, and 
resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two 
emperors.  But Alexander's relations with Napoleon none 
the less suffered a change.  He realized that in Napoleon 
sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of 
fact he had never intended his proposed ``grand enterprise'' 
seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the 
tsar while he consolidated his own power in central Europe.  
From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also 
not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair 
of pure policy.  He used it, in the first instance, to remove 
``the geographical enemy'' from the gates of St Petersburg 
by wresting Finland from the Swedes (1809); and he hoped 
by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of 
Russia.  Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture 
of the Franco-Russian alliance.  Alexander, indeed, assisted 
Napoleon in the war of 1809, but he declared plainly that 
he would not allow Austria to be crushed out of existence; 
and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the 
Russian troops during the campaign.  The tsar in his turn 
protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles.  
In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be 
practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could 
not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his 
affection for Napoleon. ``I don't want anything for myself,'' 
he said to the French ambassador, ``therefore the world is 
not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs 
of Poland, if it is a question of its restoration.''5 The 
treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the grand-duchy of 
Warsaw, he complained had ``ill requited him for his loyalty,'' 
and he was only mollified for the time by Napoleon's public 
declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and 
by a convention, signed on the 4th of January 1810 but not 
ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of chivalry. 

But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less 
suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he 
sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the grand- 
duchess Anne, the tsar's youngest sister.  After some little 
delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the 
princess's tender age and the objection of the dowager empress 
to the marriage.  Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify 
the convention of the 4th of January, and to announce his 
engagement to the archduchess Marie Louise in such a way as to 
lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had 
been negotiated simultaneously.  From this time the relation 
between the two emperors gradually became more and more 
strained.  The annexation of Oldenburg, of which the duke was 
the tsar's uncle, to France in December 1810, added another to 
the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while 
the ruinous reaction of ``the continental system'' on Russian 
trade made it impossible for the tsar to maintain a policy 
which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance.  An acid 
correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which 
culminated in the summer of 1812 in Napoleon's invasion of 
Russia.  Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, 
Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards 
the emperor were unaltered; ``but,'' he added, ``God Himself 
cannot undo the past.'' It was the occupation of Moscow and 
the desecration of the Kremlin, the sacred centre of Holy 
Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate 
hatred.  In vain the French emperor, within eight days of 
his entry into Moscow, wrote to the tsar a letter, which was 
one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits 
of the Grand Army, and appealed to ``any remnant of his 
former sentiments.'' Alexander returned no answer to these 
``fanfaronnades.'' ``No more peace with Napoleon!'' he cried, 
``He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!''6 

The campaign of 1812 was the turning-point of Alexander's life; 
and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of 
the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well 
balanced.  At the burning of Moscow, he declared afterwards, 
his own soul had found illumination, and he had realized once 
for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the 
peacemaker of Europe.  He tried to calm the unrest of his 
conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical 
revival on the continent, and sought for omens and supernatural 
guidance in texts and passages of scripture.  It was not, 
however, according to his own account, till he met the Baroness 
de Krudener--a religious adventuress who made the conversion 
of princes her special mission--at Basel, in the autumn of 
1813, that his soul found peace.  From this time a mystic 
pietism became the avowed force of his political, as of his 
private actions.  Madame de Krudener, and her colleague, the 
evangelist Empaytaz, became the confidants of the emperor's 
most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in 
the occupation of Paris the imperial prayer-meetings were 
the oracle on whose revelations hung the fate of the world. 

Such was Alexander's mood when the downfall of Napoleon left 
him the most powerful sovereign in Europe.  With the memory 
of Tilsit still fresh in men's minds, it was not unnatural 
that to cynical men of the world like Metternich he merely 
seemed to be disguising ``under the language of evangelical 
abnegation'' vast and perilous schemes of ambition.  The puzzled 
powers were, in fact, the more inclined to be suspicious in 
view of other, and seemingly inconsistent, tendencies of the 
emperor, which yet seemed all to point to a like disquieting 
conclusion.  For Madame de Krudener was not the only influence 
behind the throne; and, though Alexander had declared war 
against the Revolution, Laharpe was once more at his elbow, 
and the catchwords of the gospel of humanity were still on his 
lips.  The very proclamations which denounced Napoleon 
as ``the genius of evil,'' denounced him in the name of 
``liberty,'' and of ``enlightenment.'' A monstrous intrigue 
was suspected for the alliance of the eastern autocrat with 
the Jacobinism of all Europe, which would have issued in the 
substitution of an all-powerful Russia for an all-powerful 
France.  At the congress of Vienna Alexander's attitude 
accentuated this distrust.  Castlereagh, whose single-minded 
aim was the restoration of ``a just equilibrium'' in Europe, 
reproached the tsar to his face for a ``conscience'' which 
suffered him to imperil the concert of the powers by keeping 
his hold on Poland in violation of his treaty obligation.7 

Yet Alexander was sincere.  Even the Holy Alliance, the pet 
offspring of his pietism, does not deserve the sinister reputation 
it has since obtained.  To the other powers it seemed, at best 
``verbiage'' and ``exalted nonsense,'' at worst an effort of 
the tsar to establish the hegemony of Russia on the goodwill 
of the smaller signatory powers.  To the Liberals, then and 
afterwards it was clearly a hypocritical conspiracy against 
freedom.  Yet to Alexander himself it seemed the only means 
of placing the ``confederation of Europe'' on a firm basis of 
principle8 and, so far from its being directed against liberty 
he declared roundly to all the signatory powers that ``free 
constitutions were the logical outcome of its doctrines.'' 
Europe, in fact, owed much at this time to Alexander's exalted 
temper.  During the period when his influence was supreme, 
the fateful years, that is, between the Moscow campaign and 
the close of the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, it had been used 
largely in the interests of moderation and liberty.  To him 
mainly it was due that France was saved from dismemberment, 
and received a constitution which, to use his own words, 
``united crown and representatives of the people in a sense 
of common interests.''9 By his wise intervention Switzerland 
was saved from violent reaction, and suffered to preserve 
the essential gains of the Revolution.  To his protection it 
was due that the weak beginnings of constitutional freedom in 
Germany were able for a while to defy the hatred of Austria.  
Lastly, whatever its ultimate outcome, the constitution of 
Poland was, in its inception, a genuine effort to respond 
to the appeal of the Poles for a national existence. 

From the end of the year 1818 Alexander's views began to 
change.  A revolutionary conspiracy among the officers of the 
guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the 
congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.), are said to have shaken 
the foundations of his Liberalism.  At Aix he came for the 
first time into intimate contact with Metternich, and the 
astute Austrian was swift to take advantage of the psychological 
moment.  From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich 
over the mind of the Russian emperor and in the councils of 
Europe.  It was, however, no case of sudden conversion.  
Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, 
which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist 
Kotzebue (q.v.), Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest 
against Metternich's policy of ``the governments contracting 
an alliance against the peoples,'' as formulated in the 
Carlsbad decrees, 1819, and deprecated any intervention of 
Europe to support ``a league of which the sole object is the 
absurd pretensions of absolute power.''10 He still declared 
his belief in ``free institutions, though not in such as 
age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular 
leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in 
difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. ``Liberty,'' 
he maintained, ``should be confined within just limits.  
And the limits of liberty are the principles of order.''11 

It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder 
in the revolutions of Naples and Piedmont, combined with 
increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, 
Germany and among his own people, that completed Alexander's 
conversion.  In the seclusion of the little town of Troppau, 
where in October of 1820 the powers met in conference, Metternich 
found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander 
which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues 
of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly 
chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed 
his mistake. ``You have nothing to regret,'' he said sadly 
to the exultant chancellor, ``but I have!''12 The issue was 
momentous.  In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal 
of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized 
by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship 
of the great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he 
had still protested against the claims of collective Europe 
to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign 
states.  On the 19th of November he signed the Troppau Protocol, 
which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked 
the harmony of the concert. (See TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF.) 

At Laibach, whither in the spring of 1821 the congress had 
been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the revolt of the 
Greeks.  From this time until his death his mind was torn between 
his anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe 
and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade 
against the Turks.  At first, under the careful nursing of 
Metternich, the former motive prevailed.  He struck the name 
of Alexander Ypsilanti from the Russian army list, and directed 
his foreign minister, Count Capo d'Istria, himself a Greek, to 
disavow all sympathy of Russia with his enterprise; and, next 
year, a deputation of the Greeks of the Morea on its way to 
the congress of Verona was turned back by his orders on the 
road.  He made, indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles 
at conflict in his mind.  He offered to surrender the claim, 
successfully asserted when the sultan had been excluded from 
the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the Ottoman empire from 
the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East 
were the ``domestic concerns of Russia,'' and to march into 
Turkey, as Austria had marched into Naples, ``as the mandatory 
of Europe.''13 Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, 
but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his 
eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his 
ideals.  Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of 
Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people 
drew him back into itself; and when, in the autumn of 1825, 
he took his dying empress for change of air to the south of 
Russia, in order--as all Europe supposed--to place himself 
at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman 
frontiers, his language was no longer that of ``the peace-maker 
of Europe,'' but of the Orthodox tsar determined to take the 
interests of his people and of his religion ``into his own 
hands.'' Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, 
Alexander died at Taganrog on the 1st of December (November 
18, O.S.) 1825, ``crushed'', to use his own words, ``beneath 
the terrible burden of a crown'' which he had more than once 
declared his intention of resigning.  A report, current at 
the time and often revived, affirmed that he did not in fact 
die.  By some it is supposed that a mysterious hermit named 
Fomich, who lived at Tomsk until 1870 and was treated with peculiar 
deference by successive tsars, was none other than Alexander.14 

Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of 
Alexander.  The brilliant promise of his early years; the 
haunting memory of the crime by which he had obtained the 
power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible 
legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which, 
under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by 
spies and secret police; an uncertain succession; an army 
permeated by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose 
hunger for liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; 
the quarrel with Turkey, with its alternative of war or 
humiliation for Russia; an educational system rotten with 
official hypocrisy; a Church in which conduct counted for 
nothing, orthodoxy and ceremonial observance for everything; 
economical and financial conditions scarce recovering from 
the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse of Russia,--serfdom. 

In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities.  
All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence 
and the affability and charm of his address, together with a 
certain simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his 
intercourse with his friends or with the representatives of 
friendly powers to dispense with ceremonial and etiquette.  
His personal friendship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly 
withdrawn.  By nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, 
he proved himself a notable patron of the arts and he took 
a conspicuous part in all the gaieties of the congress of 
Vienna.  In his later years, however, he fell into a mood 
of settled melancholy; and, though still accessible to all 
who chose to approach him with complaints or petitions, he 
withdrew from all but the most essential social functions, and 
lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan simplicity.  His 
gloom had been increased by domestic misfortune.  He had been 
married, in 1793, without his wishes being consulted, to the 
beautiful and amiable Princess Maria Louisa of Baden (Elizabeth 
Feodorovna), a political match which, as he regretfully 
confessed to his friend Frederick William of Prussia, had 
proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself in the 
traditional manner.  The only child of the marriage, a little 
grand-duchess, died on the 12th of May 1808; and their common 
sorrow drew husband and wife closer together.  Towards the 
close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the 
wise charity of the empress in sympathizing deeply with him 
over the death of his beloved daughter by Madame Narishkine. 

See also EUROPE; RUSSIA; FRANCE; TURKEY; VIENNA, 
CONGRESS OF; NAPOLEON; METTERNICH; CAPO D'ISTARIA. 

AUTHORITIES.--F. de Martins, Recueil des traites conclus 
par la Russie, &c. (St Petersb., 1874, &c.); Wellington 
Despatches Castlereagh Correspondence; Prince Adam Czartoryski, 
Memoires et correspondance avec l'empereur Alexandre I. 
(Paris, 1887, 2 vols.).  P. Bailleu (ed). Briefwechsel Konig 
Friedrich Wilhelm's III. und der Konigin Luise mit Kaiser 
Alexander I. (Leipzig, 1900); Laharpe, Le Gouverneur d'un 
Prince (F. C de Laharpe et Alexandre I. de Russie) 1902; 
Serge Tatischeff, Alexandre I. et Napoleon d'apres leur 
correspondance inedite (Paris, 1901); Joseph de Maistre, 
Memoires historiques et correspondance diplomatique, 
ed.  A. Blanc (2nd ed., 1859); Comtesse de Choiseul-Gouffier, 
Memoires historiques sur l'empereur Alexandre (1829), 
and Reminiscences sur l'empereur Alexandre I., &c. 
(Paris, 1862); Rulemann Friedrich Eylert, Charakterzuge 
und historische Fragmente aus dem Leben Konig Friedrich 
Wilhelm's III. (1846); H. L. Empaytaz, Notice sur Alexandre 
Empereur de Russie (2nd ed., Paris, 1840); Comte A. de 
la Garde- Chambonas, Souvenirs du Congres de Vienne; 
publ. avec introd. et notes par le Cte. Fleury (1901). 

LIVES.--The principal life of Alexander I. is that, in 
Russian, by Nikolai Karlovich Schilder, Imperator Aleksander, 
&c. (4 vols., St Petersb., 1897, 1898).  See also Bogdanovich, 
History of the Government of the Emperor Alexander I. 
(St Petersburg, 1869-1871, Nikolaus I. Band i. Kaiser 
Alexander I. und die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit (Berl., 
1904), a valuable study based upon much new material from the 
state archives of St Petersburg, Paris, Berlin and Vienna; 
A. Vandal, Napoleon et Alexandre I.: l'alliance Russe 
sous le premier empire (3 vols., Paris, 1891-1896); A. N. 
Pypin, Political and Literary Movements under Alexander 
I. (Russian, 2nd ed.  St Petersburg, 1885; German, Berlin, 
1894).  Among the numerous less authoritative biographies 
may be mentioned Ivan Golovin, Histoire d'Alexandre I. 
(Leipzig, 1859), and C. Joyneville, Life and Times of 
Alexander I. (3 vols., 1875).  This last contains much 
valuable information, but the references in footnotes are 
often wanting in precision, and it has no index. (W. A. P.) 

1 Savary to Napoleon, Nov. 4, 1807.  Tatischeff, p. 226. 

2 Circular of Count Muraviev, Aug. 24, 1898. 

3 Instructions to M. Novosiltsov, Sept. 11, 1804.  Tatiseheff, p. 82. 

4 Savary to Napoleon, Nov. 18, 1807.  Tatischeff, p. 232. 

5 Coulaincourt to Napoleon, 4th report, Aug. 3, 1809.  Tatischeff, p. 496. 

6 Alexander speaking to Colonel Michaud.  Tatischeff, p. 612. 

7 Castlereagh to Liverpool, Oct. 2, 1814.  F.O. Papers.  Vienna VII. 

8 Martens IV. oart i. p. 49. 

9 Etat des negociations actueelles, &c., mem. prepared by 
order of the Tsar, July 16, 1815, enclosed in Castlereagh to 
Liverpool, F.O. Cont. papers.  Congress Paris, Castlereagh, 22. 

10 Despatch of Lieven, Nov. 30 (Dec. 12), 1819, and 
Russ.  Circular of Jan. 27, 1820.  Martens IV. part i. p. 270. 

11 Apercu des idees de l'Empereur, Martens IV. part i. p. 269. 

12 Metternich Mem. 

13 Martens IV. part i. pp. 307, &c. 

14 See W. Gasiorowski, Tragic Russia, 
translated by Viscount de Busancy (London, 1908). 

ALEXANDER II. (1818-1881), emperor of Russia, eldest 
son of Nicholas I., was born on the 29th of April 1818.  
His early life gave little indication of his subsequent 
activity, and up to the moment of his accession in 1855 no 
one ever imagined that he would be known to posterity as a 
great reformer.  In so far as he had any decided political 
convictions, he seemed to be animated with that reactionary 
spirit which was predominant in Europe at the time of his 
birth, and continued in Russia to the end of his father's 
reign.  In the period of thirty years during which he was 
heir-apparent, the moral atmosphere of St Petersburg was 
very unfavourable to the development of any originality of 
thought or character.  It was a time of government on martinet 
principles, under which all freedom of thought and all private 
initiative were as far as possible suppressed vigorously by the 
administration.  Political topics were studiously avoided in 
general conversation, and books or newspapers in which the 
most keen-scented press-censor could detect the least odour of 
political or religious free-thinking were strictly prohibited.  
Criticism of existing authorities was regarded as a serious 
offence.  The common policeman, the insignificant scribe 
in a public office, and even the actors in the ``imperial'' 
theatres, were protected against public censure as effectually 
as the government itself; for the whole administration was 
considered as one and indivisible, and an attack on the humblest 
representative of the imperial authority was looked on as 
an indirect attack on the fountain from which that authority 
flowed.  Such was the moral atmosphere in which young Alexander 
Nicolaevich grew up to manhood.  He received the education 
commonly given to young Russians of good family at that time--a 
smattering of a great many subjects, and a good practical 
acquaintance with the chief modern European languages.  
Like so many of his countryman he displayed great linguistic 
ability, and his quick ear caught up even peculiarities of 
dialect.  His ordinary life was that of an officer of the 
Guards, modified by the ceremonial duties incumbent on him as 
heir to the throne.  Nominally he held the post of director 
of the military schools, but he took little personal interest 
in military affairs.  To the disappointment of his father, 
in whom the military instinct was ever predominant, he showed 
no love of soldiering, and gave evidence of a kindliness of 
disposition and a tender-heartedness which were considered 
out of place in one destined to become a military autocrat.  
These tendencies had been fostered by his tutor Zhukovsky, 
the amiable humanitarian poet, who had made the Russian 
public acquainted with the literature of the German romantic 
school, and they remained with him all through life, though 
they did not prevent him from being severe in his official 
position when he believed severity to be necessary.  In 1841 
he married the daughter of the grand-duke Louis II. of Hesse, 
Maximilienne Wilhelmine Marie, thenceforward known as Maria 
Alexandrovna, who bore him six sons and two daughters.  He 
did not travel much abroad, for his father, in his desire to 
exclude from Holy Russia the subversive ideas current in Western 
Europe, disapproved foreign tours, and could not consistently 
encourage in his own family what he tried to prevent among 
the rest of his subjects.  He visited England, however, in 
1839, and in the years immediately preceding his accession he 
was entrusted with several missions to the courts of Berlin 
and Vienna.  On the 2nd of March 1855, during the Crimean 
War, he succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. 

The first year of the new reign was devoted to the prosecution 
of the war, and after the fall of Sevastopol, to negotiations for 
peace.  Then began a period of radical reforms, recommended 
by public opinion and carried out by the autocratic 
power.  The rule of Nicholas, which had sacrificed all other 
interests to that of making Russia an irresistibly strong 
military power, had been tried by the Crimean War and found 
wanting.  A new system must, therefore, be adopted.  All 
who had any pretensions to enlightenment declared loudly 
that the country had been exhausted and humiliated by the 
war, and that the only way of restoring it to its proper 
position in Europe was to develop its natural resources and 
to reform thoroughly all branches of the administration.  
The government found, therefore, in the educated classes a 
new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it in any work of 
reform that it might think fit to undertake.  Fortunately 
for Russia the autocratic power was now in the hands of a 
man who was impressionable enough to be deeply influenced by 
the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient prudence and 
practical common-sense to prevent his being carried away by 
the prevailing excitement into the dangerous region of Utopian 
dreaming.  Unlike some of his predecessors, he had no grand, 
original schemes of his own to impose by force on unwilling 
subjects, and no pet crotchets to lead his judgment astray; 
and he instinctively looked with a suspicious, critical eye on 
the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautious people 
recommended.  These traits of character, together with the 
peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determined the 
part which he was to play.  He moderated, guided and in great 
measure realized the reform aspirations of the educated classes. 

Emancipation of the serfs. 

Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights and 
privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him 
farther than he felt inclined to go he acted for several years 
somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental 
type.  At first he moved so slowly that many of the impatient, 
would-be reformers began to murmur at the unnecessary 
delay.  In reality not much time was lost.  Soon after 
the conclusion of peace important changes were made in the 
legislation concerning industry and commerce, and the new 
freedom thus accorded produced a large number of limited 
liability companies.  At the same time plans were formed 
for constructing a great network of railways, partly for the 
purpose of developing the natural resources of the country, and 
partly for the purpose of increasing its powers of defence and 
attack.  Then it was found that further progress was blocked 
by a great obstacle, the existence of serfage: and Alexander 
II. showed that, unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly 
with the difficult and dangerous problem.  Taking advantage of 
a petition presented by the Polish landed proprietors of the 
Lithuanian provinces, praying that their relations with the 
serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way--meaning 
in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors--he authorized 
the formation of committees ``for ameliorating the condition 
of the peasants,'' and laid down the principles on which the 
amelioration was to be effected.  This was a decided step 
and it was followed by one still more significant.  Without 
consulting his ordinary advisers, his majesty ordered the 
minister of the interior to send a circular to the provincial 
governors of European Russia, containing a copy of the 
instructions forwarded to the governor-general of Lithuania, 
praising the supposed generous, patriotic intentions of the 
Lithuanian landed proprietors, and suggesting that perhaps the 
landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar 
desire.  The hint was taken, of course, and in all provinces 
where serfage existed emancipation committees were formed.  
The deliberations at once raised a host of important, thorny 
questions.  The emancipation was not merely a humanitarian 
question capable of being solved instantaneously by imperial 
ukaz.  It contained very complicated problems affecting 
deeply the economic, social and political future of the 
nation.  Alexander II. had little of the special knowledge 
required for dealing successfully with such problems, and 
he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different 
measures recommended to him.  The main point at issue was 
whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers 
dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, 
or should be transformed into a class of independent communal 
proprietors.  The emperor gave his support to the latter 
project, and the Russian peasantry accordingly acquired rights 
and privileges such as are enjoyed by no other peasantry in 
Europe.  In the numerous other questions submitted to him be{sic} 
began by consulting carefully the conflicting authorities, and 
while leaning as a rule rather to the side of those who were 
known as ``Liberals,'' he never went so far as they desired, 
and always sought some middle course by which conflicting 
interests might be reconciled.  On the 3rd of March 1861, 
the sixth anniversary of his accession, the emancipation law 
was signed and published.  Other reforms followed in quick 
succession during the next five or six years: army and navy 
organization, a new judicial administration on the French 
model, a new penal code and a greatly simplified system of 
civil and criminal procedure, an elaborate scheme of local 
self-government for the rural districts and the large towns, with 
elective assemhljes possessing a restricted right of taxation, 
and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of 
the minister of the interior.  These new institutions were 
incomparably better than the old ones which they replaced, but 
they did not work such miracles as inexperienced enthusiasts 
expected.  Comparisons were made, not with the past, but with 
an ideal state of things which never existed in Russia or 
elsewhere.  Hence arose a general feeling of disappointment, 
which acted on different natures in different ways.  Some of 
the enthusiasts sank into a sceptical, reactionary frame of 
mind; while others, with deeper convictions or capable of more 
lasting excitement, attributed the failure to the fact that 
only half- measures and compromises had been adopted by the 
government.  Thus appeared in the educated classes two extreme 
groups: on the one hand, the discontented Conservatives, 
who recommended a return to a more severe disciplinarian 
regime; and on the other, the discontented Radicals, who 
would have been satisfied with nothing less than the adoption 
of a throughgoing socialistic programme.  Between the two 
extremes stood the discontented Moderates, who indulged freely 
in grumbling without knowing how the unsatisfactory state of 
things was to be remedied.  For some years the emperor, with 
his sound common-sense and dislike of exaggeration, held the 
balance fairly between the two extremes; but long years of 
uninterrupted labour, anxiety and disappointment weakened his 
zeal for reform, and when radicalism assumed more and more 
the form of secret societies and revolutionary agitation, 
he felt constrained to adopt severe repressive measures. 

Nihilism. 

The revolutionary agitation was of a very peculiar kind.  
It was confined to a section of the educated classes, 
and emanated from the universities and higher technical 
schools.  At the beginning of the reform period there had been 
enthusiasm for scientific as opposed to classical education.  
Russia required, it was said, not classical scholars, but 
practical, scientific men, capable of developing her natural 
resources.  The government, in accordance with this view, 
had encouraged scientific studies until it discovered to 
its astonishment that there was some mysterious connexion 
between natural science and revolutionary tendencies.  Many 
of the young men and women, who were supposed to be qualifying 
as specialists in the various spheres of industrial and 
commercial enterprise, were in reality devoting their time 
to considering how human society in general, and Russian 
society in particular, could be reconstructed in accordance 
with the latest physiological, biological and sociological 
principles.  Some of these young people wished to put their 
crude notions immediately into practice, and as their desire 
to make gigantic socialist experiments naturally alarmed the 
government, their activity was opposed by the police.  Many 
of them were arrested and imprisoned or exiled to distant 
provinces, but the revolutionary work was continued with 
unabated zeal.  Thus arose a struggle between the youthful, 
hot-headed partisans of revolutionary physical science and 
the zealous official guardians of political order--a struggle 
which has made the strange term Nihilism (q.v.) a familiar 
word not only in Russia but also in western Europe.  The 
movement gradually assumed the form of terrorism, and aimed 
at the assassination of prominent officials, and even of 
the emperor himself, and the natural result was that the 
reactionary tendencies of the government were strengthened. 

Foreign policy. 

In foreign policy Alexander II. showed the same qualities of 
character as in internal affairs, ever trying prudently to 
steer a middle course.  When he came to the throne a peace 
policy was imposed on him by circumstances.  The Crimean War 
was still going on, but as there was no doubt as to the final 
issue, and the country was showing symptoms of exhaustion, 
he concluded peace with the allies as soon as he thought the 
national honour had been satisfied.  Prince Gorchakov could 
then declare to Europe, ``La Russie ne boude pas elle 
se recueille''; and for fifteen years he avoided foreign 
complications, so that the internal strength of the country 
might be developed, while the national pride and ambition 
received a certain satisfaction by the expansion of Russian 
influence and domination in Asia.  Twice, indeed, during that 
period the chancellor ran the risk of provoking war.  The 
first occasion was in 1863, when the Western powers seemed 
inclined to interfere in the Polish question, and the Russian 
chancery declared categorically that no interference would be 
tolerated.  The second occasion was during the Franco-German 
War of 1870-71, when the cabinet of St Petersburg boldly 
declared that it considered itself no longer bound by the Black 
Sea clause of the treaty of Paris.  On both these occasions 
hostilities were averted.  Not so on the next occasion, when 
Russia abandoned her attitude of recueillement. When the 
Eastern question was raised in 1875 by the insurrection of 
Herzegovina, Alexander II. had no intention or wish to 
provoke a great European war.  No doubt he was waiting for 
an opportunity of recovering the portion of Bessarabia which 
had been ceded by the treaty of Paris, and he perceived 
in the disturbed state of Eastern Europe a possibility of 
obtaining the desired rectification of frontier, but he hoped 
to effect his purpose by diplomatic means in conjunction with 
Austria.  At the same time he was anxious to obtain for the 
Christians of Turkey some amelioration of their condition, 
and to give thereby some satisfaction to his own subjects.  
As autocratic ruler of the nation which had long considered 
itself the defender of the Eastern Orthodox faith and the 
protector of the Slav nationalities, he could not remain 
inactive at such a crisis, and he gradually allowed himself 
to drift into a position from which he could not retreat 
without obtaining some tangible result.  Supposing that the 
Porte would yield to diplomatic pressure and menace so far as 
to make some reasonable concessions, he delivered his famous 
Moscow speech, in which he declared that if Europe would not 
secure a better position for the oppressed Slavs he would act 
alone.  The diplomatic pressure failed and war became 
inevitable.  During the campaign he displayed the same 
perseverance and the same moderation that he had shown in the 
emancipation of the serfs.  To those who began to despair of 
success, and advised him to conclude peace on almost any 
terms so as to avoid greater disasters, he turned a deaf 
ear, and brought the campaign to a successful conclusion; 
but when his more headstrong advisers urged him to insist 
on terms which would probably have produced a conflict with 
Great Britain and Austria, he resolved, after some hesitation, 
to make the requisite concessions.  In this resolution he 
was influenced by the discovery that he could not rely on 
the expected support of Germany, and the discovery made 
him waver in his devotion to the German alliance, which had 
been the main pivot of his foreign policy; but his personal 
attachment to the emperor William prevented him from adopting 
a hostile attitude towards the empire he had helped to create. 

The patriotic excitement produced by the war did not weaken 
the revolutionary agitation.  The struggle between the 
Terrorists and the police authorities became more and more 
intense, and attempts at assassination became more and more 
frequent.  Alexander II. succumbed by degrees to the mental 
depression produced originally by the disappointments 
which he experienced in his home and foreign policy; and in 
1880, when he had reigned twenty-five years, he entrusted 
to Count Loris-Melikov a large share of the executive 
power.  In that year the empress died, and a few weeks 
afterwards he married secretly a Princess Dolgoruki, with 
whom he had already entertained intimate relations for some 
years.  Early in 1881, on the advice of Count Loris-Melikov, 
he determined to try the effect of some moderate liberal 
reforms on the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose 
he caused a ukaz to be prepared creating special commissions, 
composed of high officials and private personages who should 
prepare reforms in various branches of the administration.  
On the very day on which this ukaz was signed--13th of March 
1881--he fell a victim to a Nihilist plot.  When driving in 
one of the central streets of St Petersburg, near the Winter 
Palace, he was mortally wounded by the explosion of some 
small bombs and died a few hours afterwards. (D. M. W.) 

ALEXANDER III. (1845-1894), emperor of Russia, second 
son of Alexander II., was born on the 10th of March 1845.  
In natural disposition he bore little resemblance to his 
soft-hearted, liberal minded father, and still less to his 
refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning 
grand-uncle Alexander I., who coveted the title of ``the 
first gentleman of Europe.'' With high culture, exquisite 
refinement and studied elegance he had no sympathy and never 
affected to have any.  Indeed, he rather gloried in the idea 
of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of 
his subjects.  His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured 
sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method 
of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, 
immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements.  His 
education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities.  
During the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect 
of succeeding to the throne, because he had an elder brother, 
Nicholas, who seemed of a fairly robust constitution.  Even 
when this elder brother showed symptoms of delicate health 
it was believed that his life might be indefinitely prolonged 
by proper care and attention, and precautions had been taken 
for the succession by his betrothal with Princess Dagmar of 
Denmark.  Under these circumstances the greatest solicitude 
was devoted to the education of Nicholas as cesarevich, 
whereas Alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate 
training of an ordinary grand- duke of that period, which 
did not go much beyond primary and secondary instruction, 
practical acquaintance with French, English and German, and 
a certain amount of drill.  When he became heir-apparent by 
the death of his elder brother in 1865, he began to study 
the principles of law and administration under Professor 
Pobedonostsef, who did not succeed in awakening in his pupil 
a love of abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion, 
but who influenced the character of his reign by instilling 
into his mind the belief that zeal for Eastern Orthodoxy ought, 
as an essential factor of Russian patriotism, to be specially 
cultivated by every right-minded tsar.  His elder brother 
when on his deathbed had expressed a wish that his affianced 
bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, 
and this wish was realized on the 9th of November 1866.  The 
union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the 
end.  During those years when he was heir-apparent--1865 to 
1881--he did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but 
he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his 
own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing 
government.  He deprecated what he considered undue foreign 
influence in general, and German influence in particular, and 
he longed to see the adoption of genuine national principles 
in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing 
his ideal of a homogeneous Russia--homogeneous in language, 
administration and religion.  With such ideas and aspirations 
he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement 
with his father, who, though a good patriot according to his 
lights, had strong German sympathies, often used the German 
language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed 
the exaggerations and eccentricities of the Slavophils and 
based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance.  The 
antagonism first appeared publicly during the Franco-German 
War, when the tsar supported the cabinet of Berlin and the 
cesarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French.  
It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 
1875-1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement 
in all ranks of Russian society.  At first the cesarevich was 
more Slavophil than the government, but his phlegmatic nature 
preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by 
others, and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may 
have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in 
Bulgaria, where he commanded the left wing of the invading 
army.  The Bulgarians had been represented in St Petersburg 
and Moscow not only as martyrs but also as saints, and a 
very little personal experience sufficed to correct the 
error.  Like most of his brother officers he could not feel 
any very great affection for the ``little brothers,'' as the 
Bulgarians were then commonly called, and he was constrained to 
admit that the Turks were by no means so black as they had been 
painted.  He did not, however, scandalize the believers by any 
public expression of his opinions, and did not indeed make himself 
conspicuous in any way during the campaign.  Never consulted 
on political questions, he confined himself to his military 
duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive 
manner.  After many mistakes and disappointments, the army 
reached Constantinople and the treaty of San Stefano was 
signed, but much that had been obtained by that important 
document had to be sacrificed at the congress of Berlin.  
Prince Bismarck failed to do what was confidently expected of 
him.  In return for the Russian support, which had enabled 
him to create the German empire, it was thought that he would 
help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with 
her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of 
the cabinet of St Petersburg he confined himself to acting 
the part of ``honest broker'' at the congress, and shortly 
afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with 
Austria for the express purpose of counteracting Russian 
designs in Eastern Europe.  The cesarevich could point to 
these results as confirming the views he had expressed during 
the Franco-German War, and he drew from them the practical 
conclusion that for Russia the best thing to do was to recover 
as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and 
to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of 
military and naval reorganization.  In accordance with this 
conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be 
introduced.  During the campaign in Bulgaria he had found by 
painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption 
existed in the military administration, and after his return 
to St Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed 
in the naval department.  For these abuses, several high-placed 
personages--among others two of the grand-dukes-- were believed 
to be responsible, and he called his father's attention 
to the subject.  His representations were not favourably 
received.  Alexander II. had lost much of the reforming zeal 
which distinguished the first decade of his reign, and had no 
longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to 
him.  The consequence was that the relations between father 
and son became more strained.  The latter must have felt that 
there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded 
to the direction of affairs.  That change was much nearer 
at hand than was commonly supposed.  On the 13th of March 
1881 Alexander II. was assassinated by a band of Nihilists, 
and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son. 

In the last years of his reign, Alexander II. had been 
much exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the 
increasing number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some 
time he had hesitated between strengthening the hands of the 
executive and making concessions to the widespread political 
aspirations of the educated classes.  Finally he decided in 
favour of the latter course, and on the very day of his death 
he signed a ukaz, creating a number of consultative commissions 
which might have been easily transformed into an assembly of 
notables.  Alexander III. determined to adopt the opposite 
policy.  He at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, 
and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne 
he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention 
of limiting or weakening the autocratic power which he had 
inherited from his ancestors.  Nor did he afterwards show any 
inclination to change his mind.  All the internal reforms which 
he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as 
the too liberal tendencies of the previous reign, so that he 
left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde 
type.  In his opinion Russia was to be saved from anarchical 
disorders and revolutionary agitation, not by the parliamentary 
institutions and so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by 
the three principles which the elder generation of the Slavophils 
systematically recommended--nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and 
autocracy.  His political ideal was a nation containing only 
one nationality, one language, one religion and one form 
of administration; and he did his utmost to prepare for the 
realization of this ideal by imposing the Russian language and 
Russian schools on his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by 
fostering Eastern Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, 
by persecuting the Jews and by destroying the remnants of 
German, Polish and Swedish institutions in the outlying 
provinces.  In the other provinces he sought to counteract 
what he considered the excessive liberalism of his father's 
reign.  For this purpose he clipped the feeble wings of the 
zemstvo, an elective local administration resembling the county 
and parish councils in England, and placed the autonomous 
administration of the peasant communes under the supervision 
of landed proprietors appointed by the government.  At the 
same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the imperial 
administration, and to bring it more under his personal 
control.  In foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of 
peace, but not at all a partisan of the docrrine of peace at any 
price, and he followed the principle that the best means of 
averting war is to be well prepared for it.  Though indignant 
at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided 
an open rupture with Germany, and even revived for a time the 
Three Emperors' Alliance.  It was only in the last years of 
his reign, when M. Katkov had acquired a certain influence 
over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet of Berlin a 
more hostile attitude, and even then he confined himself to 
keeping a large quantity of troops near the German frontier, 
and establishing cordial relations with France.  With regard 
to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control.  The efforts of 
Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy Russian 
influence in the principality excited his indignation, but 
he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of 
arms.  In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional 
policy of gradually extending Russian domination without 
provoking a conflict with Great Britain, and he never allowed 
the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of 
hand.  As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the 
eventful periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that 
under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made considerable 
progress.  He died at Livadia on the 1st of November 1894, 
and was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II. (D. M. W.) 

ALEXANDER I. (c. 1078-1124), king of Scotland, was the fourth 
son of Malcolm Canmore by his wife (St) Margaret, grand-niece 
of Edward the Confessor.  On the death of his brother Edgar 
in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance 
with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only a part of its 
possessions.  By a partition, the motive of which is not 
quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde 
were erected into an earldom for Alexander's younger brother, 
David.  Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole, 
but without success.  A curious combination of the fierce 
warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one 
aspect of his character in his ruthless suppression of an 
insurrection in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself 
the title of ``the Fierce''), the other in his munificent 
foundation of bishoprics and abbeys.  Among the latter were 
those of Scone and Inchcolm.  His strong championship of the 
independence of the Scottish church involved him in struggles 
with both the English metropolitan sees.  He died on the 27th 
of April 1124, and was succeeded by his brother, David I. 

ALEXANDER II. (1198-1249), king of Scotland, son of William 
the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont, was born at Haddington 
in 1198, and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his 
father in 1214.  The year after his accession the clans 
MacWilliam and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish 
crown, broke into revolt; but the insurrection was speedily 
quelled.  In the same year Alexander joined the English 
barons in their struggle against John, and led an army into 
England in support of their cause; but on the conclusion of 
peace after John's death between his youthful son Henry III. 
and the French prince Louis, the Scottish king was included 
in the pacification.  The reconciliation thus effected 
was further strengthened by the marriage of Alexander to 
Henry's sister Joanna in 1221.  The next year was marked by 
the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of 
Argyll.  A revolt in Galloway in 1235 was crushed without 
difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards 
by its exiled leaders meet with any better fortune.  Soon 
afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew 
forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English 
counties.  The dispute, however, was settled by a compromise in 
1237.  A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time 
interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; 
but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his 
attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for 
war, compelled him to make peace next year at Newcastle.  
Alexander now turned his attention to securing the Western 
Isles, which still owned a nominal dependence on Norway.  
Negotiations and purchase were successively tried but without 
success.  Alexander next attempted to seduce Ewen, the son of 
Duncan, lord of Argyll, from his allegiance to the Norwegian 
king.  Ewen refused his overtures, and Alexander sailed 
forth to compel him.  But on the way he was seized with 
fever at Kerrera, and died there on the 8th of July 1249. 

ALEXANDER III. (1241-1285), king of Scotland, son of 
Alexander II. by his second wife Mary de Coucy, was born in 
1241.  At the age of eight years the death of his father 
called him to the throne.  The years of his minority were 
marked by an embittered struggle for the control of affairs 
between two rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, earl 
of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, the justiciar.  The 
former was in the ascendant during the early years of the 
reign.  At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 
1251, Henry III. seized the opportunity to demand from his 
son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but the claim was 
refused.  In 1255 an interview between the English and Scottish 
kings at Kelso resulted in the deposition of Menteith and his 
party in favour of their opponents.  But though disgraced, 
they still retained great influence; and two years later, 
seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals 
to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both 
parties.  On attaining his majority in 1262, Alexander declared 
his intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which 
had been cut short by the death of his father thirteen years 
before.  A formal claim was laid before the Norwegian king 
Haakon.  Not only was this unsuccessful, but next year Haakon 
replied by a formidable invasion.  Sailing round the west 
coast of Scotland he halted off Arran, where negotiations were 
opened.  These were artfully prolonged by Alexander until 
the autumn storms should begin.  At length Haakon, weary of 
delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which 
greatly damaged his ships.  The battle of Largs, fought next 
day, was indecisive.  But even so Haakon's position was 
hopeless.  Baffled he turned homewards, but died on the 
way.  The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 
Haakon's successor concluded a treaty by which the Isle of 
Man and the Western Isles were ceded to Scotland in return for 
a money payment, Orkney and Shetland alone being retained.  
Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all his 
three children within a few years made the question of the 
succession one of pressing importance.  In 1284 he induced the 
Estates to recognize as his heir-presumptive his grand-daughter 
Margaret, the ``Maid of Norway''; and next year the desire for 
a male heir led him to contract a second marriage.  But all 
such hopes were defeated by the sudden death of the king, who 
was killed by a fall from his horse in the dark while riding 
to visit the queen at Kinghorn on the 16th of March 1285. 

ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OBRENOVICH) (1876-1903), king of 
Servia, was born on the 14th of August 1876.  On the 6th of 
March 1889 his father, King Milan, abdicated and proclaimed 
him king of Servia under a regency until he should attain his 
majority at eighteen years of age.  King Alexander, on the 
13th of April 1893, being then in his seventeenth year, made 
his notable first coup d'etat, proclaimed himself of full 
age, dismissed the regents and their government, and took the 
royal authority into his own hands.  His action was popular, 
and was rendered still more so by his appointment of a radical 
ministry.  In May 1894 King Alexander, by another coup 
d'etat, abolished the liberal constitution of 1889 and 
restored the conservative one of 1869.  His attitude during 
the Turco-Greek war of 1897 was one of strict neutrality.  In 
1898 he appointed his father commander-in-chief of the Servian 
army, and from that time, or rather from his return to Servia 
in 1894 until 1900, ex-king Milan was regarded as the de 
facto ruler of the country.  But while, during the summer of 
1900, Milan was away from Servia taking waters in Carlsbad, 
and making arrangements to secure the hand of a German princess 
for his son, and while the premier, Dr Vladan Dyorevich, 
was visiting the Paris Universal Exhibition, King Alexander 
suddenly announced to the people of Servia his engagement to 
Mme Draga Mashin, a widow, formerly a lady-in-waiting to Queen 
Natalie.  The projected union aroused great opposition at 
first.  Ex-King Milan resigned his post; so did the government; 
and King Alexander had great difficulty in forming a new 
cabinet.  But the opposition subsided somewhat on the 
publication of Tsar Nicholas's congratulations to the king on 
his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal 
witness at the wedding.  The marriage was then duly celebrated 
on the 5th of August 1900.  Still this union was unpopular and 
weakened the position of King Alexander in the army and the 
country.  He tried to reconcile political parties by granting 
from his own initiative a liberal constitution (April 6, 
1901), introducing for the first time in the constitutional 
history of Servia the system of two chambers (skupshtina and 
senate).  This did in a certain measure reconcile the political 
parties, but did not reconcile the army, which, already 
dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more 
so at the rumours that one of the two unpopular brothers of 
Queen Draga, Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir- 
apparent to the throne.  Meanwhile the independence of the 
senate and of the council of state caused growing irritation 
to King Alexander, which led him to another coup d'etat. 
He suspended (March 1903) the constitution for half an hour, 
time enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators 
and councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new 
ones.  This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction 
in the country.  The general impression was that inasmuch as 
the senate was packed with men devoted to the royal couple, 
and inasmuch as the government obtained a large majority at 
the general elections, King Alexander would not hesitate any 
longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the heir to the 
throne.  Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace 
Alexander Obrenovich by Peter Karageorgevich, a military 
conspiracy was organized.  The conspirators penetrated into 
the palace and savagely murdered King Alexander and Queen 
Draga in the early morning of the 11th of June 1903. (C. MI.) 

ALEXANDER, son of Numenius, Greek rhetorician, flourished 
in the first half of the second century A.D. In addition to 
general treatises on rhetoric, he wrote a special work Peri 
ton tes dianoias kai tes lexeos schematon, of which 
only an abridgment is extant; later epitomes were made in Latin 
by Aquila Romanus and Julius Rufinianus under the title De 
Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis. Another epitome was 
made in the fourth century by a Christian for use in Christian 
schools, containing additional examples from Gregory of Nazianzus. 

Text in Spengel, Rhetores Graeci (1856). 

ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772-1851), American Presbyterian 
divine, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in that part 
of Augusta county which is now Rockbridge county, Virginia, 
on the 17th of April 1772.  After completing his preliminary 
education in the little school at Lexington, Virginia, which 
later developed into Washington and Lee University, he came 
under the influence of the religious movement known as the 
``great revival'' (1789-1790) and devoted himself to the study of 
theology.  Licensed to preach in 1791, he was engaged for 
several years as an itinerant Presbyterian preacher in his 
native state, and acquired during this period the facility in 
extemporaneous speaking for which he was remarkable.  He was 
president of Hampden-Sidney College from 1796 to 1807, with a 
short intermission (in 1801-1802), and in 1807 became pastor 
of Pine Street Church, Philadelphia.  In 1812 he became first 
professor in the newly established Presbyterian Theological 
Seminary at Princeton, New Jersey, where he remained until 
his death at Princeton on the 22nd of October 1851, filling 
successively the chairs of didactic and polemic theology 
(1812-1840), and pastoral and polemic theology (1840-1851).  He 
married, in 1802, Janetta Waddel, the daughter of the celebrated 
blind preacher, James Waddel (1739-1805), whose eloquence 
was described in William Wirt's Letters of a British Spy 
(1803).  Dr Alexander wrote a considerable number of theological 
works, which had a large circulation.  Among these may be 
mentioned his Brief Outline of the Evidences of the Christian 
Religion (1825), which passed through several editions, and 
was translated into various languages; The Canon of the Old 
and New Testament Ascertained; or the Bible Complete without 
the Apocrypha and Unwritten Traditions (1826); A History 
of the Israelitish Nation (1852), and Outlines of Moral 
Science (1852), the last two being published posthumously. 

See the biography (New York, 1854) by his son James W. Alexander. 

ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800-1881), American portrait- painter, 
was born in Windham county, Connecticut, in February 1800.  
Brought up on a farm, he taught himself the use of colours, 
and in 1820 went to New York City and studied painting with 
Alexander Robertson.  He spent the winters of 1831 and 1832 
in Rome, and then for nearly a decade he lived in Boston, 
Massachusetts, where he had considerable vogue, and where 
in 1842 he painted a portrait of Charles Dickens.  One of 
his best portraits is that of Mrs Fletcher Webster in the 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts.  He died in 1881 in Florence. 

ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858- ), English actor, whose family 
name was Samson, was born in Reading on the 19th of June 1858, 
the son of a Scottish manufacturer.  He went into business in 
London after leaving school, but having acted as an amateur 
he determined to make the stage his profession.  His first 
appearance was at Nottingham in 1879, and after some seasons 
of provincial experience he made his first London appearance 
as Caleb Deecie in Two Roses in 1881 with Irving at the 
Lyceum.  He was selected by W. S. Gilbert to support Mary 
Anderson in Comedy and Tragedy, returned for a time to the 
Lyceum, where he was Irving's principal associate, especially 
as Faust (1886) and Macduff (1888); and, after starting 
successfully under his own management at the Avenue Theatre in 
1890 with Dr Bill, in 1891 became manager of the St James's 
Theatre.  There he produced a number of successful plays, notably 
Oscar Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan and The Importance of 
being Earnest, Pinero's Second Mrs Tanqueray, The Princess 
and the Butterfiy, His House in Order and The Thunderbolt; 
C. Haddon Chambers's The Idler; H. A. Jones's Masqueraders; 
Alfred Sutro's John Glayde's Honour and The Builder of 
Bridges; Carton's Liberty Hall and The Tree of Knowledge; 
Anthony Hope's Prisoner of Zenda and Rupert of Hentzau; 
and Stephen Phillips's Paolo and Francesca, himself playing 
the leading parts with great distinction.  In 1907 he was 
elected a member of the London County Council as a municipal 
reformer, but continued to act regularly at the St James's. 

ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803-1885), British soldier and 
traveller, was born on the 16th of October 1803.  He joined 
the East India Company's army in 1820, transferring into the 
British army in 1825.  As aide-de-camp to the British envoy 
to Persia, he was an eye-witness of the fighting in the war 
between Persia and Russia (1826), and in 1829 was present in 
the Balkans during the Russo-Turkish war.  In 1832-1834 he was 
in Portugal during the Miguelete war, and in 1835 served in 
the Kaffir war in South Africa as aide-de-camp to Sir Benjamin 
D'Urban.  Subsequently he conducted an exploring expedition into 
Namaqualand and Damaraland, and was knighted for his services 
(1838).  From 1841 to 1855 he served in Canada, proceeding 
thence to the Crimea, and in 1862 held an important command 
in New Zealand during the Maori war.  He retired from the 
service in 1877, and in 1881 was given the honorary rank of 
general.  He was largely responsible for the preservation 
and transfer to England of Cleopatra's Needle in 1877.  His 
varied experiences provided material for a large number of 
books, among which were Travels from India to England 
(1827); Transatlantic Sketches (1833); An Expedition of 
Discovery into the Interior of Africa (1838); Passages in 
the Life of a Soldier (1857); Incidents of the Maori War 
(1863).  He was also the author of a Life of Field-Marshal the 
Duke of Wellington (1840).  He died on the 2nd of April 1885. 

ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- ), American painter, was 
born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October 
1836.  He was left an orphan when very young, became an 
illustrator for Harper's Magazine, studied in Europe, became 
a pupil of the Royal Academy at Munich, and also worked in 
Venice, in Holland and in Paris, where he attracted much 
attention by his exhibition at the Salon of two female 
portraits entitled ``Gris'' and ``Noir.'' He became a member 
of the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts (Paris), of the 
National Academy of Design (New York), of the International 
Society (London), and of the Vienna and Munich Societies of 
Painters.  In 1901 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of 
Honour.  He executed decorative panels for the Congressional 
Library, Washington, D.C., and a large decoration for 
the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and his 
works include numerous portraits and subject pictures. 

ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (1809-1860), American biblical 
scholar, the third son of Archibald Alexander, was born in 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of April 1809.  He 
graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) 
in 1826, having devoted himself especially to the study of 
Hebrew and other oriental languages, and from 1830 to 1833 
was adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature 
there.  In 1834 he became an assistant to Dr Charles Hodge, 
professor of oriental and biblical literature in the Princeton 
Theological Seminary, and in 1838 became associate professor 
of oriental and biblical literature there, succeeding Dr Hodge 
in that chair in 1840 and being transferred in 1851 to the 
chair of biblical and ecclesiastical history, and in 1859 to 
that of Hellenistic and New Testament literature, which he 
occupied until his death at Princeton on the 28th of January 
1860.  Alexander was a remarkable linquist and exegete.  He 
had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1839, and 
was well known for his pulpit eloquence.  He was the author 
of The Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah (1846), The Later 
Prophecies of Isaiah (1847), and an abbreviation of these 
two volumes, Isaiah Illustrated and Explained (2 vols., 
1851), The Psalms Translated and Explained (3 vols., 
1850), commentaries on Acts (2 vols., 1857), Mark (1858) 
and Matthew (1860), and two volumes of Sermons (1860). 

See The Life of Joseph A. Alexander (2 vols., 2nd 
ed., New York, 1875) by his nephew, Henry C. Alexander. 

His brother, JAMES WADDEL ALEXANDER (1804-1859), born in 
Louisa county, Virginia, on the 13th of March 1804, was a famous 
Presbyterian preacher.  He graduated at the College of New Jersey 
in 1820, studied theology in the Princeton Seminary, and was 
pastor of a Presbyterian church in Charlotte county, Virginia, 
from 1826 to 1828, and of the First Presbyterian church in 
Trenton, New Jersey, in 1829-1832.  From 1833 to 1844 he was 
professor of belles-lettres and Latin language and literature 
in the College of New Jersey, from 1844 to 1849 was pastor of 
the Duane Street Presbyterian church in New York City, from 
1849 to 1851 was professor of ecclesiastical history, church 
government and sacred rhetoric in the Princeton Theological 
Seminary, and from 1851 until his death, at Red Sweet Springs, 
Virginia, on the 31st of July 1859, was pastor of the Fifth 
Avenue Presbyterian church in New York City.  He wrote numerous 
magazine articles and published a number of books, including 
The American Mechanic and Workingman (2 vols., 1847, a 
coltection of papers to mechanics first printed under the 
pseudonym of ``Charles Quill''), Thoughts on Family Worship 
(1847), Sacramental Addresses (1854), The Revival and 
its Lessons (1859), Thoughts on Preaching (1861), Faith 
(1862), and many juvenile books for Sunday-school libraries. 

See Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander (2 vols., 
New York, 1860), edited by Dr John Hall (1806-1894) of Trenton, N. J. 

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824- ), Protestant archbishop of 
Armagh and primate of all Ireland, was born at Londonderry 
on the 13th of April 1824 and educated at Tonbridge Grammar 
School and Brasenose College, Oxford.  After holding several 
livings in the north of Ireland he was made bishop of Derry 
and Raphoe in 1867, and was elevated to the primacy in 
1896.  He was Bampton lecturer in 1816.  An eloquent preacher 
and the author of numerous theological works, he is best 
known to literature as a master of dignified and animated 
verse.  His poems were collected in 1887 under the title of 
St Augustine's Holiday, and other Poems. His wife, Cecil 
Francis Humphreys (1818-1895), wrote some tracts in connexion 
with the Oxford movement, but is famous as the author of 
``Jesus calls us o'er the tumult,'' ``There is a green hill 
far away'' and other well-known hymns (nearly four hundred in 
all).  A collection of her verse was published in 1896. 

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808-1884), Scottish divine, 
was born at Leith on the 24th of August 1808.  He was educated 
at the universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, where he 
gained a lasting reputation for classical scholarship.  He 
entered Glasgow Theological Academy under Ralph Wardlaw in 
September 1827, but in December of the same year he left 
to become classical tutor at the Blackburn Theological 
Academy (afterwards the Lancashire Independent College).  
At Blackburn he stayed till 1831, lecturing on biblical 
literature, metaphysics, Greek and Latin.  After short visits 
to Germany and London he was invited in November 1834 to 
become minister of North College Street church (afterwards 
Argyle Square), Edinburgh, an independent church which had 
arisen out of the evangelical movement associated with the 
Haldanes.  He deliberately put aside the ambition to become a 
pulpit orator in favour of the practice of biblical exposition, 
which he invested with a singular charm and impressiveness.  
In 1836 he became one of the editors of the Congregational 
Magazine, to which he contributed articles on biblical 
literature and theology and on the ``voluntary'' controversy.  
In 1840 he delivered the Congregational Lecture in London on 
the ``Connexion and Harmony of the Old and New Testaments.'' 

Alexander took an active part in the ``voluntary'' controversy 
which ended in the Disruption, but he also maintained 
broad and catholic views of the spiritual relations between 
different sections of the Christian church.  In 1845 he 
visited Switzerland with the special object of inquiring into 
the religious life of the churches there.  He published an 
account of his journey in a book, Switzerland and the Swiss 
Churches, which led to an interchange of correspondence 
between the Swiss and Scottish churches.  In 1845 he received 
the degree of D.D. from the university of St Andrews.  In 1861 
he undertook the editorship of the third edition of Kitto's 
Biblical Encyclopaedia with the understanding that the whole 
work should be thoroughly revised and brought up to date.  In 
January 1870 he became one of the committee of Old Testament 
revisers, and by his thorough biblical scholarship rendered 
exceptional service to the board; he enjoyed the work and 
devoted much time to it for the next fourteen years.  In 1877 he 
became principal of the Edinburgh Theological Hall, a position 
which he held, in spite of many tempting offers of preferment 
elsewhere, until his death on the 20th of December 1884. 

See his Life and Work by James Ross (1887). (D. Mn.) 

ALEXANDER AETOLUS, of Pleuron in Aetolia, Greek poet and 
man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry, 
flourished about 280 B.C. When living in Alexandria he was 
commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus to arrange the tragedies 
and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he 
took up his residence at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, 
king of Macedonia.  His reputation as a tragic poet was so 
high that he was allotted a place in the Alexandrian tragic 
Pleiad; we only know the title of one play (Astragalistae.) 
He also wrote short epics, epigrams and elegies, the 
considerable fragments of which show learning and eloquence. 

Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1853); Bergk, Poetae 
Lyrioi Graeci; Couat, La Poesie alexandrine (1882). 

ALEXANDER BALAS (i.e. ``lord''), ruler of the Greek kingdom 
of Syria 150-146 B.C., was a native of Smyrna of humble 
origin, but gave himself out to be the son of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes and heir to the Syrian throne.  His claims were 
recognized by the Roman senate, Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt 
and others.  At first unsuccessful, he finally defeated 
the reigning king Demetrius Soter in 150 B.C. Being now 
undisputed master of Syria, he abandoned himself to a life of 
debauchery.  Demetrius Soter's son profited by the opportunity 
to regain the throne.  Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's 
father-in-law, went over to his side, and Alexander was defeated 
in a pitched battle near Antioch in Syria.  He fled for refuge 
to a Nabataean prince, who murdered him and sent his head to 
Ptolemy, who had been mortally wounded in the engagement. 

See 1 Maccab. 10 ff.; Justin xxxv. 1 and 2; Josephus, 
Antiq. xiii. 2; Appian, Sir. 67; Polybius xxxiii. 14. 

ALEXANDER CORNELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed POLYHISTOR 
from his great learning, born at Miletus or Myndus in 
Caria, flourished about 70 B.C. He was taken prisoner in 
the Mithridatic war by Sulla, from whom (or from Cornelius 
Lentulus) he received his freedom and assumed the name 
Cornelius.  He accompanied Crassus on his Parthian 
campaigns, and perished at the destruction by fire of his 
house at Laurentum.  He is said to have written ``books 
without number,'' chiefly on historical and geographical 
subjects.  Of the extant fragments (Muller, Fragmenta 
Historicorum Graecorum, iii:) those relating to the Jews are 
important as containing quotations from lost Jewish authors. 

ALEXANDER JANNAEUS, king of the Jews, succeeded his brother 
Aristobulus in 103 B.C. and died in 76 B.C. His first act 
was the murder of one of his brothers who claimed the throne, 
and his reign was disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated 
in order to retain his position. (See JEWS and PHARISEES.) 

ALEXANDER NEVSKY, SAINT (1220-1263), grand-duke of Vladimir, 
was the second son of the grand-duke Yaroslav.  His childhood 
and youth were spent at Great Novgorod, whither his father 
sent him to rule (1228) with some guardian boyars.  In 1239 
he married Alexandra, daughter of Prince Bryachislav of 
Polotsk.  At an early age he distinguished himself in 
constant warfare with the Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians, 
who tried to wrest Novgorod and Pskov from Russia while she 
was still suffering from the effects of the terrible Tatar 
invasion.  The most notable of these battles, whereby he 
won his honorific epithet of Nevsky (i.e. of the Neva), 
was fought on the banks of the Neva (July 15 1240) against 
the famous Swedish statesman, Birger Jarl, whom he utterly 
defeated, besides wounding him with his lance.  In the following 
year the Teutonic Order, in conjunction with the Order of the 
Sword, succeeded in capturing Pskov; but Alexander recovered 
it in 1242, advanced into Livonia, and on the 5th of April 
defeated the knights on the ice of Lake Peipus and compelled 
them in the ensuing peace to renounce all their conquests.  
He also prevented the Swedes (in 1256) from settling in South 
Finland.  On the death of his father (1246) Alexander and 
his younger brother Andrew went on a two years' journey 
into Mongolia to obtain their yarluiki, or letters of 
investiture, from the Grand Khan, who then disposed of the 
fate of all the Russian princes.  He returned (1250) as 
grand-duke of Kiev and Novgorod, while to Andrew was given 
the far more important grand- duchy of Vladimir.  In 1252, 
however, the Tatars themselves expelled Andrew and placed 
Alexander on the throne of Vladimir.  Alexander henceforth 
did his best for his country by humbling himself before the 
Tatars so as to give them no pretext for ravaging the land 
again.  Most of his spare money he devoted to the ransoming 
of the numerous Russian captives detained at the Golden 
Horde.  But the men of Novgorod, in their semi-independent 
republic, continued (1255-1257) to give the grand-duke 
trouble, their chief grievance being the imposition of a Tatar 
tribute, which they only submitted to in 1259 on the rumour 
of an impending Tatar invasion.  In 1262 the Tatar tribute 
was felt so grievously all over Russia that preparations 
were made for a general insurrection, and Alexander, who knew 
that an abortive rebellion would make the yoke heavier, was 
obliged to go to the Horde in person to prevent the Tatars 
from again attacking Russia.  He stayed at Sarai, their Volgan 
capital, all the Winter, and not only succeeded in obtaining 
a mitigation of the tribute, but also the abolition of the 
military service previously rendered by the Russians to the 
Tatars.  This was his last service to his country.  He died 
on his way home from the Horde, and in the words of his 
contemporary, the metropolitan Cyril, ``with him the sun 
of Russia set.'' The Orthodox Church has canonized the 
ruler who gave his whole life for Russia and the Orthodox 
faith.  His relics, discovered in 1380, were in 1724 
translated by Peter the Great from Vladimir to St Petersburg. 

See Sergyei Mikhailovich Solovev, History of Russia 
(Rus., 2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1897, vol. 3). (R. N. B.) 

ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS, pupil of Aristocles of Messene, the 
most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the writings of 
Aristotle, and styled, by way of pre-eminence, o exegetes (``the 
expositor''), was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria.  He came 
to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century A.D., became 
head of the Lyceum and lectured on peripatetic philosophy.  The 
object of his work was to free the doctrine from the syncretism 
of Ammonius and to reproduce the pure doctrine of Aristotle.  
Commentaries by Alexander on the following works of Aristotle 
are still extant:--the Analytica Priora, i.; the Topica; 
the Meteorologica; the De Sensu; and the Metaphysica, 
i.-v., together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the 
remaining books of the Metaphysica. His commentaries were 
greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated many of 
them.  There are also several original writings by Alexander still 
extant.  The most important of these are a work On Fate, in 
which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and 
one On the Soul, in which he contends that the undeveloped 
reason in man is material (nous ulikos) and inseparable 
from the body.  He argued strongly against the doctrine of 
immortality.  He identified the active intellect (nous 
poietikos), through whose agency the potential intellect 
in man becomes actual, with God. Several of Alexander's works 
were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 
1495-1498; his De Fato and De Anima were printed along 
with the works of Themistius at Venice (1534); the former 
work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and also 
by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and 
his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 
1847.  J. Nourisson has treated of his doctrine of fate (De 
la liberte et du hazard, Paris, 1870).  In the early 
Renaissance his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted 
by F. Pomponazzi against the Thomists and the Averroists. 

See PERIPATETICS (ad fin.); ALEXANDRISTS; POMPONAZZI, PIETRO; 
also A. Apelt, ``Die Schrift d.  Alex. v.  Aphr.,'' Philolegus, 
xlv., 1886: C. Ruelle, ``Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretendu Alex. 
d'Alexandrie,'' Rev. des etudes grecques, v., 1892; E. 
Zeller's Outlines of Gk. Phil. (Eng. trans., ed. 1905, p. 296). 

ALEXANDER OF HALES (ALEXANDER HALENSIS), surnamed DOCTOR 
IRREFRAGABILIS, THEOLOGORUM MONARCHA and FONS VITAE, a 
celebrated English theologian of the 13th century, was born in 
Gloucestershire.  Trained in the monastery of Hales he was 
early raised to an archdeaconry.  He went, like most of the 
scholars of his day, to study at Paris, where he took the 
degree of doctor and became celebrated as a teacher.  It is 
generally held that he taught Bonaventura, Duns Scotus and 
Thomas Aquinas, but a comparison of dates makes it clear 
that the two latter could not have been his pupils and that 
the statement about Bonaventura is open to doubt.  In 1222 
(or 1231, see Denifle, Chartul.  Univers. Paris, Paris, 
1889, i. 135) Alexander entered the order of Minorite Friars 
and thenceforward lived in strict seclusion.  He refused, 
however, to renounce his degree of doctor, and was the 
first of his order who continued to bear that title after 
initiation.  He died in 1245 and was buried in the convent 
of the Cordeliers at Paris.  His most celebrated work was the 
Summa Theologiae (Nuremberg, 1452; Venice, 1576; Cologne, 
1611), undertaken by the orders of Pope Innocent IV. and 
approved by Alexander IV., on the report of seventy learned 
theologians, as a system of instruction for all the schools in 
Christendom.  The form is that of question and answer, 
and the method is rigidly scholastic.  Of small intrinsic 
value, it is interesting partly as the first philosophical 
contribution of the Franciscans who were afterwards to take 
a prominent part in medieval thought (see SCHOLASTICISM), 
and partly as the first work based on a knowledge of the 
whole Aristotelian corpus and the Arabian commentators. 

See Wadding, Script. ord. minor. (Rome, 1650); for his method 
B. Haureau, Hist. de philos. scholast. (Paris, 1880); F. 
Picavet, ``Abelard et A. de H.'' in the Bibliothieque de 
l'ecole des hautes-etudes (2nd series, Paris, 1896, pp. 
222-230); Schwane, Dogmengesch. (Freiburg, 1882); A. Harnack, 
Dogmengesch. (1890); J. Endres, ``Des A. von H. Leben und 
psvchol.  Lehre'' in Philos.  Jahrb. (i. Fulda, 1888, pp. 24-55, 
203-296): also Vacant's Dict. de theologie catholique, vol. i. 

ALEXANDER OP TRALLES (ALEXANDER TRALLIANUS), Greek 
physician, born at Tralles in Lydia, lived probably about the 
middle of the 6th century and practised medicine with success at 
Rome.  The Greek text of his Biblia iatrika was printed 
at Paris in 1548 and his De Lumbricis at Venice in 1570. 

See E. Milward, Trallianus Reviviscens (London, 1734). 

ALEXANDER SEVERUS (MARCUS AURELIUS SEVERUS ALEXAXDER) 
(208-235), Roman emperor from A.D. 222 to 235, was born 
at Arca Caesarea in Palestine on the 1st of October 208. His 
father, Gessius Marcianus, held office more than once as an 
imperial procurator; his mother, Julia Mamaea, was the daughter 
of Julia Maesa and the aunt of Heliogabalus.  His original name 
was Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother, 
Maesa, persuaded the emperor Heliogabalus to adopt his cousin 
as successor and create him Caesar.  In the next year, on 
the 11th of March, Heliogabalus was murdered, and Alexander 
was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorians and accepted by the 
senate.  He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning, but 
entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many 
virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched 
over the development of his character and improved the tone 
of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately 
jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while 
neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep tight 
the reins of military discipline.  Mutinies became frequent 
in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of the 
jurist and praetorian praefect Ulpian was sacrificed; another 
compelled the retirement of Dio Cassius from his command) 
On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous 
till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the 
Sassanians (see PERSIA: History.) Of the war that followed 
we have very various accounts; Mommsen leans to that which 
is least favourable to the Romans.  According to Alexander's 
own despatch to the senate he gained great victories.  At all 
events, though the Persians were checked for the time, the 
conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of 
discipline.  The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a 
triumph (233), but next year he was called to face German 
invaders in Gaul, where he was slain (on the 18th or 19th of 
March 235), together with his mother, in a mutiny which was 
probably led by Maximinus, a Thracian legionary, and at any rate 
secured him the throne.  Alexander was the last of the Syrian 
princes.  During his reign, acting, as he did in most things, 
under the influence of his mother, he did much to improve 
the morals and condition of the people.  His advisers were 
men like the famous jurist Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius 
and a select board of sixteen senators; a municipal council 
of fourteen assisted the city praefect in administering the 
affairs of the fourteen districts of Rome.  The luxury and 
extravagance that had formerly been so prevalent at the court 
were put down; the standard of the coinage was raised; taxes 
were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; 
the lot of the soldiers was improved; and, for the convenience 
of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending 
money at a moderate rate of interest.  In religious matters 
Alexander preserved an open mind.  In his private chapel he 
had busts of Orpheus, Abraham, Apollonius of Tyana and Jesus 
Christ.  It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple 
to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by the pagan 
priests.  There is no doubt that, had Alexander's many 
excellent qualities been supported by the energy and strength 
of will necessary for the government of a military empire, 
he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman emperors. 

See Lampridius, Alexander Severus; Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30, 
lxxix. 17, lxxx. 1; Herodian vi. 1-18; Porrath, Der Kaiser 
Alex. Sev. (1876); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, 
ii. 2526 foll. (Groebe); monograph by R. V. Nind 
Hopkins, Cambridge Historical Essays, No. xiv. (1907). 

ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN, a celebrated impostor and worker 
of false oracles, was born at Abonouteichos (see INEBOLI) 
in Paphlagonia in the early part of the 2nd century A.D. 
The vivid narrative of his career given by Lucian might be 
taken as fictitious but for the corroboration of certain 
coins of the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius (J. H. 
Eckhel, Doctrina Nummorum veterum, ii. pp. 383, 384) and 
of a statue of Alexander, said by Athenagoras (Apology, c. 
26) to have stood in the forum of Parium.  After a period of 
instruction in medicine by a doctor who also, according to 
Lucian, was an impostor, he succeeded in establishing an 
oracle of Aesculapius at his native town.  Having circulated 
a prophecy that the son of Apollo was to be born again, he 
contrived that there should be found in the foundations of 
the temple to Aesculapius, then in course of construction at 
Abonouteichos, an egg in which a small live snake had been 
placed.  In an age of superstition no people had so great a 
reputation for credulity as the Paphlagonians, and Alexander 
had little difficulty in convincing them of the second coming 
of the god under the name of Glycon.  A large tame snake with 
a false human head, wound round Alexander's body as he sat 
in a shrine in the temple, gave ``autophones'' or oracles 
unasked, but the usual methods practised were those of the 
numerous oracle-mongers of the time, of which Lucian gives a 
detailed account, the opening of sealed inquiries by heated 
needles, a neat plan of forging broken seals, and the giving 
of vague or meaningless replies to difficult questions, coupled 
with a lucrative blackmailing of those whose inquiries were 
compromising.  The reputation of the oracle, which was in origin 
medical, spread, and with it grew Alexander's skilled plans 
of organized deception.  He set up an ``intelligence bureau'' 
in Rome, instituted mysteries like those of Eleusis, from 
which his particular enemies the Christians and Epicureans 
were alike excluded as ``profane,'' and celebrated a mystic 
marriage between himself and the moon.  During the plague of 
A.D. 166 a verse from the oracle was used as an amulet and 
was inscribed over the doors of houses as a protection, and 
an oracle was sent, at Marcus Aurelius' request, by Alexander 
to the Roman army on the Danube during the war with the 
Marcomanni, declaring that victory would follow on the throwing 
of two lions alive into the river.  The result was a great 
disaster, and Alexander had recourse to the old quibble of 
the Delphic oracle to Croesus for an explanation.  Lucian's 
own close investigations into Alexander's methods of fraud 
led to a serious attempt on his life.  The whole account 
gives a graphic description of the inner working of one among 
the many new oracles that were springing up at this period.  
Alexander had remarkable beauty and the striking personality 
of the successful charlatan, and must have been a man of 
considerable intellectual abilities and power of organization.  
His income is said by Lucian to have reached an enormous 
figure.  He died of gangrene of the leg in his seventieth year. 

See Lucian, 'Alexandros e pseudomantis; Samuel Dill, Roman 
Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904): and F. Gregorovius, 
The Emperor Hadrian, trans. by M. E. Robinson (1898). 

ALEXANDERS (botanical name, Smyrnium Olusatrum, natural 
order Umbelliferae), a stout herbaceous plant with a 
furrowed, much-branched stem 1-3 ft. high, and large compound 
leaves with broad sheathing stalks, and broad, cut or lobed 
segments.  The small yellow flowers are borne in compound 
umbels.  The plant is a native of the Mediterranean region, 
and was formerly cultivated as a pot-herb.  It is now found 
apparently wild in Great Britain and Ireland, growing in 
waste places, especially near the sea and amongst ruins. 

In England the plant is sometimes popularly termed 
``alisander''; in North America Thaspium aureum is sometimes 
called ``alexanders.'' ``Alexander's foot,'' botanical 
name Anacyclus Pyrethrum, is the pellitory of Spain. 

ALEXANDERSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom 
of Bavaria, romantically situated in the Fichtelgebirge, 
near Wunsiedel, at a height of 1900 ft. above the sea.  Pop. 
1200.  Its waters, which are ferruginous and largely charged 
with carbonic acid gas, are of use in nervous and rheumatic 
disorders.  In the neighbourhood is the Luisenburg (or Luxburg), 
so called after a visit paid by Queen Louise of Prussia in 
1805, a hill covered by majestic granite rocks, commanding 
a grand view of the whole range of the Fichtelgebirge. 

ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724), French 
theologian and ecclesiastical historian, was born at Rouen 
on the 19th of January 1639.  In his 15th year he joined the 
Dominicans, and shortly after his ordination was appointed 
professor of philosophy at the convent of Saint-Jacques in 
Paris.  The success of his subsequent lectures at the Sorbonne 
led to his selection by Colbert as tutor to his son, Jacques 
Nicolas Colbert, afterwards archbishop of Rouen.  Alexandre 
obtained the degree of doctor in divinity from the Sorbonne 
in 1675 and for twelve years taught philosophy, theology 
and ecclesiastical law to the members of the Saint-Jacques 
community.  He played a prominent part in ecclesiastical 
affairs and preached several times before Louis XIV., who 
granted him an annual pension of 800 livres, and in the 
general assemblies of the French bishops.  He became provincial 
of his order in 1706, but was banished to Chatellerault 
in 1709 for having subscribed to the Cas de conscience 
(1703), and was deprived of his pension in 1713 on account 
of his opposition to the bull Unigenitus. He died in Paris 
on the 21st of August 1724, having lost his sight some time 
before owing to his strenuous literary activity.  His numerous 
works are still much valued by ecclesiastical students. 

His best-known work, the Selecta historiae ecclesiasticae 
capita, et in loca ejusdem insignia dissertationes 
historicae, chronologicae, dogmaticae (26 vols., Paris, 
1676-1686), was placed on the Index by Innocent XI., on 
account of his bold defence of the Gallican claims.  In 1689 
he brought out at Paris his history of the Old Testament: 
Selecta historiae Veteris Testamenti capita, &c., in 6 
vols.  Of the numerous editions of Alexandre's ecclesiastical 
history the best is that of P. J. D. Mansi, which contains 
many valuable notes and additions (11 vols., Lucca, 1749) 
and has been frequently reprinted.  Alexandre's principal 
contribution to theological literature is his Theologia 
dogmatica et moralis secundum ordinem catechismi concilii 
Tridentini (10 vols., Paris, 1694), in which he clearly shows 
himself a disciple of the Thomist school.  His Couformite 
des ceremonies chinoises avec l'idolatrie grecque et 
romaine and Sept lettres sur les ceremonies de la Chine 
(both published at Cologne in 1700) are interesting as they 
mark him out as a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. 

See Catalogue complet des oeuvres du Pere Alexandre (Paris, 
1716); Quetif-Echard, Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (Paris, 
1719-1721), t. ii. p. 810; and full bibliography in A. Vacant, Dict. 
de theologie (scholarly article by P. Mandounet, cols. 769-772). 

ALEXANDRETTA, or ISKANDERUN (med. Scanderoon), a town 
of N. Syria, situated in the N.E. angle of the Levantine 
Mediterranean on the S.E. of the gulf to which it gives a 
title.  Pop. about 10,000, two-thirds Moslem.  Iskanderun 
preserves the name, but probably not the exact site, of Alexandria 
ad Issum, founded by Alexander in 333 B.C., about 23 
m.  S. of the scene of his victory, to supersede Myriandrus as 
key of the Syrian Gates (Beilan Pass).  The importance of the 
place ever since has been derived from its relation to this 
pass, the easiest approach to the open ground of N. Syria of 
which Antioch and Aleppo have been the successive capitals; 
and this relation has prevailed over the extreme unhealthiness 
of the site, which lies on marshy deltaic ground, screened by 
the horseshoe of Elma Dagh from all purifying influences of 
N. and E. winds.  As the main outlet for the overland trade 
from Bagdad and India, whose importance was great until the 
establishment of the Egyptian overland route, the place was a 
great resort, first of Genoese and Venetian merchants, then of 
those of West and North European nations.  The British Levant 
(Turkey) Company maintained an agency and factory here for 200 
years, till 1825, in spite of appalling mortality among its 
employes.  Alexandretta is still the main port for the Aleppo 
district, to which a good chaussee leads over the Beilan 
Pass, and it has a considerable export trade in tobacco, silk, 
cereals, liquorice, textiles.  The health of the place has 
improved with the draining of the marshes and the provision 
of a better supply of water, but still leaves much to be 
desired.  The wealthier inhabitants have summer residences 
at Beilan near the summit of the pass, long a stronghold of 
freebooting Dere Beys and the scene of the victory won by 
Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, which opened Cilicia to his advance.  
There are resident consuls of all the principal powers, and 
the port is well served by coasting steamers under European 
and Ottoman flags.  The distance by road to Aleppo has been 
shortened to about 70 m., and Antakia (Antioch) is about 45 
m. distant by a branch of the same chaussee. (D. G. H.) 

ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia), a city and chief seaport 
of Egypt, and for over a thousand years from its foundation 
the capital of the country, situated on the Mediterranean in 
31 deg.  12' N., 29 deg.  15' E., and 129 m. by rail N.W. of Cairo.  
The ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile (now dry) was 12 m.  E. 

I. The Modern City.--The city is built on the strip of land 
which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Mareotis ( Mariut), 
and on a T-shaped peninsula which forms harbours east and 
west.  The stem of the T was originally a mole leading to an 
island (Pharos) which formed the cross-piece.  In the course 
of centuries this mole has been silted up and is now an isthmus 
half a mile wide.  On it a part of the modern city is built.  
The cape at the western end of the peninsula is Ras et-Tin (Cape 
of Figs); the eastern cape is known as Pharos or Kait Bey. South 
of the town--between it and Lake Mareotis--runs the Mahmudiya 
canal, which enters the western harbour by a series of locks. 

The customs house and chief warehouses are by the western 
harbour, but the principal buildings of the city are in the 
east and south-east quarters.  From the landing-stage, by the 
customs house, roads lead to the Place Mehemet Ali, the centre 
of the life of the city and the starting-point of the electric 
tramways.  The place, usually called the Grand Square, 
is an oblong open space, tree-lined, in the centre of which 
there is an equestrian statue of the prince after whom it is 
named.  The square is faced with handsome buildings mainly 
in the Italian style.  The most important are the law courts, 
exchange, Ottoman bank, English church and the Abbas Hilmi 
theatre.  A number of short streets lead from the square 
to the eastern harbour.  Here a sea wall, completed in 
1905, provides a magnificent drive and promenade along 
the shore for a distance of about 3 m.  In building this 
quay a considerable area of foreshore was reclaimed and an 
evil-smelling beach done away with.  From the south end of 
the square the rue Sherif Pasha--in which are the principal 
shops--and the rue Tewfik Pasha lead to the boulevard, or 
rue, de Rosette, a long straight road with a general E. and W. 
direction.  In it are the Zizinia theatre and the municipal 
palace (containing the public library); the museum lies up a 
short street to the N. Opened in 1895 this museum possesses an 
important collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities, 
found not only in the city but in all Lower Egypt and the 
Fayum.  The western end of the boulevard leads to the Place 
Ibrahim, often called Place Ste Catherine, from the Roman 
Catholic church at its S.E. side.  In a street running S. from 
the boulevard to the railway station is the mosque of Nebi 
Daniel, containing the tombs of Said Pasha and other members 
of the khedivial family.  Immediately E. of the mosque is Kom 
ed-Dik, garrisoned by British troops, one of several forts built 
for the protection of the city.  Except Kom ed-Dik the forts 
have not been repaired since the bombardment of 1882.  Equally 
obsolete is the old line of fortifications which formerly marked 
the limits of the city south and east and has now been partly 
demolished.  Throughout the central part of Alexandria the 
streets are paved with blocks of lava and lighted by electricity. 

The north quarter is mainly occupied by natives and Levantines.  
The narrow winding streets and the Arab bazaars present an 
Oriental scene contrasting with the European aspect of the 
district already described.  This Arab quarter is traversed 
by the rue Ras et-Tin, leading to the promontory of than 
name.  Here, overlooking the harbour, is the khedivial yacht 
club (built 1903) and the palace, also called Ras et-Tin, 
built by Mehemet Ali, a large but not otherwise noteworthy 
building.  In the district between the Grand Square and the 
western harbour, one of the poorest quarters of the city, 
is an open space with Fort Caffareli or Napoleon in the 
centre.  This quarter has been pierced by several straight 
roads, one of which, crossing the Mahmudiya canal by the Pont 
Neuf, leads to Gabbari, the most westerly part of the city 
and an industrial and manufacturing region, possessing asphalt 
works and oil, rice and paper mills.  On either side of the 
canal are the warehouses of wholesale dealers in cotton, wool, 
sugar, grain and other commodities.  In the southern part of 
the city are the Arab cemetery, ``Pompey's Pillar'' and the 
catacombs. ``Pompey's Pillar,'' which stands on the highest 
spot in Alexandria, is nearly 99 ft. high, including the 
pedestal.  The shaft is of red granite and is beautifully 
polished.  Nine feet in diameter at the base, it tapers to eight 
feet at the top.  The catacombs, a short distance S.W. of the 
pillar, are hewn out of the rocky slope of a hill, and are an 
elaborate series of chambers adorned with pillars, statues, 
religious symbols and traces of painting (see below, Ancient 
City.) Along the northern side of the Mahmudiya canal, 
which here passes a little S. of the catacombs, are many fine 
houses and gardens (Moharrem Bey quarter), stretching eastward 
for a considerable distance, favourite residences of wealthy 
citizens.  A similar residential quarter has also grown up 
on the N.E., where the line of the old fortifications has 
become a boulevard.  The district extending outside the E. 
fortifications, in the direction of Hadra, has been laid out 
with fine avenues, and contains numerous garden-cafes and 
pleasure resorts.  Thence roads lead to the E. suburb known 
generally as Ramleh, which stretches along the coast, and is 
served by a local railway.  It begins E. of the racecourse 
with Sidi Gabr, and does not end till the khedivial estates 
E. of San Stefano are reached, some 5 m.  E. All this space 
is filled with villas, gardens and hotels, and is a favourite 
summer resort not only of Alexandrians but also of Cairenes. 

The eastern bay is rocky, shallow and exposed, and is now used 
only by native craft.  The harbour is on the W. of Pharos and 
partly formed by a breakwater (built 1871-1873 and prolonged 
1906-1907), 2 m. long.  The breakwater starts opposite the 
promontory of Ras et-Tin, on which is a lighthouse, 180 ft. 
above the sea, built by Mehemet Ali. Another breakwater starts 
from the Gabbari side, the opening between the two works 
being about half a mile.  A number of scattered rocks lie 
across the entrance, but through them two fairways have been 
made, one 600 ft. wide and 35 ft. deep, the other 300 ft. 
wide and 30 ft. deep.  The enclosed water is divided into an 
outer and inner harbour by a mole, 1000 yds. long, projecting 
N.W. from the southern shore.  The inner harbour covers 464 
acres.  It is lined for 2 1/2 m. by quays, affording accommodation 
for ships drawing up to 28 ft.  The outer harbour (1400 acres 
water area) is furnished with a graving dock, completed in 
1905, 520 ft. long, and with quays and jetties along the 
Gabbari foreshore.  Their construction was begun in 1906. 

Alexandria is linked by a network of railway and telegraph 
lines to the other towns of Egypt, and there is a trunk 
telephone line to Cairo.  The city secured in 1906 a new 
and adequate water-supply, modern drainage works having been 
completed the previous year.  Being the great entrepot 
for the trade of Egypt, the city is the headquarters of the 
British chamber of commerce and of most of the merchants and 
companies engaged in the development of the Delta.  About 90% 
of the total exports and imports of the country pass through 
the port, though the completion, in 1904, of a broad-gauge 
railway connecting Cairo and Port Said deflected some of the 
cotton exports to the Suez Canal route.  The staple export 
is raw cotton, the value of which is about 80% of all the 
exports.  The principal imports are manufactured cotton goods 
and other textiles, machinery, timber and coal.  The value 
of the trade of the port increased from L. 30,000,000 in 1900 
to L. 46,000,000 in 1906.  In the same period the tonnage 
of the ships entering the harbour rose from 2,375,000 to 
3,695,000.  Of the total trade Great Britain supplies from 
35 to 40% of the imports and takes over 50% of the exports.  
Among the exports sent to England are the great majority of the 
80,000,000 eggs annually shipped (see also EGYPT: Commerce.) 

The population of the city (1907) was 332,246 or including 
the suburbs, about 400,000.  The foreigners numbered over 
90,000.  The majority of these were Greeks, Italians, Syrians, 
Armenians and other Levantines, though almost every European 
and Oriental nation is represented.  The predominant languages 
spoken, besides the Arabic of the natives, are Greek, French, 
English and Italian.  The labouring population is mainly 
Egyptian; the Greeks and Levantines are usually shopkeepers 
or petty traders.  In its social life Alexandria is the 
most progressive and occidental of all the cities of North 
Africa, with the possible exception of Algiers. (F. R. C.) 

II. The Ancient City.--The Greek Alexandria was divided 
into three regions: (1) the Jews' quarter, forming the 
north-east portion of the city; (2) Rhacotis, on the west, 
occupied chiefly by Egyptians; (3) Brucheum, the Royal or 
Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the 
city.  In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of 
an official quarter, making up the number of four regiones 
in all.  The city was laid out as a gridiron of parallel 
streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal.  
Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been 
each about 200 ft. wide, intersected in the centre of the 
city, close to the point where rose the Sema (or Soma) 
of Alexander (i.e. his Mausoleum).  This point is very 
near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the 
great east-west ``Canopic'' street only slightly diverged 
from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette.  Traces of its 
pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate; but 
better remains still of streets and canals were exposed in 
1899 by the German excavators outside the E. fortifications, 
which lie well within the area of the ancient city. 

Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the 
island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole 
nearly a mile long and called the Heptastadium. The end 
of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand 
Square, where rose the ``Moon Gate.'' All that now lies 
between that point and the modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built 
on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this 
mole.  The Ras et-Tin quarter represents all that is left 
of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse 
having been weathered away by the sea.  On the east of 
the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the 
west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin 
Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. 

In Strabo's time, (latter half of 1st century B.C.) the 
principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to 
be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour. (1) The Royal 
Palaces, filling the N.E. angle of the town and occupying the 
promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbouron the 
east.  Lochias, the modern Pharillon, has almost entirely 
disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the 
``Private Port'' and the island of Antirrhodus.  There has been 
a land subsidence here, as throughout the N. Delta and indeed 
all the N.E. coast of Africa; and on calm days the foundations 
of buildings may be seen, running out far under sea, near the 
Pharillon.  Search was made for relics of these palaces by 
German explorers in 1898-1899, but without much success. (2) 
The Great Theatre, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh 
station.  This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he 
stood a siege from the city mob after the battle of Pharsalus. 
(3)The Poseideion or Temple of the Sea God, close to the 
theatre and in front of it. (4) The Timonium built by Antony. 
(5, 6, 7) The Emporium (Exchange), Apostases (Magazines) 
and Navalia (Docks), lying west of (4), along the sea-front 
as far as the mole.  Behind the Emporium rose (8) the Great 
Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, later known 
as ``Cleopatra's Needles,'' and now removed to New York and 
London.  This temple became in time the Patriarchal Church, 
some remains of which have been discovered: but the actual 
Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies under 
the houses lining the new sea-wall. (9) The Gymnasium 
and (10) the Palaestra are both inland, near the great 
Canopic street (Boulevard de Rosette) in the eastern half 
of the town, but on sites not determined. (11) The Temple 
of Saturn: site unknown. (12) The Mausolea of Alexander 
(Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point 
of intersection of the two main streets. (13) The Museum 
with its library and theatre in the same region; but on a 
site not identified. (14) The Serapeum, the most famous of 
all Alexandrian temples Strabo tells us that this stood in 
the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far to place 
it near ``Pompey's Pillar'' (see above) which, however, was 
an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's 
siege of the city.  We know the names of a few other public 
buildings on the mainland, but nothing as to their position.  
On the eastern point of the Pharos island stood the Great 
Lighthouse, one of the ``Seven Wonders,'' reputed to be 400 ft. 
high.  The first Ptolemy began it, and the second completed 
it, at a total cost of 800 talents.  It is the prototype of 
all lighthouses (q.v.) in the world.  A temple of Hephaestus 
also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole.  In the Augustan 
age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 
free folk, in addition to an immense number of slaves. 

III. History.-- 

Ancient and medieval period. 

Founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, Alexandria was 
intended to supersede Naucratis (q.v.) as a Greek centre in 
Egypt, and to be the link between Macedonia and the rich Nile 
Valley.  If such a city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there 
was only one possible site, behind the screen of the Pharos 
island and removed from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths.  
An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and 
was a resort of fishermen and pirates.  Behind it (according 
to the Alexandrian treatise, known as pseudo-Callisthenes) 
were five native villages scattered along the strip between 
Lake Mareotis and the sea.  Alexander occupied Pharos, and 
had a walled city marked out by Deinocrates on the mainland 
to include Rhacotis.  A few months later he left Egypt for 
the East and never returned to his city; but his corpse was 
ultimately entombed there.  His viceroy, Cleomenes, continued 
the creation of Alexandria.  The Heptastadium, however, and 
the mainland quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic 
work.  Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the 
centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian 
and Indian East, the city grew in less than a century to be 
larger than Carthage; and for some centuries more it had to 
acknowledge no superior but Rome.  It was a centre not only of 
Hellenism but of Semitism, and the greatest Jewish city in the 
world.  There the Septuagint was produced.  The early Ptolemies 
kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum 
into the leading Greek university; but they were careful 
to maintain the distinction of its population into three 
nations, ``Macedonian'' (i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian.  
From this division arose much of the later turbulence which 
began to manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater.  Nominally 
a free Greek city, Alexandria retained its senate to Roman 
times; and indeed the judicial functions of that body were 
restored by Septimius Severus, after temporary abolition by 
Augustus.  The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction 
in 80 B.C., according to the will of Ptolemy Alexander: but 
it had been under Roman influence for more than a hundred years 
previously.  There Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in 
47 B.C. and was mobbed by the rabble; there his example 
was followed by Antony, for whose favour the city paid dear 
to Octavian, who placed over it a prefect from the imperial 
household.  Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its 
old prosperity, commanding, as it did, an important granary of 
Rome.  This latter fact, doubtless, was one of the chief 
reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly under 
the imperial power.  In A.D. 215 the emperor Caracalla 
visited the city; and, in order to repay some insulting 
satires that the inhabitants had made upon him, he commanded 
his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing 
arms.  This brutal order seems to have been carried out 
even beyond the letter, for a general massacre was the 
result.  Notwithstanding this terrible disaster, Alexandria 
soon recovered its former splendour, and for some time longer 
was esteemed the first city of the world after Rome.  Even as 
its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan 
learning, so now it acquired fresh importance as a centre of 
Christian theology and church government.  There Arianism was 
formulated and there Athanasius, the great opponent of both 
heresy and pagan rcaction, worked and triumphed.  As native 
influences, however, began to reassert themselves in the Nile 
valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and 
more detached from Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce 
as the peace of the empire broke up during the 3rd century 
A.D., it declined fast in population and splendour.  The 
Brucheum, and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century, 
and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to 
ruin.  On the mainland life seems to have centred in the 
vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both become Christian 
churches: but the Pharos and Heptastadium quarters remained 
populous and intact.  In 616 it was taken by Chosroes, king 
of Persia; and in 640 by the Arabians, under `Amr, after a 
siege that lasted fourteen months, during which Heraclius, the 
emperor of Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its 
assistance.  Notwithstanding the losses that the city had 
sustained, `Amr was able to write to his master, the caliph 
Omar, that he had taken a city containing ``4000 palaces, 4000 
baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 
Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement." 

The story of the destruction of the library by the Arabs is 
first told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer 
who lived six centuries later; and it is of very doubtful 
authority.  It is highly improbable that many of the 700,000 
volumes collected by the Ptolemies remained at the time of the 
Arab conquest, when the various calamities of Alexandria from the 
time of Caesar to that of Diocletian are considered, together with 
the disgraceful pillage of the library in A.D. 389 under the 
rule of the Christian bishop, Theophilus, acting on Theodosius' 
decree concerning pagan monumcnts (see LIBRARIES: Ancient 
History).  The story of Abulfaragius runs as follows:-- 

John the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, 
being in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high 
favour with `Amr, begged that he would give him the royal 
library. `Amr told him that it was not in his power to grant 
such a request, but promised to write to the caliph for his 
consent.  Omar, on hearing the request of his general, is 
said to have replied that if those books contained the same 
doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use, since the 
Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they contained 
anything contrary to that book, they ought to be destroyed; and 
therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be 
burnt.  Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among 
the public baths, of which there was a large number in the 
city, where, for six months, they served to supply the fires. 

Shortly after its capture Alexandria again fell into the hands 
of the Greeks, who took advantage of `Amr's absence with the 
greater portion of his army.  On hearing what had happened, 
however, `Amr returned, and quickly regained possession of the 
city.  About the year 646 `Amr was deprived of his government 
by the caliph Othman.  The Egyptians, by whom `Amr was greatly 
beloved, were so much dissatisfied by this act, and even 
showed such a tendency to revolt, that the Greek emperor 
determined to make an effort to reduce Alexandria.  The attempt 
proved perfectly successful.  The caliph, perceiving his 
mistake, immediately restored `Amr, who, on his arrival in 
Egypt, drove the Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but 
was only able to capture the city after a most obstinate 
resistance by the defenders.  This so exasperated him that 
he completely demolished its fortifications, although he 
seems to have spared the lives of the inhabitants as far 
as lay in his power.  Alexandria now rapidly declined in 
importance.  The building of Cairo in 969, and, above all, 
the discovery of the route to the East by the Cape of Good 
Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce; the canal, which 
supplied it with Nile water, became blocked; and although it 
remained a principal Egyptian port, at which most European 
visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods landed, we hear 
little of it until about the beginning of the 19th century. 

[Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations 
of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798.  The French troops 
stormed the city on the 2nd of July 1798, and it remained in 
their hands until the arrival of the British expedition of 1801.  
The battle of Alexandria, fought on the 21st of March of that 
year, between the French army under General Menou and the 
British expeditionary corps under Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
took place near the ruins of Nicopohs, on the narrow spit 
of land between the sea and Lake Aboukir, along which the 
British troops had advanced towards Alexandria after the 
actions of Aboukir on the 8th and Mandora on the 13th. 

Battle of 1801. 

The British position on the night of the 20th extended across 
the isthmus, the right resting upon the ruins of Nicopolis and 
the sea, the left on the lake of Aboukir and the Alexandria 
canal.  The line faced generally south-west towards the 
city, the reserve division under Major-General (Sir) John 
Moore on the right, the Guards brigade in the centre, and 
three other brigades on the left.  In second line were two 
brigades and the cavalry (dismounted).  On the 21st the 
troops were under arms at 3 A.M., and at 3.30 the French 
attacked and drove in the outposts.  The French army now 
moved forward with great rapidity in their usual formation of 
columns.  The brunt of the attack fell upon the command of 
Moore, and in particular upon the 28th (Gloucestershire 
Regiment).  The first shock was repulsed, but a French column 
penetrated in the dark between two regiments of the British 
and a confused fight ensued in the ruins, in which the 42nd 
(Black Watch) captured a colour.  The front and rear ranks 
of the 28th were simultaneously engaged, and the conduct of 
the regiment won for it the distinction of wearing badges 
both at the front and at the back of their head-dress.  
Other regiments which assisted in the overthrow of the French 
column were the 23rd, 40th and 58th.  In a second attack the 
enemy's cavalry inflicted severe losses on the 42nd.  Sir 
Ralph Abercromby was here engaged in personal conflict with 
some French dragoons, and about this time received a mortal 
wound, though he remained on the field and in command to the 
end.  The attack on the centre was repulsed by the cool and 
steady fire of the Guards, and the left wing maintained its 
position with ease, but the French cavalry for the second time 
came to close quarters with the reserve.  About half-past eight 
the combat began to wane, and the last shots were fired at 
ten.  The real attack had been pressed home on the British 
right, and the History of the Queen's Royal West Surrey 
Regiment gives no undue praise to the regiments of the 
reserve in saying that ``the determined attack would have been 
successful against almost any other troops.'' Technically, 
the details of the action show that, while not markedly better 
in a melee than the war-seasoned French, the British 
infantry had in its volleys a power which no other troops 
then existing possessed, and it was these volleys that decided 
the day even more than the individual stubbornness of the 
men.  The 42nd, twice charged by cavalry, had but thirteen 
men wounded by the sabre.  Part of the French losses, which 
were disproportionately heavy, were caused by the gunboats 
which lay close inshore and cannonaded the left flank of the 
French columns, and by a heavy naval gun which was placed in 
battery near the position of the 28th.  The forces engaged 
on this day mere approximately 14,000 British to about 20,000 
French, and the losses were:-- British, 1468 killed, wounded 
and missing, including Abercromby (who died on the 28th), 
Moore and three other generals wounded; French, 1160 killed 
and (?) 3000 wounded.  The British subsequently advanced upon 
Alexandria, which surrendered on the 31st of August. (C. F. A.) 

Modern city. 

During the anarchy which accompanied Ottoman rule in Egypt 
from first to last, Alexandria sank to a small town of about 
4000 inhabitants; and it owed its modern renascence solely to 
Mehemet Ali, who wanted a deep port and naval station for his 
viceregal domain.  He restored its water communication with 
the Nile by making the Mahmudiya canal, finished in 1820; and 
he established at Ras et-Tin his favourite residence.  The 
Old Eunostus harbour became the port, and a flourishing city 
arose on the old Pharos island and the Heptastadium district, 
with outlying suburbs and villa residences along the coast 
eastwards and the Mareotic shore.  Being the starting-point 
of the ``overland route'' to India, and the residence of the 
chief foreign consuls, it quickly acquired a European character 
and attracted not only Frank residents, but great numbers of 
Greeks, Jews and Syrians.  There most of the negotiations 
between the powers and Mehemet All were conducted; thence 
started the Egyptian naval expeditions to Crete, the Morea 
and Syria; and thither sailed the betrayed Ottoman fleet in 
1839.  It was twice threatened by hostile fleets, the Greek in 
1827 and the combined British, French and Russian squadrons in 
1828.  The latter withdrew on the viceroy's promise that 
Ibrahim should evacuate the Morea.  The fortifications 
were strengthened in 1841, and remained in an antiquated 
condition until 1882, when they were renovated by Arabi 
Pasha.  Alexandria was connected with Cairo by railway in 
1856.  Much favoured by the earlier viceroys of Mehemet Ali's 
house, and removed from the Mameluke troubles, Alexandria was 
the real capital of Egypt till Said Pasha died there in 1863 
and Ismail came into power.  Though this prince continued to 
develop the city, giving it a municipality in 18661 and new 
harbour works in 1871-1878, he developed Cairo still more; and 
the centre of gravity definitely shifted to the inland capital. 

Bombardment of 1882. 

Fate, however, again brought Alexandria to the front.  After 
a mutiny of soldiers there in 1881, the town was greatly 
excited by the arrival of an Anglo-French fleet in May 1882, 
and on the 11th of June a terrible riot and massacre took 
place, resulting in the death of four hundred Europeans.  
Since satisfaction was not given for this and the forts were 
being strengthened at the instigation of Arabi Pasha, the 
war minister, the British admiral, Sir Beauchamp Seymour 
(afterwards Lord Alcester), sent an ultimatum on the 10th of 
July and opened fire on the forts the next day.  They were 
demolished, but as no troops were landed immediately a fresh 
riot and massacre ensued.  As Arabi did not submit, a British 
military expedition landed at Alexandria on the 10th of 
August, the sequel being the British occupation of the whole 
country, the history of which is set forth under EGYPT. 

Since the restoration of tranquillity and the establishment 
of sound political and economic conditions in the Nile valley, 
Alexandria has greatly expanded.  As the British consular 
report for 1904 says, ``Building . . . for residential and 
other purposes proceeds with almost feverish rapidity.  The 
cost of living has doubled and the price of land has risen 
enormously.'' On the E. and S.E. a new town of handsome 
houses, gardens and boulevards has been called into existence, 
in the arrangement of which the controlling influence of 
the municipality is evident (see Modern Gity above). 

IV. Antiquities.--Persistent efforts have been made to explore 
the antiquities of Alexandria.  Encouragement and help have 
been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many 
individuals, notably Greeks justly proud of a city which is 
one of the glories of their national story.  The past and 
present directors of the museum have been enabled from time 
to time to carry out systematic excavations when opportunity 
offered; Mr D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf 
of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion 
of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked 
for two years (1898-1899).  But two difficulties face the 
would-be excavator in Alexandria.  First, since the great 
and growing modern city stands right over the ancient one, 
it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in 
which to dig, except at enormous cost.  Second, the general 
subsidence of the coast has sunk the lower-lying parts of 
the ancient town under water.  Unfortunately the spaces 
still most open are the low grounds to N.E. and S.W., where 
it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata. 

The most important results were those achieved by Dr G. 
Botti, late director Of the museum, in the neighbourhood 
of ``Pompey's Pillar,'' where there is a good deal of open 
ground.  Here substructures of a large building or group of 
buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the 
Serapeum.  Hard by immense catacombs and columbaria 
have been opened which may have been appendages of the 
temple.  These contain one very remarkable vault with curious 
painted reliefs, now lighted by electricity and shown to 
visitors.  The objects found in these researches are in the 
museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably 
once an object of cult in the Serapeum.  Other catacombs and 
tombs have been opened in Kore es-Shugafa Hadra (Roman) and 
Ras et-Tin (painted).  The Germans found remains of a Ptolemaic 
colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little 
else.  Mr Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure 
under the mound of Kom ed-Dik, which may have been part of 
the Paneum, the Mausolea or a Roman fortress.  The making of 
the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the 
Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings 
are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being 
discovered.  The wealth underground is doubtless immense; 
but, despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians 
to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighbourhood 
of ``Pompey's Pillar.'' The native tomb- robbers, well-sinkers, 
dredgers and the like, however, come upon valuable objects from 
time to time, which find their way into private collections. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) Modern City.  See latest editions of 
guidebooks to Lower Egypt (Baedeker, Murray, Macmillan). (2) 
History.  See authorities for history of EGYPT. (3) Ancient 
City and Antiquities.  Mahmud Bey el Fallaki, Memoire 
sur l'antique Alexandrie (1872); T. D. Neroutsos, L'A 
ncienne A lexandrie ( I 888) D.G. Hogarth and E. F. 
Benson, Report on Prospects of Research in Alexandria Egypt 
Expl.  Fund Archaeological Report, 1894-1895); Bulletin 
de la Societe Archeologique d'Alexandrie(1898 foll.); 
O. Puchstein in Pauly- Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v. 
``Alexandria''; U. Wilcken, Observationes ad historiam 
Egypti Provinciae Romanae (1885); G. Lumbroso, L'Egitto 
al tempo dei Greci e dei Romani (1882); H. Kiepert, Zur 
Topographie des alten Alexandria (1872). (D. G. H.) 

1 This municipality was superseded by a new municipal 
body, with extensive powers, created in 1890. 

ALEXANDRIA, a city of Madison county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 46 
m.  N.E. of Indianapolis.  Pop. (1890) 715; (1900) 7221, 
(1002 foreign-born); (1910) 5096.  Alexandria is served by the 
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Lake Erie 
& Western railways, and by the Indiana Union Traction System 
(electric).  In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah 
Park (24 acres), the latter belonging to the Northern Indiana 
Holiness Association, which there holds summer camp-meetings.  
The city is in a rich farming country, which produces Indian 
corn, oats and wheat; and is in the Indiana natural gas region, 
to which fact it owes its rapid growth as a manufacturing 
centre.  It is one of the principal seats of the glass 
industry in Indiana-- plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, 
&c., being manufactured here--and also has mineral wool 
factories and paper mills.  The municipality owns and operates 
the water-works and the gas-lighting plant.  Alexandria 
was founded in 1836 and was chartered as a city in 1893. 

ALEXANDRIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Rapides 
Parish, on the S. bank of the Red river in almost the exact 
geographical centre of the state.  Pop. (1890) 2861; (1900) 
5648 (3142 negroes); (1910) 11,213.  The city is served 
by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company, the St 
Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Texas & Pacific, the Louisiana & 
Arkansas, the Southern Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways.  The Red river is 
navigable to Alexandria during the entire year.  Alexandria 
is on a level plain in the centre of the Louisiana long-leaf 
pine forests, in which pine is interspersed with various 
hardwoods.  The forests stretch on all sides within a radius of 75 
m.  In the immediate vicinity of the city, on the Red river, 
cotton, sugar, alfalfa and garden vegetables are cultivated; 
south of the Red river is a peculiarly rich farming country 
watered by Bayou Rapides and Bayou Boeuf.  Near the city is 
the Louisiana Asylum for the Insane.  The principal industaes 
are cotton- pressing and the manufacture of lumber and of 
cotton-seed products; sugar and molasses, artificial ice, 
mineral waters and brick are other manufactures.  The city 
owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting plant; 
the water-supply is derived from artesian wells.  Alexandria 
was named in honour of Alexander Fulton, on whose grant from 
Spain the first settlement was made in 1785; it was first 
incorporated as a town in 1818 and received a city charter in 
1882.  In the spring of 1863 a Union fleet under Admiral David 
D. Porter, operating on the Red river, co-operated with land 
forces under General N. P. Banks in pushing the Confederates 
westward.  Alexandria was occupied on the 7th of May 1863, 
but the troops were soon withdrawn for the Port Hudson 
attack.  On the 19th of March 1864 it was again occupied by 
the Union forces, who made it the point of concentration for 
another land and naval expedition against E. Kirby Smith and 
Shreveport.  After the check of this expedition and its 
abandonment, Alexandria was again vacated on the 12th-13th of 
May, when the city was almost entirely burned.  The Union 
gunboats, which had passed up the river toward Shreveport 
at high water, were caught in its decline above the falls at 
Alexandria, but they were saved by a splendid piece of engineering 
(a dam at the falls), constructed by Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph 
Bailey (1827-1867), who for this service received the thanks 
of Congress and the brevet of brigadier-general of volunteers. 

ALEXANDRIA, a town of Rumania, situated among the rich 
corn-lands of the Teleorman department, on the right bank of 
the river Vedea.  Pop. (1900) 13,675.  Its chief trade is in 
grain, despatched by rail to the Danubian port of Zimnicea, or 
by river to Giurgevo.  Alexandria was named after its founder, 
Alexander John Cuza, prince of Rumania from 1859 to 1866. 

ALEXANDRIA, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire, 
Scotland, situated on the right bank of the Leven about 3 
m. north of Dumbarton, on the North British and Caledonian 
railways.  It owes its origin almost entirely to the cotton 
printing and bleaching works of the vicinity, for which there 
is an abundant supply of excellent water, and contains one 
of the largest of the Turkey-red dyeing establishments in the 
Vale of Leven.  The public buildings include a public hall, 
the mechanics' institute with library and lecture-hall, an 
institute for men, with library and recreation rooms, a similar 
institution for women, banks and other important commercial 
offices.  Pop. (1891) 7796; (1901) 8007.  Alexandria is 
connected with BONHILL, on the opposite bank of the river, 
by a bridge which replaced in 1898 one bought three years 
earlier by the county council from the Smollett family, who 
have been closely associated with the district since the 
time of Sir James Smollett, the novelist's grandfather.  
The industries of Bonhill centre in the calico printing, 
dyeing and bleaching which find their headquarters in the 
valley.  Population (1891) 3843; (1901) 3333. JAMESTOWN, 
about 1 m. to the north-east of Alexandria, with a station 
on the Forth & Clyde railway from Balloch to Stirling (North 
British), contains some of the largest cotton-printing 
works in Scotland.  Population (1891) 1668; (1901) 2080. 

ALEXANDRIA, a city and a port of entry of Alexandria county, 
Virginia, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Potomac river, 6 
m. below Washington, D.C., with which it is connected by a 
ferry.  Pop. (1890) 14,339; (1900) 14,528, of whom 4533 were 
negroes; (1910, census), 15,329.  Alexandria is served by the 
Baltimore & Ohio, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Southern and the 
Washington Southern railways; by the Washington, Alexandria & 
Mount Vernon electric railway; and by several lines of river 
and coasting steamboats.  It is a quaint, old-fashioned city, 
with quiet, shady streets, and a number of buildings dating 
back to the 18th century; of these the most interesting is the 
old Christ Church in which George Washington and Robert E. Lee 
worshipped.  The city has a public library.  About 2 1/2 
m.  W. of Alexandria is the Protestant Episcopal Theological 
Seminary in Virginia, opened here in 1823 and chartered in 
1854; in 1906-1907 the Seminary had a faculty of 7 and 46 
students.  Alexandria is a distributing and jobbing centre for 
the north-east counties of Virginia.  Among its manufactures 
are fertilizers, bottles, carbonated beverages, flour, beer, 
shoes, silk thread, aprons, brooms, leather, bricks, and 
tiling and structural iron.  The total value of its factory 
product in 1905 was $2,186,658.  The municipality owns and 
operates its gas-lighting plant.  Alexandria, first known as 
Belhaven, was named in honour of John Alexander, who in the 
last quarter of the 17th century had bought the land on which 
the city now stands from Robert Howison; the first settlement 
here was made in 1695.  Alexandria was laid out in 1749 and 
was incorporated in 1779.  From 1790 until 1846 Alexandria 
county was a part of the District of Columbia; at present the 
city, although within the limits of Alexandria county, is not 
administratively a part of it.  The city was re-chartered in 
1852.  For some time Alexandria seemed destined to become 
an important commercial centre, but the rise of Washington 
created a rival that soon outstripped it, and since the 
Civil War the city's growth has been comparatively slight.  
At Alexandria in 1755 General Edward Braddock organized his 
fatal expedition against Fort Duquesne, and here, in April of 
the same year, the governors of Virginia, Massachusetts, New 
Yfork, Pennsylvania and Maryland met (in a house still standing) 
to determine upon concerted action against the French in 
America.  In March 1785 commissioners from Virginia and 
Maryland met here to discuss the commercial relations of 
the two states, finishing their business at Mount Vernon on 
the 28th with an agreement for freedom of trade and freedom 
of navigation of the Potomac.  The Maryland legislature in 
ratifying this agreement on the 22nd of November proposed 
a conference between representatives from all the states to 
consider the adoption of definite commercial regulations.  
This led to the calling of the Annapolis convention of 1786, 
which in turn led to the calling of the Federal convention of 
1787.  In 1814 Alexandria was threatened by a British fleet, 
but bought immunity from attack by paying about $100,000.  At 
the opening of the Civil War the city was occupied by Federal 
troops, and great excitement throughout the North was caused 
by the killing (May 24, 1861) of Colonel E. E. Ellsworth 
(1837-1861) by Captain James W. Jackson, a hotel proprietor, 
from whose building Ellsworth had removed a Confederate 
flag.  After the erection of the state of West Virginia (1863), 
and until the close of the war, Alexandria was the seat of what 
was known as the ``Alexandria Government'' (see VIRGINIA). 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. Under this title are generally included 
certain strongly marked tendencies in literature, science and 
art, which took their rise in the ancient Egyptian city of 
Alexandria.  That city, founded by Alexander the Great about 
the time when Greece, in losing her national independence, lost 
also her intellectual supremacy, was in every way admirably 
adapted for becoming the new centre of the world's activity and 
thought.  Its situation brought it into commercial relations 
with all the nations lying around the Mediterranean, and at 
the same time rendered it the one communicating link with 
the wealth and civilization of the East.  The great natural 
advantages it thus enjoyed were artificially increased to 
an enormous extent by the care of the sovereigns of Egypt.  
Ptolemy Soter (reigned 323-285 B.C.), to whom, in the 
general distribution of Alexander's conquests, this kingdom had 
fallen, began to draw around him from various parts of Greece 
a circle of men eminent in literature and philosophy.  To these 
he gave every facility for the prosecution of their learned 
researches.  Under the inspiration of his friend Demetrius of 
Phalerum, the Athenian orator, statesman and philosopher, this 
Ptolemy laid the foundations of the great Alexandrian library 
and originated the keen search for all written works, which 
resulted in the formation of a collection such as the world 
has seldom seen.  He also built, for the convenience of his 
men of letters, the Museum, in which, maintained by the royal 
bounty, they resided, studied and taught.  This Museum, or 
academy of science, was in many respects not unlike a modern 
university.  The work thus begun by Ptolemy Soter was carried 
on vigorously by his descendants, in particular by his 
two immediate successors, Ptolemy Philadelphus and Ptolemy 
Euergetes.  Philadelphus (285-247), whose librarian was the 
celebrated Callimachus, bought up all Aristotle's collection 
of books, and also introduced a number of Jewish and Egyptian 
works.  Among these appears to have been a portion pf the 
Septuagint.  Euergetes (247-222) largely increased the library 
by seizing on the original editions of the dramatists laid up 
in the Athenian archives, and by compelling all travellers who 
arrived in Alexandria to leave a copy of any work they possessed. 

The intellectual movement so originated extended over a long 
period of years.  If we date its rise from the 4th century 
B.C., at the time of the fall of Greece and the foundation 
of the Graeco- Macedonian empire, we must look for its final 
dissolution in the 7th century of the Christian era, at the 
time of the fall of Alexandria and the rise of the Mahommedan 
power.  But this very long period falls into two divisions.  
The first, extending from about 306 to 30, includes the time 
from the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty to its final 
subjugation by the Romans; the second extends from 30 to 
A.D. 642, when Alexandria was destroyed by the Arabs.  The 
characteristic features of these divisions are very clearly 
marked, and their difference affords an explanation of 
the variety and vagueness of meaning attaching to the term 
``Alexandrian School.'' In the first of the two periods the 
intellectual activity was of a purely literary and scientific 
nature.  It was an attempt to continue and develop, under new 
conditions, the old Hellenic culture.  This direction of 
effort was particularly noticeable under the early Ptolemies, 
Alexandria being then almost the only home in the world for pure 
literature.  During the last century and a half before the 
Christian era, the school, as it might be called, began to break 
up and to lose its individuality.  This was due partly to the 
state of government under some of the later Ptolemies, partly 
to the formation of new literary circles in Rhodes, Syria and 
elsewhere, whose supporters, though retaining the Alexandrian 
peculiarities, could scarcely be included in the Alexandrian 
school.  The loss of active life, consequent on this gradual 
dissolution, was much increased when Alexandria fell under Roman 
sway.  Then the influence of the school was extended over the 
whole known world, but men of letters began to concentrate 
at Rome rather than at Alexandria.  In that city, however, 
there were new forces in operation which produced a second 
grand outburst of intellectual life.  The new movement was 
not in the old direction--had, indeed, nothing in common 
with it.  With its character largely determined by Jewish 
elements, and even more by contact with the dogmas of 
Christianity, this second Alexandrian school resulted in 
the speculative philosophy of the Neo-Platonists and the 
religious philosophy of the Gnostics and early church fathers. 

There appear, therefore, to be at least two definite significations 
of the title Alexandrian School; or rather, there are two 
Alexandrian schools, distinct both chronologically and in 
substance.  The one is the Alexandrian school of poetry and 
science, the other the Alexandrian school of philosophy.  
The term ``school,'' however, has not the same meaning as 
when applied to the Academics or Peripatetics, the Stoics or 
Epicureans.  These consisted of a company united by holding 
in common certain speculative principles, by having the same 
theory of things.  There was nothing at all corresponding to 
this among the Alexandrians.  In literature their activities 
were directed to the most diverse objects; they have only 
in common a certain spirit or form.  There was among them 
no definite system of phllosophy.  Even in the later schools 
of philosophy proper there is found a community rather of 
tendency than of definite result or of fixed principles. 

I. Literature.--The general character of the literature of 
the school appears as the necessary consequence of the state 
of affairs brought about by the fall of Greek nationality and 
independence.  The great works of the Greek mind had formerly 
been the products of a fresh life of nature and perfect 
freedom of thought.  All their hymns, epics and histories were 
bound up with their individuality as a free people.  But the 
Macedonian conquest at Chaeroneia brought about a complete 
dissolution of this Greek life in all its relations, private and 
political.  The full, genial spirit of Greek thought vanished 
when freedom, with which it was inseparably united, was 
lost.  A substitute for this originality was found at Alexandria 
in learned research, extended and multifarious knowledge.  
Amply provided with means for acquiring information, and 
under the watchful care of a great monarch, the Alexandrians 
readily took this new direction in literature.  With all the 
great objects removed which could excite a true spirit of 
poetry, they devoted themselves to minute researches in all 
sciences subordinate to literature proper.  They studied 
criticism, grammar, prosody and metre, antiquities and 
mythology.  The results of this study constantly appear in their 
productions.  Their works are never national, never addressed 
to a people, but to a circle of learned men.  Moreover, the very 
fact of being under the protection and, as it were, in the pay 
of an absolute monarch was damaging to the character of their 
literature.  There was introduced into it a courtjy element, 
clear traces of which, with all its accompaniments, are found 
in the extant works of the school.  One other fact, not to 
be forgotten in forming a general estimate of the literary 
value of their productions, is, that the same writer was 
frequently or almost always distinguished in several special 
sciences.  The most renowned poets were at the same time men 
of culture and science, critics, archaeologists, astronomers 
or physicians.  To such writers the poetical form was 
merely a convenient vehicle for the exposition of science. 

The forms of poetical composition chiefly cultivated by the 
Alexandrians were epic and lyric, or elegiac.  Great epics 
are wanting; but in their place, as might almost have been 
expected, are found the historical and the didactic or expository 
epics.  The subjects of the historical epics were generally 
some of the well-known myths, in the exposition of which 
the writer could exhibit the full extent of his learning and 
his perfect command of verse.  These poems are in a sense 
valuable as repertoires of antiquities; but their style is 
on the whole bad, and infinite patience is required to clear 
up their numerous and obscure allusions.  The best extant 
specimen is the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius; the 
most characteristic is the Alexandra or Cassandra of 
Lycophron, the obscurity of which is almost proverbial. 

The subjects of didactic epics were very numerous; they 
seem to have depended on the special knowledge possessed by 
the writers, who used verse as a form for unfolding their 
information.  Some, e.g. the lost poem of Callimachus, 
called Ai'tia, were on the origin of myths and religious 
observances; others were on special sciences.  Thus we have 
two poems of Aratus, who, though not resident at Alexandria, 
was so thoroughly imbued with the Alexandrian spirit as to 
be with reason included in the school; the one is an essay 
on astronomy, the other an account of the signs of the 
weather.  Nicander of Colophon has also left us two epics, one 
on remedies for poisons, the other on the bites of venomous 
beasts.  Euphorion and Rhianus wrote mythological epics.  The 
spirit of all their productions is the same, that of learned 
research.  They are distinguished by artistic form, purity 
of expression and strict attention to the laws of metre and 
prosody, qualities which, however good in themselves, do 
not compensate for want of originality, freshness and power. 

In their lyric and elegiac poetry there is much worthy of 
admiration.  The specimens we possess are not devoid of 
talent or of a certain happy art of expression.  Yet, for 
the most part, they either relate to objects thoroughly 
incapable of poetic treatment, where the writer's endeavour 
is rather to expound the matter fully than to render it 
poetically beautiful, or else expend themselves on short 
isolated subjects, generally myths, and are erotic in 
character.  The earliest of the elegiac poets was Philetas, 
the sweet singer of Cos. But the most distinguished was 
Callimachus, undoubtedly the greatest of the Alexandrian 
poets.  Of his numerous works there remain to us only a few 
hymns, epigrams and fragments of elegies.1 Other lyric poets 
were Phanocles, Hermesianax, Alexander of Aetolla and Lycophron. 

Some of the best productions of the school were their 
epirams.  Of these we have several specimens, and the art 
of composing them seems to have been assiduously cultivated, 
as might naturally be expected from the court life of the 
poets, and their constant endeavours after terseness and 
neatness of expression.  Of kindred character were the 
parodies and satirical poems, of which the best examples 
were the Silli of Timon and the Cinaedi of Sotades. 

Dramatic poetry appears to have flourished to some 
extent.  There are still extant three or four varying lists 
of the seven great dramatists who composed the Pleiad of 
Alexandria.  Their works, perhaps not unfortunately, have 
perished.  A ruder kind of drama, the amoebaean verse, or 
bucolic mime, developed into the only pure stream of genial 
poetry found in the Alexandrian School, the Idylls of 
Theocritus.  The name of these poems preserves their 
original idea; they were pictures of fresh country life. 

The most interesting fact connected with this Alexandrian poetry 
is the powerful influence it exercised on Roman literature.  
That literature, especially in the Augustan age, is not to be 
thoroughly understood without due appreciation of the character 
of the Alexandrian school.  The historians of this period 
were numerous and prolific.  Many of them, e.g. Cleitarchus, 
devoted themselves to the life and achievements of Alexander the 
Great.  The best-known names are those of Timaeus and Polybius. 

Before the Alexandrians had begun to produce original works, 
their researches were directed towards the masterpieces of ancient 
Greek literature.  If that literature was to be a power in the 
world, it must be handed down to posterity in a form capable 
of being understood.  This was the task begun and carried out 
by the Alexandrian critics.  These men did not merely collect 
works, but sought to arrange them, to subject the texts to 
criticism, and to explain any allusion or reference in them 
which at a later date might become obscure.  The complete 
philological examination of any work consisted, according to 
them, of the following processes:---diorthosis, arrangement 
of the text; anagnosis, settlement of accents; tenn??, 
theory of forms, syntax; lxegnsis, explanation either of 
words or things; and finally, krisis, judgment on the author 
and his work, including all questions as to authenticity and 
integrity.  To perform their task adequately required from the 
critics a wide circle of knowledge; and from this requirement 
sprang the sciences of grammar, prosody, lexicography, mythology 
and archaeology.  The service rendered by these critics is 
invaluable.  To them we owe not merely the possession of 
the greatest works of Greek intellect, but the possession of 
them in a readable state.  The most celebrated critics were 
Zenodotus; Aristophanes of Byzantium, to whom we owe the 
theory of Greek accents; Crates of Mallus; and Aristarchus of 
Samothrace, confessedly the coryphaeus of criticism.  Others 
were Lycophron, Callimachus, Eratosthenes and many of a later 
age, for the critical school long survived the literary.  
Dionysius Thrax, the author of the first scientific Greek 
grammar, may also be mentioned.  These philological labours 
were of great indirect importance, for they led immediately 
to the study of the natural sciences, and in particular to a 
more accurate knowledge of geography and history.  Considerable 
attention began to be paid to the ancient history of Greece, 
and to all the myths relating to the foundation of states and 
cities.  A large collection of such curious information 
is contained in the Bibliotheca of Apollodorus, a pupil 
of Aristarchus who flourished in the 2nd century B.C. 
Eratosthenes was the first to write on mathematical and physical 
geography; he also first attempted to draw up a chronological 
table of the Egyptian kings and of the historical events of 
Greece.  The sciences of mathematics, astronomy and medicine 
were also cultivated with assiduity and success at Alexandria, 
but they can scarcely be said to have their origin there, or in 
any strict sense to form a part of the peculiarly Alexandrian 
literature.  The founder of the mathematical school was 
the celebrated Euclid (Eucleides); among its scholars were 
Archimedes; Apollonius of Perga, author of a treatise on 
Conic Sections; Eratosthenes, to whom we owe the first 
measurement of the earth; and Hipparchus, the founder of 
the epicyclical theory of the heavens, afterwards called the 
Ptolemaic system, from its most famous expositor, Claudius 
Ptolemaeus.  Alexandria continued to be celebrated as a 
school of mathematics and science long after the Christian 
era.  The science of medicine had distinguished representatives 
in Herophilus and Erasistratus, the two first great anatomists. 

AUTHORITIES.--Muller and Donaldson, History of the 
Literature of Ancient Greece; W. Christ, Geschichte 
der griechischen Litteratur; Mahaffy, Greek Life 
and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman 
Empire; Couat, La Poesie alexandrine; and especially 
Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der 
Alexandninerzeit. Nicolai's Gricchische Literaturgeschichte, 
though somewhat out of date, is useful for bibliography. 

II. Philosophy.--Although it is not possible to divide 
literatures with absolute rigidity by centuries, and although 
the intellectual life of Alexandria, particularly as applied to 
science, long survived the Roman conquest, yet at that period 
the school, which for some time had been gradually breaking up, 
seems finally to have succumbed.  The later productions in the 
field of pure literature bear the stamp of Rome rather than of 
Alexandria.  But in that city for some time past there had 
been various forces secretly working, and these, coming in 
contact with great spiritual changes in the world around, 
produced a second outburst of intellectual activity, which is 
generally known as the Alexandrian school of philosophy.  The 
doctrines of this school were a fusion of Eastern and Western 
thought, and combined in varying proportions the elements of 
Hellenistic and Jewish philosophy.  Traces of this eclectic 
tendency are discoverable as far back as 280 B.C., but for 
practical purposes the dates of the school may be given as 
from about 30 B.C. to A.D. 529. The city of Alexandria 
had gradually become the neutral ground of Europe, Asia and 
Africa.  Its population, then as at the present day, was a 
heterogeneous collection of all races.  Alexander had planted 
a colony of Jews who had increased in number until at the 
beginning of the Christian era they occupied two-fifths of 
the city and held some of the highest offices.  The contact 
of Jewish theology with Greek speculation became the great 
problem of thought.  The Jewish ideas of divine authority 
and their transcendental theories of conduct were peculiarly 
attractive to the Greek thinkers who found no inspiration 
in the dry intellectualism into which they had fallen (see 
NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM). At the same time the Jews of the 
Dispersion had to some extent shaken off the exclusiveness 
of their old political relations and were prepared to compare 
and contrast their old territorial theology with cosmopolitan 
culture.  Further, when the two sides came to consider 
the results of their intellectual inheritance they found 
that they had sufficient common ground for the initial 
compromise.  Thus the Hellenistic doctrine of personal 
revelation could be combined with the Jewish tradition of a 
complete theology revealed to a special people.  The result 
was the application of a purely philosophical system to the 
somewhat vague and unorganized corpus of Jewish theology.  The 
matter was Jewish, the arrangement Greek.  According to the 
relative predominance of these two elements arose Gnosticism, 
the Patristic theology, and the philosophical schools of 
Neo-Pythagoreanism, Neo-Platonism and eclectic Platonism. 

The members of the school may be enumerated under three heads. 
(1) The beginnings of the eclectic spirit are, according 
to some authorities, discernible in the Septuagint (280 
B.C.) (see Frankel, Historisch-kritische Studien zur 
Septuaginta, 1841), but the first concrete exemplification is 
found in Aristobulus (e. 160 B.C.). So far as the Jewish 
succession is concerned, the great name is that of Philo in 
the first century of our era.  He took Greek metaphysical 
theories, and, by the allegorical method, interpreted them 
in accordance with the Jewish Revelation.  He dealt with 
(a) human life as explained by the relative nature of Man 
and God, (b) the Divine nature and the existence of God, 
and, (c) the great Logos doctrine as the explanation of 
the relation between God and the material universe.  From 
these three arguments he developed an elaborate theosophy 
which was a syncretism of oriental mysticism and pure Greek 
metaphysic, and may be regarded as representing the climax 
of Jewish philosophy. (2) The first purely philosophical 
phenomenon of the Alexandrian school was Neo-Pythagoreanism, 
the second and last Neo-Platonism.  Leaving all detailed 
descriptions of these schools to special articles devoted to 
them, it is sufficient here to say that their doctrines were a 
synthesis of Platonism, Stoicism and the later Aristotelianism 
with a leaven of oriental mysticism which gradually became 
more and more important.  The world to which they spoke had 
begun to demand a doctrine of salvation to satisfy the human 
soul.  They endeavoured to deal with the problem of good and 
evil.  They therefore devoted themselves to examining the 
nature of the soul, and taught that its freedom consists in 
communion with God, to be achieved by absorption in a sort 
of ecstatic trance.  This doctrine reaches its height in 
Plotinus, after whom it degenerated into magic and theurgy 
in its unsuccessful combat with the victorious Christianity.  
Finally this pagan theosophy was driven from Alexandria back 
to Athens under Plutarch and Proclus, and occupied itself 
largely in purely historical work based mainly on the attempt 
to re-organize ancient philosophy in conformity with the 
system of Plotinus.  This school ended under Damascius when 
Justinian closed the Athenian schools (A.D. 529). (3) 
The eddies of Neo-Platonism had a considerable effect on 
certain Christian thinkers about the beginning of the 3rd 
century.  Among these the most important were Clement of 
Alexandria and Origen.  Clement, as a scholar and a theologian, 
proposed to unite the mysticism of Neo- Platonism with the 
practical spirit of Christianity.  He combined the principle 
of pure living with that of free thinking, and held that 
instruction must have regard to the mental capacity of the 
hearer.  The compatibility of Christian and later Neo-Platonic 
ideas is evidenced by the writings of Synesius, bishop of 
Ptolemais, and though Neo-Platonism eventually succumbed to 
Christianity, it had the effect, through the writings of 
Clement and Origen, of modifying the tyrannical fanaticism 
and ultra- dogmatism of the early Christian writers. 

AUTHORITIES.--Matter, Histoire de l'ecole d'Alexandrie, 
2nd ed. (3 vols., 1840-1844); Simon, Histoire de L'ecole 
d'Ajexandrie (2 vols., 1844-1845); Vacherot, Histoire critique 
de l'ecole d'Ajexandrie (3 vols., 1846-1851); Kingsley, 
Alexandria and her Schools (1854); Gfrorer, Philo und 
die Alexandrinische Theosophie (1835) Dahne, Geschict.  
Darstellung der Judisch-Alexandrinischen Religionsphilosophie 
(1834); Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, Uberweg, 
Windelband, &c., and Bibliography of CHURCH HISTORY, &c. 

1 A considerable fragment of his epic Hecale 
has been discovered in the Rainer papyrus. 

ALEXANDRIA TROAS (mod. Eski Stambul), an ancient Greek city 
of the Troad, situated on the west coast at nearly its middle 
point, a little south of Tenedos.  It was built by Antigonus, 
perhaps about 310 B.C., and was called by him Antigonia 
Troas.  Early in the next century the name was changed by 
Lysimachus to Alexandria Troas, in honour of Alexander's 
memory.  As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place 
prospered greatly in Roman times, and the existing remains 
sufficiently attest its former importance.  Thence St Paul 
sailed for Europe for the first time, and there occurred 
later the episode of the raising of Eutychus (Acts xx. 
5-12).  The site is now covered with valonia oaks, and has 
been much plundered, e.g by Mahommed IV., who took columns 
to adorn his new Valideh mosque in Stambul; but the circuit 
of the old walls can be traced, and in several places they 
are fairly well preserved.  They had a circumference of about 
six English miles, and were fortified with towers at regular 
intervals.  Remains of some ancient buildings, including a 
bath and gymnasium, can be traced within this area.  Trajan 
built an aqueduct which can still be traced.  The harbour had 
two large basins, now almost choked with sand.  A Roman colony 
was sent to the place, as Strabo mentions, in the reign of 
Augustus.  The abridged name ``Troas'' (Acts xvi. 8) was 
probably the current one in later Roman times. (D. G. H.) 

ALEXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading measure in 
French poetry.  It is the heroic French verse, used in epic 
narrative, in tragedy and in the higher comedy.  There is 
some doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably 
it is derived from a collection of romances, collected in 
the 12th century, of which Alexander of Macedon was the 
hero, and in which he was represented, somewhat like the 
British Arthur, as the pride and crown of chivalry.  Before 
the publication of this work most of the trouvere romances 
appeared in octosyllabic verse.  There is also a theory that 
the form was invented by a poet named Alexander.  The new 
work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to French 
literature, was written in lines of twelve syllables, 
but with a freedom of pause which was afterwards greatly 
curtailed.  The new fashion, however, was not adopted all at 
once.  The metre fell into disuse until the reign of Francis 
I., when it was revived by Jean Antoine de Baif, one of the 
seven poets known as the Pleiades.  Jodelle mingled episodical 
Alexandrines with the vers communs of his tragedies and so 
introduced them into drama.  It was Ronsard, however, who made 
the verse popular, and gave it vogue in France.  From his time 
it became the recognized vehicle for all great poetry, and 
the regulation of its pauses became more and more strict.  
The following is an example of the verse as used by Racine-- 
    Ou suis-je? qu'ai-je fait?  || que dois-je faire encore?
    Quel transport me saisit?      || quel chagrin me devore?
Two inexorable laws came to be established with regard to the 
pauses.  The first is, that each line should be divided into 
two equal parts, the sixth syllable always ending with a 
word.  In the earlier use of this metre, on the contrary, 
it frequently happened that the sixth and seventh syllables 
belonged to the same word.  The other is that, except under 
the most stringent conditions, there should be none of 
what the French critics call enjambement, that is, the 
overlapping of the sense from one line on to the next.  
Ronsard completely ignored this rule, which was after his time 
settled by the authority of Malherbe.  The latest school of 
French prosody has given great attention to the breaking up 
of the Alexandrine, which no longer possesses the rigidity 
of authoritative form which it held until about 1880, but is 
often used with a licence no less than when Ronsard wrote. 

Michael Drayton, who was twenty-two years of age when Ronsard 
died, seemed to think that the Alexandrine might be as 
pleasing to English as it was to French ears, and in this 
metre he wrote a long poem in twenty-four books called the 
Polyolbion. The metre, however, failed to catch the English 
ear.  The principal English measure is a line of ten 
syllables, and the Alexandrine is used only occasionally to 
give it variety and weight.  In ordinary English heroic verse 
it is but rarely introduced; but in the favourite narrative 
metre, known as the Spenserian, it comes in regularly as the 
concluding line of each stanza.  In English usage, moreover, 
it is to be observed that there is no fixed rule as to the 
position of the pause, though it is true that most commonly 
the pause occurs at the end of the sixth syllable.  Spenser 
is very free in shifting the pause about; and though the 
later poets who have used this stanza are not so free, yet, 
with the exception of Shenstone and of Byron, they do not 
scruple to obliterate all pause between the sixth and seventh 
syllables.  Thus Thomson (Castle of Indolenee, i. 42):-- 

     And music lent new gladness to the morning air. 

The danger in the use of the Alexandrine is that, in 
attempting to give dignity to his line, the poet may 
only produce heaviness, incurring the sneer of Pope-- 

     A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 
    That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.
The Alexandrine was the dominant metre in Dutch poetry from the 
16th to the middle of the 19th century, and about the time of its 
introduction to Holland it was accepted in Germany by the school of 
Opitz.  In the course of the 17th century, after being used 
without rhyme by Seckendorf and others, it formed a transitional 
station on the route to German blank verse, and has since then 
been rarely employed, except occasionally in rhymed comedy. 

ALEXANDRISTS, the name given to those philosophers of the 
Renaissance, who, in the great controversy on the subject 
of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the De 
Anima given by Alexander of Aphrodisias.  According to the 
orthodox Thomism of the Roman Catholic Church, Aristotle 
rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual 
soul.  Against this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nito 
(q.v.), introduced the modifying theory that universal 
reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and 
then absorbs the active reason into itself again.  These two 
theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and 
universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual 
into the eternal One. The Alexandrists, led by Pietro 
Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied that 
either was rightly attributed to Aristotle.  They held that 
Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore 
a mortal entity which operates during life only under the 
authority of universal reason.  Hence the Alexandrists denied 
the possibillty of immortality in every shape or form.  
Since the soul is organically connected with the body, the 
dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former. 

ALEXANDRITE, a variety of chrysoberyl (q.v.) discovered 
in the Urals in 1833, on the day set apart for celebrating 
the majority of the cesarevich, afterwards the tsar, Alexander 
II., in whose honour the stone was named by Nils Gustaf 
Nordenskiold, of Helsingfors.  It is remarkable for being 
strongly dichroic, generally appearing dark green by daylight 
and raspberry-red by candle-light, or by daylight transmitted 
through the stone.  As red and green are the military 
colours of Russia, the mineral became highly popular as a 
gem-stone.  The dark green crystals are usually cloudy and 
cracked, and grouped in triplets presenting a pseudo-hexagonal 
form.  Alexandrite was found originally in the emerald- mine of 
Takovaya, east of Ekaterinburg in the Urals, and afterwards 
in the gold-bearing sands of the Sanarka in the southern 
Urals.  Subsequently it was discovered in greater abundance 
in the gem-gravels of Ceylon.  It has been found also in 
Tasmania.  Some of the Ceylon alexandrite exhibits, 
when suitably cut, the Cat's-eye chatoyance, whence 
it has been called alexandrite cat's-eye. (F. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDROPOL, or ALEXANDRAPOL. (Turk. Gumri), a 
Russian town and fortified camp in Transcaucasia, government 
of Erivan, near the junction of the Arpa-chai with the 
Aras, 48 m. by rail E.N.E. of Kars.  Altitude 5080 
ft.  It has a trade in silk.  Here the Russians defeated 
the Turks in 1853.  Pop. (1885) 22,670; (1897) 32,735. 

ALEXANDROVSK. (1) A town of N. Russia, in the government 
of Archangel, on the harbour of Catherine (Ekaterininsk), 
on the Murman coast, 5 m. from the mouth of Kola Bay. 
It was opened in 1899 and is a naval station, being free 
from ice all the year round.  It is also called Port 
Catherine.  Pop. (1901) 300. (2) A town of S. Russia, 83 
m.  S. of Ekaterinoslav, on the railway to the Crimea, near 
the left bank of the Dnieper, below its rapids.  Pop. (1897) 
16,393.  Opposite it is the island of Khortitsa, upon which was 
the sich (or syech) or camp of the Zaporozhian cossacks.  
All its neighbouthood is strewn with kurgans (tumuli). 

ALEXIS, Greek comic poet of the Middle Comedy, was born 
about 394 B.C. at Thurii and taken early to Athens, 
where he became a citizen.  Plutarch says that he lived to 
the age of 106, and that he died on the stage while being 
crowned.  According to Suidas, who calls him Monander's 
uncle, he wrote 245 comedies, of which some 130 titles are 
preserved.  The fragments (about 1000 lines) attest the wit and 
refinement of the author (Koch, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta). 

ALEXIS, WILLIBALD, the pseudonym of GEORG WILHELM HEINRICH 
HARING (1798--1871), German historical novelist.  He was 
born on the 29th of June 1798 at Breslau, where his father, 
who came of a French refugee family, named Hareng, held a high 
position in the war department.  He attended the Werdersche 
Gymnasium in Berlin, and then, serving as a volunteer in 
the campaign of 1815, took part in the siege of the Ardenne 
fortresses.  On his return he studied law at the universities 
of Berlin and Breslau and entered the legal profession, but he 
soon abandoned this career and devoted himself to literature.  
Settling in Berlin he edited, 1827-1835, the Berliner 
Konversationsblatt, in which for the first two years he was 
assisted by Friedrich Christoph Forster (1791--1868); and in 
1828 was created a doctor of philosophy by the university of 
Halle.  In 1852 he retired to Arnstadt in Thuringia, where after 
many years of broken health he died on the 16th of December 1871. 

Haring made his name first known as a writer by an idyll in 
hexameters, Die Treibjagd (1820), and several short stories 
in which the influence of Tieck is observable; but his 
literary reputation was first established by the historical 
romance Walladmor (1823), which, published as being ``freely 
translated from the English of Sir Walter Scott, with a 
preface by Willibald Alexis,'' so closely imitated the style 
of the famous Scotsman as really to deceive even Scott's 
admirers.  The work became immediately popular and was 
translated into several languages, including English.  It 
was followed by Schloss Avalon (1827), with regard to 
which the author adopted the same tactics and with equal 
success.  These historical novels, however, were of considerable 
literary merit, and would doubtless have achieved popularity 
even without the borrowed plumage.  Soon afterwards Haring 
published a number of successful short stories (Gesammelte 
Novellen, 4 vols., 1830-1831), some books of travel, and in 
the novels Das Haus Dusterweg (1835) and Zwolf Nachte 
(1838) showed for a while a leaning towards the ``Young German'' 
school.  In Cabanis (1832), however, a story of the time 
of Frederick the Great, he entered the field of patriotic- 
historical romance, in which he so far excelled as to have 
earned the name of ``der Markische Walter Scott'' (Walter 
Scott of the Mark).  From 1840 onwards he published at 
short intervals a series of romances, each dealing with 
some epoch in the history of Brandenburg.  Among them may 
be especially noted Der Roland von Berlin (1840), Der 
falsche Woldemar (1842), Die Hosen des Herrn von Bredow 
(1846-1848), Ruhe ist die erste Burgerpflicht (1852), 
Isegrimm (1854) and Dorothe (1856).  In all these the 
author shows himself as a keen observer of men and things; the 
characters, situations and natural surroundings are excellently 
delineated, and the patriotic feeling which pervades them is 
not overdone.  Haring also made a name for himself in the 
field of criminology by commencing in 1842, in conjunction 
with the publicist, Julius Eduard Hitzig (1780- 1849), the 
publication of Der neue Pitaval (continued by A. Vollert, 36 
vols., Leipzig, 1842-1865; new edition, 24 vols., Leipzig, 
1866-1891), a, collection of criminal anecdotes culled from 
all nations and all times.  This publication attained great 
popularity, and is to-day of psychological interest and value. 

His Gesammelte Werke were published in 20 volumes (Berlin, 
1874); the Vaterlandische Romane separately in 8 volumes 
(Berlin, 1881, 1884), and, since the expiry of the copyright in 
1901, in many cheap reprints.  Cp. W. Alexis' Erinnerungen, 
edited by M. Ewert (1900), and essays by Julian Schmidt (Neue 
Bilaer aus dere geistigen Leben unsrer Zeit, 1873), G. Freytag 
(Werke, vols. 16 and 23), A. Stern Zur Literatur der Gegenwart, 
1880) and T. Fontane (in Bayreuther Blatter, vi., 1883). 

ALEXISBAD, a spa of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt, lying 
under the Harz mountains, 1000 ft. above the sea, on the railway 
from Gernrode to Harzgerode.  Pop. 1000.  It is celebrated for 
its medicinal waters, of which the Abexisbrunnen, a ferruginous 
spring, is used for drinking, while the Selkebrunnen supplies 
the baths, which are of use in feminine disorders.  The 
place was founded in 1810 by Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. 

ALEXIUS I. (1048-1118), emperor of the East, was the third 
son of John Comnenus, nephew of Isaac Comnenus, emperor 
1057-1059.  His father declined the throne on the abdication 
of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors 
of other families between that date and 1081.  Under one 
of these emperors, Romanus Diogenes (1067-1071), he served 
with distinction against the Seljuk Turks.  Under Michael 
Parapinaces (1071-1078) and Nicephorus Botaniates (1078-1081) 
he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, 
against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace and in Epirus (1071).  
The success of the Comneni roused the jealousy of Botaniates 
and his ministers, and the Comneni were almost compelled 
to take up arms in self- defence.  Botaniates was forced to 
abdicate and retire to a monastery, and Isaac declined the 
crown in favour of his younger brother Alexius, who then 
became emperor in the 33rd year of his age.  His long reign of 
nearly 37 years was full of difficulties (see ROMAN EMPIRE, 
LATER). At the very outset he had to meet the formidable 
attack of the Normans (Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund), 
who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in 
Thessaly.  The Norman danger ended for the time with Robert 
Guiscard's death (1085) and the conquests were recovered.  
He had next to repel the invasions of Patzinaks (Petchenegs) 
and Kumans in Thrace, with whom the Manichaean sects of the 
Paulicians and Bogomilians made Common cause; and thirdly, he 
had to cope with the fast-growing power of the Turks in Asia 
Minor.  Above all he had to meet the difficulties caused by 
the arrival of the warriors of the First Crusade, which had 
been in a great degree initiated owing to the representations 
of his own ambassadors, though the help which he wanted from 
the West was simply mercenary forces and not the immense hosts 
which arrived to his consternation and embarrassment.  The 
first part, under Peter the Hermit, he got rid of by sending 
them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks 
(1096).  The second and much more serious host of warriors, 
led by Godfrey of Bouillon, he conducted also into Asia, 
promising to supply them with provisions in return for an oath 
of homage, and by their victories recovered for the Empire 
a number of important cities and islands--Nicaea, Chics, 
Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Philadelphia, Sardis, and in fact 
most of Asia Minor (1097-1099).  This is ascribed as a credit 
to his policy and diplomacy by his daughter, by the Latin 
historians of the crusade to his treachery and falseness, but 
during the last twenty years of his life he lost much of his 
popularity.  They were marked by persecution of the followers 
of the Paulician and Bogomilian heresies (one of his last 
acts was to burn Basilius, a Bogomilian leader, with whom 
he had engaged in a theological controversy), by renewed 
struggles with the Turks (1110-1117), by anxieties as to the 
succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour of 
her daughter Anne's husband, Nicephorus Bryennius for whose 
benefit the special title panhypersebastos (i.e. as it were 
dugustissimus si quis ahus) was created.  This intrigue 
disturbed even his dying hours.  He deserves the credit of 
having raised the Empire from a condition of anarchy and 
decay at a time when it was threatened on all sides by new 
dangers.  No emperor devoted himself more laboriously 
or with a greater sense of duty to the task of ruling. 

AUTHORITIES.--Zonaras xviii. 27-29; Anna Comnena's Life; 
see also Du Cange, Familiae Byzantinae; Friedrich Wilken, 
Rerum ab Alexio I., Joanne, Manuele et Alexio II. Comnenis 
Romanorum, Byzantinorum imperatoribus gestarum, tibri iv.  
Commentatio (Heidelberg, 1811); Finlay, History of Greece 
(vol. iii., Oxford, 1877); Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire, edited with notes, &c., by Prof.  J. B. Bury (London, 
1898), where further authorities are cited; F. Chalandon, Essai 
sur le regne d'Alexis Ier, Comnene (1900). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS II. (COMNENUS) (1167-1183), emperor of the 
East, was the son of Manuel Comnenus and Maria, daughter of 
Kaymund, prince of Antioch, and was born at Constantinople 
on the 10th of September 1167.  On Manuel's death, Maria, 
who hid been immured in a convent under the name of Xene, 
had herself proclaimed regent (1179-1180), and handing over 
her son to evil counsellors, who encouraged him in every 
vice, supported the government of Alexius the protosebastos 
(nephew of Manuel), who was supposed to be her lover.  The 
young Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party 
against the empress mother and the protosebastos; and his 
sister Maria, wife of Caesar John, stirred up riots in 
the streets of the capital.  Their party was defeated (May 
2, 1182), but Andronicus Comnenus took advantage of these 
disorders to aim at the crown, entered Constantinople, where 
he was received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the 
regents.  His arrival was celebrated by a barbarous massacre 
of the Latins in Constantinople, which he made no attempt to 
stop.  He allowed Alexius to be crowned, but forced him to 
consent to the death of all his friends, including his mother, 
his sister and the Caesar, and refused to allow him the smallest 
voice in public affairs.  The betrothal in 1180 of Alexius 
with Agnes, daughter of Louis VII. of France, a child of 
nine, was quashed, and he was married to Irene, daughter of 
Andronicus.  The latter was now formally proclaimed as 
co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that 
divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius 
to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS III. (ANGELUS), emperor of the East, was the 
second son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of Alexius I. In 
1195, while his brother Isaac II. was away hunting in 
Thrace, he was proclaimed emperor by the troops; he captured 
Isaac at Stagira in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and 
kept him henceforth a close prisoner, though he had been 
redeemed by him from captivity at Antioch and loaded with 
honours.  To compensate for this crime and to confirm his 
position as emperor, he had to scatter money so lavishly 
as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the 
officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically 
defenceless.  He consummated the financial ruin of the 
state.  The empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his 
credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of 
her attempts at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's 
orders.  Eastward the Empire was overrun by the Turks; 
from the north Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked 
to ravage the plains of Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius 
squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens.  
Soon he was threatened by a new and yet more formidable 
danger.  In 1202 the Western princes assembled at Venice, 
bent on a new crusade.  To them Alexius, son of the deposed 
Isaac, made appeal, promising as a crowning bribe to heal the 
schism of East and West if they would help him to depose his 
uncle.  The crusaders, whose objective had been Egypt, were 
persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, before which 
they appeared in June 1203, proclaiming the emperor Alexius 
IV. and summoning the capital to depose his uncle.  Alexius 
III., sunk in debauchery, took no efficient measures to 
resist.  His son-in-law, Lascaris, who was the only one 
to do anything, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of 
Constantinople began.  On the 17th of July the crusaders, 
the aged doge Dandolo at their head, scaled the walls and 
took the city by storm.  During the fighting and carnage 
that followed Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with 
one of his daughters, Irene, and such treasures as he could 
collect, got into a boat and escaped to Develton in Thrace, 
leaving his wife, his other daughters and his Empire to the 
victors.  Isaac, drawn from his prison and robed once 
more in the imperial purple, received hs son in state. 

Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction 
with Murtzuphlos (Alexius V.) to recover the throne.  The 
attempt was unsuccessful and, after wandering about Greece, 
he surrendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined 
him, to Boniface of Montferrat, then master of a great part 
of the Balkan peninsula.  Leaving his protection he sought 
shelter with Michael, despot of Epirus, and then repaired 
to Asia Minor,where his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his 
own against the Latins.  Alexius, joined by the sultan of 
Iconium (Konieh), now demanded the crown of Lascaris, and 
on his refusal marched against him.  Lascaris, however, 
defeated and took him prisoner.  Alexius was relegated to 
a monastery at Nicaea, where he died on some date unknown. 

AUTHORITIES.--Nicetas Acominatus, George Acropolites, Nicephorus Gregoras; 
and the sources for the Fourth Crusade (see CRUSADES). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS V., eastern Roman emperor, was proclaimed emperor on 
the 5th of February 1204, during the siege of Constantinople 
by the Latins (Fourth Crusade).  His name was Alexius Ducas 
Murtzuphlos, and he was a connexion of the imperial house 
of the Angell.  His elevation was the result of a revolution 
in the city against Isaac II. and Alexius IV. He conducted 
the defence with great bravery till it became hopeless 
(April 12), whereupon he fled.  He would then have made 
common cause with Alexius III. against the Latins, but was 
blinded by that ex-monarch and fell into the hands of the 
crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top 
of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV. 

ALEXIUS MIKHAILOVICH (1624-1676), tsar of Muscovy, the son 
of Tsar Michael Romanov and Eudoxia Stryeshnevaya, was born 
on the 9th of March 1629.  A youth at his father's death 
(1645), he was committed to the care of the boyarin Boris 
Ivanovich Morozov, a shrewd and sensible guardian, sufficiently 
enlightened to recognize the needs of his country, and by no 
means inaccessible to Western ideas.  Morozov's foreign policy was 
pacificatory.  He secured the truce with Poland and carefully 
avoided complications with the Porte.  His domestic policy was 
severely equitable, and aimed at relieving the public burdens 
by limiting the privileges of foreign traders and abolishing 
a great many useless and expensive court offices.  On the 17th 
of January 1648 he procured the marriage of the tsar with Maria 
Miloslavshaya, himself marrying her sister, Anna, ten days 
later.  The Miloslavskis were typical self-seeking 17th century 
boyars, whose extortions made them generally detested.  In 
May 1648 the people of Moscow rose against them, and the 
young tsar was compelled to dismiss both them and their patron 
Morozov.  The successful issue of the Moscow riots was the 
occasion of disquieting disturbances all over the tsardom 
culminating in dangerous rebellions at Pskov and Great Novgorod, 
with which the government was so unable to cope that they 
surrendered, practically granting the malcontents their own 
terms.  One man only had displayed equal tact and courage at Great 
Novgorod, the metropolitan Nikon (q.v.), who in consequence 
became in 1651 the tsar's chief minister.  In 1653 the weakness 
and disorder of Poland, which had just emerged, bleeding at 
every pore, from the savage Cossack war, encouraged Alexius 
to attempt to recover from her secular rival the old Russian 
lands.  On the 1st of October 1653 a national assembly met 
at Moscow to sanction the war and find the means of carrying 
it on, and in April 1654 the army was blessed by Nikon (now 
patriarch).  The campaign of 1654 was an uninterrupted triumph, 
and scores of towns, including the important fortress of 
Smolensk, fell into the hands of the Muscovites.  In January 
1655 the rout of Ochmatov arrested their progress; but in 
the summer of the same year, the sudden invasion by Charles 
X. of Sweden for the moment swept the Polish state out of 
existence; the Muscovites, unopposed, quickly appropriated 
nearly everything which was not already occupied by the 
Swedes, and when at last the Poles offered to negotiate, the 
whole grand-duchy of Lithuania was the least of the demands of 
Alexius.  Fortunately for Poland, the tsar and the king of 
Sweden now quarrelled over the apportionment of the spoil, and 
at the end of May 1656 Alexius, stimulated by the emperor and 
the other enemies of Sweden, declared war against her.  Great 
things were expected of the Swedish war, but nothing came of 
it.  Dorpat was taken, but countless multitudes were lost 
in vain before Riga.  In the meantime Poland had so far 
recovered herself as to become a much more dangerous foe 
than Sweden, and, as it was impossible to wage war with both 
simultaneously, the tsar resolved to rid himself of the Swedes 
first.  This he did by the peace of Kardis (July 2, 1661), 
whereby Muscovy retroceded all her conquests.  The Polish war 
dragged on for six years longer and was then concluded by a 
truce, nominally for thirteen years, which proved the most 
durable of treaties.  By the truce of Andrussowo (February 
11, 1667) Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia were restored 
to Poland, but the infinitely more important Smolensk and 
Kiev remained in the hands of the Muscovite together with 
the whole eastern bank of the Dnieper.  This truce was the 
achievement of Athanasy Orduin-Nashchokin, the first Russian 
chancellor and diplomatist in the modern sense, who after 
the disgrace of Nikon became the tsar's first minister till 
1670, when he was superseded by the equally able Artamon 
Matvyeev, whose beneficent influence prevailed to the end 
of the reign.  It is the crowning merit of the ever amiable 
and courteous tsar Alexius that he discovered so many great 
men (like Nikon, Orduin, Matvyeev, the best of Peter's 
precursors) and suitably employed them.  He was not a man 
of superior strength of character, or he would never have 
submitted to the dictation of Nikon.  But, on the other 
hand, he was naturally, if timorously, progressive, or he 
would never have encouraged the great reforming boyarin 
Matvyeev.  His education was necessarily narrow; yet he 
was learned in his way, wrote verses, and even began a 
history of his own times.  His last years, notwithstanding 
the terrible rebellion of Stenka Razin, were deservedly 
tranquil.  By his first consort he had thirteen children, 
of whom two sickly sons and eight healthy daughters survived 
him.  By his second consort, Natalia Naruishkina, he had two 
children, the tsarevich Peter and the tsarevna Natalia. 

See Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) 

ALEXIUS PETROVICH (1600-1718), Russian tsarevich, the sole 
surviving son of Peter I. and Eudoxia Lopukhina, was horn on the 
19th of February 1690.  The young tsar married the boyarinya 
Lopukhina at his mother's command.  We know nothing of the 
bride except that she was beautiful, modest and ``brought up 
in the fear of the Lord.'' She would, doubtless, have made a 
model tsaritsa of the pre-Petrine period, but, unfortunately, 
she was no fit wife for such a vagabond of genius as Peter the 
Great.  From the first her society bored Peter unspeakably, 
and, after the birth of their second short-lived son 
Alexander, on the 3rd of October 1691, he practically deserted 
her.  The young Alexius was ignored by his father till he was 
nine years old.  Peter was a rare and unwelcome guest in his 
own family, and a son who loved his mother could have little 
affection for a father who had ever been that mother's worst 
persecutor.  From his sixth to his ninth year Alexius was 
educated by the diffuse and pedantic Vyazemsky, but after the 
removal of his mother to the Suzdal Prokovsky Monastery he 
was confided to the care of learned foreigners, who taught him 
history, geography, mathematics and French.  In 1703 Alexius 
was ordered to follow the army to the field as a private in a 
bombardier regiment.  In 1704 he was present at the capture of 
Narva.  At this period the preceptors of the tsarevich had 
the highest opinion of his ability; but, unfortunately, it 
was not the sort of ability that his father could make use 
of.  He was essentially a student, with strong leanings towards 
archaeology and ecclesiology.  A monastic library was the proper 
place for this gentle emotional dreamer, who clung so fondly 
to the ancient traditions.  To a prince of his temperament the 
vehement activity of his abnormally energetic father was very 
offensive.  He liked neither the labour itself nor its 
object.  Yet Peter, not unnaturally, wished his heir to 
dedicate himself to the service of new Russia, and demanded 
from him unceasing labour in order to maintain the brand-new 
state at the high level of greatness to which it had been 
raised.  Painful relations between father and son, quite 
apart from the personal antipathies already existing, were 
therefore inevitable.  It was an additional misfortune 
for Alexius that his father should have been too busy to 
attend to him just as he was growing up from boyhood to 
manhood.  He was left in the hands of reactionary boyars 
and priests, who encouraged him to hate his father and 
wish for the death of the tsar-antichrist.  His confessor, 
Yakov Ignatiev, whom he promised to obey as ``an angel and 
apostle of God,'' was his chief counsellor in these days. 

In 1708 Peter sent Alexius to Smolensk to collect provender 
and recruits, and thence to Moscow to fortify it against 
Charles XII. At the end of 1709 he went to Dresden for twelve 
months for finishing lessons in French and German, mathematics 
and fortification, and, his education completed, he was 
married, greatly against his will, to the princess Charlotte 
of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, whose sister espoused, almost 
simultaneously, the heir to the Austrian throne, the archduke 
Charles.  The wedding was celebrated at Torgau on the 14th of 
October 1711, in the house of the queen of Poland, and three 
weeks later the bridegroom was hurried away by his father to 
Thorn to superintend the provisioning of the Russian troops in 
Poland.  For the next twelve months Alexius was kept constantly 
on the move.  His wife joined him at Thorn in December, but 
in April 1712 a peremptory ukaz ordered him off to the army in 
Pomerania, and in the autumn of the same year he was forced 
to accompany his father on a tour of inspection through 
Finland.  Evidently Peter was determined to tear his son 
away from a life of indolent ease.  Immediately on his 
return from Finland Alexius was despatched by his father 
to Staraya Rusya and Ladoga to see to the building of new 
ships.  This was the last commission entrusted to him.  
On his return to the capital Peter, in order to see what 
progress his son had made in mechanics and mathematics, 
asked him to draw something of a technical nature for his 
inspection.  Alexius, in order to escape such an ordeal, 
resorted to the abject expedient of disabling his right hand by a 
pistol-shot.  In no other way could the tsarevich have offended 
his father so deeply.  He had behaved like a cowardly recruit 
who mutilates himself to escape military service.  After 
this, Peter seemed for a time to take no further interest in 
Alexius.  He left him entirely to himself.  He employed him no 
more.  He no longer pressed him to attend public functions.  
Alexius rejoiced at this welcome change, but he had cause 
rather to fear it.  It marked the deepening of a hatred which 
might have been overcome.  Alexius was evidently consoling 
himself with the reflexion that the future belonged to 
him.  He was well aware that the mass of the Russian nation 
was on his side.  Nearly all the prelates were devoted to 
him.  Equally friendly were the great boyar families.  All 
Alexius had to do was to sit still, keep out of his father's 
way as much as possible and await the natural course of 
events.  But with Peter the present was everything.  He could 
not afford to leave anything to chance.  All his life long 
he had been working incessantly with a single object --the 
regeneration of Russia.  What if his successor refused to tread 
in his father's footsteps or, still worse, tried to destroy his 
father's work? By some such process of reasoning as this must 
the idea of changing the succession to the throne, by setting 
aside Alexius, have first occurred to the mind of Peter the 
Great.  Nevertheless he made one last effort to reclaim his 
son.  On the 22nd of October 1715 Alexius' consort, the princess 
Charlotte, died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke 
Peter, afterwards Peter II. On the day of the funeral Peter 
addressed to Alexius a stern letter of warning and remonstrance, 
urging him no longer to resemble the slothful servant in the 
parable, and threatening to cut him off, as though he were a 
gangrenous swelling, if he did not acquiesce in his father's 
plans.  But it was now that Alexius showed what a poor 
creature he really was.  He wrote a pitiful reply to his 
father, offering to renounce the succession in favour of his 
baby half-brother Peter, who had been born the day after the 
princess Charlotte's funeral.  As if this were not enough, in 
January 1716 he wrote to his father for permission to become a 
monk.  Still Peter did not despair.  On the 26th of August 
1716 he wrote to Alexius from abroad urging him, if he 
desired to remain tsarevich, to join him and the army without 
delay.  Rather than face this ordeal Alexius fled to Vienna 
and placed himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, 
the emperor Charles VI., who sent him for safety first to the 
Tirolean fortress of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of 
San Elmo at Naples.  He was accompanied throughout his journey 
by his mistress, the Finnish girl Afrosina.  That the emperor 
sincerely sympathized with Alexius, and suspected Peter of 
harbouring murderous designs against his son, is plain from 
his confidential letter to George I. of England, whom he 
consulted on this delicate affair.  Peter's agitation was 
extreme.  The flight of the tsarevich to a foreign potentate 
was a reproach and a scandal.  He must be recovered and 
brought back to Russia at all hazards.  This difficult task 
was accomplished by Count Peter Tolstoi, the most subtle and 
unscrupulous of Peter's servants; but terrorized though he 
was, Alexius would only consent to return on his father solemnly 
swearing, ``before God and His judgment seat,'' that if he 
came back he should not be punished in the least, but cherished 
as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and marry 
Afrosina.  On the 31st of January 1718 the tsarevich reached 
Moscow.  Peter had already determined to institute a most searching 
inquisition in order to get at the bottom of the mystery of the 
flight.  On the 18th of February a ``confession'' was extorted 
from Alexius which implicated most of his friends, and he 
then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in favour 
of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich.  A horrible reign of 
terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia 
was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged 
adultery, while all who had in any way befriended Alexius were 
impaled, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to 
death.  All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and 
isolate the tsarevich.  In April 1718 fresh confessions were 
extorted from Alexius, now utterly broken and half idiotic with 
fright.  Yet even now there were no actual facts to go upon.  
Alexius' ``evil designs'' were still in foro conscientiae, 
and had not been, perhaps never would be, translated into 
practice.  The worst that could be brought against him was 
that he had wished his father's death.  In the eyes of Peter, 
his son was now a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, 
whose life was forfeit.  But there was no getting over the 
fact that his father had sworn ``before the Almighty and His 
judgment seat'' to pardon him and let him live in peace if he 
returned to Russia.  From Peter's point of view the question 
was, did the enormity of the tsarevich's crime absolve the 
tsar from the oath which he had taken to spare the life of 
this prodigal son? This question was solemnly submitted to 
a grand council of prelates, senators, ministers and other 
dignitaries on the 13th of June 1718.  The clergy left the 
matter to the tsar's own decision.  The temporal dignitaries 
declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that 
Alexius should be examined by torture.  Accordingly, on 
the 19th of June, the weak and ailing tsarevich received 
twenty-five strokes with the knout (as then administered 
nobody ever survived thirty), and on the 24th fifteen more.  
It was hardly possible that he could survive such treatment; 
the natural inference is that he was not intended to survive 
it.  Anyway, he expired two days later in the guardhouse of 
the citadel of St Petersburg, two days after the senate had 
condemned him to death for imagining rebellion against his 
father, and for hoping for the co-operation of the common 
people and the armed intervention of his brother-in-law, the 
emperor.  This shameful sentence was the outcome of mingled 
terror and obsequiousness.  Abominable, unnatural as Peter's 
conduct to his unhappy and innocent son undoubtedly was, 
there is no reason to suppose that he ever regretted it.  He 
argued that a single worthless life stood in the way of the 
regeneration of Russia, and he therefore deliberately removed it. 

See Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.) 

ALFANI, DOMENICO, italian painter, was born at Perugia 
towards the close of the 15th century.  He was a contemporary 
of Raphael, with whom he studied in the school of Perugino.  
The two artists lived on terms of intimate friendship, and 
the influence of the more distinguished of the two is so 
clearly traceable in the works of the other, that these 
have frequently been attributed to Raphael.  Towards the 
close of his life Alfani gradually changed his style and 
approximated to that of the later Florentine school.  The 
date of his death, according to some, was 1540, while others 
say he was alive in 1553.  Pictures by Alfani may be seen in 
collections at Florence and in several churches in Perugia. 

ALFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, 10 m.  W. of Hildesheim, on the river Leine and 
the Hanover-Cassel main line of railway.  Pop. (1900) 
4900.  It has a handsome church with twin spires, and training 
colleges for schoolmasters and theological candidates.  
Its industries are flourishing, and embrace paper-making, 
agricultural machine- works, iron-founding and flax-spinning. 

ALFIERI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1749-1803), Italian dramatist, 
was born on the 17th of January 1749 at Asti in Piedmont.  He 
lost his father in early infancy; but he continued to reside 
with his mother, who married a second time, till his tenth 
year, when he was placed at the academy of Turin.  After 
he had passed a twelvemonth at the academy, he went on a 
short visit to a relation who dwelt at Coni; and during his 
stay there he made his first poetical attempt in a sonnet 
chiefly borrowed from lines in Ariosto and Metastasio, 
the only poets he had at that time read.  When thirteen 
years of age he was induced to begin the study of civil and 
canonical law; but the attempt only served to disgust him 
with every species of application and to increase his relish 
for the perusal of French romances.  By the death of his 
uncle, who had hitherto taken some charge of his education 
and conduct, he was left, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy 
without control his vast paternal inheritance, augmented by 
the recent accession of his uncle's fortune.  He now began 
to attend the riding-school, where he acquired that rage 
for horses and equestrian exercise which continued to be one 
of his strongest passions till the close of his existence. 

After some time spent in alternate fits of extravagant 
dissipation and ill-directed study, he was seized with a desire 
of travelling; and having obtained permission from the king, 
he departed in 1766, under the care of an English preceptor.  
Restless and unquiet, he posted with the utmost rapidity 
through the towns of Italy; and his improvement was such as 
was to be expected from his mode of travelling and his previous 
habits.  Hoping to find in foreign countries some relief from the 
tedium and ennui with which he was oppressed, and being anxious 
to become acquainted with the French theatre, he proceeded to 
Paris.  But he appears to have been completely dissatisfied 
with everything he witnessed in France and contracted a 
dislike to its people, which his intercourse in future years 
rather contributed to augment than diminish.  In Holland he 
became deeply enamoured of a married lady, who returned his 
attachment, but who was soon obliged to accompany her husband to 
Switzerland.  Alfieri, whose feelings were of the most impetuous 
description, was in despair at this separation, and returned 
to his own country in the utmost anguish and despondency of 
mind.  While under this depression of spirits he was induced 
to seek alleviation from works of literature; and the perusal 
of Plutarch's Lives, which he read with profound emotion, 
inspired him with an enthusiastic passion for freedom and 
independence.  Under the influence of this rage for liberty 
he recommenced his travels; and his only gratification, in 
the absence of freedom among the continental states, appears 
to have been derived from contemplating the wild and sterile 
regions of the north of Sweden, where gloomy forests, lakes 
and precipices conspired to excite those sublime and melancholy 
ideas which were congenial to his disposition.  Everywhere 
his soul felt as if confined by the bonds of society; he 
panted for something more free in government, more elevated 
in sentiment, more devoted in love and more perfect in 
friendship.  In search of this ideal world he posted through 
various countries more with the rapidity of a courier than 
of one who travels for amusement or instruction.  During a 
journey to London he engaged in an intrigue with a married 
lady of high rank; and having been detected, the publicity 
of a rencounter with the injured husband, and of a divorce 
which followed, rendered it expedient and desirable for him 
to quit England.  He then visited Spain and Portugal, where 
he became acquainted with the Abbe Caluso, who remained 
through life the most attached and estimable friend he ever 
possessed.  In 1772 Alfieri returned to Turin.  This time he 
became enamoured of the Marchesa Turinetti di Prie, whom he 
loved with his usual ardour, and who seems to have been as 
undeserving of a sincere attachment as those he had hitherto 
adored.  In the course of a long attendance on his mistress, 
during a malady with which she was afflicted, he one day wrote 
a dialogue or scene of a drama, which he left at her house.  On 
a difference taking place between them the piece was returned 
to him, and being retouched and extended to five acts, it was 
performed at Turin in 1775, under the title of Cleopatra. 

From this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable 
thirst for theatrical fame, and the remainder of his life 
was devoted to its attainment.  His first two tragedies, 
Filippo and Polinice were originally written in French 
prose; and when he came to versify them in Italian, he 
found that, from his Lombard origin and long intercourse 
with foreigners, he expressed himself with feebleness and 
inaccuracy.  Accordingly, with the view of improving his 
Italian style, he went to Tuscany and, during an alternate 
residence at Florence and Siena, he completed his Filippo 
and Polinice, and conceived the plan of various other 
dramas.  While thus employed he became acquainted with the 
countess of Albany, who then resided with her husband at 
Florence.  For her he formed an attachment which, if less 
violent than his former loves, appears to have been more 
permanent.  With this motive to remain at Florence, he could 
not endure the chains by which his vast possessions bound him to 
Piedmont.  He therefore resigned his whole property to his 
sister, the countess Cumiana, reserving an annuity which 
scarcely amounted to a half of his original revenues.  At 
this period the countess of Albany, urged by the ill-treatment 
she received from her husband, sought refuge in Rome, where 
she at length received permission from the pope to live 
apart from her tormentor.  Alfieri followed the countess to 
that capital, where he completed fourteen tragedies, four 
of which were now for the first time printed at Sienna. 

At length, however, it was thought proper that, by leaving 
Rome, he should remove the aspersions which had been thrown 
on the object of his affections.  During the year 1783 he 
therefore travelled through different states of Italy, and 
published six additional tragedies.  The interests of his love 
and literary glory had not diminished his rage for horses, 
which seems to have been at least the third passion of his 
soul.  He came to England solely for the purpose of purchasing 
a number of these animals, which he carried with him to 
Italy.  On his return he learned that the countess of Albany 
had gone to Colmar in Alsace, where he joined her, and 
resided with her under the same roof during the rest of his 
life.  They chiefly passed their time between Alsace and 
Paris, but at length took up their abode entirely in that 
metropolis.  While here, Alfieri made arrangements with 
Didot for an edition of his tragedies, but was soon after 
forced to quit Paris by the storms of the Revolution.  He 
recrossed the Alps with the countess, and finally settled at 
Florence.  The last ten years of his life, which he spent in 
that city, seem to have been the happiest of his existence.  
During that long period his tranquillity was only interrupted 
by the entrance of the Revolutionary armies into Florence in 
1799.  Though an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feeling 
of Alfieri rendered him also a decided foe to the principles 
and leaders of the French Revolution; and he rejected with 
the utmost contempt those advances which were made with 
a view to bring him over to their cause.  The concluding 
years of his life were laudably employed in the study 
of the Greek literature and in perfecting a series of 
comedies.  His assiduous labour on this subject, which he 
pursued with his characteristic impetuosity, exhausted his 
strength, and brought on a malady for which he would not 
adopt the prescriptions of his physicians, but obstinately 
persisted in employing remedies of his own.  His disorder 
rapidly increased, and he died on the 8th of October 1803. 

The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the 
portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs 
of his Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous 
and almost ungovernable temper.  Pride, which seems to 
have been a ruling sentiment, may account for many apparent 
inconsistencies of his character.  But his less amiable 
qualities were greatly softened by the cultivation of 
literature.  His application to study gradually tranquillized 
his temper and softened his manners, leaving him at the same 
time in perfect possession of those good qualities which he 
had inherited from nature--a warm and disinterested attachment 
to his family and friends, united to a generosity, vigour and 
elevation of character, which rendered him not unworthy to embody 
in his dramas the actions and sentiments of Grecian heroes. 

It is to his dramas that Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the 
high reputation he has attained.  Before his time the Italian 
language, so harmonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch and so 
energetic in the Commedia of Dante, had been invariably 
languid and prosaic in dramatic dialogue.  The pedantic 
and inanimate tragedies of the 16th century were followed, 
during the iron age of Italian literature, by dramas of 
which extravagance in the sentiments and improbability in 
the action were the chief characteristics.  The prodigious 
success of the Merope of Maffei, which appeared in the 
commencement of the 18th century, may be attributed more 
to a comparison with such productions than to intrinsic 
merit.  In this degradation of tragic taste the appearance 
of the tragedies of Alfieri was perhaps the most important 
literary event that had occurred in Italy during the 18th 
century.  On these tragedies it is difficult to pronounce a 
judgment, as the taste and system of the author underwent 
considerable change and modification during the intervals 
which elapsed between the three periods of their publication.  
An excessive harshness of style, an asperity of sentiment and 
total want of Poetical ornament are the characteristics of 
his first four tragedies, Filippo, Polinice, Antigone and 
Virginia. These faults were in some measure corrected in 
the six tragedies which he gave to the world some years after, 
and in those which he published along with Saul, the drama 
which enjoyed the greatest success of all his productions--a 
popularity which may be partly attributed to the severe and 
unadorned manner of Alfieri being well adapted to the patriarchal 
simplicity of the age in which the scene of the tragedy is 
placed.  But though there be a considerable difference in his 
dramas, there are certain observations applicable to them 
all.  None of the plots are of his own invention.  They are 
founded either on mythological fable or history; most of them 
had been previously treated by the Greek dramatists or by 
Seneca. Rosmunda, the only one which could be supposed of 
his own contrivance, and which is certainly the least happy 
effusion of his genius, is partly founded on the eighteenth 
novel of the third part of Bandello and partly on Prevost's 
Memoires d'un homme de qualite. But whatever subject he 
chooses, his dramas are always formed on the Grecian model 
and breathe a freedom and independence worthy of an Athenian 
poet.  Indeed, his Agide and Bruto may rather be considered 
oratorical declamations and dialogues on liberty than tragedies.  
The unities of time and place are not so scrupulously observed 
in his as in the ancient dramas; but he has rigidly adhered 
to a unity of action and interest.  He occupies his scene with 
one great action and one ruling passion, and removes from it 
every accessory event or feeling.  In this excessive zeal for 
the observance of unity he seems to have forgotten that its 
charm consists in producing a common relation between multiplied 
feelings, and not in the bare exhibition of one, divested 
of those various accompaniments which give harmony to the 
whole.  Consistently with that austere and simple manner which 
he considered the chief excellence of dramatic composition, 
he excluded from his scene all coups de theatre, 
all philosophical reflexions, and that highly ornamented 
Versification which had been so assiduously cultivated by his 
predecessors.  In his anxiety, however, to avoid all superfluous 
ornament, he has stripped his dramas of the embellishments 
of imagination; and for the harmony and flow of poetical 
language he has substituted, even in his best performances, 
a style which, though correct and pure, is generally harsh, 
elaborate and abrupt; often strained into unnatural energy or 
condensed into factitious conciseness.  The chief excellence 
of Alfieri consists in powerful delineation of dramatic 
character.  In his Filippo he has represented, almost with 
the masterly touches of Tacitus, the sombre character, the 
dark mysterious counsels, the suspensa semper et obscura 
verba, of the modern Tiberius.  In Polinice, the characters 
of the rival brothers are beautifully contrasted; in Maria 
Stuarda, that unfortunate queen is represented unsuspicious, 
impatient of contradiction and violent in her attachments.  
In Mirra, the character of Ciniro is perfect as a father 
and king, and Cecri is a model of a wife and mother.  In the 
representation of that species of mental alienation where 
the judgment has perished but traces of character still 
remain, he is peculiarly happy.  The insanity of Saul is 
skilfully managed; and the horrid joy of Orestes in killing 
Aegisthus rises finely and naturally to madness in finding 
that, at the same time, he had inadvertently slain his mother. 

Whatever may be the merits or defects of Alfieri, he may be 
considered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama.  
His country hailed him as her sole tragic poet; and his successors 
in the same path of literature have regarded his bold, austere 
and rapid manner as the genuine model of tragic composition. 

Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life many 
sonnets, five odes on American independence and the poem of 
Etruria, founded on the assassination of Alexander I., duke of 
Florence.  Of his prose works the most distinguished for 
animation and eloquence is the Panegyric on Trajan, composed 
in a transport of indignation at the supposed feebleness of 
Pliny's eulogium.  The two books entitled La Tirannide and 
the Essays on Literature and Government are remarkable for 
elegance and vigour of style, but are too evidently imitations 
of the manner of Machiavel.  His Antigallican, which was 
written at the same time with his Defence of Louis XVI., 
comprehends an historical and satirical view of the French 
Revolution.  The posthumous works of Alfieri consist of satires, 
six political comedies and the Memoirs of his Life--a work 
which will always be read with interest, in spite of the cold 
and languid gravity with which he delineates the most interesting 
adventures and the strongest passions of his agitated life. 

See Mem. di Vit. Alfieri; Sismondi, De la lit. du midi de 
l'Europe; Walker's Memoir on Italian Tragedy; Giorn. de Pisa, 
tom. lviii.; Life of Alfieri, by Centofanti (Florence, 1842); 
Vita, Giornuli, Lettere di Alfieri, by Teza (Florence, 1861); 
Vittorio Alfieri, by Antonini and Cognetti (Turin, 1898). 

ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871), English divine and scholar, 
was born in London on the 7th of October 1810.  He came of 
a Somersetshire family, which had given five consecutive 
generations of clergymen to the Anglican church.  Alford's 
early years were passed with his widowed father, who was 
curate of Steeple Ashton in Wiltshire.  He was an extremely 
precocious lad, and before he was ten had written several 
Latin odes, a history of the Jews and a series of homiletic 
outlines.  After a peripatetic school course he went up to 
Cambridge in 1827 as a scholar of Trinity.  In 1832 he was 
34th wrangler and 8th classic, and in 1834 was made fellow of 
Trinity.  He had already taken orders, and in 1835 began 
his eighteen years' tenure of the vicarage of Wymeswold in 
Leicestershire, from which seclusion the twice-repeated 
offer of a colonial bishopric failed to draw him.  He was 
Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1841-1842, and steadily 
built up a reputation as scholar and preacher, which would 
have been enhanced but for his discursive ramblings in the 
fields of minor poetry and magazine editing.  In September 
1853 Alford removed to Quebec Chapel, London, where he had 
a large and cultured congregation.  In March 1857 Viscount 
Palmerston advanced him to the deanery of Canterbury, where, 
till his death on the 12th of January 1871, he lived the same 
strenuous and diversified life that had always characterized 
him.  The inscription on his tomb, chosen by himself, is 
``Diversorium Viatoris Hierosolymam Proficiscentis.'' 

Alford was a not inconsiderable artist, as his picture-book, 
The Riviera (1870), shows, and he had abundant musical and 
mechanical talent.  Besides editing the works of John Donne, 
he published several volumes of his own verse, The School of 
the Heart (1835), The Abbot of Muchelnaye (1841), and a 
number of hymns, the best-known of which are ``Forward! be our 
watch-word,'' ``Come, ye thankful people, come,'' and ``Ten 
thousand times ten thousand.'' He translated the Odyssey, 
wrote a well-known manual of idiom, A Plea for the Queen's 
English (1863), and was the first editor of the Contemporary 
Review (1866--1870).  His chief fame, however, rests upon his 
monumental edition of the New Testament in Greek (4 vols.), 
which occupied him from 1841 to 1861.  In this work he first 
brought before English students a careful collation of the 
readings of the chief MSS. and the researches of the ripest 
continental scholarship of his day.  Philological rather 
than theological in character, it marked an epochal change 
from the old homiletic commentary, and though more recent 
research, patristic and papyral, has largely changed the 
method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work is still a 
quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of profit. 

His Life, written by his widow, appeared in 1873 (Rivington). (A. J. G.) 

ALFRED, or AELFRED, known as THE GREAT (848-? 900), king 
of England, was born in 848 at Wantage, and was the fourth 
son of King AEthelwulf and his first wife (Osburh).  He seems 
to have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, 
and stories of his boyhood were remembered.  At the age of 
five (853) he was sent to Rome, where he was confirmed by Leo 
IV., who is also stated to have ``hallowed him as king.'' 
Later writers interpreted this as an anticipatory crowning 
in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of 
Wessex.  That, however, could not have been foreseen in 
853, as Alfred had three elder brothers living.  It is 
probably to be understood either of investiture with the 
consular insignia, or possibly with some titular royalty 
such as that of the under-kingdom of Kent.  In 855 Alfred 
again went to Rome with his father AEthelwulf, returning 
towards the end of 856. About two years later his father 
died.  During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, 
AEthelbald and AEthelberht, nothing is heard of Alfred.  
But with the accession of the third brother AEthelred (866) 
the public life of Alfred begins, and he enters on his 
great work of delivering England from the Danes.  It is in 
this reign that Asser applies to Alfred the unique title of 
secundarius, which seems to indicate a position analogous to 
that of the Celtic tanist, a recognized successor, closely 
associated with the reigning prince.  It is probable that 
this arrangement was definitely sanctioned by the witenagemot, 
to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should 
AEthelred fall in battle.  In 868 Alfred married Ealhswith, 
daughter of AEthelred Mucill, who is called ealdorman of the 
Gaini, an unidentified district.  The same year the two 
brothers made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mercia from 
the pressure of the Danes.  For nearly two years Wessex had a 
respite.  But at the end of 870 the storm burst; and the year 
which followed has been rightly called ``Alfred's year of 
battles.'' Nine general engagements were fought with varying 
fortunes, though the place and date of two of them have not 
been recorded.  A successful skirmish at Englefield, Berks 
(December 31, 870), was followed by a severe defeat at Reading 
(January 4, 871), and this, four days later, by the brilliant 
victory of Ashdown, near Compton Beauchamp in Shrivenham 
Hundred.  On the 22nd of January the English were again 
defeated at Basing, and on the 22nd of March at Marton, Wilts, 
the two unidentified battles having perhaps occurred in the 
interval.  In April AEthelred died, and Alfred succeeded to 
the whole burden of the contest.  While he was busied with 
his brother's exequies, the Danes defeated the English in 
his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in his presence 
at Wilton in May. After this peace was made, and for the 
next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts of 
England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the 
frontier.  But in 876 part of the Danes managed to slip past 
him and occupied Wareham; whence, early in 877, under cover of 
treacherous negotiations, they made a dash westwards and seized 
Exeter.  Here Alfred blockaded them, and a relieving fleet 
having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to submit 
and withdrew to Mercia.  But in January 878 they made a 
sudden swoop on Chippenham, a royal vill in which Alfred had 
been keeping his Christmas, ``and most of the people they 
reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band 
made his way . . . by wood and swamp, and after Easter he . . 
. made a fort at Athelney, and from that fort kept fighting 
against the foe'' (Chron..) The idea that Alfred, during 
his retreat at Athelney, was a helpless fugitive rests upon 
the foolish legend of the cakes.  In reality he was organizing 
victory.  By the middle of May his preparations were complete 
and he moved out of Athelney, being joined on the way by the 
levies of Somerset, Wilts and Hants.  The Danes on their side 
moved out of Chippenham, and the two armies met at Edington in 
Wiltshire.  The result was a decisive victory for Alfred.  The 
Danes submitted.  Guthrum, the Danish king, and twenty-nine of 
his chief men accepted baptism.  By the next year (879) not only 
Wessex, but Mercia, west of Watling Street, was cleared of the 
invader.  This is the arrangement known as the peace of Wedmore 
(878), though no document embodying its provisions is in 
existence.  And though for the present the north-eastern half 
of England, including London, remained in the hands of the 
Danes, in reality the tide had turned, and western Europe 
was saved from the danger of becoming a heathen Scandinavian 
power.  For the next few years there was peace, the Danes 
being kept busy on the continent.  A landing in Kent in 884 
or 885,1 though successfully repelled, encouraged the East 
Anglian Danes to revolt.  The measures taken by Alfred to 
repress this revolt culminated in the capture of London in 885 
or 886, and the treaty known as Alfred and Guthrum's peace, 
whereby the boundaries of the treaty of Wedmore (with which 
this is often confused) were materially modified in Alfred's 
favour.  Once more for a time there was a lull; but in 
the autumn of 892 (893) the final storm burst.  The Danes, 
finding their position on the continent becoming more and more 
precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in 
the aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger 
body at Appledore and the lesser under Haesten at Milton in 
Kent.  The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and 
children with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a 
deliberate attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East 
Anglian Danes, to conquer England.  Alfred, 893 (894), took up 
a position whence he could observe both forces.  While he was 
negotiating with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and 
struck north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest 
son, Edward, and defeated in a general engagement at Farnham, 
and driven to take refuge in Thorney Island in the Hertfordshire 
Colne, where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled to 
submit.  They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering 
another defeat at Benfleet coalesced with Haesten's force at 
Shoebury.  Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at 
Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian 
Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed fort on the coast 
of North Devon.  Alfred at once hurried westwards and raised 
the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not 
recorded.  Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march 
up the Thames valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their 
friends in the west.  But they were met by a large force under 
the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wilts and Somerset, and 
forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken 
and blockaded at Buttington, which some identify with Buttington 
Tump at the mouth of the Wye, others with Buttington near 
Welshpool.  An attempt to break through the English lines 
was defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to 
Shoebury.  Then after collecting reinforcements they made a 
sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of 
Chester.  The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but 
contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the 
neighbourhood.  And early in 894 (895) want of food obliged 
the Danes to retire once more to Essex.  At the end of this 
year and early in 895 (896) the Danes drew their ships up the 
Thames and Lea and fortified themselves twenty miles above 
London.  A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but 
later in the year Alfred saw a means of obstructing the 
river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships.  The 
Danes realized that they were out-manoeuvred.  They struck 
off north-westwards and wintered at Bridgenorth.  The next 
year, 896 (897), they abandoned the struggle.  Some retired to 
Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no connexions 
in England withdrew to the continent.  The long campaign was 
over.  The result testifies to the confidence inspired by 
Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the 
military reforms initiated by him.  These were (1) the division 
of the fyrd or national militia into two parts, relieving 
each other at fixed intervals, so as to ensure continuity in 
military operations; (2) the establishment of fortified posts 
(burgs) and garrisons at certain points; (3) the enforcement 
of the obligations of thanehood on all owners of five hides 
of land, thus giving the king a nucleus of highly equipped 
troops.  After the final dispersal of the Danish invaders 
Alfred turned his attention to the increase of the navy, and 
ships were built according to the king's own designs, partly to 
repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes 
on the coasts of Wessex, partly to prevent the landing of fresh 
hordes.  This is not, as often asserted, the beginning of the 
English navy.  There had been earlier naval operations under 
Alfred.  One naval engagement was certainly fought under 
AEthelwulf (851), and earlier ones, possibly in 833 and 840. 
Nor were the new ships a great success, as we hear of them 
grounding in action and foundering in a storm.  Much, too, was 
needed in the way of civil re-organization, especially in the 
districts ravaged by the Danes.  In the parts of Mercia acquired 
by Alfred, the shire system seems now to have been introduced 
for the first time.  This is the one grain of truth in the 
legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires, hundreds and 
tithings.  The finances also would need careful attention; 
but the subject is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's 
description of Alfred's appropriation of his revenue as more 
than an ideal sketch.  Alfred's care for the administration 
of justice is testified both by history and legend; and 
the title ``protector of the poor'' was his by unquestioned 
right.  Of the action of the witenagemot we do not hear very 
much under Alfred.  That he was anxious to respect its rights 
is conclusively proved, but both the circumstances of the 
time and the character of the king would tend to throw more 
power into his hands.  The legislation of Alfred probably 
belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure of 
the Danes had relaxed.  The details of it cannot be discussed 
here.  Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with 
foreign powers, but little definite information is available.  
He certainly corresponded with Elias III., the patriarch of 
Jerusalem, and probably sent a mission to India.  Embassies 
to Rome conveying the English alms to the pope were fairly 
frequent; while Alfred's interest in foreign countries is 
shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of 
Orosius.  His relations to the Celtic princes in the southern 
half of the island are clearer.  Comparatively early in 
his reign the South Welsh princes, owing to the pressure 
on them of North Wales and Mercia, commended themselves to 
Alfred.  Later in the reign the North Welsh followed their 
example, and the latter co-operated with the English in the 
campaign of 893 (894).  The Celtic principality in Cornwall, 
which seems to have survived at least till 926, must long 
have been practically dependent on Wessex.  That Alfred 
sent alms to Irish as well as to continental monasteries 
may be accepted on Asser's authority; the visit of the 
three pilgrim ``Scots'' (i.e. Irish) to Alfred in 891 
is undoubtedly authentic; the story that he himself in his 
childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by St Modwenna, 
though mythical, may point to Alfred's interest in that 
island.  The history of the church under Alfred is most 
obscure.  The Danish inroads had told heavily upon it; the 
monasteries had been special points of attack, and though 
Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported foreign 
monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under 
him.  To the ruin of learning and education wrought by 
the Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge 
of Latin even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's 
translation of Gregory's Pastoral Care bears eloquent 
testimony.  It was to remedy these evils that he established 
a court school, after the example of Charles the Great; for 
this he imported scholars like Grimbald and John the Saxon 
from the continent and Asser from South Wales; for this, 
above all, he put himself to school, and made the series of 
translations for the instruction of his clergy and people, 
most of which still survive.  These belong unquestionably 
to the later part of his reign, not improbably to the last 
four years of it, during which the chronicles are almost 
silent.  Apart from the lost Handboc or Encheiridion, 
which seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the 
king, the earliest work to be translated was the Dialogues 
of Gregory, a book enormously popular in the middle 
ages.  In this case the translation was made by Alfred's 
great friend Werferth, bishop of Worcester, the king merely 
furnishing a preface.  The next work to be undertaken was 
Gregory's Pastoral Care, especially for the benefit of the 
clergy.  In this Alfred keeps very close to his original; 
but the introduction which he prefixed to it is one of the 
most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed of English 
history.  The next two works taken in hand were historical, 
the Universal History of Orosius and Bede's Ecclesiastical 
History of the English People. The priority should probably 
be assigned to the Orosius, but the point has been much 
debated.  In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred 
so remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; 
in the Bede the author's text is closely adhered to, no 
additions being made, though most of the documents and some 
other less interesting matters are omitted.  Of late years 
doubts have been raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede 
translation.  But the sceptics cannot be regarded as having 
proved their point.  We come now to what is in many ways 
the most interesting of Alfred's works, his translation of 
Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, the most popular 
philosophical manual of the middle ages.  Here again Alfred 
deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr 
G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are 
to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and 
commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work 
which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his 
genius.  It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence 
occurs: ``My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, 
and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my 
memory in good works.'' The book has come down to us in two MSS. 
only.  In one of these the poems with which the original 
is interspersed are rendered into prose, in the other into 
alliterating verse.  The authorship of the latter has been 
much disputed; but probably they also are by Alfred.  Of the 
authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any 
doubt.  The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the 
title Blostman, i. e. ``Blooms'' or Anthology.  The first 
half is based mainly on the Soliloquies of St Augustine, 
the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains 
much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of 
him.  The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting 
epitaph for the noblest of English kings. ``Therefore he 
seems to me a very foolish man, and very wretched, who will 
not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and 
ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall 
be made clear.'' Besides these works of Alfred's, the Saxon 
Chronicle almost certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of 
which fragments only exist, probably owe their inspiration to 
him.  A prose version of the first fifty Psalms has been 
attributed to him; and the attribution, though not proved, 
is perfectly possible.  How Alfred passed to ``the life where 
all things are made clear'' we do not know.  The very year is 
uncertain.  The arguments on the whole are in favour of 
900. The day was the 26th of October.  Alike for what he 
did and for what he was, there is none to equal Alfred 
in the whole line of English sovereigns; and no monarch 
in history ever deserved more truly the epithet of Great. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief original authorities for the reign 
of Alfred are the so-called Life by Asser (best edition 
by W. H. Stevenson, Clarendon Press, 1904); and the Saxon 
Chronicles (text and notes by Earle and Plummer, 2 vols., 
Clar.  Press, 1892-1899; parallel texts and translation, 
Thorpe, 2 vols., 1861, Rolls Series; translation alone, 
Joseph Stevenson in Church Historians of England, vol. ii., 
1853).  The above sketch is based mainly on C. Plummer's Life 
and Times of Alfred the Great (Clar.  Press, 1902).  Of earlier 
biographies that by Pauli is still of great value: Konig 
AElfred (Berlin, 1851); Eng. trans. by Thorpe (Bohn, 1853).  Of 
recent works mention may be made of Alfred the Great, Chapters 
on his Life and Times, by various authors, edited by Alfred 
Bowker (1899); Earle, The Alfred Jewel (Clar.  Press, 1901). 

For the bioliography of Alfred's works in general see Wulker, 
Grundriss zur Gesch. der angelsachsischen Litteratur, pp. 
386-451 (Leipzig, 1885).  Only the more recent and accessible 
editions are mentioned here. Laws: The Legal Code ofAElfred 
the Great (M. H. Turk, Halle, 1893). (For the Anglo-Saxon laws 
as a whole see Liebermann, Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Halle, 
1898-1903.  Earlier editions, Schmid, 1858; Thorpe, 1840.) 
Gregory's Dialogues: Hans Hecht, in Grein's Bibliothek der 
angels.  Prosa (1900). Gregory's Pastoral Care: H. Sweet, 
for Early Eng. Text Society (1871--1872). (Dissertations by 
Wack and DeWitz, 1889.) Orosius: Thorpe (in his translation of 
Pauli, U. S. 1853); Bosworth (1859); Sweet, E.E.T.S. (1883). 
(Dissertation Schelling, Konig AElfred's . . . Orosius, 
Halle, 1886.) Bede: T. Miller, for E.E.T.S. (1890); Prof.  
Schipper, in Grein's Bibliothek (U.S. 1899). Boethius: 
W. J. Sedgfield (Clar.  Press, 1899); translation by the same 
(1900). (Dissertation: G. Schepss, Archiv fur's Studium 
der neueren Sprachen, xciv. 14-160.) Blostman: First printed 
by Cockayne in the Shrine (1868-1869); reprinted, Englische 
Studien, xviii.; new edition by Hararove, Yale Studies in 
English, xiii. (1902); translation by the same, ib. xxii. 
(1904). (Dissertation: F. G. Hubbard, Modern Language Notes, 
ix. 522 ff.) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: see above. Mortyrology: 
Cockayne, in the Shrine, v.s. Psalter: Thorpe (Clar.  
Press, 1855). (Dissertations: for Alfred's authorship, Wichmann, 
Anglia, xi. 19 ff.; against, J. D. Bruce, The Anglo-Saxon 
Version of the Book of Psalms, Baltimore, 1894.) (C. PL.) 

1 Where alternative dates are given the later date is that 
of the Saxon Chronicle. But the evidence of the Continental 
Chronicles makes it probable that the Saxon Chronicle 
is a year in advance of the true chronology in this part. 

ALFRED ERNEST ALBERT, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and duke 
of Edinburgh (1844-1900), second son and fourth child of Queen 
Victoria, was born at Windsor Castle on the 6th of August 
1844.  In 1856 it was decided that the prince, in accordance 
with his own wishes, should enter the navy, and a separate 
establishment was accordingly assigned to him, with Lieutenant 
Sowell, R. E., as governor.  He passed a most creditable 
examination for midshipman in August 1858, and being appointed 
to the ``Euryalus,'' at once began to work hard at the 
practical part of his profession.  In July 1860, while on this 
ship, he paid an official visit to the Cape, and made a very 
favourable impression both on the colonials and on the native 
chiefs.  On the abdication of Otto, king of Greece, in 1862, 
Prince Alfred was chosen by the whole people to succeed 
him, but political conventions of long standing rendered 
it impossible for the British government to accede to their 
wishes.  The prince therefore remained in the navy, and was 
promoted lieutenant on the 24th of February 1863 and captain 
on the 23rd of February 1866, being then appointed to the 
command of the ``Galatea.'' On attaining his majority in 1865 
the prince was created duke of Edinburgh and earl of Ulster, 
with an annuity of L. 15,000 granted by parliament.  While 
still in command of the ``Galatea'' the duke started from 
Plymouth on the 24th of January 1867 for his voyage round the 
world.  On the 11th of June 1867 he left Gibraltar and reached 
the Cape on the 24th of July, and landed at Glenelg, South 
Australia, on the 31st of October.  Being the first English 
prince to visit Australia, the duke was received with the greatest 
enthusiasm.  During his stay of nearly five months he visited 
Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Tasmania; and 
it was on his second visit to Sydney that, while attending 
a public picnic at Clonfert in aid of the Sailors' Home, 
an Irishman named O'Farrell shot him in the back with a 
revolver.  The wound was fortunately not dangerous, and 
within a month the duke was able to resume command of his 
ship and return home.  He reached Spithead on the 26th of 
June 1868, after an absence of seventeen months.  The duke's 
next voyage was to India, where he arrived in December 
1869.  Both there and at Hong Kong, which he visited on the 
way, he was the first British prince to set foot in the 
country.  The native rulers of India vied with one another 
in the magnificence of their entertainments during the duke's 
stay of three months.  On the 23rd of January 1874 the marriage 
of the duke to the grand-duchess Marie Alexandrovna, only 
daughter of Alexander II., emperor of Russia, was celebrated 
at St Petersburg, and the bride and bridegroom made their 
public entry into London on the 12th of March.  The duke 
still devoted himself to his profession, showing complete 
mastery of his duties and unusual skill in naval tactics.  
He was promoted rear-admiral on the 30th of December 1878; 
vice-admiral, 10th of November 1882; admiral, 18th of October 
1887; and received his baton as admiral of the Fleet, 3rd of 
June 1893.  He commanded the Channel fleet, 1883-1884; the 
Mediterranean fleet, 1886-1889; and was commander-in-chief at 
Davenport, 1890- 1893.  He always paid the greatest attention 
to his offiicial duties and was most efficient as an admiral. 

On the death of his uncle, Ernest II., duke of Saxe-Coburg and 
Gotha, on the 22nd of August 1893, the vacant duchy fell to 
the duke of Edinburgh, for the prince of Wales had renounced 
his right to the succession.  At first regarded with some 
coldness as a ``foreigner,'' he gradually gained popularity, 
and by the time of his death, on the 30th of July 1900, he 
had completely won the good opinion of his subjects.  The duke 
was exceedingly fond of music and an excellent violinist, and 
took a prominent part in establishing the Royal College of 
music.  He was also a keen collector of glass and ceramic 
ware, and his collection, valued at half a million of marks, 
was presented by his widow to the ``Veste Coburg,'' near 
Coburg.  When he became duke of Saxe-Coburg he surrendered his 
English allowance of L. 15,000 a year, but the L. 10,000 granted 
in addition by parliament on his marriage he retained in 
order to keep up Clarence House.  The duke had one son, 
who died unmarried on the 6th of February 1899, and four 
daughters.  The third daughter, Princess Alexandra Louisa 
Olga Victoria, married the hereditary prince Ernest of 
Hohenlohe-Langenburg, who became regent of the duchy of 
Coburg during the minority of the deceased duke's nephew, the 
young duke of Albany, to whom the succession fell. (G. F. B.) 

ALFRED, a village in the township of Alfred, Allegany county, 
New York, U.S.A., about 75 m.  S.W. of Buffalo.  Pop. of the 
township, including the village (1900), 1615; (1910 U. S. census) 
1590.  Pop. of the village (1900) 756; (1910 U. S. census) 759. 
The township is served, at Alfred station, by the Erie railway.  
The village, which is connected by stage with the station, is 
situated at the junction of two valleys and commands delightful 
views of mountain scenery.  On the west slope of pine Hill is 
Alfred University (co-educational), which embraces a College 
(non-sectarian), an academy (non-sectarian) and a theological 
seminary (Seventh-Day Baptist).  Closely associated with it 
also, and under the management of the university trustees, 
is the New York State School of Clay-Working and Ceramics 
(1900), one of the most efficient schools of the kind in the 
country.  In 1908 the legislature of New York appropriated 
$80,000 for the establishment of a state school of agriculture 
in connexion with the university.  The institution had its 
beginning in 1836 in a private school.  This developed into 
an academy, which in 1843 was incorporated as Alfred Academy 
and Teachers' Seminary; in 1857 the university was chartered 
under its present name.  The principal industry of the village 
is the manufacture of roofing tiles.  The township of Alfred 
lies within the territory purchased by Robert Morris in 1791.  
He sold it in the same year to a company resident in London, 
England.  Their agent sold most of it to settlers and, it is 
said, named the township, when it was organized in 1806, in 
honour of Alfred the Great.  The first settlement within its 
present limits was made in 1807.  For several years most of the 
settlers were Seventh-Day Baptists, and in 1812 they organized 
a church here.  The village of Alfred was chartered in 1887. 

J. S. Minard, Allegany County and its People (Alfred, 1896). 

ALFRETON, a market town in the mid-parliamentary division of 
Derbyshire, England, 14 m N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland 
railway.  Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,505.  It lies at a 
considerable elevation above the valley of a small stream tributary 
to the Derwent.  The church of St Martin is Early English and 
later.  The neighbourhood abounds in ironworks, collieries, 
quarries and potteries, and is thickly populated.  To the 
north-east of Alfreton are South Normanton (pop. 5170), Blackwell 
(4144) and Tibshelf (3432); to the north Shirland (3929), to 
the south Ironville and other busy industrial villages.  The 
foundation of Alfreton is traditionally ascribed to King Alfred. 

ALFUROS (ALFURES, HORAFORAS), a term of no ethnological value 
applied by the Malays to all the uncivilized non- Mahommedan 
peoples in the eastern portion of the Malay Archipelago.  Its 
origin is uncertain, but its meaning is ``wild'' or ``uncivilized.'' 
The term is not restricted to the aborigines, but is far 
more frequently used to describe the tribes of Malayan blood. 

ALGAE. The Latin word alga seems to have been the equivalent 
of the English word ``seaweed'' and probably stood for any or all 
of the species of plants which form the ``wrack'' of a seashore. 

Classification. 

When the word ``Algae'' came to be employed in botanical 
classification as the name of a class, an arbitrary limitation 
had to be set to its signification, and this was not always in 
keeping with its original meaning.  The absence of differentiation 
into root, stem and leaf which prevails among seaweeds, 
seems, for example, to have led Linnaeus to employ the term 
in the Genera Plantarum for a sub-class of Cryptogamia, the 
members of which presented this character in a greater or less 
degree.  Of the fifteen genera included by Linnaeus among 
algae, not more than six--viz. Chara, Fucus, Diva and 
Conferva, and in part Tremella and Byssus--would to-day, 
in any sense in which the term is employed, be regarded as 
algae.  The excluded genera are distributed among the 
liverworts, lichens and fungi; but notwithstanding the 
great advance in knowledge since the time of Linnaeus, the 
difficulty of deciding what limits to assign to the group 
to be designated Algae still remains.  It arises from the 
fact that algae, as generally understood, do not constitute 
a homogeneous group, suggesting a descent from a common 
stock.  Among them there exist, as will be seen hereafter, many 
well-marked but isolated natural groups, and their inclusion 
in the larger group is generally felt to be a matter of 
convenience rather than the expression of a belief in their 
close inter-relationship.  Efforts are therefore continually 
being made by successive writers to exclude certain outlying 
sub-groups, and to reserve the term Algae for a central group 
reconstituted on a more natural basis within narrower limits. 

It is perhaps desirable, in an article like this, to treat 
of algae in the widest possible sense in which the term 
may be used, an indication being at the same time given 
of the narrower senses in which it has been proposed to 
employ it.  Interpreted in this way, the place of algae 
in the vegetable kingdom may be shown by means of a 

 
                                                     _
                  _                  _              |   Myxomycetes
                 |                  |  Thallophyta  |   Fungi
                 |   Cryptogamia    |               |_  Algae
 The Vegetable   |                  |  Bryophyta
 Kingdom         |                  |_ Pteridophyta
                 |                   _
                 |                  |  Gymnosperms
                 |  Phanerogamia    |_ Angiosperms
                 |_
 

Algae in this wide sense may be briefly described as the 
aggregate of those simpler forms of plant life usually devoid, 
like the rest of the Thallophyta, of differentiation into 
root, stem and leaf; but, unlike other Thallophyta, possessed 
of a colouring matter; by means of which they are enabled, 
in the presence of sunlight, to make use of the carbonic 
acid gas of the atmosphere as a source of carbon.  It is 
true that certain Bryophyta (Marchantiaceae, Anthoceroteae) 
possess a thalloid structure similar to that of Thallophyta, 
and are at the same time possessed of the colouring matter 
of the Green Algae.  Their life-cycle, however, the structure 
of the reproductive organs and their whole organization 
proclaim them to be Bryophyta (q.v..) On the other hand, 
certain undoubted animals (Stentor, Hydra, Bonellia) are 
provided with a green colouring matter by means of which 
they make use of atmospheric carbonic acid.  A more important 
consideration is the occasional absence of this colour in 
species, or groups of species, with, in other respects, algal 
affinities.  Such aberrant forms are to be regarded in the 
same light as Cuscuta and Orobanchaceae, for example, among 
Phanerogams.  As these non-green plants do not cease to 
be classed with other Phanerogams, so must the forms in 
question be retained among algae.  In all cases the loss 
of the colouring matter is associated with an incapacity to 
take up carbon from so simple a compound as carbonic acid 

It might be mentioned here that the whole group of the 
Fungi (q.v.),with its many thousands of species, is now 
generally regarded as having been derived from algae, and 
the system of classification of fungi devised by Brefeld is 
based upon this belief.  The similarity of the morphological 
characters of one group of fungi to those of certain algae 
has earned for it the name Phycomycetes or alga-fungi. 

Further discussion of the general characters of algae will be 
deferred in order to take a brief survey of the subdivisions 
of the group.  For this purpose there will be adopted the 
classification of algae into four sub-groups, founded on 
the nature of the colouring matters present in the plant:-- 
    I.   CYANOPHYCEAE, or Blue-green Algae.
    II.  CHLOROPHYCEAE, or Green Algae.
    III. PHAEOPHYCEAE, or Brown Algae.
    IV.  RHODOPHYCEAE, or Red Algae.
The merits and demerits of this system will appear during the 
description of the characters of the members of the several subdivisions. 

I. CYANOPHYCEAE.--This group derives its name from the 
circumstance that the cells contain in addition to the 
green colouring matter, chlorophyll, a blue-green colouring 
matter to which the term phycocyanin has been applied. 

Sub-divisions. 

To the eye, however, members of this group present a greater 
variety of colour than those of any other--yellow, brown, 
olive, red, purple, violet and variations of all these being 
known.  They undoubtedly represent the lowest grade of 
algal life, and their distribution rivals that of the Green 
Algae.  They occur in the sea, in fresh water, on moist 
earth, on damp rocks and on the bark of trees.  Certain 
species are regularly found in the intercellular spaces of 
higher plants; such are species of Nostoc in the thallus of 
Anthoceros, the leaves of Azolla and the roots of Cycads.  
Many of them enter into the structure of the lichen-thallus, 
as the so-called gonidia.  It is remarkable that species 
belonging to the Oscillatoriaceae are known to flourish in hot 
springs, the temperature of which rises as high as 85 deg. C. 

The thallus may be unicellular or multicellular.  When unicellular, 
it may consist of isolated cells, but more commonly the cells 
are held together in a common jelly (Chroococcaceae) derived 
from the outer layers of the cell-wall.  The multicellular 
species consist of filaments, branched or unbranched, which 
arise by the repeated divisions of the cells in parallel 
planes, no formation of mucilage occurring in the dividing 
walls.  Such filaments may not give rise to mucilage on the 
lateral surface either, in which case they are said to be free; 
when mucilage does occur on the lateral wall, it appears as 
the sheath surrounding either the single filament, or a sheaf 
of filaments of common origin.  The mucilage may also form an 
embedding substance similar to that of Chroococcaceae, in which 
the filaments lie parallel or radiate from a common centre 
(Rivulariaceae).  The cells of the filament may be all alike, 
and growth may occur equally in all parts (Oscillatoriaceae); 
or certain cells (heterocysts) may become marked off by 
their larger size and the transparency of their contents; 
in which case growth may still be distributed equally 
throughout (Nostoc), or the filament may be attached 
where the heterocyst arises, and grow out at the opposite 
extremity into a fine hair (Rivulariaceae).  An African form 
(Camptothrix), devoid of heterocysts and hair-like at both 
extremities, has recently been described.  Branching has been 
described as ``false'' and ``true.'' The former arises when 
a filament in a sheath, either in consequence of growth in 
length beyond the capacity of the sheath to accommodate it, 

FIG, 1.--Cyanophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Gloeocapsa sp.,colony in mucilage. 

B. Phormidium sp., single filament with hormogonium. 

C. Microcoleus sp., several filaments in common sheath. 

D. Nostoc sp., young colony-filament with heterocysts. 

E. Scytonema sp., false branching. 

F. Rivularia sp. 

G. Stigonema sp., with hormogonium and true branching. 

H. Spirulina sp. 

(From Engler and Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien, 
by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.) 


or because of the decay of a cell, becomes interrupted by 
breaking, and the free ends slip past one another. ``True'' 
branching arises only by the longitudinal division of a 
cell of a filament and the lateral outgrowth of one of 
the cells resulting from the division (Sirosiohonaceae). 

The nature of the contents of the cells of Cyanophyceae has 
given rise to considerable controversy.  The cells are for 
the most part exceedingly minute, and are not easy to free 
from their colouring matters, so that investigation has been 
attended with great difficulty.  Occupying as these algae 
do perhaps the lowest grade of plant life, it is a matter of 
interest to ascertain whether a nucleus or chromatophore is 
differentiated in their cells, or whether the functions and 
properties of these bodies are diffused through the whole 
protoplast.  It is certain that the centre of the cell, which is 
usually non-vacuolated, is occupied by protoplasm of different 
properties from the peripheral region; and A. Fischer has 
further established the fact that the peripheral mass, which 
is a hollow sphere in spherical cells, and either a hollow 
cylinder or barrel-shaped body in filamentous forms, must 
be regarded as the single chromatophore of the Cyanophyceous 
cell.  But what precisely is the nature of the central 
mass is still uncertain.  Some investigators, such as R. 
Hegler, F. G. Kohl and E. W. Olive, claim that this body is 
a true nucleus comparable with that of the higher plants.  
It is said to undergo division by a mitosis essentially of 
the same character, with the formation of a spindle and the 
differentiation of chromosomes.  It is further stated by Olive 
that the chromosomes undergo longitudinal fission, and that for 
the same species the same number of chromosomes appear at each 
division.  H. Wager speaks with greater reserve, acknowledging, 
however, the central body to be a nucleus of a rudimentary 
type, but devoid of nuclear membrane and nucleolus.  He 
thinks it may possibly originate in the vacuolization of the 
central region, and the accumulation of chromatin granules 
therein.  He finds no spindle fibres or true chromosomes, and 
considers the division direct, not indirect.  With reference 
to the existence of a chromatophore, he with others finds 
the colouring matter localized in granules in the peripheral 
region, but does not consider these individually or in the 
aggregate as chromatophores.  Among other contents of the cell, 
fatty substances and tannin are known.  A curious adaptation 
seems to occur in certain floating forms, in the presence of a 
gas-vacuole, which may be made to vary its volume with varying 
pressure.  There is evidence that the dividing wall of filamentous 
forms is deeply pitted, as is found to be the case in red 
algae.  Reproduction is chiefly effected by the vegetative 
method.  Asexual reproductive cells are not infrequent, but 
sexual reproduction even in its initial stages is unknown.  
Nor is motility by means of cilia known in the group.  In the 
unicellular forms, cell-division involves multiplication of the 
plant.  In all the multicellular plants of this group which 
have been adequately investigated, vegetative multiplication 
by means of what are known as hormogonia has been found to 
occur.  These are short segments of filaments consisting of a 
few cells which disengage themselves from the ambient jelly, 
if it be present, in virtue of a peculiar creeping movement 
which they possess at this stage.  After a time they come 
to rest and give rise to new colonies.  True reproduction 
of the asexual kind occurs, however, in the formation of 
sporangia, particularly in the Chamaesiohonaceae.  Here 
the contents of certain cells break up endogenously into 
a great number of spores, which are distributed as a fine 
dust.  Resting spores are also known.  In these cases, certain 
cells of a colony of unicellular plants or of the filaments 
of multicellular plants enlarge greatly and thicken their 
wall.  When unfavourable external conditions supervene and 
the ordinary cells become atrophied, these cells persist 
and reproduce the plant with the return of more favourable 
conditions.  The Oscillatoriaceae are capable of a peculiar 
oscillatory movement, which has earned for them their 
name, and which enables them to move through considerable 
distances.  It is not clear how the movement is effected, though 
it has frequently been the subject of careful investigation. 

With the Cyanophyceae must be included, as their nearest allies, 
the Bacteriaceae (see BACTERIOLOGY.) Notwithstanding the absence 
of chlorophyll, and the consequent parasitic or saprophytic 
habit, Bacteriaceae agree in so many morphological features 
with Cyanophyceae that the affinity can hardly be doubted. 

A census of the Cyanophyceae with their two main groups is given below:-- 

1. Coccogoneae--2 families, 29 genera, 253 species. 
2. Hormogoneae--6 families, 59 genera, 701 species. 
(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, 1900) 

II. CHLOROPHYCEAE.--This group includes those algae in which 
the green colouring matter, chlorophyll, is not accompanied 
by a second colouring matter, as it is in other groups.  It 
consists of three subdivisions--Conjugatae, Euchlorophyceae and 
Characeae.  Of these the first and last are relatively small 
and sharply defined families, distinguished from the second 
family, which forms the bulk of the group, by characters 
so diverse that their inclusion with them in one larger 
group can only be justified on the ground of convenience.  
Chlorophyceae include both marine and freshwater plants. 

Euchlorophyceae in their turn have been until recently regarded 
as made up of the three series of families--Protococcales, 
Confervales and Siphonales.  As the result of recent 
investigations by two Swedish algologists, Bohlin and Luther, it 
has been proposed to make a re-classification of a far-reaching 
nature.  Algae are withdrawn from each of the three series 
enumerated above and consolidated into an entirely new 
group.  In these algae, the colouring matter is said to 
be yellowish-green, not strictly green, and contained in 
numerous small discoid chromatophores which are devoid of 
pyrenoids.  The products of assimilation are stored up in 
the form of a fatty substance and not starch.  A certain 
inequality in the character of the two cilia of the zoospores 
of some of the members of the group has earned for it the title 
Heterokontae, from the Greek kontos, a punting-pole.  In 
consonance with this name, its authors propose to re-name 
the Conjugatae; Akontae and Oedogoniaceae with a chaplet 
of cilia become Stephanokontae, and the algae remaining 
over in the three series from which the Heterokontae and 
Stephanokontae are withdrawn become Isokontae.  Conjugatae, 
Protococcales and Characeae are exclusively freshwater; 
Confervales and Siphonales are both freshwater and marine, 
but the latter group attains its greatest development in the 
sea.  Some Chlorophyceae are terrestrial in habit, usually 
growing on a damp substratum, however. Trentepohlia 
grows on rocks and can survive considerable desiccation. 
Phycopeltis grows on the surface of leaves, Phyllobium 
and Phyllosiphon in their tissues. Gomontia is a 
shell-boring alga, FIG. 2.--Chlorophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Chlamydomonas sp., unicellular; chr., chromatophore; p., 
pyrenoid; n., nucleus; p.v., pulsating vacuoles; e.s., eyespot. 

B1. Volvox sp., with a, antheridia, and o, oogonia. 

B2. Volvox sp., surface view of a single cell showing connexions. 

C. Pandorina sp., a 16-celled colony. 

D. Hydrodictyon, a single mesh surrounded by 6 cells. 

E. Microspora sp., showing H-pieces in the wall. 

F. Entoderma sp., endophytic in Ectocarpus. 

G. Coleochaete sp., growing as a plate. 

H. Oedogonium sp., intercalated growth by 
insertion of new piece (a) leaving caps. 

K. Struvea sp., showing branches forming a net-work. 

L. Caulerpa sp., showing portion of axis 
with leaf-like and root- like appendages. 

M1. Chara sp., axis with leaf-like appendages and a branch. 

M2. Chara sp., apical region. 

N. Botrydium, a simple siphonaceous alga with root-like attachment. 

O. Acetabularia Mediterranea, mushroom-like calcareous siphonaceous alga. 

(A, C, E, F, G, H, K, M1, M2, from from Engler and Prantl, 
Pflanzenfamilien, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann; B1, 
N, from Vines, Student's Text Book of Botany, by permission of 
Swan Sonnenschein and Co.; B2, D, O from Oltmanns, Morphologie 
u.  Biologie der Algen, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) 

Dermatophyton grows on the carapace of the tortoise and 
Trichophilus in the hairs of the sloth.  Certain Protococcales 
and Confervales exist as the gonidia of the lichenthallus. 

The thallus is of more varied structure in this group than in any 
other.  In the simplest case it may consist of a single cell, 
which may remain free during the whole of the greater part 
of its existence, or be loosely aggregated together within a 
common mucilage, or be held together by the adhesion of the 
cell-walls at the surface of contact.  These aggregations or 
colonies, as they are termed, may assume the form of a plate, a 
ring, a solid sphere, a hollow sphere, a perforate sphere, a 
closed net, or a simple or branched filament.  It is not easy 
in all cases to draw a distinction between a colony of planes 
and a multicellular individual. in a Volvox sphere, for 
example, there is a marked protoplasmic continuity between 
all the cells of the colony.  The Ulvaceae, the thallus of 
which consists of laminae, one or more cells thick, or hollow 
tubes, probably represent a still more advanced stage in the 
passaae of a colony into a multicellelar plant.  Here there 
is some amount of localization of growth and distinction of 
parts.  It is only in such cases as Volvox and Ulvaceae 
that there is any pretension to the formation of a true 
parenchyma within the limits of the Chlorophyceae.  In the 
whole series of the Confervales, the thallus consists of 
filaments branched or unbranched, attached at one extremity, 
and growing almost wholly at the free end.  The branches 
end in fine hairs in Chaetophoraceae.  In Coleochaetaceae 
the branches are often welded into a plate, simulating a 
parenchyma.  In all Conjugatae and most Protococcales, and 
in the bulk of the Confervales, the thallus consists of a 
cell or cells, the Protoplast of which contains a single 
nucleus.  In Hydrodictyaceae, Cladophoraceae, Sphaeropleaceae 
and Gomontiaceae this is no longer the case.  Instead of a 
single relatively large nucleus, each cell is found to contain 
many small nuclei, and is spoken of as a coenocyte.  This 
character becomes still more pronounced in the large group of 
the Siphonales.  Valoniaceae and Dasycladaceae are partially 
septate, but elsewhere no cellulose partitions occur, and the 
thallus is more or less the continuous tube from which the 
group is named.  Yet the siphonaceous algae may assume great 
variety of form and reach a high degree of differentiation. 
Protosiphon and Botrydium, on the one hand, are minute 
vesicles attached to muddy surfaces by rhizoids; Caulerpa, on 
the other, presents a remarkable instance of the way in which 
much the same external morphology as that of cormophytes has 
been reached by a totally different internal structure.  Many 
Siphonales are encrusted with lime like Corallina among Red 
Algae. Penicillus is brush-like, Hallimeda and Cymopolia 
are jointed, Acetabularia has much the same external form 
as an expanded Coprinus, Neomeris simulates the fertile 
shoot of Equisetum with its densely packed whorled branches, 
and in Microdictyon, Anadyomene, Struvea and Boodlea the 
branches, spreading in one plane, become bound together in 
a more or less close network.  Characeae are separated from 
other Chloroohlceae by a long interval, and present the 
highest degree of differentiation of parts known among Green 
Algae.  Attached to the bottom of pools by means of rhizoids, 
the thallus of Characeae grows upwards by means of an apical 
cell, giving off whorled appendages at regular intervals.  
The appendages have a limited growth; but in connexion with 
each whorl there arise, singly or in pairs, branches which 
have the same unlimited growth as the main axis.  There is 
thus a close approach to the external morphology of the higher 
plants.  The streaming of the protoplasm, known elsewhere among 
Chlorophyceae, is a conspicuous feature of the cells of Characeae. 

The Chlorophyceae excel all other groups of algae in the 
magnitude and variety of form of the chlorophyll-bodies.  In 
Ulva and Mesocarpus the chromatophore is a single plate, 
which in the latter genus places its edge towards the incident 
light; in Spirogyra they are spiral bands embedded in the 
primordial utricle; in Zygnema they are a pair of stellate 
masses, the rays of which branch peripherally; in Oedogonium 
they are longitudinally-disposed anastomosing bands; in Desmids 
plates with irregular margins; in Cladophora polyhedral 
plates: in Vaucheria minute elliptical bodies occurring in 
immense numbers.  Embedded in the chromatophore, much in the 
same way as the nucleus is embedded in the cytoplasm, are the 
pyrenoids.  Unknown in Cyanophyceae and Phoeophyeeae, known 
only in Bangiaceae and Nemalion among Rhodophyceae, they 
are of frequent occurrence among Chlorophyceae, excepting 
Characeae.  Sometimes several pyrenoids occur in each 
chloroplast, as in Mesocarpus and Spirogyra; sometimes 
only an occasional chloroplast contains pyrenoid at all, 
as in Cadophora. The pyrenoid seems to be of proteid 
nature and gelatinous consistency, and to arise as a new 
formation or by division of pre-existing pyrenoids.  When 
carbon-assimilation is active, starch-granules crowd upon the 
surface of the pyrenoid and completely obscure it from view. 

Special provision for vegetative multiplication is not common 
among Chlorophyceae. Valonia and Caulerpa among Siphonales 
detach portions of their thallus, which are capable of independent 
growth.  In Caulerpa no other means of multiplication is as yet 
known.  In Characeae no fewer than four methods of vegetative 
reproduction have been described, and the facility with which 
buds and branches are in these cases detached has been adduced 
as an evidence of affinity with Bryophyta, which, as a class, are 
distinguished by their ready resort to vegetative reproduction. 

With regard to true reproduction, which is characterized by 
the formation of special cells, the group Euchlorophyceae 
is characterized by the production of zoospores (Gr. zoon, 
animal, spora, seed); that is to say, cells capable of 
motility through the agency of cilia.  Such ciliary motion 
is known in the adult condition of the cells of Volvocaceae, 
but where this is not the case the reproductive cells are 
endowed with motility for a brief period.  The zoospore 
is usually a pyriform mass of naked protoplasm, the beaked 
end of which where the cilia arise is devoid of colouring 
matter.  A reddish-brown body, known as the eyespot, is 
usually situated near the limits of the hyaline portion, and 
in the protoolasm contractile vacuoles similar to those of 
lower animals have been occasionally detected.  The movement 
of the zoospore is effected by the lashing of the cilia and 
is in the direction of the beak, while the zoospore slowly 
rotates on Botrydium and Hydrodictyon only one is present; 
in certain species of Cladophora four; in Dasycladus a 
chaplet, and in Oedogonium a ring of many cilia.  The 
so-called zoospore of Vaucheria is a coenocyte covered over 
with paired cilia corresponding in position to nuclei lying 
below.  In all other cases, zoospores are uninucleate bodies.  
Zoospores arise in cells of ordinary size and form termed 
zoosporangia.  In unicellular forms (Sphaerella) the thallus 
becomes transformed into a zoosporangium at the reproductive 
stage.  In the zoosporangia of Oedogonium, Tetraspora and 
Coleochaete the contents become transformed into a single 
zoospore.  In most cases repeated division seems to take 
place, and the final number is represented by some power of 
two.  In coenocytic forms the zoospores would seem to arise 
simultaneously, probably because many nuclei are already 
present.  The escape of zoospores is effected by the 
degeneration of the sporangial wall (Chaetophora), or by 
a pore (Cladophora), a slit (Pediastrum ), or a circular 
fracture (Oedogonium).  Zoospores are of two kinds: (1) Those 
which come to rest and germinate to form a new plant; these are 
asexual and are zoospores proper. (2) Those which are unable 
to germinate of themselves, but fuse with another cell, the 
product giving rise to a new individual; these are sexual and 
are zoogametes (Gr. zoon, animal, and gametes, gamete, 
husband, wife).  When two similar zoogametes fuse, the process 
is conjugation, and the product a zygospore (Gr. zugon, 
yoke).  Usually, however, only one of the fusing cells is a 
zoogamete, the other gamete being a much larger resting 
cell.  In such a case the zoogamete is male, is called an 
antherozoid or spermatozoid, and arises in an antheridium; the 
larger gamete is an oosphere and arises in an oogonium.  The 
fusion is now known as fertilization, and the product is an 
oospore.  Reproduction by conjugation is also known as isogamy, 
by fertilization as oogamy.  When zoospores come to rest, 
a new cell is formed and germination ensues at once.  When 
zygospores and oospores are produced a new cell-wall is also 
formed, but a long period of rest ensues.  All investigation 
goes to show that an essential part of sexual union is the 
fusion of the two nuclei concerned.  It is interesting to 
know, on the authority of Oltmanns, that when the oosphere is 
forming in the oogonium of Vaucheria, there is a retrocession 
of all the included nuclei but one. that the antherozoid of 
Vaucheria contains a single nucleus had been inferred before. 

From a comparison of those Euchlorophyceae which have been 
most closely investigated, it appears probable that sexual 
reproductive cells have in the course of evolution arisen 
as the result of specialization among asexual reproductive 
cells, and that in turn oogamous reproduction has arisen 
as the result of differentiation of the two conjugating 
cells into the smaller male gamete and the larger male 
gamete.  It would further appear that oogamous reproduction 
has arisen independently in each of the three main groups 
of Euchlorophyceae, viz.  Ptotococcales, Siphonales and 
Confervales.  Thus among Volvocaceae, a family of Protococcales, 
while in some of the genera (Chloraster, Sphondylomorum) 
no sexual union has as yet been observed, in others 
(Pandorina, Chlorogonium, Stephanosphaera, Sphaerella) 
conjugation of similar gametes takes place, in others still 
(Phacotus, Eudorina, Volvox) the union is of the nature of 
fertilization.  No other family of Protococcales has advanced 
beyond the stage of isogamous reproduction.  Again, among 
Siphonales only one family (Vaucheriaceae) has reached the 
stage of oogamy, although an incipient heterogamy is said 
to occur in two other families (Codiaceae, Bryopsidaceae).  
Elsewhere among Siphonales, in those cases where reproductive 
cells are known, the reproduction is either isogamous or 
asexual.  Among Confervales there is no family in which 
sexual reproduction--isogamy or oogamy--is not known to occur 
among some of the component species, and as many as four 
families (Cylindrocapsaceae, Sphaeropleaceae, Oedogoniaceae, 
Coleochaetaceae) are oogamous.  On these, as well as other 
grounds.  Confervales are regarded as having attained to the 
highest rank among Euchlorophyceae.  Although the phenomena 
attending isogamous and oogamous reproduction respectively 
are essentially the same in all cases, slight variations in 
both instances appear in different families, attributable 
doubtless to the independent origin of the process in different 
groups.  Thus, although isogamy consists in typical cases of 
a union of naked motile gametes by a fusion which begins at 
the beaked ends, and results in the formation of an immotile 
spherical zygote surrounded by a cell-wall, in Leptosira it 
is noticeable that the fusion begins at the blunt end; in a 
species of Chlamydomonas the two gametes are each included 
in a cell-wall before fusion; and in many cases the zygote 
retains for some time its motility with the double number of 
cilia.  Again, in oogamous reproduction, while in general only 
one oosphere is differentiated in the oogonium, in Sphaeroplea 
several oospheres arise in each oogonium; and while the oospheres 
usually contract away from the oogonial wall, acquiring for 
themselves a new cell-wall after fertilization, in Coleochaete 
the oosphere remains throughout in contact with the oogonial 
wall.  The oosphere is in all cases fertilized while still within 
the oogonium, the antherozoids being admitted by means of a 
pore.  There is usually distinguishable upon the surface 
of the oosphere an area free from chlorophyll, known as the 
receptive spot, at which the fusion with the antherozoid 
takes place; and in many cases, before fertilization, a small 
mucilaginous mass has been observed to separate itself off 
from the oosphere at this point and to escape through the 
pore.  In Coleochaete the oogonial wall is drawn out into a 
considerable tube, which is provided with an apical pore, and 
this tube has a somewhat similar appearance to the imperforate 
trichogyne of Florideae to be hereafter described.  In certain 
species of Oedogonium minute male plantlets, known as dwarf 
males, become attached to the female plant in the neighbourhood 
of the oogonia, thus facilitating fertilization.  Indeed the 
genus Oedogonium exhibits a high degree of specialization 
in its reproductive system, considering that its thallus 
has not advanced beyond the stage of an unbranched filament. 

Many Euchlorophyceae are endowed with both asexual and sexual 
reproduction.  Such are Coleochaete, Oedogonium, Cylindrocapsa, 
Ulothrix, Vaucheria, Volvox, &c. In others only the asexual 
method is yet known.  When a species resorts to both methods, 
it is generally found that the asexual method prevails in the 
early part of the vegetative period and the sexual towards 
the close of that period.  This is in consonance with the 
facts already mentioned that zoospores germinate forthwith, 
and that the sexually-produced cell or zygote enters upon a 
period of rest.  It is known that zoogametes, which usually 
conjugate, may, when conjugation fails, germinate directly 
(Sphaerella.) In rare cases the oosphere has been known to 
germinate without fertilization (Oedogonium, Cylindrocapsa.) 
The germination of a zygospore or oospore is effected by 
the rupture of an outer cuticularized exosporium; then the 
cell may protrude an inner wall, the endosporium, and grow 
out into the new plant ( Vaucheria), or the contents may 
break up into a first brood of zoospores.  It is held that 
in Coleochaetea parenchyma results from the division of 
the oospore, from each cell of which a zoospore arises. 

Reproduction is also effected among Euchlorophyceae by means of 
aplanospores and akinetes.  Aplanospores would seem to represent 
zoospores arrested in their development; without reaching 
the stage of motility, they germinate within the sporangium.  
Akinetes are ordinary thallus cells, which on account of their 
acquisition of a thick wall are capable of surviving unfavourable 
conditions.  Both aplanospores and akinetes may germinate with 
or without the formation of zoospores at the initial stage. 

Among Conjugatae reproduction is effected solely by means 
of conjugation of what are literally aplanospores.  Among 
those Desmidiaceae which live a free life, two plants 
become surrounded by a common mucilage, in which they lie 
either parallel (Closterium) or crosswise (Cosmarium.) 
Gaps then appear in the apposed surfaces, usually at the 
isthmus; the entire protoplasts either pass out to melt into 
one another clear of the old walls, or partly pass out and 
fuse without complete detachment from the old walls.  Among 
colonial Desmidiaceae, the break-up of the filament is a 
preliminary to this conjugation; otherwise the process is the 
same.  The zygospore becomes surrounded with its own wall, 
consisting finally of three layers, the outer of which is 
furnished with spicular prominences of various forms.  In 
Zygnemaceae there is no dissolution of the filaments, but 
the whole contents of one cell pass over by means of a 
conjugation-tube into the cavity of a cell of a neighbouring 
filament, where the zygospore is formed by the fusion of the two 



Fig. 3.--Chlorophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Spirogyra sp., in conjugation. 

B. Zoospore of Pandorina.  B234, stages of conjugation. 

C. Ulothrix sp., zoospores escaping.  C23, stages of conjugation. 

D1. Oedogonium sp., oogonium at moment 
of fertilization with dwarf male attached. 

D2. Oedogonium sp., zoospore with crown of cilia. 

E1. Coleochaete sp., with antheridia and an oogonium. 

E2. Coleochaete sp., fertilized egg with investment of filaments. 

E3. Coleochaete sp., zoospore. 

F123. Protosiphon, conjugation of zoogametes. 

G. Derbesia sp., zoospore with chaplet of cilia. 

H1. Chara sp., oogonium and antheridium at a node on a lateral appendage. 

H2. Chara sp., antherozoid. 

K1. Vaucheria sp., oogonium and antheridium before fertilization. 

K2. Vaucheria sp., after fertilization. 

(A from Cooke, British Freshwater Algae, by permission 
of Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner and Co.; C, E, F. G. H. K 
from Engler and Prantl, by permission of Wilheim Engelmann; 
B1 from Vines, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein and Co.; 
B2, D from Oltmanns, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) 


protoplasts.  In these cases the activity of one of the 
gametes, and the passivity of the other, is regarded 
as evidence of incipient sex.  In Strogonium there is 
cell-division in the parent-cell prior to conjugation; and 
as two segments are cut off in the case of the active gamete, 
and only one in the case of the passive gamete, there is a 
corresponding difference of size, marking another step in 
the sexual differentiation.  In Zygogonium, although no 
cell-division takes place, the gametes consist of a portion 
only of the contents of a cell, and this is regularly the 
case in Mesocarpaceae, which occupy the highest grade among 
Conjugatae.  Some Zygnemaceae and Mesocarpaceae form either 
a short conjugating tube, or none at all, but the filaments 
approach each other by a knee-like bend, and the zygospore is 
formed at the point of contact, often being partially contained 
within the walls of the parent-cell.  It would seem that in 
some cases the nuclei of the gametes remain distinct in the 
zygospore for a considerable time after conjugation.  It is 
probable that in all cases nuclear fusion takes place sooner or 
later.  In Zygnemaceae and Mesocarpaceae the zygospore, 
after a period of rest, germinates, to form a new filamentous 
colony; in Desmidiaceae its contents divide on germination, 
and thus give rise to two or more Desmids.  Gametes which fail 
to conjugate sometimes assume the appearance of zygospores 
and germinate in due course.  They are known as azygospores. 

The reproduction of Characeae is characterized by a pronounced 
oogamy, the reproductive organs being the most highly 
differentiated among Chlorophyceae.  The antheridia and oogonia 
are formed at the nodes of the appendages.  The oogonium, 
seated on a stalk cell, is surrounded by an investment 
consisting of five spirally-wound cells, from the projecting 
ends of which segments are cut off, constituting the so-called 
stigma.  The oosphere is not differentiated within the wall of 
the oogonium, but certain cells known as wendungszellen, the 
significance of which has given rise to much speculation, are 
cut off from the basal portion of the parent-cell during its 
development.  The antheridia are spherical orange-coloured 
bodies of very complex structure.  The antherozoid is a 
spirally-coiled thread of protoplasm, furnished at one 
end with a pair of cilia.  It much more resembles the 
antherozoids of Bryophyta and certain Pteridophyta than any 
known among other algae.  The fertilized egg charged with 
food reserves rests for a considerable period, surrounded 
by its cortex, the whole having assumed a reddish-brown 
colour.  On germination it gives rise to a row of cells in 
which short (nodal) and long (internodal) cells alternate.  
From the first node arise rhizoids; from the second a lateral 
bud, which becomes the new plant.  This peculiar product of 
germination, which intervenes between the oospore and the 
adult form, is the proembryo.  It will be remembered that in 
Musci, the asexual spore somewhat similarly gives rise to a 
protonema, from which the adult plant is produced as a lateral 
bud.  The proembryonic branches of Characeae, one of the 
means of vegetative reproduction already referred to, are so 
called because they repeat the characters of the proembryo. 

Before leaving the Chlorophyceae, it should be mentioned 
that the genus Volvox has been included by some zoologists 
(Butschli, for example) among Flagellata; on the other hand, 
certain green Flagellata, such as Euglena, are included by 
some botanists (for example, van Tieghem) among unicellular 
plants.  A similar uncertainty exists with reference to certain 
groups of Phaeophyceae, and the matter will thus arise again. 

A census of the Chlorophyceae is furnished below:-- 

1. Confervoideae---12 families, 77 genera, 1021 species. 

2. Siphoneae--9 families, 26 genera, 271 species. 

3. Protococcoideae--2 families, 90 genera, 342 species. 

4. Conjugateae--2 families, 33 genera, 1296 
species. (De Toni's Sylloge Algarum, 1889.) 

5. Characeae--2 families, 6 genera, 181 species. 
(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, 1897) 

III. PHAEOPHYCEAE.--The Phaeophyceae are distinguished 
by the possession of a brown colouring matter, phycophaein, 
in addition to chlorophyll.  They consist of the following 
groups:--Fucaceae, Phaeosporeae; Dictyotaceae, Cryptomonadaceae, 
Peridiniaceae and Diatomaceae.  Of these the first three 
include multicellular plants, some of them of great size; the 
last three are unicellular organisms, with little in common 
with the rest excepting the possession of a brown colouring 
matter.  Fucaceae and Phaeosporeae are doubtless closely 
allied, and to these Dictyotaceae may be joined, though 
the relationship is less close.  They constitute the 
Euphaeophyceae, and will be dealt with in the first place. 

Euphaeophyceae are almost exclusively marine, growing on 
rocks and stones on the coast, or epiphytic upon other 
algae.  In tidal seas they range from the limits of high water 
to some distance beyond the low-water line.  On the British 
coasts zones are observable in passing from high to low water 
mark, characterized by the prevalence of different species, 
thus:---Pelvetia canaliculata, Fucus platycarpus, Fucus 
vesiculosus, Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus serratus, Laminaria 
digitata. Some species are minute filamentous plants, requiring 
the microscope for their detection; others, like Lessonia, 
are of considerable bulk, or, like Macrocystis, of enormous 
length.  In Fucaceae, Dictyotacea, and in Laminariaceae and 
Sphacelariaceae, among Phaeosporeae, the thallus consists of 
a true parenchyma; elsewhere it consists of free filaments, 
or filaments so compacted together, as in Cutleriaceae and 
Desmarestiaceae, as to form a false parenchyma.  In Fucaceae 
and Laminariaceae the inner tissue is differentiated into 
a conducting system.  In Laminariaceae the inflation of 
the ends of conducting cells gives rise to the so-called 
trumpet-hyphae.  In Nereocystis and Macrocystis a zone 
of tubes occurs, which present the appearance of sieve-tubes 
even to the eventual obliteration of the perforations by a 
callus.  While there is a general tendency in the group to 
mucilaginous degeneration of the cell-wall, in Laminaria 
digitata there are also glands secreting a plentiful 
mucilage.  Secondary growth in thickness is effected by 
the tangential division of superficial cells.  The most 
fundamental external differentiation is into holdfast and 
shoot.  In Laminariaceae secondary cylindrical props arise 
obliquely from the base of the thallus.  In epiphytic forms 
the rhizoids of the epiphyte often penetrate into the tissue 
of the host, and certain epiphytes are not known to occur 
excepting in connexion with a certain host; but to what 
extent, if any, there is a partial parasitism in these cases 
has not been ascertained.  In filamentous forms there is 
a differentiation into branches of limited and branches of 
unlimited growth (Sphacelaria.) In Laminariaceae there is a 
distinction of stipe and blade.  The blade is centrally-ribbed 
in Alaria and laterally-ribbed in Macrocystis. It is 
among the Sargassaceae that the greatest amount of external 
differentiation, rivalling that of the higher leafy plants, is 
reached.  A characteristic feature of the more massive 
species is the occurrence of air-vesicles in their tissues.  
In Fucus vesiculosus they arise in lateral pairs; in 
Ascophyllum they are single and median; in Macrocystis 
one vesicle arises at the base of each thallus segment; in 
Sargassum and Halidrys the vesicles arise on special 
branches.  They serve to buoy up the plant when attached to the 
sea-bottom, and thus light is admitted into the forest-like 
growths of the gregarious species.  When such plants are 
detached they are enabled to float for great distances, and 
the great Sargasso Sea of the North Atlantic Ocean is probably 
only renewed by the constant addition of plants detached 
from the shores of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. 

Growth in length is effected in a variety of ways.  In Dictyota 
Sphacelariaceae and Fucaceae there is a definite apical 
cell.  In the first it is a biconvex lens, from which segments 
are continually cut off parallel to the posterior surface; 
and in the second an elongated dome, from which segments are 
cut off by a transverse wall.  While, however, in Dictyota 
the product of the subsequent division in the segment enlarges 
with each subdivision, the divisions in the cylindrical 
segment of Sphacelariaceae are such that the whole product 
after subdivision, however many cells it may consist of, does 
not exceed in bulk the segment as cut off from the apical 
cell.  In Dictyotaceae the apical cell occasionally divides 
longitudinally, and thus the dichotomous branching is provided 
for.  In some Sphacelariaceae branches may appear at their 
inception as lateral protuberances of the apical cell itself.  
In Fucaceae an apical cell is situate at the surface of the 
thallus in a slit-like depression at the apex.  From this cell 
segments are cut off in three or four lateral oblique planes. 

A peculiar manner of growth in length is that to which the term 
trichothallic has been applied.  It may readily be observed 
that in the hair-like branches of Ectocarpaceae, the point at 
which most rapid division occurs is situate near the base of the 
hair.  In Desmarestia and Arthrocladia, for example, it is 
found that the thallus ends in a tuft of such hairs, each of 
them growing by means of an intercalated growing point.  In these 
cases, however, the portions of the hairs behind the growing 
region become agglutinated together into a solid cylindrical 
pseudo-parenchymatous axis.  In Cutleria the laminated thallus 
is formed in the same way.  The intercalated growing region of 
Laminaria affords an example of another variety of growth in 
Phaeophyceae.  While the laminated portion of the thallus is 
being gradually worn off in our latitudes during the autumnal 
storms, a vigorous new growth appears at the junction of 
the stipe and the blade, as the result of which a new piece 
is added to the stipe and the lamina entirely renovated. 

Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur among Euphaeophyceae.  
Fucaceae are marked by an entire absence of the asexual 
method.  The sexual organs--oogonia and antheridia---are 
borne on special portions of the thallus in cavities known as 
conceptacles.  Both organs may occur in one conceptacle, as 
in Pelvetia, or each may be confined to one conceptacle 
or even one plant, as in Fucus vesiculosus. The oogonia 
arise on a stalk cell from the lining layer of the cavity, the 
contents dividing to form eight oospheres as in Fucus, four 
as in Ascophyllum, two as in Pelvetia, or one only as in 
Hallidrys. It would seem that eight nuclei primarily arise 
in all Fucaceae, and that a number corresponding to the number 
of oospheres subsequently formed is reserved, the rest being 
discharged to the periphery, where they may be detected at a late 
stage.  On the maturation of the oospheres the outer layer of 
the oogonial wall ruptures, and the oospheres, still surrounded 
by a middle and inner layer, pass out through the mouth of the 
conceptacle.  Then usually these layers successively give 
way, and the spherical naked oospheres float free in the 
water.  The antheridia, which arise in the conceptacular cavity 
as special cells of branched filaments, are similarly discharged 
whole, the antherozoids only escaping when the antheridia 
are clear of the conceptacle.  The antherozoids are attracted 
to the oospheres, round each of which they swarm in great 
numbers.  Suddenly the attraction ceases, and the oosphere is 
fertilized, probably at that moment, by the entry of a single 
antherozoid into the substance of the oosphere; a cell-wall 
is formed thereupon, in some cases in so short an interval 
as five minutes.  Remarkable changes of size and outline of 
the oosphere have recently been described as accompanying 
fertilization in Hallidrys. Probably the act of fertilization 
in plants has nowhere been observed in such detail as in 
Fucaceae.  Dictyotaceae resemble Fucaceae in their pronounced 
oogamy.  They differ, however, in being also asexually 
reproduced.  The asexual cells are immotile spores arising in 
fours in sporangia from superficial cells of the thallus.  In 
Dictyota the oospheres arise singly in oogonia, crowded together 
in sori on the surface of the female plant.  The antheridia 
have a similar origin and grouping on the male plant.  Until the 
recent discovery by Williams of motility, by means of a single 
cilium, of the antherozoids of Dictyota and Taonia, they 
were believed to be immotile bodies, like the male cells of 
red seaweeds. in Dictyota the unfertilized oosphere is found 
to be capable of undergoing a limited number of divisions, 
but the body thus formed appears to atrophy sooner or later. 

Of the small family of the Tilopteridaceae our knowledge is 
as yet inadequate, but they probably present the only case of 
pronounced oogamy among Phaeosporeae.  They are filamentous 
forms, exhibiting, however, a tendency to division in more 
than one plane, even in the vegetative parts.  The discovery 
by Brebner of the specific identity of Haplospora globosa and 
Scaphospora speciosa marks an important step in the advance of 
our knowledge of the group.  Three kinds of reproductive organs 
are known: first, sporangia, which each give rise to a single 
tetra-, or multi-nucleate non-motile, probably asexual spore; 
second, plurilocular sporangia, which are probably antheridia, 
generating antherozoids; and third, sporangia, which are 
probably oogonia, giving rise to single uni- nucleate non-motile 
oospheres.  No process of fertilization has as yet been observed. 

The Cutleriaceae exhibit a heterogamy in which the female sexual 
cell is not highly specialized, as is in the groups already 
described.  From each locule of a plurilocular sporangium there 
is set free an oosphere, which, being furnished with a pair 
of cilia, swarms for a time.  In similar organs on separate 
plants the much smaller antherozoids arise.  Fertilization has 
been observed at Naples; but it apparently depends on climatic 
conditions, as at Plymouth the oospheres have been observed to 
germinate parthenogenetically.  The asexual organs in the case 
of Cutleria multifida arise on a crustaceous form, Aglaozonia 
reptans, formerly considered to be a distinct species.  They 
are unilocular, each producing a small number of zoospores. 

The possession of two kinds of reproductive organs, unilocular 
and plurilocular sporangia, is general among the rest of the 
Phaeosporeae.  Bornet, however, called attention in 1871 to 
the fact that two kinds of plurilocular sporangia occurred in 
certain species of the genus Ectocarpus--somewhat transparent 
organs of an orange tint producing small zoospores, and also 
more opaque organs of a darker colour producing relatively larger 
zoospores.  On the discovery of another such species by F. 
H. Buffham, Batters in 1892 separated the three species, 
Ectocarpus secundus, E. fenestratus, E. Lebelii, together 
with the new species, into a genus, Giffordia, characterized 
by the possession of two kinds of plurilocular sporangia.  
The suspicion that a distinction of sex accompanied this 
difference of structure has been justified by the discovery 
by Sauvageau of undoubted fertilization in Gidordia secunda 
and G. fenestrata. The conjugation of similar gametes, 
arising from distinct plurilocular sporangia, was observed 
by Berthold in Ectocarpus siliculosus and Scytosiphon 
lomentarius in 1880; and these observations have been recently 
confirmed in the case of the former species by Sauvageau, 
and in the case of the latter by Kuckuck.  In these cases, 
however, the potential gametes may, failing conjugation, 
germinate directly, like the zoospores derived from unilocular 
sporangia.  The assertion of Areschoug that conjugation 
occurs among zoospores derived from unilocular sporangia, 
in the case of Dictyosiphon hippuroides, is no doubt to be 
ascribed to error of observation.  It would thus seem that 
the explanation of the existence of two kinds of sporangia, 
unilocular and plurilocular, among Phaeosporeae, lies in the 
fact that unilocular sporangia are for asexual reproduction, 
and that plurilocular sporangia are gametangia--potential or 
actual.  It must, however, be remembered that so important 
a generalization is as yet supported upon a somewhat narrow 
base of observation.  Moreover, for the important family 
of the Laminariaceae only unilocular sporangia are known to 
occur; and for many species of other families, only one or 
other kind, and in some cases neither kind, has hitherto been 
observed.  The four species--Ectocarpus siliculosus, 
Giffordia secunda, Cutleria multifida and Haplospora 
globosa--may be taken to represent, within the phaeosporeae, 
successive steps in the advance from isogamy to oogamy. 

The Peridiniaceae have been included among Flagellata under 
the title of Dinoflagellata.  The majority of the species 
belong to the sea, but many are found in fresh water.  The 
thallus is somewhat spherical and unicellular, exhibiting 
a distinction between anterior and posterior extremities, 
and dorsal and ventral surfaces.  The wall consists of a 
basis of cellulose, and in some cases readily breaks up into 
a definite number of plates, fitting into one another like 
the plates of the carapace of a tortoise; it is, moreover, 
often finely sculptured or coarsely ridged and flanged.  Two 
grooves are a constant feature of the family, one running 
transversely and anoiher longitudinally.  In these grooves 
lie two c;lia, attached at the point of meeting on the dorsal 
surface.  The protoplast is uninucleate and vacuolate, 
and contains chromatophores of a brownish colour.  It is 
not clear that FIG. 4.--Phaeophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Halopteris, apical region. 

B. Chordaria sp., apical region showing so-called trichothallic growth. 

C. Dictyota sp., apical cells immediately after dichotomy. 

D. Cutleria sp., margin of thallus showing trichothallic growth. 

E. Halidrys, apical depression with leading cell. 

F. Macrocystis sp., tubular elements from the 
medulla, with sieve-like transverse walls. 

G. Laminaria sp., hyphae with trumpet-like ends also from medulla. 

H. Elachistea sp., Plurilocular sporanges. 

K. Ectocarpus sp., unilocular sporange. 

L. Ectocarpus siliculosus, female gamete surrounded 
by male gametes a, b, c, d, e, stages of conjugation. 

M. Cutleria multifida. a, antherozoids, b, a female gamete. 

N1. Fucus vesiculosus, young oogonium. 

N2. Fucus vesiculosus, discharge of eight oospheres from oogonium 

O. Laminaria sp., sporanges among paraphyses. 

P. Dictyota dichotoma, a sorus of oogonia. 

Q. Dictyota dichotoma, part of a sorus of antheridia. 

(A, B, C, D, E, H, L, M, P, from Engler and Prantl, by 
permission of Wilhelm Engelmann; F, G, K, O, from Oltmanns, 
by permission of Gustav Fischer; Q. from The Annals of 
Botany, by permission of the Clarendon Press; N1, N2, 
from Hauck, Meeresalgen, by permission of Eduard Kummer.) 


the brown colouring matter which is added to chlorophyll 
is identical with phycophaein: two varieties of it have 
been termed phycopyrrin and peridinine.  Certain species, 
such as Gymnodinium spirale, are colourless and therefore 
saprophytic in their method of nutrition.  Multiplication 
takes place in some cases by the endogenous formation of 
zoospores, the organism having come to rest; in others by 
longitudinal division, when the organism is still motile.  
No method of sexual reproduction is known with certainty. 

The Cryptomonadaceae also are unicellular, and live free or in 
colonies.  Each cell contains a flattened chromatophore of a 
brown or yellow colour. Hydrurus forms a branched gelatinous 
colony attached to stones in mountain streams. Chromophyton 
forms an eight-celled colony.  Both plants multiply solely by 
means of zoospores.  The Cryptomonadeae and Chromulineae are 
motile through the greater part of their life. Cryptomonas, 
when dividing in a mucilage after encystment, recalls the 
condition in Gloeocystis. In Synura and Chromulina the 
cells form a spherical motile colony, recalling Volvocaceae. 
Chromulina is uniciliate, and is contained in a hyaline 
capsule.  Like the Peridiniaceae, the Cryptomonadaceae have 
been included among Flagellata.  They have no close affinity 
with Euphaeophyceae.  Such colonial forms as Hydrurus 
and Phaeocystis are supposed, however, to indicate 
a stage in the passage to the multicellular condition. 

Diatomaceae have long been recognized as plants.  Together 
with Peridiniaceae they constitute the bulk of marine plankton, 
and thus play an important part in the support of marine 
animal life.  They exhibit striking adaptations in these 
circumstances to the floating habit. (See DIATOMACEAE.) 

A census of Phaeophyceae is given below:-- 

(1) Cyclosporinae (Fucaceae)--4 families, 32 genera, 347 species. 

(2) Tetrasporinae (Dictyotaceae)-- 1 family, 17 genera, 130 species. 

(3) Phaeozoosporineae (Phaeosporeae)--24 families, 143 
genera, 571 species. (De Toni's Sylloge ALgarum.) 

(4) Peridiniales---3 families, 32 genera, 167 species. 

(5) Cryptomonadaceae (including Chrysomonadaceae) 
--2 families, 28 genera, 50-60 species. 

(6) Bacillariales (Diatomaceae)--about 150 
genera and 5000 species, fossil and recent. 

(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien) 

IV. RHODOPHYCEAE, or FLORIDEAE.--The members of this 
group are characterized by the possession of a red colouring 
matter, phycoerythrin, in addition to chlorophyll.  There is, 
however, a considerable amount of difference in the shades 
of red which mark different species.  The brightest belongs 
to those species which grow near low-water mark, or under 
the shade of larger algae at higher levels; species which 
grow near high-water mark are usually of so dark a hue that 
they are easily mistaken for brown seaweeds.  Rhodophyceae 
are mostly marine, but not exclusively so. Thorea, 
Lemanea, Tuomeya, Stenocladia, Batrachospermum, Balbiania 
are genera belonging entirely to fresh water; and Bangia, 
Chanitransia, Caloglossa, Bostrychia and Delesseria 
contain each one or more freshwater species.  Most of the 
larger species of marine Rhodophyceae are attached by means 
of a disc to rocks, stones or shells.  Many are epiphytic 
on other algae, more especially the larger Phaeophyceae and 
Rhodophyceae.  As in the case of epiphytic brown seaweeds, 
the rhizoids of the epiphyte often penetrate the substance 
of the supporting alga.  Some Red Algae find a home in the 
gelatinous substance of Flustra, Alcyonidium and other 
polyzoa, only emerging for the formation of the reproductive 
organs.  Some are perforating algae and burrow into the 
substance of molluscan shells, in company with certain Green 
and Blue-green Algae.  Some species belonging to the families 
Squamariaceae nnd Corallinaceae grow attached through their 
whole length and breadth, and are often encrusted with 
lime.  The forms which grow away from the substratum vary 
greatly in external configuration.  In point of size the 
largest cannot rival the larger Brown Algae, while the majority 
require the aid of the microscope for their investigation. 

No unicellular Rhodophyceae are known, although a flagellate 
organism, Rhodomonas, has recently been described as possessed 
of the same red colouring matter.  If the sub-group, Bangiaceae, 
be excluded, they may be said to consist exclusively of branched 
filaments.  Growth in these cases takes place by means of an 
apical cell, from which successive segments are cut off by means 
of a transverse wall.  The segment so cut off does not usually 
divide again by means of a transverse wall, nor indeed by a 
longitudinal wall which passes through the organic axis of the 
cell.  New cells may be cut off laterally, which become 
the apical cells of branches.  When the new cells grow no 
further, but constitute a palisading round the central cell 
covering its whole length, the condition is reached which 
characterizes the species of Polysiphonia, the "siphons" of 
which may be regarded as one-celled branches.  To the law that 
no subsequent transverse division takes place in segments cut 
off from the apical cell, there seem to be two exceptions: 
first, the calcareous genus Corallinia, in the pliable 
joints of which intercalated division occurs; and, second, 
the Nitophylleae, in which, moreover, median longitudinal 
division of axial cells is said to occur.  Like the Fungi, 
therefore, the Red Algae consist for the most part of branched 
filaments, even where the thallus appears massive to the eye, 
and, as in the case of Fungi, this fact is not inconsistent 
with a great variery of external morphology.  In the great 
majority the thallus is obviously filamentous, as in some 
species of Cillithamnion. In other species of that genus 
an apparent cortication arises by the downward growth of 
rhizoids, which are retained within the gelatinous wall of the 
axial cells. in Batrachospermum the whole system of branches 
are retained within a diffluent gelatinous substance derived 
from the outer layers of the cell-walls.  In other cases the 
mucilage is denser and the branches more closely compacted 
Helminthora.) In such cases as Lemanea, the terminal 
cells of the lateral branches form a superficial layer which 
has all the appearance of a parenchyma when viewed from the 
surface.  In Champia and allied genera, the cylindrical axis 
is due not to the derivatives of one axial filament, but of 
several, the growth of which is co-ordinated to form a septated 
tube.  The branching of the thallus, which meets the eye 
in all these cases, is due to the unlimited growth of a few 
branches.  When such a lateral branch overtops the main axis 
whose growth has become limited, as in Plocamium and Dasya, 
a sympodium is formed.  For the most part the branching is 
monopodial.  Besides the differentiation into holdfast and 
shoot, and into branches of limited and branches of unlimited 
growth, there appear superficial structures of the nature of 
hairs.  These are for the most part long, thin-walled, 
unicellular and colourless, and arise from the outer cells 
of the pseudo-cortex, or from the terminal cells of branches 
when the filaments are free.  Among Rhodomelaceae, hair-like 
structures of a higher order are known.  These arise from 
the axial cell, and are multicellular and branched.  They 
soon fall off, and it is from the persistent basal cell that 
the branches of unlimited growth arise.  Upon them also the 
reproductive organs arise in this family.  It is not surprising, 
therefore, that they have been regarded as the rudiments of 
leaves.  In Iridaea the thallus is an entire lamina; in 
Callophyllis a lobed lamina; in Delesseria it is provided 
with midrib and veins, simulating the appearance of a leaf 
of the higher plants; in Constantinea the axis remains 
cylindrical, and the lateral branches assume the form of 
leaves.  In the compact thalli a secondary development 
often takes place by the growth of rhizoid-like internal 
filaments.  They present a hypha-like appearance, running 
longitudinally for considerable distances.  It is not difficult 
in such compact species to distinguish between superficial 
cells, whose chief function is assimilation, subjacent cells 
charged with reserve material, and a core of tissue engaged 
in the convection of elaborated material from part to part. 

An interesting feature of the minute anatomy of Euflorideae, 
as the Red Algae, exclusive of the Bangiaceae, have been 
termed, is the existence of the so-called Floridean pit. 
When a cell divides it is found that there remains in the 
middle of the new wall a single large circular pit, which 
persists throughout the life of the cells, becoming more and 
more conspicuous with the progress of the thickening of the 
wall.  These pits serve to indicate the genetic relationship 
of adjacent cells, when they form a compact pseudo-parenchyma, 
notwithstanding the fact that somewhat smaller secondary pits 
appear later between any contiguous cells.  Protoplasmic continuity 
has been observed in the delicate membrane closing the pit. 

Vegetative multiplication occurs only sparingly in Rhodophyceae. 
Melobesia callithamnioides gives rise to multicellular 
propagula; (Griffithsia corallina is said to give rise 
to new individuals, by detaching portions of the thallus 
from the base of which new attachment organs have already 
arisen.  The spores of Monospora are by some regarded as 
unicellular propagula.  Reproduction is both asexual and 
sexual.  It is noteworthy that although all the members of 
the group are aquatic no zoospores are produced, a negative 
character common to them and the Blue-green Algae.  As a rule 
the asexual cells, and the male and female sexual cells arise 
upon different plants, so that the species may be said to be 
trioecious.  Numerous exceptions, however, occur.  Thus in 
Lemaneaceae asexual spores are unknown; in Batracho-spermum, 
Bonnemaisonia and Polysiphonia byssoides both kinds of 
sexual cells appear on the same plant; and in some cases the 
asexual cells may occur in conjunction with either the male or 
female sexual cells.  The asexual cells are termed tetraspores 
on account of the usual occurrence of four in each sporangium.  
What may be termed monospores, bispores and octospores, 
however, are not unknown.  The sporangia may be terminal or 
intercalated.  When they are confined to special branches 
such branches are spoken of as stichidia.  The tetrasrores 
may arise by the simultaneous division of the contents of a 
sporangium, when they are arranged tetrahedrally, or they may 
arise by two successive divisions, in which case the arrangement 
may be zonate when the spores are in a row, or cruciate when 
the second divisions are at right angles to the first, or 
tetrahedral when the second divisions are at right angles to 
the first and also to one another.  Tetraspores are at first 
naked, but soon acquire a cell-wall and germinate without a 
period of rest.  The male sexual cells are produced singly 
in the terminal cells of branches.  They are spoken of as 
spermaria.  Great numbers of antheridia are usually crowded 
together, when the part is distinguishable by the absence 
of the usual red colour.  In Polysiphonia they cover the 
joints of the so-called leaves; in Chondria they arise 
on flattened dishs; in the more massive forms they arise in 
patches on the ordinary surface; in a few cases (Gracilaria, 
Corallina, Galaxaura) they line the walls of conceptacle-like 
depressions.  The female sexual cell is represented by the 
contents of a cell which is terminal on ordinary or specialized 
branches.  This is the carpogonium: it consists of a neutral 
portion which contains a nucleus, but in which no oosphere is 
differentiated, and an elongated tubular portion known as the 
trichogyne, into which the cytoplasm extends.  Fertilization 
is effected by the passive convection of a spermatium from 
the antheridium to the trichogyne, to which it adheres, 
and to which it passes over its nucleus through an open 
communication set up at the point of contact.  The nucleus 
then passes down the trichogyne and fuses with that of the 
eeg.  This fusion has been observed by Wille in Nemalion 
multifidim, and by Schmidle in Batrachospermum. It is 
singular that in the last-named species two nuclei occur 
regularly in the spermatium.  The ventral portion of the 
carpogonium may be imbedded deep in the thallus in the 
massive species; the trichogyne, however, always reaches the 
surface.  The first effect of fertilization is the occlusion 
of the trichogyne from the fertilized carpogonium.  The 
subsequent course of development is characteristic of the 
Florideae.  The carpogonium germinates forthwith, drawing 
its nourishment almost wholly from the parent plant.  The 
ultimate product in all cases is a number of carpospores, but 
before this stage is reached the development is different in 
different subgroups.  In Batrachospermum filaments arise 
from the carpogonium on all sides; in Chantransia and 
Scinaia on one side only; in Helminthora the filaments 
are enclosed in a dense mucilage; in Nemalion, prior to 
the formation of the filaments, a sterile segment is cut off 
below.  In all these cases, however, the end-cells of the 
filaments each give rise to a carpospore, and the aggregate 
of such sporiferous filaments is a cystocarp.  Again, in the 
family of the Gelidiaceae, the single filament arising from 
the carpogonium grows back into the tissue and preys upon 
the cells of the axis and larger branches, after which the 
end-cells give rise to carpospores and a diffused cystocarp is 
formed.  In the whole group of the Cryptonemiales the 
parasitism becomes more marked still.  The filaments arising 
from the carpogonia grow into long thin tubes, which fuse 
with special cells rich in protoplasm contents; and from 
these points issue isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, 
several of which may form the product of one fertilized female 
cell.  In Naccaria, one of the Gelidiaceae, it is observable 
that the ooblastema filament, as the tube arising from the 
fertilized carpogonium has been called, fuses completely with 
a cell contiguous to the carpogonium before giving rise to 
the foraging filaments already referred to.  This is also 
the case among Cryptonemiales.  In a whole series of Red 
Algae, the existence or a highly specialized auxiliary cell 
in the neighbourhood of the carpogonium is a characteristic 
feature.  In the Gigartinales it is already differentiated 
previous to fertilization; in Rhodymeniales it arises 
subsequent to fertilization.  In the Gigartinales, the 
filaments which arise from the auxiliary cell may spread and 
give rise to isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, as in the 
Cryptonemiales.  In the Rhodymeniales a single tuft arises 
directly from the auxiliary cell.  The carpospores are in 
all cases bright red naked masses of protoplasm when first 
discharged.  They soon acquire a cell-wall, and germinate 
without a period of rest.  When the cystocarps or segments 
of cystocarps are formed in the substance of a thallus, the 
site is marked merely by a swelling of the substance.  When 
the cystocarp is produced externally, it may form a berry-like 
mass without an envelope, in which case it it known as a 
favella.  In Rhodomelaceae there is a special urn-shaped envelope 
surrounding the sporogenous filaments.  This is a ceramidium. 

The attachment of the cell of an ooblastema filament to a 
cell of the thallus may be effected by means of a minute 
pore, or the two cells may fuse their contents into one 
protoplasmic mass.  In the latter case, and especially 
where the union is with a special auxiliary cell, it is of 
importance to know what happens to the nuclei of the fusing 
cells.  Schmitz was of opinion that in the cases of open 
union there occurred a fusion of nuclei similar to that 
which occurs in the sexual union of two cells.  He founded 
his generalization to a large extent upon the observation 
that in Gloeosiphonia capillaris two cells completely 
fuse, and that only one nucleus can be detecteo in the fused 
mass.  Oltmanns has recently re-investigated the phenomena in 
this plant, among others, and has shown that the nucleus of 
the cell which is being preyed upon recedes to the wall and 
gradually atrophies.  The nucleus of the ooblastema filament 
dominates the FIG. 5.--Rhodophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Polysiphonia sp., apical region showing 
leading cell and cutting off of pericentral cell. 

B. Polysiphonia sp., transverse section through 
a branch, and at a, mother-cell of tetraspores. 

C. Lomeittaria sp., apex showing growth in length 
through coordinated growth of many filaments. 

D. Delesseria sp., showing apical region with leading cell. 

E. Chrysymenia uvaria, axis with swollen leaf-like appendages. 

F. Polyzonia sp., branch with leaf-like branches of limited growth. 

G. Collithamnson sp., tetrasporangium with spores arranged in a tetrad. 

H. Corallina sp., tetrasporangia with zonate arrangement of tetraspores. 

K. Nemalion sp., carpogonial and antheridial branches. 

L. Batrachospermum sp., trichogyne with spermatia 
attached; carpospores arising from fertilized carpogonium. 

M. Polysiphonia sp., antheridium. 

N. Constantinea sp., with flattened leaf-like appendages. 

O. Dudresnaya coccinea, fusion of ooblastema filaments with auxiliary 
cells; a is an axial cell in transverse section with four appendages. 

P. Callithamnion corymbosum, a joint cell with 
carpogonial branch and a, b, two auxiliary cells. 

Q. Callithamnion corymbosum, fusion of products of fertilization with 
auxiliary cells, the nuclei of which a and b retire to the wall. 

R. Polysiphonia sp., section through young cystocarp. 

(A, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L, M, P, Q, from Oltmanns, 
by permission of Gustav Fischer; B, N, O, R, from 
Engler and Prantl, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.) 


mass and from it all the nuclei of the carpospores are thus 
derived.  There thus seems to be no justification for 
believing, as Schmitz taught, that a second sexual 
act occurs in the life-cycle of these Florideae. 

The Bangiales are a relatively small group of Red Algae, 
to which much of the description now given does not apply.  
Structurally they are either a plate of cells, as in Porphyra, or 
filaments, as in Bangia. There is no exclusive apical growth, 
and the cells divide in all directions.  The characteristic 
pit is also absent.  Sexual and asexual reproduction prevail.  
The male cell is a spermatium, but the female cell bears no 
such receptive trichogyne as occurs in other Rhodophyceae.  
After fertilization the equivalent of the oospore divides 
directly to form a group of carpospores.  There is thus a 
certain resemblance to Euflorideae, but sufficient difference 
to necessitate their being grouped apart.  Fertilization by 
means of non-motile spermatia and a trichogyne are known among 
the Fungi in the families Collemaceae any Laboulbeniaceae. 

A census of Rhodophyceae is furnished below:-- 

(1) Bangiaceae--4 families, 9 genera, 58 species. 

(2) Nemalioninae--4 families, 33 genera, 343 species. 

(3) Gigartininae--3 families, 54 genera, 409 species. 

(4) Rhodymeninae--4 families, 92 genera, 602 
species. (De Toni's Sylloge Algarum, 1897.) 

Limits of the algae. 

After this survey of the four groups comprised under Algae 
it is easier to indicate the variations in the limits of the 
class as defined by different authorities.  To consider the 
Cyanophyceae first, either the marked contrast in the method of 
nutrition of the generally colourless Bacteriaceae to that of 
the blue-green Cyanophyceae is regarded as sufficient ground for 
excluding Bacteriaceae from algae altogether, notwithstanding 
their acknowledged morphological affinity with Cyanophyceae, 
or, in recognition of the incongruity of effecting such a 
separation, the whole group of the Schizophyta --that is to 
say, the Cyanophyceae in the narrow sense, together with 
Bacteriaceae, is included or excluded together.  Again, 
while Conjugatae may be shut out from Chlorophyceae as an 
independent group co-ordinate with them in rank, the Characeae 
constitute so aberrant a group that it has even been proposed 
to raise them as Charophyta to the dignity of a main division 
co-ordinate with Thallophyta.  Similarly, while Diatomaceae 
may be excluded from among Phaeophyceae, though retained among 
algae, the Cryptomonadaceae and Peridiniaceae, like Euglena 
and other Chlorophyceae, may be excluded from Thallophyta 
and ranged among the flagellate Protozoa.  It is doubtful, 
however, whether the conventional distinction between plants 
and animals will continue to be urged; and the suggestion of 
Haeckel that a class Protista should be established to receive 
the forms exhibiting both animal and plant affinities has much 
to recommend it on phylogenetic grounds.  To adopt a figure, 
it is probable that the sources from which the two streams of 
life--animal and vegetable--spring may not be separable by a 
well-defined watershed at all, but consist of a great level 
upland, in which the waterways anastomose.  Finally, while 
Chlorophyceae and Phaeophyceae exhibit important affinities, 
the Rhodophyceae are so distinct that the term ``algae'' cannot 
be made to include them, except when used in its widest sense. 

Phylogeny. 

It has been well said that the attempt to classify plants according 
to their natural affinities is an attempt to construct for 
them the genealogical tree by which their relationships can be 
traced.  Algae are, however, so heterogeneous a class, of 
which the constituent groups are so inadequately known, that 
it is at present futile to endeavour thus to exhibit their 
pedigree.  A synoptical representation of the present state 
of knowledge would be expressed by a network rather than by a 
tree.  The following table is an adaptation of a scheme 
devised by Klebs, and indicates the inter-relationships 




 
 PROTOZOA            Peridiniaceae......Diatomaceae
                           |                 |
                     Cryptomonadaceae--Hydruraceae--EUPHAEOPHYCEAE
 Flagellata
 protomastigina......Bacteriaceae--Endosphaeraceae
                           |
                         CYANOPHYCEAE........Bangiacaeae--EUFLORIDEAE
 Eugleneae
 
 Chloromonadinae         Pleurococcaceae--Endosphaeraceae
 
 Volvocaceae             Chlorosphaeraceae   CONGUGATAE     SIPHONALES
 
 Tetrasporaceae----------Ulvaceae----------CONFERVALES......CHARACEAE
 
                    FUNGI                            BRYOPHYTA
 


of the various constituent groups.  The area included in 
the thick boundary line represents algae in the widest 
sense in which the term is used, and the four included areas 
the four main subdivisions.  A continuous line indicates a 
close affinity, and a dotted line a doubtful relationship. 

Alternation of generations. 

In comparing algae with the great archegoniate series which 
has doubtless sprung from them, it is natural to inquire to 
what extent, if any, they present evidence of the existence 
of the marked alternation of generations which dominates 
the life-history of the higher plants.  Turning first to the 
Rhodophyceae, both on account of the high place which they 
occupy among algae and also the remarkable uniformity in their 
reproductive processes, it is clear that, as is the case among 
Archegoniatae, the product of the sexual act never germinates 
directly into a plant which gives rise to the sexual organs.  
Even among Bangiaceae the carpospores arise from the fertilized 
cell by division, while in all other Rhodophyceae the oospore, 
as it may be called, gives rise to a filamentous structure, 
varying greatly in its dimensions, epiphytic, and to a large 
extent parasitic upon the egg-bearing parent plant, and in the 
end giving rise to carpospores in the terminal cells of certain 
branches.  There is here obviously a certain parallelism 
with the case of Bryophyta, where the sporogonium arising 
from the oospore is epiphytic and partially parasitic upon 
the female plant, and always culminates in the production of 
spores.  Not even Riccia, with its rudimentary sporogonium, 
has so simple a corresponding stage as Bangia, for, while 
there is some amount of sterile tissue in Riccia, in Bangia 
the oospore completely divides to form carpospores.  Excluding 
Bangiaceae, however, from consideration, the Euflorideae 
present in the product of the development of the oospore like 
Bryophyta a structure partly sterile and partly fertile.  There 
is, nevertheless, this important difference between the two 
cases.  While the spore of Bryophyta on germination gives rise 
to the sexual plant, the carpospore of the alga may give rise 
on germination to a plant bearing a second sort of asexual 
cells, viz. the tetraspores, and the sexual plant may only be 
reached after a series of such plants have been successively 
generated.  It is possible, however, that the tetraspore 
formation should be regarded as comparable with the prolific 
vegetative reproduction of Bryophyta, and in favour of this 
view there is the fact that the tetraspores originate on the 
thallus in a different way from carpospores with which the 
spores of Bryophyta are in the first place to be compared; 
moreover, in certain Nemalionales the production of tetraspores 
does not occur, and the difficulty referred to does not arise 
in such cases.  Altogether it is difficult on morphological 
grounds to resist the conclusion that Florideae present the 
same fundamental phenomenon of alternation of generations 
as prevails in the higher plants.  It is by means of the 
cytological evidence, however, that this problem will finally be 
solved.  As is well known, the dividing nuclei of the cells 
of the sporophyte generation of the higher plants exhibit a 
double number of chromosomes, while the dividing nuclei of 
the cells of the gametophyte generation exhibit the single 
number.  In a fern-plant, for example, which is a sporophyte, 
every karyokinesis divulges the double number, while in the 
prothallium, which is the gametophyte generation, the single 
number appears.  The doubling process is provided by the 
act of fertilization, where an antherozoid with the single 
number of chromosomes fuses with an oosphere also with the 
single number to provide a fertilized egg with the double 
number.  The reduction stage, on the other hand, is the 
first division of the mother-cell of the spore.  From egg to 
spore-mother-cell is sporophyte; from spore-mother-cell to 
egg is gametophyte.  And since this rule has been found to 
hold good for all the archegoniate series and also for the 
flowering plants where, however, the gametophyte generation 
has become so extremely reduced as to be only with difficulty 
discerned, it is natural that when alternation of generation 
is stated to occur in any group of Thallophyta it should be 
required that the cytological evidence should support the 
view.  The genus Nemalion has been recently investigated by 
Wolfe with the object of examining the cytological evidence.  
He finds that eight chromosomes appear in karyokinesis in the 
ordinary thallus cells, but sixteen in the gonimoblast filaments 
derived from the fertilized carpogonium.  Eight chromosomes 
appear again in the ultimate divisions which give rise to the 
carpospores.  Upon the evidence it would seem therefore 
that so far as Nemalion is concerned an alternation occurs 
comparable with that existing in the lower Bryophyta where 
the sporophyte is relatively small, being attached to and to 
some extent parasitic upon the gametophyte. Nemalion is, 
however, one of those Florideae in which tetraspores do not 
occur.  What is the case with those Florideae which have been 
described as trioecious? If the sporophyte generation is confined 
to the cystocarp, is the tetrasporiferous plant, as has been 
suggested, merely a potential gametophyte reproducing by a 
process analogous to the bud- formation of the Bryophyta? In 
answer to this question a recent writer, Yamanouchi, states 
in a preliminary communication that he has found that in 
Polysiphonia violacea the germinating carpospores exhibit 
forty chromosomes, and the germinating tetraspores twenty 
chromosomes.  From this it would seem that in this plant 
reduction takes place in the tetraspore mother- cell, and that 
the tetrasporiferous plants are sporophytes which alternate with 
sexual plants.  Novel as this result may seem, the tetraspores 
of Florideae become hereby comparable with the tetraspores of 
Dictyota, to which reference will be made hereafter.  But it 
is clear that it becomes on this view increasingly difficult 
to explain the occasional occurrence of tetraspores on male, 
female and monoecious plants or the role of the carpospores 
in the life-cycle of Florideae.  The results of future research 
on the cytology of the group will be awaited with interest. 

Among Phaeophyceae it is well known that the oospore of 
Fucaceae germinates directly into the sexual plant, and there 
is thus only one generation.  Moreover, it is known that 
the reduction in the number of chromosomes which occurs at 
the initiation of the gametophyte generation in Pteridophyta 
occurs in the culminating stage of Fucus, where the oogonium 
is separated from the stalk-cell, so that unless it be 
contended that the Fucus is really a sporophyte which does 
not produce spores, and that the gametophyte is represented 
merely by the oogonium and antheridium, there is no semblance 
of alternation of generation in this case.  The only case 
among Phaeophyceae which has been considered to point to the 
existence of such a phenomenon is Cutleria. Here the asexual 
cells are borne upon the so-called Aglaozonia reptans and the 
sexual cells upon the plants known as Cutleria. The spores 
of the Aglaozonia form are known to give rise to sexual 
plants, and the oospore of Cutleria has been observed to 
grow into rudimentary Aglaozonia. Latterly, however, as the 
result of the cytological investigations of Mottler and Lloyd 
Williams, great advance has been made in our knowledge of the 
conditions existing in Dictyota. Mottler first observed that 
a reduction in the number takes place in the mother-cells of the 
tetraspore.  It will be remembered that, as in most Florideae, 
the male, female and asexual plants are distinct in this 
genus.  Mottler's observation has been confirmed by Lloyd 
Williams, who has shown, moreover, that the single number 
occurs in germlings from the tetraspore, and also in the 
adult stages of all sexual plants, while the double number 
occurs in germlings from the oospore, and in adult stages of 
all asexual plants.  It is probable, therefore, that we have 
here a sharp alternation of generations, both generations 
being, however, precisely similar to the eye up to point of 
reproduction.  Among Chlorophyceae it is often the case that the 
oospore on germination divides up directly to form a brood of 
zoospores.  In Coleochaete this seems to be preceded by the 
formation of a minute parenchymatous mass, in each cell of which 
a zoospore is produced.  In Sphaeroplea it is only at this 
stage that zoospores are formed at all; but in most cases, such 
as Oedogogonium, Ulothrix, Coleochaete, similar zoospores 
are produced again and again upon the thallus, and the product 
of the oospore may be regarded as merely a first brood of a 
series.  It has been held by some, however, that the first 
brood corresponds to the sporophyte generation of the higher 
plants, and that the rest of the cycle is the gametophyte 
generation.  Were the case of Sphaeroplea to stand alone, 
the phenomenon might perhaps be regarded as an alternation of 
generations, but still only comparable with the case of Bangia, 
and not the case of the Florideae.  But it is difficult to 
apply such a term at all to those cases in which there intervene 
between the oospore and the next sexual stage a series of 
generations, the zoospores of which are all precisely similar. 

Polymorphism. 

The difficulty of tracing the relationships of algae is largely 
due to the inadequacy of our knowledge of the conditions 
under which they pass through the crucial stages of their 
life-cycle.  Of the thousands of species which have been 
distinguished, relatively few have been traced from spore 
to spore, as the flowering plants have been observed from 
seed to seed.  The aquatic habit of most of the species 
and the minute size of many of them are difficulties which 
do not exist in the case of most seed-plants.  From the 
analogy of the higher plants observers have justly argued 
that when they have seen and marked the characters of the 
reproductive organs they have found the plant at the stage 
when it exhibits its most noteworthy features, and they have 
named and classified the species in accordance with these 
observations.  While even in such cases it is obvious that 
interesting stages in the life of the plant may escape notice 
altogether, in the cases of those plants the reproduction of 
which is unknown, and which have been named and placed on the 
analogy of the vegetative parts alone, there is considerable 
danger that a plant may be named as a distinct species which 
is only a stage in the life of another distinct and perhaps 
already known species.  To take an example, Lemanea and 
Batrachospermum are Florideae which bear densely-whorled 
branches, but which, on the germination of the carpospore, 
give rise to a laxly-filamentous, somewhat irregularly-branched 
plant, from which the ordinary sexual plants arise at a later 
stage.  This filamentous structure has been attributed to the 
genus Chantransia, which it greatly resembles, especially 
when, as is said to be the case in Batrachospermum, it 
bears similar monospores.  The true Chantransia, however, 
bears its own sexual organs as well as monospores.  To the 
specific identity of Haplospora globosa and Scaphospora 
speciosa, and of Cutleria muitifida and Aglaozonia 
reptans, reference has already been made.  Again, many Green 
Algae--some unicellular, like Sphaerella and Chlamydomonas; 
some colonial forms, like Volvox and Hormotila; some 
even filamentous forms, like Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium-- 
are known to pass into a condition resembling that of a 
Palmella, and might escape identification on this account. 

It is, on the other hand, a danger in the opposite sense to 
conclude that all Chantransia species are stages in the 
life-cycle of other plants, and, similarly, that all irregular 
colonial forms, like Palmella, represent phases in the life 
of other Green Algae.  Long ago Kutzing went so far as to 
express the belief that the lower algae were all capable of 
transformations into higher forms, even into moss-protonemata.  
Later writers have also thought that in all four groups 
of algae transformations of a most far-reaching character 
occur.  Thus Borzi finds that Protoderma viride passes 
through a series of changes so varied that at different times 
it presents the characters of twelve different genera.  Chodat 
does not find so general a polymorphism, but nevertheless 
holds that Raphidium passes through stages represented by 
Protococcus, Characium, Dactylococcus and Sciadium. Klebs 
has, however, recently canvassed the conclusions of both 
these investigators; and as the result of his own observations 
declares that algae, so far from being as polymorphic as 
they have been described, vary only within relatively narrow 
limits, and present on the whole as great fixity as the higher 
plants.  It certainly supports his view to discover, on 
subjecting to a careful investigation Botrydium granulatum, 
a siphonaceous alga whose varied forms had been described 
by J. Rostafinski and M. Woronin, that these authors had 
included in the life-cycle stages of a second alga described 
previously by Kutzing, and now described afresh by Klebs as 
Protosiphon bolryoides. In Botrydium the chromatophores 
are small, without pyrenoids, and oil-drops are present; 
in Protosiphon the chromatophores form a net-work with 
pyrenoids, and the contents include starch.  Klebs insists 
that the only solution of such problems is the subjection of 
the algae in question to a rigorous method of pure culture.  
It is interesting to learn that G. Senn, pursuing the methods 
described by Klebs, has confirmed Chodat's observation of the 
passage of Raphidium into a Dactylococcus-stage, although 
he was unable to observe further metamorphosis.  He has 
also seen Pleurococcus viridis dividing so as to form a 
filament, but has not succeeded in seeing the formation of 
zoospores as described by Chodat.  While, therefore, there is 
much evidence of a negative character against the existence 
of an extensive polymorphism among algae, some amount of 
metamorphosis is known to occur.  But until the conditions 
under which a particular transformation takes place have 
been ascertained and described, so that the observation 
may be repeated by other investigators, scant credence is 
likely to be given to the more extreme polymorphistic views. 

Physiology. 

In comparison with the higher plants, algae exhibit so much 
simplicity of structure, while the conditions under which 
they grow are so much more readily controlled, that they have 
frequently been the subject of physiological investigation with 
a view chiefly to the application of the results to the study 
of the higher plants. (See PLANTS: Physiology of.) In the 
literature of vegetable physiology there has thus accumulated 
a great body of facts relating not only to the phenomena of 
reproduction, but also to the nutrition of algae.  With 
reference to their chemical physiology, the gelatinization 
of the cell-wall, which is so marked a feature, is doubtless 
attributable to the occurrence along with cellulose of pectic 
compounds.  There is, however, considerable variation in 
the nature of the membrane in different species; thus the 
cell-wall of Gedogonium, treated with sulphuric acid and 
iodine, turns a bright blue, while the colour is very faint 
in the case of Spirogyra, the wall of which is said to 
consist for the most part of pectose.  While starch occurs 
commonly as a cell-content in the majority of the Green 
Algae no trace of it occurs in Vaucheria and some of its 
allies, nor is it known in the whole of the Phaeophyceae and 
Rhodophyceae.  In certain Euphaeophyceae bodies built up of 
concentric layers, and attached to the chromatophores, were 
described by Schmitz as phaeophycean-starch; they do not, 
however, give the ordinary starch reaction.  Other granules, 
easily mistaken for the ``starch'' granules, are also found in 
the cells of Phaeophyceae; these possess a power of movement 
apart from the protoplasm, and are considered to be vesicles 
and to contain phloroglucin.  The colourless granules of 
Florideae, which are supposed to constitute the carbohydrate 
reserve material, have been called floridean-starch.  A white 
efflorescence which appears on certain Brown Algae (Saccorhiza 
bulbosa, Laminaria saccharina), when they are dried in 
the air, is found to consist of mannite.  Mucin is known in 
the cell-sap of Acetabularia. Some Siphonales (Codium) 
give rise to proteid crystalloids, and they are of constant 
occurrence among Florideae.  The presence of tannin has been 
established in the case of a great number of freshwater algae. 

Colouring matters. 

By virtue of the possession of chlorophyll all algae are 
capable of utilizing carbonic acid gas as a source of carbon 
in the presence of sunlight.  The presence of phycocyanin, 
phycophaein and phycoerythrin considerably modifies the 
absorption spectra for the plants in which they occur.  Thus 
in the case of phycoerythrin the maximum absorption, apart 
from the great absorption at the blue end of the spectrum, 
is not, as in the case where chlorophyll occurs alone, near 
the Fraunhofer line B, but farther to the right beyond the 
line D. By an ingenious method devised by Engelmann, it 
may be shown that the greatest liberation of oxygen, and 
consequently the greatest assimilation of carbon, occurs in 
that region of the spectrum represented by the absorption 
bands.  In this connexion Pfeffer points out that the penetrating 
power of light into a clear sea varies for light of different 
colours.  Thus red light is reduced to such an extent as 
to be insufficient for growth at a depth of 34 metres, 
yellow light at a depth of 177 metres and green light at 322 
metres.  It is thus an obvious advantage to Red Algae, which 
flourish at considerable depths, to be able to utilize yellow 
light rather than the red, which is extinguished so much 
sooner.  The experiment of Engelmann referred to deserves 
to be mentioned here, if only in illustration of the use 
to which algae have been put in the study of physiological 
problems.  Engelmann observed that certain bacteria were motile 
only in the presence of oxygen, and that they retained their 
motility in a microscopic preparation in the neighbourhood 
of an algal filament when they had come to rest elsewhere 
on account of the exhaustion of oxygen.  After the bacteria 
had all been brought to rest by being placed in the dark, 
he threw a spectrum upon the filament, and observed in what 
region the bacteria first regained their motility, owing to the 
liberation of oxygen in the process of carbon-assimilation.  
He found that these places corresponded closely with the 
region of the absorption band for the algae under experiment. 

Although algae generally are able to use carbonic acid gas 
as a source of carbon, some algae, like certain of the higher 
plants, are capable of utilizing organic compounds for this 
purpose.  Thus Spirogyra filaments, which have been 
denuded of starch by being placed in the dark, form starch 
in one day if they are placed in a 10 to 20% solution of 
dextrose.  According to T. Bokorny, moreover, it appears 
that such filaments will yield starch from formaldehyde 
when they are supplied with sodium oxymethyl sulphonate, a 
salt which readily decomposes into formaldehyde and hydrogen 
sodium sulphite, an observation which has been taken to 
mean that formaldehyde is always a stage in the synthesis of 
starch.  With reference to the assimilation of nitrogen, 
it would seem that algae, like other green plants, can 
best use it when it is presented to them in the form of a 
nitrate.  Some algae, however, seem to flourish better 
in the presence of organic compounds.  In the case of 
Scenedesmus acutus it is said that the alga is unable 
to take up nitrogen in the form of a nitrate or ammoniacal 
salt, and requires some such substance as an amide or a 
peptone.  On the other hand, it has been held by Bernhard 
Frank and other observers that atmospheric nitrogen is fixed 
by the agency of Green Algae in the soil: (For the remarkable 
symbiotism between algae and fungi see FUNGI and LICHENS.) 

Habitat. 

Most algae, particularly Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, spend 
the whole of the life-cycle immersed in water.  In the case of 
the freshwater algae, however, belonging to the Chlorophyceae 
and Cyanophyceae, although they required to be immersed during 
the vegetative period, the reproductive cells are often capable 
of resisting a considerable degree of desiccation, and in this 
condition are dispersed through great distances by various 
agencies.  Again, as is well known, many species of marine 
algae growing in the region between the limits of high and low 
water are so constituted that they are exposed to the air twice 
a day without injury.  The occurrence of characteristic algae 
at different levels constituting the zones to which reference 
has already been made, is probably in part an expression of 
the fact that different species vary in the capacity to resist 
desiccation from exposure.  Thus Laminaria digitata, which 
characterizes the lowest zone, is only occasionally exposed at 
all, and then only for short periods of time.  On the other 
hand, Pelvetia canaliculata, which marks the upper belt, is 
exposed for longer periods, and during neap tides may not be 
reached by the water for many days.  Algae of more delicate 
texture than either Fucaceae or Laminariaceae also occur in 
the region exposed by the ebb of the tide, but these secure 
their exemption from desiccation either by retaining water 
in their meshes by capillary attraction, as in the case of 
Pilayella, or by growing among the tangles of the larger 
Fucaceae, as in the case of Polysiphonia fastigiata, or by 
growing in dense masses on rocks, as in the case of Laurencia 
pinnatifida. Such a species as Delesseria sanguinea or 
Callophyllis laciniata would on the contrary run great risk 
by exposure for even a short period.  A few algae approach 
the ordinary terrestrial plants in their capacity to live in 
a sub-aerial habitat subject only to such occasional supphes 
of water as is afforded by the rainfall.  Of this nature are 
some of the species of Vaucheria. A very few species, like 
Chroolepus, which grows on rock surfaces, are comparable 
with the land plants which have been termed xerophilous. 

Plankton. 

The great majority of the aquatic algae, both freshwater and 
marine, are attached plants.  Some, however, are wanderers, 
either swimming actively with the aid of cilia, or floating 
inertly as the result of a specific weight closely approaching 
that of the medium.  To the aggregate of such forms, both 
animal and vegetable, the term plankton has been applied, and 
the investigation of the vegetable plankton, both freshwater 
and marine, has been pursued in recent times with energy and 
success.  The German Plankton Expedition of 1889 added greatly 
to our knowledge of the floating vegetable life of the North 
Atlantic Ocean, while many laboratories established on the 
shores of inland seas and lakes have rendered a similar 
service in the case of our freshwater phyto-plankton.  
The quantitative estimate of the amount of this flora has 
revealed its enormous aggregate amount and therefore its great 
importance in the economy of oceanic and lacustrine animal 
life.  The organisms constituting this plankton are mostly 
unicellular, often aggregated together in colonies, and the 
remarkable structure which they exhibit has added a new chapter 
to the story of adaptation to environment.  The families 
Diatomaceae, Peridiniaceae and Protococcaceae are best 
represented in the pelagic plankton, while in addition the 
Volvocaceae are an important element in freshwater plankton. 

Benthos. 

The great majority of algae, however, grow like land-plants 
attached to a substratum, and to these the term benthos is 
now generally applied.  While the root of land-plants serves 
for the double purpose of attachment and the supply of water, 
it is attachment only that is usually sought in the case of 
algae.  Immersed as they usually are in a medium containing in 
solution the inorganic substances which they require for their 
nutrition, the absorption of these takes place throughout 
their whole extent.  The elaborate provision for the conduct 
of water from part to part which has played so important 
a role in the morphological development of land plants is 
entirely wanting in algae, such conducting tissues as do 
exist in the larger Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae serving 
rather for the convection of elaborated organic substance, and 
being thus comparable with the phloem of the higher plants.  
The attachment organ of algae is thus more properly called 
a holdfast, and is found to be of very varied structure.  
It generally takes the form of a single flattened disc as 
in the Fucaceae, or a group of finger- like processes as in 
Laminariaceae, or a tuft of filaments as in many instances.  
When the attachment is in sand or mud, it often simulates the 
appearance of a true root as in Chara or Caulerpa. It is 
clear that where the bottom of a lake or sea consists of oozy 
mud or shifting sand, it is impossible for algae to secure a 
foothold.  Thus a rock emerging from a sandy beach may often 
be observed to stand covered with vegetation like an oasis in a 
desert.  The rapidity with which walls, piles and pontoons--stone, 
wood and iron--become covered with marine plants is well known, 
while the discovery of some effective means of preventing 
the fouling of the bottoms of ships by the growth of algae 
would be hailed as a boon by shipowners.  While rocks and 
boulders are the favoured situation for the growth of marine 
algae, those which readily disintegrate, like the coarser 
sandstones, are naturally less favoured than the hard and 
resistant.  A large number of algae again live as epiphytes or 
endophytes.  In the case of the freshwater species the host-plants 
are mostly species of aquatic Graminaceae, Naiadaceae or 
Nymphaeaceae.  In the case of marine algae, the hosts are 
chiefly the larger Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.  A bed of 
Zostera near the level of low water is, however, on the 
British coast a favourite collecting ground for the smaller 
red and brown epiphytes.  Of endophytes a distinction must be 
made between those which occupy the cell-wall only and those 
which perforate the cells, bringing about their destruction.  
There can be little doubt that in some cases the epiphytism 
approaches parasitism.  In one case described by Kuckuck the 
chromaphores of the infesting algae are absent, a circumstance 
which points to a complete parasitism.  Allusion has already 
been made to the peculiar habit of the shell-boring algae. 

Habit. 

In many algae certain branches of limited growth bear a remarkable 
resemblance to leaves.  The Characeae among freshwater algae 
and the Sargassaceae among marine algae might be cited as 
examples.  Surveying the whole range of algae life, Oltmanns 
distinguishes bush-forms, whip- forms, net-forms, leaf-forms, 
sack-forms, dorsi-ventral forms, and cushions, plates and 
crusts.  The similarity of outline in many species to that 
of trees and shrubs will strike any one who examines algae 
mounted for the herbarium. Cladophora and Bryopsis among 
monosiphonous forms, Chara, Polysiphonia, Ceramium and 
Cystoseira among larger algae, are illustrations of this.  
The whip-forms are represented by Spirogyra, Chaetomorpha, 
Scytosiphon, Nemalion, Himanthalia and Chorda. Net-forms are 
found in Hydrodictyon and Microdictyon. The leaf-forms are 
very varied and owe their existence to the advantage accruing 
from the exposure of a large surface to the influence of the 
light.  In some cases such as Delesseria, Neurymenia, Fucus, 
Alaria, the leaf-like structure is provided with a strengthening 
mid-rib, and when as in Delesseria it is also richly veined 
the resemblance to the leaf of a flowering plant is striking. 
Laminaria, Padina, Cutleria, Punctaria, Iridaea, Ulva, 
Porphyra, are leaf-like with a rigidity varying from a fleshy 
lamina to the thin and pliable. Agarum, Claudea and Struvea 
are leaf-forms which are perforated like Aldrovanda among 
flowering plants. Enteromorpha, Asperococcus and Adenocystis 
are sack-forms.  Dorsi-ventral algae are rare. Leveillea 
jungermanneoides bears a remarkable resemblance to a leafy 
liverwort.  In the next group of forms the simplest are crusts 
attached to the substratum throughout their extent, and growing 
at the margin.  Such are Myrionema, Ralfsia, Melobesia and 
Hildebrandtia. Others are attached throughout their extent, 
but also grow vertical filaments so as to form a velvety pile.  
Such are Coleochaete, Ochlochaete, Elachistea, Ascocyclus and 
Rhododermis.  Peysonellia squamaria, Melobesia lichenoides, 
Leathesia difformis are forms which are not attached 
throughout but grow in plates like the foliaceous lichens. 

Ecology. 

When it is sought to consider algae with a view to the 
correlation of the external form to the conditions of life, 
a subject the study of which under the name of ecology has 
been latterly pursued with great success among land plants, 
it is difficult as yet to arrive at generalizations which are 
trustworthy.  Among land plants, as is well known, similarity 
of environment has often called forth similar adaptations 
among plants of widely separated families.  The similarity 
of certain xerophilous Euphorbiaceae to Cactaceae is a ready 
illustration of this phenomenon.  From what has been already 
said it is evident that among algae also strikingly similar 
forms exist in widely different groups.  Instances might be 
multiplied.  Compare, for example, the blue-green Gloeocapsa 
with the green Gloeocystis, the red Batrachospermum 
with the green Draparnaldia, the red Corallina with the 
green Cymopolia, the green Enteromorpha with the brown 
Asperococcus, the green Ulva with the red Porphyra, the 
red Nemalion with the brown Castagnea, and so on.  But on 
the one hand similar forms seem to grow often under different 
conditions, while on the other hand different forms flourish 
under the same conditions.  The conceivable variations in the 
conditions which would count in algal life are variations in 
the chemical character of the water--whether fresh, brackish 
or salt; or in the rate of movement of the water, whether 
relatively quiet, or a stream or a surf; or in the degree of 
illumination with the depth and transparency of the water.  
But the laws which determine the associations of various 
algae under one environment are as yet little understood.  The 
occurrence of a plentiful mucilage in many freshwater forms 
is, however, doubtless a provision against desiccation on 
exposure.  The fine subdivision of filamentous and net-forms is 
similarly a provision for easy access of water and light to all 
parts.  The calcareous deposits in Characeae, Corallinaceae 
and Siphonaceae are at once a protection against attack and 
a means of support.  The whip-forms would seem to be designed 
to resist injury from surf or current.  The vesicles of 
Fucaceae and Laminariaceae prevent the sinking of the bulkier 
forms.  But why certain Fucaceae favour certain zones in 
the littoral region, why certain epiphytes are confined 
to certain hosts, why Red and Brown Algae are not better 
represented in fresh water Or Green Algae in salt,--these 
are problems to which it is difficult to find a ready answer. 

Uses. 

Algae cannot be regarded as directly important in the 
industries.  On the coasts of Europe marine algae detached 
by the autumnal gales are commonly carted on to the land as 
a convenient manure. Porphyra laciniata and Rhodymenia 
palmata are locally used as food, the latter being known as 
dulse.  Agar-agar is a gelatinous substance derived from an 
eastern species of Gracilaria. The ash of seaweeds, known in 
Scotland as kelp, and in Brittany as varec, was formerly used as a 
source of iodine to a greater extent than is at present the case. 

Occurence in the rocks. 

Excepting where the thallus is impregnated with silica, as 
in Diatomaceae, or carbonate of lime, as in Corallinaceae, 
Characeae and some Siphonales, it is perhaps not surprising that 
algae should not have been extensively preserved in the fossil 
form.  Considering, however, that it is generally believed 
that Bryophyta and vascular plants are descended from an 
algal ancestry, it is natural to suppose that, prior to the 
luxuriant vegetable growths of the Carboniferous period, 
there must have existed an age of algae.  It was doubtless 
this expectation that has led to the description of a number 
of Silurian and Devonian remains as algae upon what is now 
regarded as inadequate evidence.  The geologic record is, 
as perhaps is to be expected, exceedingly poor, except as 
regards the calcareous Siphonales, which are well represented 
at various horizons, from the Silurian to the Tertiary; 
even the Diatomaceae, which are found in great quantities in 
the Tertiary deposits, do not occur at all earlier than the 
chalk.  It is believed, however, that the Devonian fossil, 
Nematophycus, is a Laminarian alga, but it is not until 
the late Secondary and the Tertiary formations that fossil 
remains of algae become frequent. (See PALAEOBOTANY.) 

The subjoined list includes the larger standard works on 
algae, together with a number of papers to which reference is 
made in this article.  For a detailed catalogue of Algological 
literature, see the ``Bibliotheca Phycologica'' in de Tonii's 
Syllope Algarum, vo1. i. (1889), with the addendum thereto 
in vol. iv. (1897) of the same work. GENERAL.--J.  G. Agardh, 
Species, genera et ordines Algarum (vols. i-iii., Algernes 
Systematik (Lund, 1872-1899); J. E. Areschoug, ``Observationes 
Phycologicae,'' Nova Acta reg. soc. sci.  Upsaliensis 
(Upsala, 1866-1875); F. F. Blackman, ``The Primitive Algae 
and the Flagellata,'' Ann. of Botany (vol. xiv., Oxford, 
1900); E. Bornet and G. Thuret, Notes agologiques (fasc. 
i.-ii., Paris, 1876-1880); P. A. Dangeard, ``Recherches sur 
les algues inferieures,'' Ann. des sci. naturelles, Bot. 
(vol. vii., Paris, 1888); A. Derbes and A. J. J. Solier, 
Momoire de la physiologie des algues (Paris, 1856); J. 
B. de Toni, Sylloge Algarum---vol. i. Chlorophyceae, 
vol. ii. Bacillariaceae, vol. iii. Fucoideae, vol. iv. 
Florideae (Padua, 1889-1900); P. Falkenberg, ``Die Algen 
im weitesten Sinne,'' Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik (vol. 
ii., 1882); W. G. Farlow, Morine Algae of New England 
(Washington, 1881); W. H. Harvey, Phycologia Britannica (4 
vols., London, 1846-1855); Nereis Boreali-Americana (3 
pts., Washington, 1851-1858); Phycologia Australica (5 
vols., London, 1858-1863); F. Hauck, ``Die Meeresalgen 
Deutschlands und Osterrichs,'' Rabenhort's Kryptogamen-Flora 
(Leipzig, 1885); F. R. Kjellman, The Algae of the Arctic Sea 
(Stockholm, 1883); F. T. Kutzing, Tabulae Phycologicae (19 
vols., Nordhausen, 1845-1869); P. Kuckuck, Beitrage zur 
Kenntniss der Meercsalgen (Kiel and Leipzig, 1897-1899); G. 
Murray, Phycological Memoirs (London, 1892-1895) Naegeli, 
Die neueren Algensysteme (Zurich, 1847); F. Oltmanns, 
Morphologie und Biologie der Algen (Jena, Band i. 1904, 
Band ii. 1905); N. Pringsheim, ``Beitrage zur Morphologie 
der Meeresalgen,'' Abhand.  Konigl.  Akad. der Wissensch. 
(Berlin, 1862); J. Reinke, Atlas deutscher Meeresalgen 
(Berlin, 1889-1892); F. Schutt, Das Pflanzenleben der 
Hochsee (Leipzig, 1893); J. Stackhouse, Nereis britannica 
(ed. i., Bath, 1801; ed. ii., Oxford, 1816); G. Thuret and E. 
Bornet, Etudes phycologiques (Paris, 1878); D. Turner, 
Historia Fucorum (4 vols., London, 1808-1819); G. Zanardini, 
Iconographia Phycologia Adriatica (Venice, 1860-1876). 

1. CYANOPHYCEAE.--E.  Bornet and Ch. Flahault, ``Revision 
des Nostocacees heterocystees,'' Ann. des sc. 
naturelles, Bot.(vols. iii.-vii., Paris, 1887-1888); M. 
Gomont, ``Monographic des Oscillariees,'' Ann. des sc. 
naturelles, Bot. (vols. xv.-xvi., Paris, 1893); Hegler, 
``Uber Kerntheilungserscheinungen,'' Ref. Botan.  Centralbl. 
(vol. lxiv., Cassel, 1895); O. Kirchner, ``Schizophyceae'', 
in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1900). 

2. CHLOROPHYCEAE.--A.  Borzi, ``Studi anamorfici di alcune 
alghe verdi,'' Bull.  Soc. Bot. Ital. in N. Giorn.  Bot. 
Ital. (vol. xxii., Pisa, 1890); F. F. Blackman and A. G. 
Tansley, A Revision of the Classification of the Green 
Algae, reprinted from the New Phytologist (vol. i., London, 
1903); K. Bohlin, ``Studier ofver nagra slagten af alggruppen 
confervales Borzi,'' Bihang till K. Svenska vel. akad. 
Handlinger (Bd. xxiii. afd. 3, 1897);--Ufkasttill, De grona 
algernas och arkegomiaternas bylogeni (Upsala, 1901); R. 
Chodat, ``On the Polymorphism of the Green Algae,'' Ann. 
of Botany (vol. xi., Oxford, 1897); M. C. Cooke, British 
Freshwater Algae (2 vols., London, 1884), British Desmids 
(London, 1887); G. Klebs, Die Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung 
bei einigen Algen und Pilzen (Jena, 1896); A. Luther, ``Uber 
Chlorosaccus, n.g.'' Bihang till K. Svenska vel. akad. 
Handlinger (Bd. xxiv. afd. 3, 1899); H. Grat zu Solms-Laubach, 
``Monograph of the Acetabulariaceae,'' Trans.  Linn.  Soc. 
(Lond.) Bot. (London, 1895); N. Wille, ``Chlorophyceae'', 
in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1897). 

3. PHAEOPHYCEAE.--E.  A. L. Batters, ``On Ectocarpus secundus,'' 
Grevillea (vol. xxi., London, 1893); G. Berthold, ``Die 
geschlechliche Fortpflanzung der eigentlichen Phaeosooreen,'' 
Mitth.  Zool. Stat.  Neapel (vol. ii., Leipzig, 1881); G. 
Brebner, ``On the Classification of the Tilopteridaceae,'' 
Proc.  Bristol Nat. Soc. (vol. viii., Bristol, 1896-1897); 
A. H. Church, ``On the Polymorphy of Cutleria multiflda,'' 
Ann. of Botany (vol. xii., Oxford, 1898); J. B. Farmer 
esnd J. Ll. Williams, ``Contributions to our Knowledge 
of the Life- history and Cytology of Fucaceae,'' Phil.  
Trans.  Roy. Soc. (vol. cxc., London, 1898); E. Janczewski, 
``Observations sur l'accroissement du thalle des Phaeosporees,'' 
Mem. soc. nat. de sc. (Cherbourg, 1895); F. R. Kjellmann, 
``Phaeophyceae,'' in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilian 
(Leipzig, 1897); F. Oltmanns, ``Beitrage zur Kenntniss der 
Fucaceen,'' Bibliotheca botanica, xiv. (Cassel, 1889); C. 
Sauvageau, ``Observations relatives a la sexualite des 
Phaeosporees,'' Journal de botanique (vol. x., Paris, 
1896); E. Strasburger, ``Kerntheilung und Befruchtung bei 
Fucus,'' Cytologische Studien (Berlin, 1897); F. Schutt, 
Die Peridinien der Plankton-Expedition (Kiel and Leipzig, 
1895); R. Valiante, Le Cystoseirae del Golfo di Napoli 
(Leipzig, 1883); J. Ll. Williams, ``On the Antherozoids of 
Dictyota and Taonia,'' Ann. of Botany (vol. xi., Oxford, 1897). 

4. RHODOPHYCEAE.--G.  Berthold, ``Die Bangiacen des Golfes 
von Neapel,'' Mitth.  Zool.  Stat.  Neapel (Naples, 1882); 
F. Oltmanns, ``Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Florideen,'' 
Botanische Zeitung (1898); R. W. Philligs, ``The Development 
of the Cystocarp in Rhodymeniales,'' i. and ii., Annals 
of Botany (vols. xi. xii., Oxford. 1897-1898); F. Schmitz, 
``Untersuchungen uber die Befruchtung der Florideen,'' 
Sitzungsber. der konigl.  Akad.der Wissensch. (Berlin, 
1883); ``Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Florideen,'' 
La Nuova Notarisia, 1892-1894; F. Schmitz, P. Falkenberg, 
P. Hauptfleisch, ``Rhodophyceae,'' in Engler and Prantl's 
Pflanzenfamilien (1897); W. Schmidle, ``Die Befruchtung, 
Keimung und Haarinsertion von Batrachospermum,'' Bot. 
Zeitung.. (1899); Sirodot, Les Batrachospermes (Paris, 
1884); N. Wille, ``Uber die Befruchtung bei Nemalion 
multifidum,'' Ber. d. deutschen bot.  Gesellsc. Band 
xii. (Berlin, 1894); J. J. Wolfe, ``Cytological Studies on 
Nemalion,'' Annals of Botany (vol. xviii., Oxford, 1904); 
S. Yamanouchi, ``The Life- History of Polysiphonia violacea,'' 
Botanical Gazette (vol. xli., Chicago, 1906). (R. W. P.) 


ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO (1602-1654), Italian sculptor, was born 
at Bologna in 1602.  While he was attending the school of the 
Caracci his preference for the plastic art became evident, 
and he placed himself under the instruction of the sculptor 
Conventi.  At the age of twenty he was brought under the 
notice of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave him several 
commissions.  He was also much employed about the same period 
by jewellers and others in modelling in gold, silver and 
ivory.  After a short residence in Venice he went to Rome in 
1625 with an introduction from the duke of Mantua to the pope's 
nephew, Cardinal Ludovisi, who employed him for a time in 
the restoration of ancient statues.  The death of the duke of 
Mantua left him to his own resources, and for several years 
he earned a precarious maintenance from these restorations 
and the commissions of goldsmiths and jewellers.  In 1640 he 
executed for Pietro Buoncompagni his first work in marble, a 
colossal statue of San Filippo Neri, with kneeling angels.  
Immediately after, he produced a similar group, representing 
the execution of St Paul, for the church of the Barnabite 
Fathers in Bologna.  These works, displaying great technical 
skill, though with considerable exaggeration of expression 
and attitude, at once established Algardi's reputation, and 
other commissions followed in rapid succession.  The turning 
point in Algardi's fortune was the accession of Innocent 
X., of the Bolognese house of Panfili, to the papal throne in 
1644.  He was employed by Camino Panfili, nephew of the pontiff, 
to design the Villa Doria Panfili outside the San Pancrazio 
gate.  The most important of Algardi's other works were the 
monument of Leo XI., a bronze statue of Innocent X. for the 
capitol, and, above all, La Fuega d'Attila, the largest 
alto-relievo in the world, the two principal figures being 
about 10 ft. high.  In 1650 Algardi met Velasquez, who 
obtained some interesting orders for his Italian companion in 
Spain.  Thus there are four chimneys by Algardi in the palace 
of Aranjuez, where also the figures on the fountain of Neptune 
were executed by him.  The Augustine monastery at Salamanca 
contains the tomb of the count and countess de Monterey, which 
was also the work of Algardi.  From an artistic point of view, 
he was most successful in his portrait-statues and groups of 
children, where he was obliged to follow nature most closely.  
In his later years he became very avaricious and amassed a 
great fortune.  He died in Rome on the 10th of June 1654. 

See Le arti di Bologna disegnate da A. Caracci ed intagliati da 
S. Giulini, con' assistenza d' Alessandro A. Algardi (1740). 


ALGAROTH, POWDER OF, a basic chloride of antimony.  It was 
known to Basil Valentine, and was used medicinally by the 
Veronese physician Victor Algarotus about the end of the 16th 
century.  Its composition is probably Sb4O5Cl2, and it may be 
prepared by the addition of much water to a solution of antimony 
chloride; a bulky amorphous precipitate being formed, which, 
on standing, gradually becomes crystalline.  It is soluble in 
hydrochloric acid and tartaric acid, but insoluble in alcohol. 

On its composition and preparation see E. Peligot, Annalen, 
1847, lxiv. 280; L. Schaffer, Annalen, 1869, clii. 314; 
and R. W. E. MacIvor, Chem.  News, 1875, xxxii. 229. 


ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO, COUNT (1712-1764), Italian philosopher 
and writer on art, was born on the 11th of December 1712 at 
Venice, and died at Pisa in 1764.  He studied at Rome and 
Bologna, and at the age of twenty went to Paris, where 
he enjoyed the friendship of Voltaire and produced his 
great work Neutonianismo per le dame, a work on optics.  
Voltaire called him his cher cygne de Padoue. Returning 
from a journey to Russia, he met Frederick the Great who 
made him a count of Prussia (1740) and court chamberlain 
(1747).  Augustus III. of Poland honoured him with the title of 
councillor.  In 1754, after seven years' residence partly in 
Berlin and partly in Dresden, he returned to Italy, living 
at Venice and then at Pisa, where he died on the 3rd of May 
1764.  Frederick the Great erected to his memory a monument 
on the Campo Santo at Pisa.  He was a man of wide knowledge, 
a connoisseur in art and music, and the friend of most of 
the leading authors of his time.  His chief work on art 
is the Saggi sopra le belle arti (``Essays on the Fine 
Arts'').  Among his other works may be mentioned Poems, 
Travels in Russia, Essay on Painting, Correspondence. 

The best complete edition with biography 
was published by D. Michelessi (1791-1794). 


ALGARVE, or ALGARVES, an ancient kingdom and province 
in the extreme S. of Portugal, corresponding with the modern 
administrative district of Faro, and bounded on the N. by 
Alemtejo, E. by the Spanish province of Huelva, and S. and W. 
by the Atlantic Ocean.  Pop. (1900) 255,191; area, 1937 sq. 
m.  The greatest length of the province is about 85 m. from 
E. to W.; its average breadth is about 22 m. from N. to S. 
The Serra de Malhao and the Serra de Monchique extend in the 
form of a crescent across the northern part of the province, 
and, sweeping to the south-west, terminate in the lofty 
promontory of Cape St Vincent, the south-west extremity of 
Europe.  This headland is famous as the scene of many 
sea-fights, notably the defeat inflicted on the Spanish 
fleet in February 1797 by the British under Admiral Jervis, 
afterwards Earl St Vincent.  Between the mountainous tracts 
in the north and the southern coast stretches a narrow 
plain, watered by numerous rivers flowing southward from the 
hills.  The coast is fringed for 30 m. from Quarteira to 
Tavira, with long sandy islands, through which there are six 
passages, the most important being the Barra Nova, between Faro 
and Olinao.  The navigable estuary of the Guadiana divides 
Algarve from Huelva, and its tributaries water the western 
districts.  From the Serra de Malhao flow two streams, the 
Silves and Odelouca, which unite and enter the Atlantic below 
the town of Silves.  In the hilly districts the roads are 
bad, the soil unsuited for cultivation, and the inhabitants 
few.  Flocks of goats are reared on the mountain-sides.  The 
level country along the southern coast is more fertile, and 
produces in abundance grapes, figs, oranges, lemons, olives, 
almonds, aloes, and even plantains and dates.  The land is, 
however, not well suited for the production of cereals, which 
are mostly imported from Spain.  On the coast the people 
gain their living in great measure from the fisheries, tunny 
and sardines being caught in considerable quantities.  Salt 
is also made from sea-water.  There is no manufacturing or 
mining industry of any importance.  The harbours are bad, and 
almost the whole foreign trade is carried on by ships of other 
nations, although the inhabitants of Algarve are reputed to be 
the best seamen and fishermen of Portugal.  The chief exports 
are dried fruit, wine, salt, tunny, sardines and anchovies.  
The only railway is the Lisbon-Faro main line, which passes 
north-eastward from Faro, between the Monchique and Malhao 
ranges.  Faro (11,789), Lagos (8291), Loule (22,478), 
Monchique (7345), Olhao (10,009), Silves (9687) and Tavira 
(12,175), the chief towns, are described in separate articles. 

The name of Algarve is derived from the Arabic, and signifies 
a land lying to the west.  The title ``king of Algarve,'' 
held by the kings of Portugal, was first assumed by 
Alphonso III., who captured Algarve from the Moors in 1253. 

ALGAU, or ALLGAU, the name now given to a comparatively 
small district forming the south-western corner of Bavaria, 
and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neuburg, but 
formerly applied to a much larger territory, which extended 
as far as the Danube on the N., the Inn on the S. and the Lech 
on the W. The Algau Alps contain several lofty peaks, the 
highest of which is Madelegabel (8681 ft.).  The district 
is celebrated for its cattle, milk, butter and cheese. 

ALGEBRA (from the Arab. af-jebr wa'l-muqabala, transposition 
and removal [of terms of an equation], the name of a treatise by 
Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi), a branch of mathematics which 
may be defined as the generalization and extension of arithmetic. 

The subject-matter of algebra will be treated in the following 
article under three divisions:---A.  Principles of ordinary 
algebra; B. Special kinds of algebra; C. History.  Special 
phases of the subject are treated under their own headings, 
e.g. ALGEBRAIC FORMS; BINOMIAL; COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS; 
DETERMINANTS; EQUATION; CONTINUED FRACTION; FUNCTION; 
GROUPS, THEORY OF; LOGARITHM; NUMBER; PROBABILITY; SERIES. 

            A. PRINCIPLES OF ORDINARY ALGEBRA 

1. The above definition gives only a partial view of the scope of 
algebra.  It may be regarded as based on arithmetic, or as 
dealing in the first instance with formal results of the laws 
of arithmetical number; and in this sense Sir Isaac Newton 
gave the title Universal Arithmetic to a work on algebra.  
Any definition, however, must have reference to the state of 
development of the subject at the time when the definition is given. 

2. The earliest algebra consists in the solution of equations.  
The distinction between algebraical and arithmetical reasoning 
then lies mainly in the fact that the former is in a more 
condensed form than the latter; an unknown quantity being 
represented by a special symbol, and other symbols being 
used as a kind of shorthand for verbal expressions.  This 
form of algebra was extensively studied in ancient Egypt; 
but, in accordance with the practical tendency of the 
Egyptian mind, the study consisted largely in the treatment 
of particular cases, very few general rules being obtained. 

3. For many centuries algebra was confined almost entirely 
to the solution of equations; one of the most important 
steps being the enunciation by Diophantus of Alexandria of 
the laws governing the use of the minus sign.  The knowledge 
of these laws, however, does not imply the existence of a 
conception of negative quantities.  The development of symbolic 
algebra by the use of general symbols to denote numbers is 
due to Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete, 1540-1603).This 
led to the idea of algebra as generalized arithmetic. 

4. The principal step in the modern development of algebra was 
the recognition of the meaning of negative quantities.  This 
appears to have been due in the first instance to Albert Girard 
(1595-1632), who extended Vieta's results in various branches of 
mathematics.  His work, however, was little known at the time, and 
later was overshadowed by the greater work of Descartes (1596-1650). 

5. The main work of Descartes, so far as algebra was concerned, 
was the establishment of a relation between arithmetical 
and geometrical measurement.  This involved not only the 
geometrical interpretation of negative quantities, but also the 
idea of continuity; this latter, which is the basis of modern 
analysis, leading to two separate but allied developments, 
viz. the theory of the function and the theory of limits. 

6. The great development of all branches of mathematics in 
the two centuries following Descartes has led to the term 
algebra being used to cover a great variety of subjects, many 
of which are really only ramifications of arithmetic, dealt 
with by algebraical methods, while others, such as the theory 
of numbers and the general theory of series, are outgrowths 
of the application of algebra to arithmetic, which involve 
such special ideas that they must properly be regarded as 
distinct subjects.  Some writers have attempted unification 
by treating algebra as concerned with functions, and Comte 
accordingly defined algebra as the calculus of functions, 
arithmetic being regarded as the calculus of values. 

7. These attempts at the unification of algebra, and its 
separation from other branches of mathematics, have usually 
been accompanied by an attempt to base it, as a deductive 
science, on certain fundamental laws or general rules; and 
this has tended to increase its difficulty.  In reality, the 
variety of algebra corresponds to the variety of phenomena.  
Neither mathematics itself, nor any branch or set of branches of 
mathematics, can be regarded as an isolated science.  While, 
therefore, the logical development of algebraic reasoning must 
depend on certain fundamental relations, it is important that 
in the early study of the subject these relations should be 
introduced gradually, and not until there is some empirical 
acquaintance with the phenomena with which they are concerned. 

8. The extension of the range of subjects to which mathematical 
methods can be applied, accompanied as it is by an extension 
of the range of study which is useful to the ordinary 
worker, has led in the latter part of the 19th century to an 
important reaction against the specialization mentioned in 
the preceding paragraph.  This reaction has taken the form 
of a return to the alliance between algebra and geometry 
(\S 5), on which modern analytical geometry is based; the 
alliance, however, being concerned with the application of 
graphical methods to particular cases rather than to general 
expressions.  These applications are sometimes treated under 
arithmetic, sometimes under algebra; but it is more convenient 
to regard graphics as a separate subject, closely allied to 
arithmetic, algebra, mensuration and analytical geometry. 

9. The association of algebra with arithmetic on the one 
hand, and with geometry on the other, presents difficulties, 
in that geometrical measurement is based essentially on the 
idea of continuity, while arithmetical measurement is based 
essentially on the idea of discontinuity; both ideas being 
equally matters of intuition.  The difficulty first arises in 
elementary mensuration, where it is partly met by associating 
arithmetical and geometrical measurement with the cardinal and 
the ordinal aspects of number respectively (see ARITHMETIC.) 
Later, the difficulty recurs in an acute form in reference 
to the continuous variation of a function.  Reference to a 
geometrical interpretation seems at first sight to throw light 
on the meaning of a differential coefficient; but closer analysis 
reveals new difficulties, due to the geometrical interpretation 
itself.  One of the most recent developments of algebra is 
the algebraic theory at number, which is devised with the 
view of removing these difficulties.  The harmony between 
arithmetical and geometrical measurement, which was disturbed 
by the Greek geometers on the discovery of irrational numbers, 
is restored by an unlimited supply of the causes of disturbance. 

10. Two other developments of algebra are of special 
importance.  The theory of sequences and series is sometimes 
treated as a part of elementary algebra; but it is more 
convenient to regard the simpler cases as isolated examples, 
leading up to the general theory.  The treatment of equations 
of the second and higher degrees introduces imaginary and 
complex numbers, the theory of which is a special subject. 

11. One of the most difficult questions for the teacher of 
algebra is the stage at which, and the extent to which, the 
ideas of a negative number and of continuity may be introduced.  
On the one hand, the modern developments of algebra began 
with these ideas, and particularly with the idea of a negative 
number.  On the other hand, the lateness of occurrence of any 
particular mathematical idea is usually closely correlated 
with its intrinsic difficulty.  Moreover, the ideas which 
are usually formed on these points at an early stage are 
incomplete; and, if the incompleteness of an idea is not 
realized, operations in which it is implied are apt to be purely 
formal and mechanical.  What are called negative numbers in 
arithmetic, for instance, are not really negative numbers but 
negative quantities (\S 27 (i.)); and the difficulties incident 
to the ideas of continuity have already been pointed out. 

12. In the present article, therefore, the main portions of 
elementary algebra are treated in one section, without reference 
to these ideas, which are considered generally in two separate 
sections.  These three sections may therefore be regarded as to 
a certain extent concurrent.  They are preceded by two sections 
dealing with the introduction to algebra from the arithmetical 
and the graphical sides, and are followed by a section dealing 
briefly with the developments mentioned in \S \S 9 and 10 above. 

[The intermediate portion of this article is typeset in TeX and
 is available elsewhere.]

C. HISTORY Various derivations of the word ``algebra,'' 
which is of Arabian origin, have been given by different 
writers.  The first mention of the word is to be found in the 
title of a work by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi (Hovarezmi), 
who flourished about the beginning of the 9th century.  The 
full title is ilm al-jebr wa'l-muqabala, which contains 
the ideas of restitution and comparison, or opposition and 
comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr being derived 
from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, from 
gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with 
in the word algebrista, which means a ``bone-setter,'' 
and is still in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is 
given by Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the 
phrase in the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, 
and ascribes the invention of the art to the Arabians. 

Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic 
particle al (the definite article), and gerber, meaning 
``man.'' Since, however, Geber happened to be the name of 
a celebrated Moorish philosopher who flourished in about 
the 11th or 12th century, it has been supposed that he was 
the founder of algebra, which has since perpetuated his 
name.  The evidence of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) on this point 
is interesting, but he gives no authority for his singular 
statements.  In the preface to his Arithmeticae libri duo 
et totidem Algebrae (1560) he says: ``The name Algebra 
is Syriac, signifying the art or doctrine of an excellent 
man.  For Geber, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and 
is sometimes a term of honour, as master or doctor among 
us.  There was a certain learned mathematician who sent his 
algebra, written in the Syriac language, to Alexander the 
Great, and he named it almucabala, that is, the book of 
dark or mysterious things, which others would rather call 
the doctrine of algebra.  To this day the same book is in 
great estimation among the learned in the oriental nations, 
and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, it is called 
aljabra and alboret; though the name of the author 
himself is not known.,' The uncertain authority of these 
statements, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, 
have caused philologists to accept the derivation from al 
and jabara. Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witte 
(1557) uses the variant algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) 
affirms that algiebar, and not algebra, is the correct 
form, and appeals to the authority of the Arabian Avicenna. 

Although the term ``algebra'' is now in universal use, various 
other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians 
during the Renaissance.  Thus we find Paciolus calling it 
l'Arte Magiore; ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa 
over Alghebra e Almucabala. The name l'arte magiore, 
the greater art, is designed to distinguish it from l'arte 
minore, the lesser art, a term which he applied to the 
modern arithmetic.  His second variant, la regula de la 
cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown quantity, appears 
to have been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa 
was preserved for several centuries in the forms coss or 
algebra, cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, &c. 
Other Italian writers termed it the Regula rei et census, 
the rule of the thing and the product, or the root and the 
square.  The principle underlying this expression is probably 
to be found in the fact that it measured the limits of 
their attainments in algebra, for they were unable to solve 
equations of a higher degree than the quadratic or square. 

Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious 
Arithmetic, on account of the species of the quantities 
involved, which he represented symbolically by the various 
letters of the alphabet.  Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term 
Universal Arithmetic, since it is concerned with the doctrine 
of operations, not affected on numbers, but on general symbols. 

Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, 
European mathematicians have adhered to the older 
name, by which the subject is now universally known. 

It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or science 
definitely to any particular age or race.  The few fragmentary 
records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, 
must not be regarded as representing the totality of their 
knowledge, and the omission of a science or art does not 
necessarily imply that the science or art was unknown.  It was 
formerly the custom to assign the invention of algebra to the 
Greeks, but since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus 
by Eisenlohr this view has changed, for in this work there 
are distinct signs of an algebraic analysis.  The particular 
problem---a heap (hau) and its seventh makes 19---is solved 
as we should now solve a simple equation; but Ahmes varies his 
methods in other similar problems.  This discovery carries the 
invention of algebra back to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier. 

It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of 
a most rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect 
to find traces of it in the works of the Greek aeometers. 
of whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first.  
Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the number of the 
writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic analysis 
from their geometrical theorems and problems have been 
fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their analysis 
was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra.  The 
first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra 
is by Diophantus (q.v.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who 
flourished about A.D. 350. The original, which consisted 
of a preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a 
Latin translation of the first six books and a fragment of 
another on polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), 
and Latin and Greek translations by Gaspar Bachet de Merizac 
(1621-1670).  Other editions have been published, of which 
we may mention Pierre Fermat's (1670), T. L. Heath's (1885) 
and P. Tannery's (1893-1895).  In the preface to this work, 
which is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his 
notation, naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, 
cubus, dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in 
the indices.  The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, 
and in solutions he marks it by the final s; he explains 
the generation of powers, the rules for multiplication and 
division of simple quantities, but he does not treat of the 
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound 
quantities.  He then proceeds to discuss various artifices 
for the simplification of equations, giving methods which 
are still in common use.  In the body of the work he displays 
considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to simple 
equations, which admit either of direct solution, or fall 
into the class known as indeterminate equations.  This latter 
class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known as 
Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as 
the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate.) 
It is difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus 
arose spontaneously in a period of general stagnation.  It 
is more than likely that he was indebted to earlier writers, 
whom he omits to mention, and whose works are now lost; 
nevertheless, but for this work, we should be led to assume 
that algebra was almost, if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. 

The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief 
civilized power in Europe, failed to set store on their 
literary and scientific treasures; mathematics was all but 
neglected; and beyond a few improvements in arithmetical 
computations, there are no material advances to be recorded. 

In the chronological development of our subject we have now to 
turn to the Orient.  Investigation of the writings of Indian 
mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental distinction between 
the Greek and Indian mind, the former being pre-eminently 
geometrical and speculative, the latter arithmetical and mainly 
practical.  We find that geometry was neglected except in so far 
as it was of service to astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, 
and algebra improved far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. 

The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain 
knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning 
of the 6th century of our era.  The fame of this astronomer 
and mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the 
third chapter of which is devoted to mathematics.  Ganessa, an 
eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, 
quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cuttaca 
(``pulveriser''), a device for effecting the solution of 
indeterminate equations.  Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the 
earliest modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that 
the treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic 
equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and 
probably of the second.  An astronomical work, called the 
Surya-siddhanta (``knowledge of the Sun''), of uncertain 
authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or 5th century, 
was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it 
only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourished about 
a century later.  It is of great interest to the historical 
student, for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon 
Indian mathematics at a period prior to Aryabhatta.  After an 
interval of about a century, during which mathematics attained 
its highest level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598), 
whose work entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (``The revised 
system of Brahma'') contains several chapters devoted to 
mathematics.  Of other Indian writers mention may be made of 
Cridhara, the author of a Ganita-sara (``Quintessence of 
Calculation''), and Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. 

A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have 
possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, 
for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little 
in advance of Brahmagupta.  We refer to Bhaskara Acarya, whose 
work the Siddhanta-ciromani (``Diadem of anastronomical 
System''), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, the 
Lilavati (``the beautiful [science or art]'') and Viga-ganita 
(``root-extraction''), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. 

English translations of the mathematical chapters of the 
Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke 
(1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with 
annotations by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details. 

The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra 
from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much 
discussion.  There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic 
between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an 
exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of 
ideas.  Moritz Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine 
methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeterminate 
equations, where certain technical terms are, in all probability, 
of Greek origin.  However this may be, it is certain that 
the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus.  The 
deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied; 
subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend; 
multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, 
the ``product'') after the factom; division, by placing the 
divisor under the dividend; and square root, by inserting 
ka (an abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the 
quantity.  The unknown was called yavattavat, and if there 
were several, the first took this appellation, and the others 
were designated by the names of colours; for instance, x 
was denoted by ya and y by ka (from kalaka, black). 

A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be found 
in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence of two roots 
of a quadratic equation, but the negative roots were considered 
to be inadequate, since no interpretation could be found for 
them.  It is also supposed that they anticipated discoveries 
of the solutions of higher equations.  Great advances were 
made in the study of indeterminate equations, a branch of 
analysis in which Diophantus excelled.  But whereas Diophantus 
aimed at obtaining a single solution, the Hindus strove for 
a general method by which any indeterminate problem could be 
resolved.  In this they were completely successful, for 
they obtained general solutions for the equations ax(+ or -)by=c, 
xy=ax+by+c (since rediscovered by Leonhard Euler) and 
cy2=ax2+b. A particular case of the last equation, 
namely, y2=ax2+1, sorely taxed the resources of modern 
algebraists.  It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard 
Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians.  John 
Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution 
which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John 
Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat 
in his Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the 
solution, posterity has termed the equation Pell's Equation, or 
Problem, when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, 
in recognition of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. 

Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the 
Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa. 
Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous 
is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the 
development of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we 
define algebra as the application of arithmetical operations 
to both rational and irrational numbers or magnitudes, 
then the Brahmans are the real inventors of algebra. 

The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th 
century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was 
accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual powers of 
a hitherto obscure race.  The Arabs became the custodians of 
Indian and Greek science, whilst Europe was rent by internal 
dissensions.  Under the rule of the Abbasids, Bagdad became 
the centre of scientific thought; physicians and astronomers 
from India and Syria flocked to their court; Greek and Indian 
manuscripts were translated (a work commenced by the Caliph 
Mamun (813-833) and ably continued by his successors); and 
in about a century the Arabs were placed in possession of 
the vast stores of Greek and Indian learning.  Euclid's 
Elements were first translated in the reign of Harun-al-Rashid 
(786-809), and revised by the order of Mamun.  But these 
translations Were regarded as imperfect, and it remained for 
Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a satisfactory edition.  
Ptolemy's Almagest, the works of Apollonius, Archimedes, 
Diophantus and portions of the Brahmasiddhanta, were also 
translated.  The first notable Arabian mathematician was 
Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who flourished in the reign of 
Mamun.  His treatise on algebra and arithmetic (the latter part 
of which is only extant in the form of a Latin translation, 
discovered in 1857) contains nothing that was unknown to the 
Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods allied to those of both 
races, with the Greek element predominating.  The part devoted 
to algebra has the title al-jeur wa'lmuqabala, and the 
arithmetic begins with ``Spoken has Algoritmi,'' the name 
Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed into the word Algoritmi, 
which has been further transformed into the more modern words 
algorism and algorithm, signifying a method of computing. 

Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, an 
accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, rendered 
conspicuous Service by his translations of various Greek 
authors.  His investigation of the properties of amicable 
numbers (q.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, 
are of importance.  The Arabians more closely resembled 
the Hindus than the Greeks in the choice of studies; their 
philosophers blended speculative dissertations with the 
more progressive study of medicine; their mathematicians 
neglected the subtleties of the conic sections and Diophantine 
analysis, and applied themselves more particularly to 
perfect the system of numerals (see NUMERAL), arithmetic 
and astronomy (q.v..) It thus came about that while some 
progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were 
bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (q.v..) Fahri des 
al Karbi, who flourished about the beginning of the 11th 
century, is the author of the most important Arabian work on 
algebra.  He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work 
on indeterminate equations has no resemblance to the Indian 
methods, and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from 
Diophantus.  He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and 
algebraically, and also equations of the form x2n+axn+b=0; 
he also proved certain relations between the sum of the first 
n natural numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes. 

Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining 
the intersections of conic sections.  Archimedes' problem 
of dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a 
prescribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by 
Al Mahani, and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al 
Hazin.  The determination of the side of a regular heptagon 
which can be inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle 
was reduced to a more complicated equation which was first 
successfully resolved by Abul Gud. The method of solving 
equations geometrically was considerably developed by 
Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who flourished in the 11th 
century.  This author questioned the possibility of solving 
cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by geometry.  His 
first contention was not disproved until the 15th century, 
but his second was disposed of by Abul Weta (940-908), who 
succeeded in solving the forms x4=a and x4+ax3=b. 

Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of cubic 
equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius assigns 
to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation x3=a 
and x3=2a3), yet the subsequent development by the Arabs 
must be regarded as one of their most important achievements.  
The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the 
Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations. 

Considerable attention has been directed to the different 
styles in which the Arabian authors have treated their 
subject.  Moritz Cantor has suggested that at one time there 
existed two schools, one in sympathy With the Greeks, the 
other with the Hindus; and that, although the writings of the 
latter were first studied, they were rapidly discarded for 
the more perspicuous Grecian methods, so that, among the later 
Arabian writers, the Indian methods were practically forgotten 
and their mathematics became essentially Greek in character. 

Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened 
spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in 
Spain, was as much a centre of learning as Bagdad.  The 
earliest known Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (d. 
1007), whose fame rests on a dissertation on amicable 
numbers, and on the schools which were founded by his 
pupils at Cordoya, Dama and Granada.  Gabir ben Allah of 
Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a celebrated astronomer 
and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has been supposed 
that the word ``algebra', is compounded from his name. 

When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant 
intellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished 
during three or four centuries became enfeebled, and 
after that period they failed to produce an author 
comparable with those of the 7th to the 11th centuries. 

In Europe the decline of Rome was succeeded by a period, lasting 
several centuries, during which the sciences and arts were 
all but neglected.  Political and ecclesiastical dissensions 
occupied the greatest intellects, and the only progress to 
be mcorded is in the art of computing or arithmetic, and 
the translation of Arabic manuscripts.  The first successful 
attempt to revive the study of algebra in Christendom was 
due to Leonardo of Pisa. an Italian merchant trading in the 
Mediterranean.  His travels and mercantile experience had 
led him to conclude that the Hindu methods of computing, 
were in advance of those then in general use, and in 1202 he 
published his Liber Abaci, which treats of both algebra and 
arithmetic.  In this work, which is of great historical 
interest, since it was published about two centuries before the 
art of printing was discovered, he adopts the Arabic notation 
for nulnbers, and solves many problems, both arithmetical and 
algebraical.  But it contains little that is original, and 
although the work created a great sensation when it was first 
published, the effect soon passed away, and the book was 
practically forgotten.  Mathematics was more or less ousted 
from the academic curricula by the philosophical inquiries 
of the schoolmen, and it was only after an interval of 
nearly three centuries that a worthy successor to Leonardo 
appeared.  This was Lucas Paciolus (Lucas de Burgo), a Minorite 
friar, who, having previously written works on algebra, 
arithmetic and geometry, published, in 1494, his principal 
work, entitled Summa de Arithmetica, Giometria, Proportioni 
et Proportionalita. In it he mentions many earlier writers 
from whom he had learnt the science, and although it contains 
very little that cannot be found in Leonardo's work, yet it 
is especially noteworthy for the systematic employment of 
symbols, and the manner in which it reflects the state of 
mathematics in Europe during this period.  These works are 
the earliest printed books on mathematics.  The renaissance of 
mathematics was thus effected in Italy, and it is to that country 
that the leading developments of the following century were 
due.  The first difficulty to be overcome was the algebraical 
solution of cubic equations, the pons asinorum of the earlier 
mathematicians.  The first step in this direction was made by 
Scipio Ferro (d. 1526), who solved the equation x3+ax=b. 
Of his discovery we know nothing except that he declared it 
to his pupil Antonio Marie Floridas.  An imperfect solution of 
the equation x3+px2=q was discovered by Nicholas Tartalea 
(Tartaglia) in 1530, and his pride in this achievement led him 
into conflict with Floridas, who proclaimed his own knowledge 
of the form resolved by Ferro.  Mutual recriminations led 
to a public discussion in 1535, when Tartalea completely 
vindicated the general applicability of his methods and 
exhibited the inefficiencies of that of Floridas.  This contest 
over, Tartalea redoubled his attempts to generalize his 
methods, and by 1541 he possessed the means for solving any 
form of cubic equation.  His discoveries had made him famous 
all over Italy, and he was earnestly solicited to publish 
his methods; but he abstained from doing so, saying that he 
intended to embody them in a treatise on algebra which he was 
preparing.  At last he succumbed to the repeated requests of 
Girolamo or Geronimo Cardano, who swore that he would regard 
them as an inviolable secret.  Cardan or Cardano, who was 
at that time writing his great work, the Ars Magna, could 
not restrain the temptation of crowning his treatise with 
such important discoveries, and in 1545 he broke his oath 
and gave to the world Tartalea's rules for solving cubic 
equations.  Tartalea, thus robbed of his most cherished 
possession, was in despair.  Recriminations ensued until 
his death in 1557, and although he sustained his claim for 
priority, posterity has not conceded to him the honour of his 
discovery, for his solution is now known as Cardan's Rule. 

Cubic equations having been solved, biquadratics soon followed 
suit.  As early as 1539 Cardan had solved certain particular 
cases, but it remained for his pupil, Lewis (Ludovici) Ferrari, 
to devise a general method.  His solution, which is sometimes 
erroneously ascribed to Rafael Bombelh, was published in the 
Ars Magna. In this work, which is one of the most valuable 
contributions to the literature of algebra, Cardan shows 
that he was familiar with both real positive and negative 
roots of equations whelher rational or irrational, but of 
imaginary roots he was quite ignorant, and he admits his 
inability to resolve the so-called ``irreducible case'' (see 
EQUATION.) Fundamental theorems in the theory of equations 
are to be found in the same work.  Clearer ideas of imaginary 
quantities and the ``irreducible case'' were subsequently 
published by Bombelli, in a work of which the dedication is 
dated 1572, though the book was not published until 1579. 

Contemporaneously with the remarkable discoveries of the 
Italian mathematicians, algebra was increasing in popularity 
in Germany, France and England.  Michael Stifel and Johann 
Scheubelius (Scheybl) (1494-1570) flourished in Germany, and 
although unacquainted with the work of Cardan and Tartalea, 
their writings are noteworthy for their perspicuity and the 
introduction of a more complete symbolism for quantities and 
operations.  Stifel introduced the sign (+) for addition or 
a positive quantity, which was previously denoted by plus, 
piu, or the letter p. Subtraction, previously written as 
minus, mone or the letter m, was symbolized by the sign 
(-) which is still in use.  The square root he denoted by 
(sqrt. ), whereas Paciolus, Cardan and others used the letter R. 

The first treatise on algebra written in English was by 
Robert Recorde, who published his arithmetic in 1552, and 
his algebra entitled The Whetstone of Witte, which is the 
second part of Arithmetik, in 1557.  This work, which is 
written in the form of a dialogue, closely resembles the 
works of Stifel and Scheubelius, the latter of whom he often 
quotes.  It includes the properties of numbers; extraction of 
roots of arithmetical and algebraical quantities, solutions of 
simple and quadratic equations, and a fairly complete account of 
surds.  He introduced the sign (=) for equality, and the terms 
binomial and residual. Of other writers who published 
works about the end of the 16th century, we may mention Jacques 
Peletier, or Jacobus Peletarius (De occulta parto Numerorum, 
quare Algebram vocant, 1558); Petrus Ramus (Arithmeticae 
Libri duo et totidem Algebrae, 1560), and Christoph Clavius, 
who wrote on algebra in 1580, though it was not published until 
1608.  At this time also flourished Simon Stevinus (Stevin) of 
Bruges, who published an arithmetic in 1585 and an algebra 
shortly afterwards.  These works possess considerable 
originality, and contain many new improvements in algebraic 
notation; the unknown (res) is denoted by a small circle, 
in which he places an integer corresponding to the power.  He 
introduced the terms multinomial, trinomial, quadrinomial, 
&c., and considerably simplified the notation for decimals. 

About the beginning of the 17th century various mathematical 
works by Franciscus Vieta were published, which were afterwards 
collected by Franz van Schooten and republished in 1646 at 
Leiden.  These works exhibit great originality and mark an 
important epoch in the history of algebra.  Vieta, who does 
not avail himself of the discoveries of his predecessors--the 
negative roots of Cardan, the revised notation of Stifel 
and Stevin, &c.--introduced or popularized many new terms 
and symbols, some of which are still in use.  He denotes 
quantities by the letters of the alphabet, retaining the 
vowels for the unknown and the consonants for the knowns; 
he introduced the vinculum and among others the terms 
coefficient, affirmative, negative, pure and adjected 
equations.  He improved the methods for solving equations, and 
devised geometrical constructions with the aid of the conic 
sections.  His method for determining approximate values 
of the roots of equations is far in advance of the Hindu 
method as applied by Cardan, and is identical in principle 
with the methods of Sir Isaac Newton and W. G. Horner. 

We have next to consider the works of Albert Girard, a Flemish 
mathematician.  This writer, after having published an edition 
of Stevin's works in 1625, published in 1629 at Amsterdam a 
small tract on algebra which shows a considerable advance on 
the work of Vieta.  Girard is inconsistent in his notation, 
sometimes following Vieta, sometimes Stevin; he introduced the 
new symbols ff. for greater than and sec.  for less than; he 
follows Vieta in using the plus (+) for addition, he denotes 
subtraction by Recorde's symbol for equality (=), and he had 
no sign for equality but wrote the word out.  He possessed 
clear ideas of indices and the generation of powers, of the 
negative roots of equations and their geometrical interpretation, 
and was the first to use the term imaginary roots. He also 
discovered how to sum the powers of the roots of an equation. 

Passing over the invention of logarithms (q.v.) by John 
Napier, and their development by Henry Briggs and others, the 
next author of moment was an Englishman, Thomas Harriot, whose 
algebra (Artis analyticae praxis) was published posthumously 
by Walter Warner in 1631.  Its great merit consists in the 
complete notation and symbolism, which avoided the cumbersome 
expressions of the earlier algebraists, and reduced the art 
to a form closely resembling that of to-day.  He follows 
Vieta in assigning the vowels to the unknown quantities and 
the consonants to the knowns, but instead of using capitals, 
as with Vieta, he employed the small letters; equality he 
denoted by Recorde's symbol, and he introduced the signs 
> and < for greater than and less than. His principal 
discovery is concerned with equations, which he showed to be 
derived from the continued multiplication of as many simple 
factors as the highest power of the unknown, and he was thus 
enabled to deduce relations between the coefficients and 
various functions of the roots.  Mention may also be made 
of his chapter on inequalities, in which he proves that the 
arithmetic mean is always greater than the geometric mean. 

William Oughtred, a contemporary of Harriot, published an 
algebra, Clavis mathematicae, simultaneously with Harriot's 
treatise.  His notation is based on that of Vieta, but he 
introduced the sign X for multiplication, @ for continued 
proportion, :: for proportion, and denoted ratio by one 
dot.  This last character has since been entirely restricted 
to multiplication, and ratio is now denoted by two dots 
(:). His symbols for greater than and less than (@ and 
@) have been completely superseded by Harriot's signs` 

So far the development of algebra and geometry had been 
mutually independent, except for a few isolated applications 
of geometrical constructions to the solution of algebraical 
problems.  Certain minds had long suspected the advairages which 
would accrue from the unrestricted application of algebra to 
geometry, but it was not until the advent of the philosopher 
Rene Descartes that the co-ordination was effected.  In his 
famous Geometria (1637), which is really a treatise on the 
algebraic representation of geometric theorems, he founded 
the modern theory of analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY), 
and at the same time he rendered signal service to algebra, 
more especially in the theory of equations.  His notation is 
based primarily on that of Harriot; but he differs from that 
writer in retaining the first letters of the alphabet for 
the known quantities and the final letters for the unknowns. 

The 17th century is a famous epoch in the progress of science, 
and the mathematics in no way lagged behind.  The discoveries 
of Johann Kepler and Bonaventura Cavalieri were the foundation 
upon which Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz 
erected that wonderful edifice, the Infinitesimal Calculus 
(q.v..) Many new fields were opened up, but there was still 
continual progress in pure algebra.  Continued fractions, one 
of the earliest examples of which is Lord Brouncker's expression 
for the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle 
(see CIRCLE), were elaborately discussed by John Wallis and 
Leonhard Euler; the convergency of series treated by Newton, 
Euler and the Bernoullis; the binomial theorem, due originally 
to Newton and subsequently expanded by Euler and others, was 
used by Joseph Louis Lagrange as the basis of his Calcul 
des Fonctions. Diophantine problems were revived by Gaspar 
Bachet, Pierre Fermat and Euler; the modern theory of numbers 
was founded by Fermat and developed by Euler, Lagrange and 
others; and the theory of probability was attacked by Blaise 
Pascal and Fermat, their work being subsequently expanded by 
James Bernoulli, Abraham de Moivre, Pierre Simon Laplace and 
others.  The germs of the theory of determinants are to be 
found in the works of Leibnitz; Etienne Bezout utilized them 
in 1764 for expressing the result obtained by the process of 
elimination known by his name, and since restated by Arthur Cayley. 

In recent times many mathematicians have formulated other 
kinds of algebras, in which the operators do not obey the laws 
of ordinary algebra.  This study was inaugurated by George 
Peacock, who was one of the earliest mathematicians to recognize 
the symbolic character of the fundamental principles of 
algebra.  About the same time, D. F. Gregory published a paper 
``on the real nature of symbolical algebra.'' In Germany the 
work of Martin Ohm (System der Mathematik, 1822) marks a step 
forward.  Notable service was also rendered by Augustus de 
Morgan, who applied logical analysis to the laws of mathematics. 

The geometrical interpretation of imaginary quantities had a 
far-reaching influence on the development of symbolic algebras.  
The attempts to elucidate this question by H. Kuhn (1750-1751) 
and Jean Robert Argand (1806) were completed by Karl Friedrich 
Gauss, and the formulation of various systems of vector analysis 
by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Hermann Grassmann and others, 
followed.  These algebras were essentially geometrical, and it 
remained, more or less, for the American mathematician Benjamin 
Peirce to devise systems of pure symbolic algebras; in this 
work he was ably seconded by his son Charles S. Peirce.  In 
England, multiple algebra was developed by James Joseph 
Sylvester, who, in company with Arthur Cayley, expanded the 
theory of matrices, the germs of which are to be found in the 
writings of Hamilton (see above, under (B); and QUATERNIONS.) 

The preceding summary shows the specialized nature which algebra 
has assumed since the 17th century.  To attempt a history 
of the development of the various topics in this article is 
inappropriate, and we refer the reader to the separate articles. 

REFERENCES.---The history of algebra is treated in all 
historical works on mathematics in general (see MATHEMATICS: 
References.) Greek algebra can be specially studied in 
T. L. Heath's Diophantus. See also John Wallis, Opera 
Mathematica (1693-1699), and Charles Sutton, Mathematical and 
Philosophical Dictionary (1815), article ``Algebra.'' (C. E.*) 

[The article on Algebraic Forms is typeset in TeX and is available
 elsewhere.]

ALGECIRAS, or ALGEZIRAS, a seaport of southern Spain in the 
province of Cadiz, 6 m.  W. of Gibraltar, on the opposite side of 
the Bay of Algeciras.  Pop. (1900) 13,302.  Algeciras stands at 
the head of a railway from Granada, but its only means of access 
to Gibraltar is by water.  Its name, which signifies in Arabic 
the island, is derived from a small islet on one side of the 
harbour.  It is supplied with water by means of a beautiful 
aqueduct.  The fine winter climate of Algeciras attracts many 
invalid visitors, on whom the town largely depends for its 
prosperity.  The harbour is bad, but at the beginning of 
the 20th century it became important as a fishing-station.  
Whiting, soles, bream, bass and other fish are caught in 
great quantities by the Algeciras steam-trawlers, which 
visit the Moroccan coast, as well as Spanish and neutral 
waters.  There is also some trade in farm produce and building 
materials which supplies a fleet of small coasters with cargo. 

Algeciras was perhaps the Portus Albus of the Romans, but 
it was probably refounded in 713 by the Moors, who retained 
possession of it until 1344.  It was then taken by Alphonso 
XI. of Castile after a celebrated siege of twenty months, 
which attracted Crusaders from all parts of Europe; among them 
being the English earl of Derby, grandson of Edward III. It 
is said that during this siege gunpowder was first used by the 
Moors in the wars of Europe.  The Moorish city was destroyed 
by Alphonso; it was first reoccupied by Spanish colonists from 
Gibraltar in 1704; and the modern town was erected in 1760 by 
King Charles III. During the siege of Gibraltar in 1780- 1782, 
Algeciras was the station of the Spanish fleet and floating 
batteries.  On the 6th of July 1801 the English admiral Sir 
James Saumarez attacked a Franco-Spanish fleet off Algeciras, 
and sustained a reverse; but on the 12th he again attacked the 
enemy, whose fleet was double his own strength, and inflicted 
on them a complete defeat.  The important international 
conference on Moroccan affairs, which resulted in an agreement 
between France and Germany, was held at Algeciras from the 
16th of January to the 7th of April 1906. (See MOROCCO.) 

ALGER OF LIEGE (d c. 1131), known also as ALGER OF 
CLUNY and ALGERUS MAGISTER, a learned French priest who 
lived in the first half of the 12th century.  He was first a 
deacon of the church of St Bartholomew at Liege, his native 
town, and was then appointed (c. 1100) to the cathedral 
church of St Lambert.  He declined many offers from German 
bishops and finally retired to the monastery of Cluny, where 
he died about 1131 at a great age and leaving a good reputation 
for piety and intelligence.  His History of the Church of 
Liege, and many of his other works, are lost.  The most 
important of those still extant are: 1. De Misericordia et 
Justitia, a collection of biblical and patristic extracts 
with a commentary (an important work for the history of 
church law and discipline), which is to be found in the 
Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. De Sacramentis Corporis 
et Sanguinis Domini; a treatise, in three books, against 
the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by Peter of Cluny and 
Erasmus. 3. De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio; given in B. Pez's 
Anecdota, vol. iv. 4. De Sacrificio Missae; given in the 
Collectio Scriptor. Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371. 

See Migne, Patrol Ser. Lat. vol. clxxx. pp. 739-.972; Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyk.fur prot.  Theol., art. by S. M. Deutsch. 

ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER (1836--1907), American soldier and 
politician, was born in Lafayette township, Medina county, 
Ohio, on the 27th of February 1836.  Left an orphan at an early 
age, he worked on a farm to pay his expenses at Richfield 
(Ohio) Academy, was a schoolmaster for two winters, and, 
having studied law in the meantime, was admitted to the bar in 
1859.  He began practice at Cleveland, Ohio, but early in 
1860 he removed to Michigan, where he abandoned his profession 
and engaged in the lumber business.  Enlisting in a Michigan 
cavalry regiment in September 1861, he rose from captain to 
colonel, distinguished himself in the Gettysburg campaign 
and under Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and in 1864 and 
1865 respectively received the brevets of brigadier-general 
and major-general of volunteers.  After the war he invested 
extensively in pine lands in Michigan, and accumulated a large 
fortune in the lumber business.  In 1884 he was elected governor 
of Michigan on the Republican ticket, serving from 1885 to 
1887.  In 1889--1890 he was commander-in-chief of the Grand 
Army of the Republic.  From 1897 to 1899 he was secretary 
of war in President McKinley's cabinet.  His administration 
of the war department during the Spanish-American War was 
severely criticized for extravagance in army contracts, for 
unpreparedness, and for genetal inefficiency, charges which he 
answered in his The Spanish-American War (1901).  The extent 
of his personal responsibility is at least uncertain.  In 1902 
he was appointed by the governor of Michigan, and in 1903 was 
elected by the state legislature, as United States senator to 
complete the unexpired term of James Mcmillan (1838-1902).  
He died at Washington, D.C., on the 24th of January 1907. 

ALGERIA (Algerie), a country of North Africa belonging 
to France, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, W. by Morocco, 
S. by the Sahara and E. by Tunisia.  The boundaries, 
however, are in part not accurately determined.  Algeria 
extends for about 650 m. along the coast, and stretches 
inland from 320 to 380 m., lying between 2 deg.  10' W. and 8 deg.  
50, E., and 32 deg.  and 37 deg.  N. It is divided, politically, 
into three departments-- Oran in the west, Algiers in the 
centre and Constantine in the east.  Its area is 184,474 sq. 
m., exclusive of the dependent Saharan regions, which have 
an area of some 750,000 sq. m. (see SAHARA, TUAT, &c.). 

Physical Features.--The character of the Algerian coast 
is severe and inhospitable.  The western half is bordered 
by a hilly rampart, broken only here and there, in the bays 
where the larger streams find their outlet, by flat and sandy 
plains.  Between Dellys and Philippeville high mountains rise 
almost sheer from the sea, leaving only a narrow strip of 
beach.  East of Philippeville the mountains recede from the 
coast, and the rampart of hills reappears.  Only between Bona 
and La Calle is the general character of the sea-board low and 
sandy.  Save near the towns and in the cultivated district of 
Kabylia, the coast is bare and uninhabited; and in spite of 
numerous indentations, of which the most important going from 
west to east are the Gulf of Oran, the Gulf of Arzeu, the Bay 
of Algiers, and the gulfs of Bougie, Stora and Bona, there 
are few good harbours.  From time immemorial, indeed, this 
coast has had an evil reputation among mariners, quite apart 
from the pirates who for centuries made it the base of their 
depredations.  A violent current, starting from the Straits 
of Gibraltar, rushes eastward along the shore, and, hurled 
back from the headlands, is deflected to the West.  In summer 
the east wind brings dense and sudden fogs; while in winter 
the northerly gales blow straight into the mouths of the 
harbours.  In these circumstances navigation is especially 
perilous for sailing craft.  The terrors of this ``savage sea 
and inhospitable shore,'' once described by Sallust, have, 
however, been greatly mitigated by the introduction of steam, 
the improvement of the harbours, and the establishment by 
the French government of an excellent system of lighthouses. 

Southward from the sea the country falls naturally into three 
divisions, clearly distinguished by their broad physical 
characteristics.  The healthy, and on the whole fertile coast 
region, from 50 to 100 m. in width, is known, as in Morocco and 
Tunisia. as the Tell (Arabic for ``hill'').  It is a mountainous 
country intersected with rocky canons and fertile valleys, 
which occasionally broaden out into alluvial plains like that 
of the Shelif, or the Metija near Algiers, or those in the 
neighbourhood of Oran and Bona.  Behind the Tell is a lofty 
table-land with an average elevation of 3000 ft., consisting 
of vast plains, for the most part arid or covered with esparto 
grass, in the depressions of which are great salt lakes and 
swamps (Arabic, shats) fed by streams which can find no outlet 
to the sea through the encircling hills.  To the south this 
region is divided by the Great Atlas from the deserts of the 
Sahara, with its oases, in which the boundary of Algeria is lost. 

The country is traversed by lofty ranges of the Atlas system, 
which run nearly parallel to the coast, and rise in places over 
7000 ft.  These are commonly divided into two leading chains, 
distinguished as the Great1 and Little Atlas.  The Great, 
or Saharan Atlas contains some of the highest points in the 
country.  The chief ranges are Ksur and Amur in the west 
and the Aures in the east.  The peak of Shellia, the highest 
point in Algeria, in the Aures range, has a height of 7611 
ft.  In the Amur are Jebel Ksel (6594 ft.) and Tuila Makna (6561 
ft.).  The Little Atlas, otherwise the Tell or Maritime Atlas, 
lies between the sea and the Saharan Atlas, and is composed 
of many distinct ranges, generally of no great elevation and 
connected by numerous transverse chains forming extensive 
table-lands and elevated valleys.  The principal ranges of 
the Little Atlas--from west to east--are the Tlemcen (5500 
ft.); the Warsenis (with Kef Sidi Omar, 6500 ft.); the Titeri 
(4900 ft.); the Jurjura, with the peak of Lalla Kedija (7542 
ft.) and Mount Babor (6447 ft.); and the Mejerda (3700 ft.), 
which extends into Tunisia.  The Jurjura range, forming the 
background of the plains between Algiers and Bougie, extends 
through the district of Kabylia, with which for grandeur of 
scenery no other part of Algeria can compare.  South of the 
Jurjura and separated from it by the valley of the Sahel, 
is the Biban range with a famous double pass of the same 
name, through which alone access is gained to the highlands 
beyond.  The Bibans or Portes de fer (Iron Gates) consist of 
two defiles with stupendous walls of rock, which by erosion have 
assumed the most fantastic shapes.  In the case of the Petite 
porte the walls in some places are not more than twelve feet 
apart.  The Dahra range (see MOSTAGANEM) overlooks the 
sea, and is separated from the Warsenis by the valley of 
the Shelif (see ATLAS MOUNTAINS, SAHARA and TUAT.) 

The rivers are numerous but the majority are short.  Most of 
them rise in the mountains near the coast, and rush down through 
deep and rocky channels.  During the rainy season they render 
communication between different parts of the country extremely 
difficult.  The most important river, both from its length and 
volume, is the Shelif.  It rises on the northern slopes of 
the Amur mountains and flows N.E. across the high plateau, 
piercing the little Atlas between the Warsenis and Titeri 
ranges.  It then turns W. and reaches the Mediterranean at the 
eastern end of the Gulf of Arzeu.  The Shelif, which has many 
tributaries, is about 430 m. long.  The Seybuse (about 150 m. 
long), formed by the union of several small streams in the 
department of Constantine, runs through a fertile valley and 
reaches the Mediterranean near Bona.  The Sahel (about 100 m. 
long), which contains the greatest body of water after the 
Shelif, rises in the department of Algiers near Aumale, and 
flows for the most part N.E. to its mouth near Bougie.  The 
Kebir or Rummel--the river is known by both names--is formed 
by the union of several small streams south of Constantine, and 
flows past that town N.W. 140 m. to the sea.  Among the less 
important rivers which empty into the Mediterranean are the 
Macta, the Tafna, the Harrach and the Mazafran.  The Macta, 
but 3 m. long, enters the sea in the Gulf of Arzeu, some 25 
m.  W. of the mouth of the Shelif.  It is formed by the 
Habra (140 m.) and the Sig (130 m.), which rise in the Amur 
mountains and flowing north unite in a marshy plain, whence 
issues the Macta.  On the lower courses of the Habra and the 
Sig, barrages have been built for irrigation purposes.  The 
Habra barrage holds 38,000,000 cubic metres; that on the Sig 
18,000,000.  The Tafna (about 100 m.) rises in a large cavern 
in the mountains south of Tlemcen and flows N.E. to the sea at 
Rachgun.  It has many affluents; the largest, the Isser 
(70 m.), joins it on the east bank about 30 m. above its 
mouth.  The Harrach (40 m.), a picturesque stream, enters 
the Mediterranean in the Bay of Algiers.  The Mazafran (50 
m.) crosses the plains S.W of Algiers, reaching the sea N. of 
Kolea.  The Mejerda and its affluent the Mellegue, rivers 
of Tunisia (q.v.), have their rise in Algeria, in the 
mountainous country east of Constantine.  None of these rivers is 
navigable.  Besides these there are a number of streams in the 
interior, but they are usually dry except in the rainy season. 

Algeria abounds in extensive salt lakes and marshes.  Of 
the lakes in the northern part of the country near the coast 
the principal are,--the Fezara, 14 m.  S.W. of Bona; Sebkha 
and El Melah, south of Oran; and three small lakes in the 
immediate vicinity of La Calle.  In the high plateaus are 
the Shat-el-Gharbi or Western Shat, the Shat-el-Shergui or 
Eastern Shat, the Zarhez- Gharbi and the Zarhez-Shergui, the 
Shat-el-Hodna and a number of others.  South of the Jebel 
Aures is another series of salt lakes closely connected with 
the Shat-el-Jerid (of Tunisia).  The chief of these is the 
Shat Melrir.  There are a number of warm mineral springs, 
containing principally salts of lime, used with success 
by both Arabs and Europeans in several kinds of disease. 

One of the most remarkable groups of springs is near Guelma, 
in the department of Constantine.  There are two principal 
sources.  Their waters unite in one stream whose course is 
marked by gigantic limestone cones, some of which are 36 ft. 
high.  The water, which is at boiling point, falls into 
natural basins of a creamy white colour, formed by the deposit 
of carbonate of lime.  The springs are known to the Arabs 
as Hammam Meskutin (the ``accursed baths'').  The name and 
the cones are accounted for by a legend which represents 
that at this spot lived a sheikh who, finding his sister too 
beautiful to be married to anyone else, determined to espouse 
her himself.  Whilst the marriage festivities were being 
celebrated the judgment of Heaven descended on the guilty 
pair; fire came from below; the water became hot and the 
sheikh and his sister were turned into stone.  Within a mile 
of Hammam Meskutin are ferruginous and sulphureous springs. 

[Geology.--The geology of Algeria has been worked out in 
considerable detail by French geologists.  Rocks of Archean 
and Palaeozoic ages contribute only a small share, but there 
is a very complete sequence of formations from the Lias to 
those of recent date.  An interesting and orderly petrological 
sequence of Tertiary igneous rocks has been determined. 

Archean rocks form the cores of the ancient crystalline masses 
within the littoral zone from Algiers to Bona.  They consist of 
gneiss, mica-schist, quartzites, crystalline limestones and 
conglomerates.  Primary deposits are doubtfully represented 
by the detached fragments of unfossiliferous strata of 
Traras, Blida and east of Orleansville.  Carboniferous and 
Permian strata are possibly represented by some black and 
grey micaceous shales with beds of coal in the Jurjura.  
At Jebel-kahar and west of Traras, Pomel attributes certain 
conglomerates, red sandstones and purple and green shales to 
the Permian.  The rocks of Secondary and Tertiary ages have 
been profoundly affected by the Alpine movements, and are 
thrown into a series of complex folds, so that in numerous 
instances their stratigraphy is imperfectly understood.  
The gypsiferous and saliferous marls of Shellata, Suk Ahras 
and Ain Nussi have yielded Triassic fossils.  Triassic 
rocks are considered to be present in Constantine and in the 
Jurjura.  Rhaetic beds (Infra Lias), consisting of dolomites 
and siliceous limestones, have been recognized at Saida.  
The lower and middle divisions of the Jurassic, composed of 
massive limestones more or less siliceous and overlain by 
the marls and highly fossiliferous limestones of the Upper 
Lias, play an important part in the constitution of the chief 
mountains of the Tell.  In south Oran they determine the 
principal axes of the mountain ranges.  The Inferior Cretaceous 
rocks include the Neocomian and Gault (Albian and Aptian) 
subdivisions, and form the flanks of the mountains in the 
Tell.  In the south the Albian subdivision of the Gault is alone 
represented.  Rocks of Upper Cretaceous age are represented 
in all their stages.  The Cenomanian presents two distinct 
facies.  North of the Atlas it belongs to the European type, 
in the south it contains a fauna of oysters and sea-urchins 
belonging to the facies ``africano-syrian'' of Zittel.  There 
is a continuous transition between the Senonian and Danian, 
proving that the Algerian region did not participate in the 
immersion which occurred in Provence and in the Corbieres 
of southern France during the Danian epoch.  The Lower Eocene 
rocks contain the chief phosphatic deposits of Algeria, those 
of the Tebessa region being the best known.  Certain species 
of nummulites, which are very common, distinguish the various 
subdivisions of the Eocene.  The highest beds, consisting of 
quartzites, shales, marls and sandstones with the remains of 
fucoids, are found in the Jurjura and Shellata.  The Oligocene 
period consists of a marine phase confined to the littoral 
zone of Kahylia, and of a continental phase occupying vast 
areas composed of lacustrine, alluvial, gypsiferous marls, 
sandstones and conglomerates.  The Miocene formation obtains 
its greatest development in Oran and is much expanded in the 
Tell.  At the close of the Lower Miocene period (beds with 
Ostrea crassissima) great modifications in the relief and 
limits of the Algerian formations took place.  Hitherto marine 
conditions were confined to the littoral; in Middle Miocene 
times (Helvetian) the sea broke in and spread in a south-east 
direction in the form of long ramified fjords but did not 
extend as far as the Sahara.  To the Pliocene period the marine 
deposits of the Sahel of Algiers and of the Sahel Jijelli 
must be attributed; also the lacustrine marls and limestone 
of the basin of Constantine, and the ancient alluviums of the 
basins and depressions which bear no relation to the existing 
valleys.  Among the Tertiary volcanic rocks those of acid 
types (granites, granulites) were the first to appear and 
are developed latitudinally; rocks of intermediate type 
(dacites, andesites) characterize the Miocene and early 
Pliocene periods; while the basic rocks (ophites, elaeolite 
syenites and basalts) attained their maximum in later Pliocene 
and Quaternary times.  Their development, feeble as compared 
with the acid rocks, is meridional.  The Quaternary period 
includes an older stage containing fragments of fossils from 
the underlying formations; a later stage containing the bones 
of Hippopotamus, Elephas, Rhinoceros, Camelus, Equus; 
and finally the vast accumulations of sand which began to 
be formed in prehistoric times.  The broad platforms of 
the hamada are covered with Quaternary deposits. (W. G.*)] 

CIimate.--Although Algeria enjoys a warm climate, the 
temperature varies considerably in different parts, according 
to the elevation and configuration of the country.  Along 
the coast the weather is very mild, the thermometer rarely 
falling to freezing-point even in winter.  The coldest month 
is January, the hottest August.  The mean annual temperature 
in the coast plains is 66 deg.  F. Heavy rains prevail from 
December to March, and rain is not uncommon during other 
months also, excepting June, July, August and September, which 
are very hot and rainless.  The average annual fall is 29 
in.  On the mountains and the high plateaus the winter is often 
very severe; snow lies for six months on the higher peaks of 
the Kabyle mountains.  On the plateaus the temperature passes 
from one extreme to the other, and rain seldom falls. (For 
the climate of the Saharan region see SAHARA.) Throughout 
Algeria, especially in the summer, there is a great difference 
between day and night temperature, notably in the inland 
districts.  Between May and September the sirocco, or hot 
wind of the desert, sweeps at intervals over the country, 
impregnating the air with fine sand; but in general, with 
the exception of the vicinity of the marshes, the climate is 
healthy.  Its salubrity has been increased by the draining 
of many marshes in the neighbourhood of the larger towns. 

Fauna and Flora.--The fauna of Algeria resembles that of 
the Mediterranean system generally, though many animals once 
common to South Europe and North Africa--such as the lion, 
panther, hyena and jackal--are now extinct in Europe.  Lions, 
formerly plentiful, have disappeared, and leopards and panthers 
are rare; but jackals, hyenas and Algerian apes are not 
uncommon.  Wild boars are found in the oak forests, and brown 
bears in the uplands.  In the south are various species of 
antelope and wild goat.  Red deer (Cervus elaphus barbarus), 
which differ from the typical European species only in the 
fact that the second tine is absent from their antlers, a 
peculiarity which they share with the red deer of Spain and 
Corsica, are still found in the forest of Beni Saleh in the 
department of Constantine, but are being exterminated by forest 
fires and poaching Arabs.  Of domestic animals the camel and 
sheep are the most important.  The chief wealth of the Arab 
tribes of the plateaus consists in their immense flocks of 
sheep.  The horses and mules of Algeria are noted; and the 
native cattle are an excellent stock on which to graft the 
better European varieties.  Of birds, eagles, vultures, hawks, 
owls and quails are common; snipe, curlews, plovers, storks 
and herons frequent the marshy parts; and the ostrich the 
desert.  Partridges and woodcocks are fairly common.  Among 
the reptiles are various species of serpents, tortoises, 
turtles, lizards, &c. Locusts are common and sometimes do great 
damage.  Scorpions are numerous in the acid regions.  Algerian 
prawns, especially those of Bona, are large and of a delicate 
flavour.  Of the twenty-one species of freshwater fish, five 
are peculiar to the country, but none is of much economic 
value save the barbel and eel.  A species of trout is found 
in the streams near Collo, but in none of the other rivers. 

The flora of Algeria consists of about 3000 species, of which 
some 450 are indigenous to the country, 100 being peculiar 
to the Sahara.  The flora of the Tell is South European in 
character.  The agave and prickly pear, the myrtle, the 
olive and the dwarf palm grow luxuriantly; and the fields 
are covered with narcissus, iris and other flowers of every 
hue.  Roses, geraniums, and the like, bloom throughout the 
winter.  The flora of the high plateaus consists chiefly of 
grasses, notably various kinds of alfa or esparto, and aromatic 
herbs.  In the Saharan oases the characteristic tree is the 
date palm--``the king of the desert.'' Over 11,000 sq. m. of 
the mountainous country near the coast are covered with forests 
of various species of oak, pine, fir, cedar, elm, ash, maple, 
olive, many of them of gigantic size, and other trees; and on 
the slopes of the mountains up to 3800 ft. above the sea the 
fig is common.  Its fruit forms one of the staple articles of 
food among the Kabyles.  Cork and carob trees are also very 
common.  A magnificent conifer, the Atlantic pinsapo (Abies 
Pinsapo), is found on the heights round Bougie.  The forests 
suffer great damage from fires, occasioned in part by the 
custom of burning up the grass every autumn, and in part by 
incendiarism.  In 1902 alone, according to the British consular 
report, ``at a moderate estimate the number of trees damaged 
or destroyed might be put down at 6,000,000.'' Forestry is a 
state-protected industry, the government owning over 500,000 
acres of forest.  The chief tree which has commercial value 
is the cork, and the stripping of the bark is under official 
supervision.  The first cork harvest was gathered in 1890, when 
1474 cwt. were sold for L. 1361.  Since that date the yield has 
been very great.  Another tree of great commercial value is the 
soap tree (Sapindus utilis), introduced into the country in 
1845 and grown extensively in low-lying lands near the coast. 

Inhabitants.--Algeria had in 1906 a population of 5,231,850, 
consisting of a medley of European, Eastern and African 
races.  The census showed that in addition to French settlers 
and their descendants (278,976) there were 117,475 Spaniards 
(most of whom are found in the department of Oran), 33,153 
Italians (chiefly in the department of Constantine), 64,645 
Jews, 6217 Maltese, and smaller communities of British, 
Germans, Levantines and Greeks.  There were, moreover, 170,444 
naturalized French citizens, mainly of Spanish and Italian 
origin. (These figures are exclusive of 73,790 persons counted 
apart, as not enjoying municipal rights.  In the 73,799 the 
troops, French and native, are included).  The total European 
population, in which category are reckoned the Jews, other 
than those of Mzab, was 680,263.  Compared with the census 
of 1901 the figures of 1906 showed a decrease of 14,000 
French, 36,000 Spaniards and 5000 Italians, but an increase 
of nearly 100,000 in the foreigners naturalized.  Of other 
races: (1) The Berbers (q.v.) constitute 75% of the entire 
population.  The Kabyles (q.v.), a division of the Berbers, 
occupy chiefly the more mountainous parts of the Tell, but 
some live in the plains and valleys. (2) Arabs, a numerous 
class, are found principally in the south. (3) The so-called 
``Moors,'' generally of mixed blood, inhabit the towns and 
villages near the sea-coast. (4) Negroes, originally brought 
from the interior and sold as slaves, are now found chiefly 
in the towns, where they serve as labourers and domestic 
servants. (5) Mzabites (q.v.) or Beni-Mzab, a distinct 
branch of the Berber race, are for the most part engaged in 
petty trade, and are distinguished by their sleeveless coats 
of many colours. (6) A few Tuareg (q.v.), another division 
of the Berbers, are among the nomads found in the Algerian 
Sahara.  The Kabyles, Mzabites, Tuareg, Arabs and Moors all 
profess Mahommedanism, though it is only among the Arabs 
that its tenets are held in any purity.  The census of 1906 
gave the number of the native population at 4,447,149.  There 
were also 28,639 non-European foreigners in the country. 

The Turks, though for a considerable period the dominant race, 
were never very numerous in Algeria.  The majority of them 
were repatriated by the French.  The Kuluglis, descendants of 
Turks by native women--once a distinct race noted for their 
energy, bravery and pride--have almost ceased to exist as a 
separate people, being merged in the Moors.  Jews have long 
been settled in Algeria.  Some are supposed to have fled 
thither when expelled from Cyrenaica in the reign of the 
emperor Hadrian, and others on their banishment from Italy in 
1342.  The purely ``African'' Jew is now found only in the 
oases in the extreme south of the country.  In the towns the 
``native'' Jews have intermarried with later arrivals from 
Europe.  A remarkable feast is kept annually by the Algerian Jews 
to commemorate the defeat by the Turks of the emperor Charles 
V.'s attempt to capture Algiers (1541).  The Jews, who enjoyed 
religious freedom under the Mahommedans, believed that the 
success of the Spaniards would but lead to their own persecution. 

Chief Towns.--The chief towns are Algiers, the capital 
and principal seaport, with a population (1906), including 
Mustapha and other suburbs, of 154,049; Oran (100,499),2 
a western seaport and capital of the department of the same 
name, and Constantine (46,806), an inland town, capital of 
the department of Constantine.  Besides Algiers and Oran the 
principal seaports are Bona (36,004), Mostaganem (19,528), 
Philippeville (16,539), Bougie (10,419), Cherchel (4733) 
and La Calle (2774).  Inland, besides Constantine, are 
the important towns of Tlemcen ( 24,060), Sidi-bel-Abbes 
(24,494), Mascara (18,989) and Blida (16,866).  In the 
Sahara are Biskra (4218), El Wad (7586), Tuggurt (2073) and 
Wargla (3579).  All these places are separately noticed. 

Nemours (1229) is a seaport near the Moroccan frontier, 
which formerly bore an Arabic name pregnant with its history 
--Jamaa-el-Ghazuat (``rendezvous of the pirates'').  The 
surrounding country is rich in mineral wealth.  Arzeu (3085) 
occupies a site on the western side of the gulf of the same 
name.  It has a good harbour, is the outlet for the produce 
of several fertile valleys, and the starting-point of a 
railway which penetrates into the Sahara.  This railway passes 
Saida (6256), 106 m. south of Arzeu, one of the capitals of 
Abd-el-Kader, and serves to bring down from the high plateaus 
their rich crops of esparto grass.  Four miles S.E. of Arzeu 
is a Berber village, where are interesting ruins of a Roman 
settlement, identified by some authorities as the Portus 
Magnus of Pliny; other authorities claim Oran as occupying 
the site of Portus Magnus.  In the vicinity are the famous 
quarries of Numidian marbles.  Tenes (3176) is a seaport 
situated about 100 m. east of Arzeu on the site of the 
Phoenician town, afterwards the Roman colony, of Cartenna.  
Outside the town to the west is a public garden in which are 
several Roman tombs with inscriptions.  Between Tenes and 
Algiers are Tipasa (q.v.) and Castiglione (1634), formerly 
called Bu-Ismail, both pleasant watering-places.  Five miles 
inland west of Castiglione is Kolea (2932), a town dating 
from 1550 and originally peopled by Moslem refugees from 
Spain.  It was destroyed by earthquake in 1825 and has been 
rebuilt largely in European style.  It contains the kubba 
of a celebrated marabout, Sidi Embarek, who lived in the 17th 
century.  Dellys (3275), 50 m. by sea E. of Algiers, has a 
small harbour sheltered from the W. and N.W. winds only.  It 
is a walled town regularly laid out, built by the French on 
the site of the Roman Ruscurium, the western ramparts of which 
may still be seen.  Jijelli (4878), on the eastern side of 
the Gulf of Bougie, occupies the site of the Roman colony of 
Igilgilis.  The old town, built on a rocky peninsula, was 
completely destroyed by earthquake in 1856.  A new town 
arose eastward of the former site, which is now restored as a 
citadel.  Twenty miles by sea west of Philippeville is Collo 
(2258), a city of considerable importance during the Roman 
occupation.  It was the Kollops Magnus of Ptolemy. 

Twenty-three miles S.W. by rail from Algiers is Bufarik (the 
``hanging well''); pop. 5980.  A thoroughly French town, it 
dates from 1835, when General Drouet d'Erlon established there 
an entrenched camp on a hillock in the midst of a pestilential 
swamp.  Soon afterwards Marshal Clausel began to build a 
regular city, which was at first called Medina Clausel in his 
honour.  The draining of the site and neighbourhood was a costly 
undertaking, and was only accomplished by the sacrifice of many 
lives.  The town, surrounded by vast orchards and farms, is 
now one of the most flourishing in the country; and the most 
important market in the colony for the sale of cattle and 
agricultural produce is held there.  Sixty-three miles S.W. 
of Algiers is Medea (4030)--supposed to stand on the site of 
a Roman town--finely situated on a plateau 3000 ft. above the 
sea.  It is surrounded by a wall pierced by five gates.  
An ancient aqueduct is built into the eastern side of the 
wall.  The town, which was chosen by the Turks as capital of 
the beylik of Titeri, is now French in character.  Miliana 
(3991), which occupies the site of the Roman Milliana, 
lies about midway between Blida and Orleansville, is 2400 
ft. above the sea, and is built on a plateau of the Zakkar 
mountains, commanding magnificent views of the valley of the 
Shelif.  It possesses few remains of antiquity.  An old 
Moorish minaret has been turned into a clock tower.  The 
town, which is walled, has been rebuilt by the French.  
The chief streets are bordered by trees and have streams of 
water running down either side.  Hammam R'Irha to the N.E. of 
Miliana, noted from the time of the Romans for its thermal 
springs, occupies a picturesque position 1800 ft. above the 
sea.  Being the only place within easy distance of western 
Europe where patients can take with safety a course of baths 
during the winter months, it has become a resort of invalids.  
Orleansville (3510), on the extensive plain of the Shelif, 130 
m.  S.W. by rail from Algiers. and 132 m.  N.E. from Oran, is 
an important military station.  The basilica of St Reparatus, 
discovered in 1843, was allowed to be used as a public stable 
and has been completely destroyed.  There was in it a beautiful 
mosaic of which, fortunately, drawings exist.  From this it 
appears that the church was built in A.D. 324, and that St 
Reparatus, bishop of the diocese, was buried in it in 475. 
Orleansville occupies the site of the Roman Castellum Tingitanum. 

Ninety miles S.W. of Bougie is Aumale (2350), a town and military 
post established by the French in 1846 on the site of the ancient 
Auzia.  The Roman town was founded in the reign of Augustus, 
and it flourished for two centuries before it disappeared from 
history.  Out of the materials of the ancient city the Turks 
built a fort, which at the time of the French occupation was 
itself a heap of ruins.  Setif (12,261), the Sitifis Colonia 
of the Romans, is 50 m.  S.E. of Bougie and 97 m. by rail W. of 
Constantine.  It stands 3573 ft. above the sea, and is the 
junction of several great lines of communication.  Its market is 
attended by Kabyles, Arabs of the plateaus and people from the 
Sahara.  The town has been entirely rebuilt in the French 
style.  Most of the Roman ruins, even those existing at the time 
of the French occupation (1839), have disappeared.  The walls 
of the Roman city, restored probably by the Byzantines, have 
been incorporated in the French walls, which are pierced by four 
gates.  Batna (5279), a walled town 3350 ft. above the sea, 50 
m.  S. of Constantine by the railway to Biskra, commands the 
passage of the Aures mountains by which the nomads of the 
Sahara were wont to enter the Tell.  Its importance rests on 
its strategic position.  On the railway between Constantine 
and Bona and 76 m. from the latter, is Guelma (6584), the Roman 
Kalama, finely situated on the right bank of the Seybuse.  
The French occupied the place in 1836 and built their town 
out of the Roman ruins.  Thirty miles S.E. of Guelma is Suk 
Ahras (7602), a station on the railway to Tunis, identified 
with the Roman city Tagaste, the birthplace of St Augustine. 

Towns in the Sahara.--On the southern slopes of the Great 
Atlas, 2437 ft. above the sea, looking out on the Saharan 
desert, and 200 m. in a straight line S.W. of Algiers, is the 
ancient town of El Aghuat (erroneously written Laghouat); pop. 
5660.  It formerly belonged to Morocco, by whom it was ceded 
to the Turks towards the close of the 17th century.  It 
was stormed on the 4th of December 1852 by the French, who 
almost entirely destroyed the Arab town.  The modern town 
contains little of interest, but is an important military 
station.  One hundred and twelve miles S. of El Aghuat, and 36 
m.  W.N.W. of Wargla, is Ghardaia (pop. 7868), the capital 
of the Mzab country, annexed by France in 1882.  This country 
consists of seven oases, five in close proximity and two 
isolated.  The town of Ghardaia (in the local documents 
Taghardeit) is situated on a mosque-crowned hill in the middle 
of the Wadi Mzab, 1755 ft. above the sea.  Ghardaia, which is 
divided by walls into three quarters, is built of limestone and 
the houses are in terraces one above the other.  The central 
quarter is the home of the ruling tribe, the Beni-Mzab.  The 
eastern quarter belongs to the Jews, of whom there are about 
300 families; the western is occupied by the Medabia, Arabs 
from the Jebel Amur.  The gardens belong exclusively to the 
Beni-Mzab.  According to native accounts the town was founded 
about the middle of the 16th century.  Aghrem Baba Saad, a 
small ruined town to the west of Ghardaia, is the fortified 
post in which the Beni-Mzab took refuge when the Turks 
under Salah Rais (about 1555) attempted unsuccessfully to 
subjugate the country.  Next to Ghardaia the most important 
Mzabite town is Beni-Isguen (pop. 4916), an active trading 
centre.  Guerrara, one of the two isolated oases, 37 m.  N.E. 
of Ghardaia, contains a flourishing commercial town with 1912 
inhabitants.  The caravan route south from Ghardaia brings the 
traveller, after a journey of 130 m., to the oasis and town 
of El Golea (pop. about 2500).  The town consists of three 
portions--the citadel on a limestone hill, the upper and 
the lower town--separated by irregular plantations of date 
trees.  The place is an important station for the caravan 
trade between Algeria and the countries to the south.  It was 
occupied by the French under General Gallifet in 1873.  El 
Golea was originally a settlement of the Zenata Berbers, by 
whom it was known as Taorert, and there is still a considerable 
Berber element in its population.  The full Arab name is El 
Golea'a el Menia'a, or the ``little fortress well defended.'' 

Archaeology.--Algeria is rich in prehistoric memorials of 
man, especially in megalithic remains, of which nearly every 
known kind has been found in the country.  Numerous flints of 
palaeolithic type have been discovered, notably at Tlemcen and 
Kolea.  Near Jelfa, in the Great Atlas, and at Mechera-Sfa 
(``ford of the flat stones''), a peninsula in the valley 
of the river Mina not far from Tiaret in the department of 
Oran, are vast numbers of megalithic monuments.  In the 
Kubr-er-Rumia--``grave of the Roman lady'' (Roman being used 
by the Arabs to designate strangers of Christian origin)--the 
Medrassen and the Jedars, Algeria possesses a remarkable series 
of sepulchral monuments.  The Kubr-er-Rumia--best known by its 
French name, Tombeau de la Chretienne, tradition making 
it the burial-place of the beautiful and unfortunate daughter 
of Count Julian--is near Kolea, and is known to be the tomb 
of the Mauretanian king Juba II. and of his wife Cleopatra 
Selene, daughter of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and Mark 
Antony.  It is built on a hill 756 ft. above the sea.  Resting 
on a lower platform, 209 ft. square, is a circular stone 
building surmounted by a pyramid.  Originally the monument was 
about 130 ft. in height, but it has been wantonly damaged.  
Its height is now 100 ft. 8 in.: the cylindrical portion 36 
ft. 6 in., the pyramid 64 ft. 2 in.  The base, 198 ft. in 
diameter, is ornamented with 60 engaged Ionic columns.  The 
capitals of the columns have disappeared, but their design 
is preserved among the drawings of James Bruce, the African 
traveller.  In the centre of the tomb are two vaulted chambers, 
reached by a spiral passage or gallery 6 1/2 ft. broad, about 
the same height and 489 ft. long.  The sepulchral chambers 
are separated by a short passage, and are cut off from the 
gallery by stone doors made of a single slab which can be 
moved up and down by levers, like a portcullis.  The larger 
of the two chambers is 142 ft. long by 11 ft. broad and 11 ft. 
high.  The other chamber is somewhat smaller.  The tomb was 
early violated, probably in search of treasure.  In 1555 Salah 
Rais, pasha of Algiers, set men to work to pull it down, 
but the records say that the attempt was given up because 
big black wasps came from under the stones and stung them to 
death.  At the end of the 18th century Baba Mahommed tried 
in vain to batter down the tomb with artillery.  In 1866 it 
was explored by order of the emperor Napoleon III., the work 
being carried out by Adrian Berbrugger and Oscar Maccarthy. 

The Medrassen is a monument similar to the Kubr-er-Rumia, but 
older.  It was built about 150 B.C. as the burial-place 
of the Numidian kings, and is situated 35 m.  S.W. of 
Constantine.  The form is that of a truncated cone, placed 
on a cylindrical base, 196 ft. in diameter.  It is 60 ft. 
high.  The columns encircling the cylindrical portion are 
stunted and much broader at the base than the top; the 
capitals are Doric.  Many of the columns, 60 in number, 
have been much damaged.  When the sepulchral chamber was 
opened in 1873 by Bauchetet, a French engineer officer, 
clear evidence was found that at some remote period the tomb 
had been rifled and an attempt made to destroy it by fire. 

The Jedars (Arab. ``walls'' or ``buildings'') are in the 
department of Oran.  The name is given to a number of sepulchral 
monuments placed on hill-tops.  A rectangular or square podium 
is in each case surmounted by a pyramid.  The tombs date from 
the 5th to the 7th century of the Christian era, and lie in 
two distinct groups between Tiaret and Frenda, a distance of 35 
m.  Tiaret (pop. 5778), an ancient town modernized by the 
French, can be reached by railway from Mostaganem.  Near 
Frenda (2063), which has largely preserved its old Berber 
character, are numerous dolmens and prehistoric rock sculptures. 

Algeria contains many Roman remains besides those mentioned and 
is also rich in monuments of Saracenic art.  For a description of 
the chief antiquities see the separate town articles, including, 
besides those already cited, Lambessa, Tebessa, Tipasa and Timgad. 

Agriculture.--Ever since the time of the Romans Algeria has 
been noted for the fertility of its soil.  Over two-thirds 
of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits.  
More than 7,500,000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of 
cereals.  The Tell is the grain-growing land.  Under French 
rule its productiveness has been largely increased by the 
sinking of artesian wells in districts which only required 
water to make them fertile.  Of the crops raised, wheat, 
barley and oats are the principal cereals.  A great variety 
of vegetables and of fruits, especially the orange, is 
exported.  A considerable amount of cotton was grown during 
the American Civil War, but the industry afterwards declined.  
In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the 
cultivation of the plant were renewed.  A small amount of 
cotton is also grown in the southern oases.  Large quantities 
of crin vegetal (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, 
are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm.  The olive (both 
for its fruit and oil) and tobacco are cultivated with great 
success.  The soil of Algeria everywhere favours the growth 
of the vine.  The country, in the words of an expert sent to 
report on the subject by the French government, ``can produce 
an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution 
and to every caprice of taste.'' The culture of the vine 
was early undertaken by the colonists, but it was not until 
vineyards in France were attacked by phylloxera that the 
export of wine from Algeria became considerable.  Algerian 
vineyards were also attacked (1883) despite precautionary 
measures, but in the meantime the worth of their wines had been 
proved.  In 1850 less than 2000 acres were devoted to the 
grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres, 
which yielded 7,436,000 gallons of wine.  Despite bad seasons 
and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the 
vineyards covered 300,000 acres, the produce being 88,000,000 
gallons.  The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 
acres, and in that year the amount of wine produced was 
157,000,000 gallons.  By that time the limits of profitable 
production had been reached in many parts of the country.  
Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is 
France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons. 

Fishery is a flourishing but not a large industry.  The fish caught 
are principally sardines, bonito, smelts and sprats.  Fresh fish 
are exported to France, dried and preserved fish to Spain and 
Italy.  Coral fisheries exist along the coast from Bona to Tunis. 

Minerals.--Algeria is rich in minerals, found chiefly in 
the department of Constantine, where iron, lead and zinc, 
copper, calamine, antimony and mercury mines are worked.  
The most productive are those of iron and zinc.  Lignite is 
found in the department of Algiers and petroleum in that of 
Oran.  Immense phosphate beds were discovered near Tebessa in 
1891.  They yielded 313,500 tons in 1905.  Phosphate beds are 
also worked near Setif, Guelma and Ain Beida.  There are more 
than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, onyx 
and beautiful white and red marbles.  Algerian onyx from Ain 
Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have 
been found near Kleber in the department of Oran, some being 
certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were 
taken.  Salt is collected on the margins of the shats. 

Shipping and Commerce.--The carrying trade between Algeria 
and France is confined, by a law passed in 1889, to French 
bottoms.  The largest port is Algiers, after which follow 
Oran, Philippeville and Bona.  There is a considerable 
coasting trade.  The average number of vessels entering 
and clearing Algerian ports each year has been, since 1900, 
about 4000, with a total tonnage of some 6,500,000.  In 
the coasting trade some 12,000 small vessels are engaged. 

Under French administration the commerce of Algeria has greatly 
developed: The total imports and exports at the time of the 
French occupation (1830) did not exceed L. 175,000.  In 1850 
the figures had reached L. 5,000,000; in 1868, L. 12,000,000; in 
1880, L. 17,000,000; and in 1890, L. 20,000,000.  From this point 
progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by 
year.  In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was 
L. 24,500,000.  About five-sixths of the trade is with 
or via France, into which country several Algerian goods 
have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 
1867.  French goods, except sugar, have been admitted into 
Algeria without payment of duty since 1835.  After the 
increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which 
applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. 

The chief exports are sheep and oxen, most of which are 
raised in Morocco and Tunisia, and horses; animal products, 
such as wool and skins; wine, cereals (rye, barley, oats), 
vegetables, fruits (chiefly figs and grapes for the table) and 
seeds, esparto grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly 
olive oil), iron ore, zinc, natural phosphates, timber, 
cork, crin vegetal and tobacco.  Of these France takes 
fully three-quarters.  The import of wool, exceeds the 
export.  Sugar, coffee, machinery, metal work of all kinds, 
clothing and pottery are largely imported.  Of these by far 
the greater part comes from France.  The British imports 
consist chiefly of coal, cotton fabrics and machinery. 

Communications.--Algeria possesses a railway system covering 
over 2000 m.  A decree of 1857 granted to the Paris-Lyons 
Company the right to construct a line linking Algiers with 
Oran (266 m.) and Constantine (290 m.) and shorter lines 
joining the seaports to the trunk line, notably Philippeville 
to Constantine (54 m.).  These lines were opened between 
1862 and 1871, but it was not until 1879 that a general 
scheme for railway construction was adopted.  A trunk line 
runs from the frontier of Morocco at Lalla Maghnia, 44 
m.  W. of Tlemcen, across the Tell to the Tunisian frontier, 
whence it is continued to the city of Tunis; while traverse 
railways connect the seaports with the trunk line and with 
towns to the south, the Philippeville line being continued to 
Biskra.  From Arzeu a line goes south across the plateaus and 
crossing the Ksur range at a height of 4211 ft. enters the 
Sahara.  Passing Ain Sefra and Figig (372 m. from Arzeu) 
the line is continued towards Tuat.  The normal gauge of the 
railways is 4 ft. 8 1/2 in.; a few ``light lines'' have a gauge 
of 3 ft. 3 in.  Algeria is also traversed by a network of roads 
constructed by the French, of which the routes nationales 
alone are 2000 m. in length.  There are complete postal and 
telegraphic facilities in all parts of the colony save the 
Saharan Territories, and cable communication with France. 

Central Government.--By the Turks the country was divided 
into four provinces--Algiers and Titeri in the centre and 
south, Constantine in the east and Mascara or Oran in the 
west.3 The last three were governed by beys dependent upon 
the representative of the Porte resident at Algiers.  The 
Turkish governors were in the 17th century replaced by deys 
(see below, History.) The French rule was at first (1830) 
purely military.  In 1834 the post of governor-general was 
created.  Under the direction of the ministry of war that 
official exercised nearly all the executive power.  At the 
same time a civil administration and consultative council were 
formed.  The principle of unity of authority was set aside 
by the second republic in 1848, when many of the public 
services were attached to the corresponding ministries in 
Paris, and the departments organized on the metropolitan 
model by division into arrondissements and communes and by 
placing a prefect at their head.  Under Napoleon III. the 
governor- generalship was abolished, a minister of Algeria 
and the colonies created (24th of June 1858), and the whole 
administration conducted from Paris.  At the same time the 
powers of the prefects were augmented and each department 
given a general council.  This arrangement was not of long 
duration.  By decree of the 24th of November 1860, the 
ministry of Algeria and the colonies was abolished and the 
office of governor-general re-established with increased 
powers.  This regime, strongly military in its type, ended 
with the fall of the second empire.  After a brief transitional 
period, a decree of the 29th of March 1871 placed at the 
head of Algeria a civil governor-general and gave the control 
in Paris to the ministry of the interior.  In 1876, on the 
initiative of General Chanzy, then governor-general, that 
official was accorded the right to correspond direct with 
all the ministers in Paris.  This concession led, however, 
to the diminution of the authority of the governor-general, 
whose powers were, step by step, absorbed by the various 
ministries in France.  It had its logical end in the system 
adopted in 1881 and known as the rattachement. Under this 
system the plan of 1848 was carried out more completely, 
every department of state being placed under one or other of 
the ministries in Paris, whilst the governor- general became 
little more than an ornamental personage.  After lasting 
fifteen years the rattachement was, with the approval of the 
legislature, abrogated by decree dated the 31st of December 
1896.  The opposing principle, that of concentrating power 
in the hands of the governor-general, was re-affirmed, but 
in practice was modified by the retention of the direction 
from Paris of a few of the public services.  The decree of 
1896, which was of a provisional character, was replaced by 
another, dated the 23rd of August 1898, defining the powers 
of the governor-general under the new scheme.  By a law of 
the 19th of December 1900, Algeria was constituted a legal 
personality, with power to own goods, contract loans, &c., 
and a decree of 1901 placed the customs department, until then 
directed from Paris, under the control of the governor-general, 
whose hands were also strengthened in various minor matters. 

It will be seen that the form of government is entirely 
dependent on the will of France.  The French chambers alone 
possess the legislative power, though in the absence of express 
legislation decrees of the head of the state have the force of 
law.  To the legislature in Paris Algeria elects three senators 
and six deputies (one senator and two deputies for each 
department).  The franchise is confined to ``citizens,'' in 
which category the native Jews are included by decree of the 
24th of October 1870.  The Mahommedans, who number nearly 
eight-ninths of the population, are not, however, ``citizens'' 
but ``subjects,'' and consequently have not the vote.  They 
can, however, acquire ``citizenship'' at their own request, by 
placing themselves absolutely under the civil and political laws 
of France (decree of 1865, confirmed in 1870).  The number of 
Mahommedans who avail themselves of this rule is very small; 
naturalizations do not exceed an average of thirty persons a 
year.  For certain specified objects, financial and municipal, 
Mahommedans are, however, permitted to exercise the franchise. 

The actual form of government may be summarized thus:-- At the 
head of the administration in Algeria is a governor- general, 
who exercises control over all branches, civil and military, 
of the administration, except the services of justice, public 
instruction and worship (as far as concerns Europeans) and the 
treasury.  He corresponds directly with thn other Barbary 
states; draws up the budget, and contracts loans on behalf 
of the colony.  The governor-general is assisted by:-- 

 (1) The Council of Government, a purely advisory body, 
     composed entirely of high officials;
 (2) A Superior Council, composed partly of elected and partly 
     of nominated members, including representatives of the
     Mahommedans. Its duty is to deliberate upon all
     administrative matters, including the budget, and it possesses
     certain powers over the finances;
 (3) The Financial Delegations (created by decree in 1898), an 
     elective body whose duty is to investigate all matters
     affecting taxation and to vote the budget. The
     delegations consist of representatives of (a) ``colonists,'' i.e. the
     rural community; (b) taxpayers, being citizens other than
     ``colonists,'' i.e. the urban community; (c) the
     Mahommedan population. The last section is partly elective and
     partly nominated. A proportion of the members of the
     delegations are elected to the superior council.
Local Government.--The departments, presided over by 
prefects, are divided into territoires civils and 
territoires du commandant. In the regions under civil 
administration the local organization closely resembles that of 
France.  The country is divided into arrondissements and 
communes, with most of the apparatus of self-government 
enjoyed by the corresponding units in France.  The canton 
(in France a judicial area) has, however, no existence in 
Algeria.  In the territoires du commandant, which are the 
districts farthest from the coast, and in which the European 
population is small, the prefect is replaced by a high military 
officer, who exercises all the functions of a prefect. 

The prefect of each department is assisted by a general 
council, consisting of members elected by the citizens and of 
nominated representatives of the Mahommedan population.  The 
powers of the council correspond to those of the councils in 
France.  Communes are of three kinds: (1) those with full 
powers, (2) mixed, (3) native.  In those of the first kind, 
modelled on the French communes, the Mahommedans possess 
the municipal franchise.  The ``mixed'' communes are under 
an administrator nominated by the governor-general and 
assisted by a municipal council composed of Europeans and 
natives.  These communes are large areas, each containing 
several towns or villages.  In the territoires du commandant 
the mixed commune is presided over by a military officer who 
fulfils the duties of mayor.  Native communes are organized 
on the same plan as those last mentioned.  It will be seen 
that communes do not correspond with any natural unit.  The 
unit among the Mahommedans is the douar, a tribal division 
administered by a cadi.  The communes with full powers have 
each for centre a town with a considerable European population. 

By decree of the 14th of August 1905, the frontier between 
Saharan territory dependent on Algeria and that attached to 
French West Africa was laid down.  The Algerian Sahara was 
divided into four territories, officially named Tuggurt, 
Ghardaia, Ain Sefra and the Saharan Oases (Tuat, Gurara and 
Tidikelt).  The governor-general represents the territories 
in civil affairs; the budget is distinct from that of 
Algeria and an annual subvention is provided by France. 

Finance.--Revenue is derived chiefly from direct taxation, 
customs and monopolies.  The heaviest item of expenditure 
chargeable on the Algerian budget is on public works, posts and 
telegraphs and agriculture.  Algeria has had a budget distinct 
from that of France since 1901.  This budget includes all 
the expenses of Algeria save the cost of the army (estimated 
at L. 2,000,000 yearly) and the guarantee of interest on the 
railways open before 1901.  Both these items are borne by 
France.  The Algerian budget for 1906 showed revenue and 
expenditure balancing at L. 3,820,000.  The country has a debt 
(1905), including capital, annuities and interest, of some 

Defence.--The military force constitutes the XIX. army corps of 
the French army.  There are in addition a territorial army reserve 
and a special body of troops, largely Arab, for the defence of 
the Saharan territory.  The troops quartered in Algeria exceed 
50,000.  The defence of the coast is provided by the French navy. 

Land Tenure.--The colonization of Algeria by the French has 
been greatly hampered by the system of land tenure which they 
found in force.  Except among the Kabyles, private property 
in land was unknown.  Amongst the Arabs, lands were either 
held in common by a whole tribe, under a tenure known as 
the arch or sabegha, or sometimes, especially in the, 
towns, under a modified form of freehold (melk) by the 
family.  At the same time the boundaries of property were 
ill defined and difficult to determine.  This system made 
it impossible for French immigrants to obtain land by lawful 
transfer.  The only lands at the outset available for 
settlement were, in fact, the confiscated domains of the 
dey.  The obvious solution of the difficulty was to encourage 
the free movement of real estate by substituting private 
ownership for the traditional system.  Before doing this, 
however, it was necessary to define the limits of tribal 
properties already existing--a work of great difficulty--with 
a view to their ultimate division, and at the same time to 
guard against any premature traffic in the rights of Arabs 
in the lands about to be divided.  A senatus-consulte 
of 1863 laid the basis for the change in the land system 
by providing (1) for the delimitation of the territory of 
each tribe, (2) for the repartition of the territory thus 
delimited among newly formed tribal divisions (douars or 
communes), and (3) for the recognition of private ownership 
by the issue of title deeds for such individual or family 
property (melk) as already existed.  The purpose of this 
excellent law, which would have laid firmly the basis for 
gradual change, was defeated by the impatience of the French 
colonists.  At the instance of their representatives in the 
chambers it was abandoned in 1870, and was not revived till 
seventeen years later.  A law was passed in 1873, and amended 
in 1887, legalizing the immediate conversion of tribal and 
family property into private freehold.  The result has been 
disappointing.  For the most part, the Arab tribes have been 
reluctant to avail themselves of their new powers, and where 
they have done so the hasty reversal of the traditions of 
centuries has proved demoralizing to the natives, without 
any sufficient equivalent in the way of healthy French 
colonization.  The main profit has been reaped by Jewish usurers. 

The state domains were exhausted by 1870, but were again 
replenished by the large confiscations which followed the 
Arab revolt of 1871.  Government lands were originally given 
free to applicants, but with a provisional and insecure 
title, which made it impossible for poor colonists to 
borrow money on their land.  This was modified by a law of 
1851.  But ultimately, the results not being satisfactory, 
the precedent of Australia was followed, and by a law of 
1860 domain lands were sold publicly at a fixed price.  
This had the effect of attracting more and a better class 
of immigrants, but was none the less reversed in 1881. 

In September 1904, a new scheme, intended to attract more 
European settlers, was adopted.  The lands of the state--other 
than woods and forests--but especially the barren lands 
and brushwoods situated in the plains, were offered for 
colonization, to be disposed of (1) by sale at a fixed price, 
(2) by auction, and (3), in certain cases, by agreement.  
Purchasers were to be Frenchmen, or Europeans naturalized as 
French citizens, who had never held ``colonization lands''; 
and they were obliged, under pain of forfeiture, either to 
take up residence themselves on their property within six 
months and to live on it and exploit it for a period of ten 
years, or else to place on the land another family fulfilling 
the same conditions.  If the purchaser farmed the land himself 
and made satisfactory progress, the period of obligatory 
residence was reduced to five years.  When the interests 
of colonization required it, free gifts of land might be 
made; in which case the grantee must himself exploit his 
concession.  In no case might land acquired under this scheme 
be let to natives until after the expiration of ten years. 

For the purpose of creating villages, land was put at the 
disposition of societies or individuals, who undertook to people 
them with immigrants fulfilling the same conditions as independent 
settlers.  Two-thirds of the villagers were to be French 
immigrants, the other third Frenchmen or naturalized Frenchmen 
already settled in Algeria.  To favour the establishment 
of special industries, the governor-general was given power 
to authorize the introduction of foreign instead of French 
immigrants.  The societies or individuals undertaking village 
settlements must do so from philanthropic motives, inasmuch 
as within two years of the founding of a village, the land, 
under pain of forfeiture to the state, must be transferred 
gratuitously to the villagers.  As will be seen, settlement 
on the land by Europeans is hampered by official restrictions, 
especially by the stringent regulations as to residence. 

Justice.--Two judicial systems exist in Algeria--native and 
French.  Native courts decide suits between Mahommedans.  
From the decision of the cadis appeal lies to the French 
courts.  The French system provides, for civil cases, a court 
of first instance in each of the sixteen arrondissements 
into which the country is divided.  A court of appeal sits at 
Algiers.  There are also tribunals of commerce and justices of 
the peace with extensive jurisdiction.  The criminal courts are 
organized as in France.  Trial by jury has been introduced; but 
as natives are not allowed to act as jurymen this has often led 
to serious miscarriages of justice and to excessive severities. 

Whilst modifications of the law require special legislation or 
decree, it has been legally decided that all laws in force in 
France before the conquest of the country (i.e. those anterior 
to the 22nd of July 1834) are in force in Algeria.  In practice the 
courts allow themselves wide latitude in applying this principle. 

Education.--The system of education is complicated by the 
co-existence of Mahommedan and Christian communities.  Before 
the arrival of the French two kinds of instruction were given, 
reading and writing being taught in the ordinary schools and 
higher education--largely theological--in medressas (colleges), 
usually attached to the chief mosques.  Attempts by the French 
to improve the education of the natives were at first marked 
by hesitation and long periods in which little or nothing was 
done.  The provision for the instruction of the European and 
Jewish population was also inadequate.  In 1883 a law was 
passed for the reorganization of the systems in force, and 
primary instruction was made compulsory for Europeans and 
Jews, whilst in the case of Mahommedans discretion in the 
establishment of schools was vested in the governor- general. 

Attempts are made to assimilate the Mahommedan population by means 
of Franco-Arab primary and secondary schools, which supplement 
the purely French and purely Arab establishments of the same 
character.  These attempts meet with little success, owing in 
part to racial prejudice and in part to the indifference of the 
Arabs to education.  Few Moslems attend the secondary schools.  
Purely Mahommedan higher schools exist at Algiers, Tlemcen and 
Constantine.  From these establishments the ranks of native 
officials are recruited.  There is one secondary school for 
Moslem girls.  The education provided for Europeans resembles 
in most respects that given in France. (The lycees at 
Algiers, Oran and Constantine are open to Mahommedans, but few 
take advantage of them.) Besides the government schools there 
are establishments conducted by clerics and laymen.  The best 
girls' schools are generally those kept by nuns.  At Algiers 
there is an establishment with faculties of law, medicine and 
pharmacy, science and letters.  At Oran is a college for 
European girls.  The scholars attending primary schools number 
about 150,000 (over 100,000 being Europeans and some 15,000 
Jewish) and those at secondary schools about 6000. (F. R. C.) 

                           HISTORY 

Africa Minor. 

From a geographical point of view Algeria, together with Morocco 
and Tunisia, from which it is separated only by artificial and 
purely political frontiers, forms a distinct country. which 
it is convenient to designate by the name of Africa Minor. 
Both historically and geographically, Africa Minor belongs much 
more to the Mediterranean world than to the African.  All the 
foreign invaders who successively established their dominion 
over this country either crossed the Mediterranean or followed 
its shores.  The Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, the 
Byzantines, the Arabs, the Turks and the French, all came 
from the east or from the north.  The history of Africa Minor 
is the history of all those foreigners who have successively 
endeavoured to exploit this land, the history of their divers 
civilizations struggling against an ever-renascent barbarism. 

The political divisions of Africa Minor have changed many 
times, for, as the country has no natural centre, many towns 
have aspired to play the role of capital.  The rivalry of 
these towns is intimately connected with the struggles and 
insurrections which have stained the land with blood.  The 
existing division--viz.  Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia--dates 
back to the time of the Turkish dominion.  It is since 
that time only that the expression Algeria has been in use. 

Struggle with Spain. 

At the beginning of the 16th century the native dynasties 
which divided Africa Minor between them--the Marinides at 
Fez, the Abd-el-Wahid at Tlemcen, and the Hafsides at 
Tunis--were without strength and without authority.  Two 
nations, then at the height of their power, Spain and 
Turkey, disputed the empire of the Mediterranean.  The 
Spaniards took Mers-el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), and Bougie 
and Tripoli (1510).  Two Turkish corsairs, Arouj and his 
brother, Khair-ed-Din (otherwise known as Barbarossa), at 
first established in the island of Jerba and afterwards at 
Jijelli, disputed with the Spaniards the dominion of the 
country.  Arouj seized Algiers (1516); Khair-ed-Din, succeeding 
him in 1518, did homage for his conquest to the sultan at 
Constantinople, who named him beylerbey and sent him soldiers 
(1519).  Then began the struggle of the Turks with Spain.  In 
1541 the emperor Charles V. undertook a great expedition against 
Algiers.  He succeeded in landing, and proceeded to attack the 
town.  But during the night of the 26th of October a violent 
storm destroyed a great part of his fleet.  His provisions and 
his ammunition were lost, his army was compelled to retreat 
with considerable loss, and the emperor had to re-embark with 
the remnant of his troops.  This check completely discouraged 
the Spaniards and assured success to the Turks.  The Spanish 
garrisons established in the coast towns, badly paid and 
left without reinforcements, had difficulty in defending 
themselves.  In the end, the only towns the Spaniards 
retained on the Algerian coast were Oran and Mers-el-Kebir.  
These two towns, taken by the Turks in 1708 and retaken 
by the Spaniards in 1732, were finally abandoned in 1791. 

Barbary corsairs. 

Under the Turkish dominion Algeria had originally at its head a 
beylerbey resident at Algiers.  He controlled three beys:--the 
bey of Titeri in the south, the bey of the east at Constantine, 
and the bey of the west who resided at Mascara and afterwards at 
Oran.  These three beys existed till 1830.  The beylerbeys 
were replaced in 1587 by pashas sent triennially by the 
Porte.  But the authority of these pashas, strangers to the 
country, was always precarious.  They found themselves, in fact, 
in conflict with two forces, which in principle were in their 
service, but which in reality held the power--the taiffe des 
reis, otherwise called the corporation of the corsairs (see 
BARBARY PIRATES), and the janissaries, a kind of military 
democracy in which each member was promoted according to 
seniority.  In 1669 the corsairs drove out the pasha, and put 
into his place a dey elected by themselves.  After some fruitless 
attempts Turkey ceased to send pashas to Algiers--where they 
were not allowed even to land--and thus recognized the de 
facto independence of this singular republic.  The authority 
of the deys, moreover, was scarcely more solid than that of the 
pashas.  They trembled before the janissaries, who from the 
18th century elected and deposed them at their pleasure. 

The relations which the European powers were able to 
maintain with northern Africa were at that time difficult and 
uncertain.  Ships trading in the Mediterranean were seized 
by the corsairs, who pillaged the coasts of Europe, carried 
off their captives to Algiers, and destroyed the fishing and 
commercial settlements founded by the Marseillais on the shores of 
Africa.  The Christian governments either uttered useless 
and impotent complaints at Constantinople, or endeavoured 
to negotiate directly with Algiers, as in the case of the 
negotiations of Sanson Napollon during the ministry of 
Richelieu.  More rarely their patience became exhausted, 
and ships were sent to bombard this nest of pirates.  Two 
naval demonstrations were made by France during the reign of 
Louis XIV., one by Abraham Duquesne in 1682, and the other 
by Marshal Jean d'Estrees in 1688, but these repressive 
measures were too intermittent to produce a durable effect. 

In 1815 at the congress of Vienna, and in 1818 at the 
congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, the powers endeavoured to 
concert measures to put an end to the Barbary piracy.  
Nevertheless the naval demonstrations made by Lord Exmouth 
in 1816, and by a combined English and French squadron in 
1819, remained equally fruitless.  But the result which 
the European powers in concert had been unable to achieve, 
was brought about by the accidental circumstances which led 
France to undertake alone an expedition against Algiers. 

French intervention. 

Some difficulties had arisen between France and the dey of 
Algiers with reference to the debts contracted to Bacri and 
Busnach, two Algerine Jews who had supplied corn to the 
French government under the Directory.  This question of 
interest would not have been sufficient in itself to bring 
about a rupture, but the situation became acute when the dey, 
Hussein, struck the French consul, Deval, on the face with his 
fly-flap (April 30, 1827).  Thereupon the port of Algiers was 
blockaded.  The minister of war, the duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, 
would have gone further, but the president of the council, 
the comte de Villele, opposed the sending of an expedition, 
while in the Martignac ministry M. de la Ferronays, minister of 
foreign affairs, was bent upon negotiating.  It needed a second 
insult--the firing on ``La Provence,'' a vessel carrying a flag 
of truce, in the harbour of Algiers (August 3, 1829)--to spur 
the French government to further action than an ineffectual 
blockade.  An expedition against Algiers was then decided upon, 
and Marshal de Bourmont, the minister of war, himself took the 
command.  On the 14th of June 1830 the French troops landed at 
Sidi-Ferruch.  On the 19th of June they beat the enemy at 
Staoueli.  On the 4th of July the fort de l'Empereur was blown 
up.  On the 5th of July Algiers capitulated.  Some days later 
the dey was deported, as well as the greater part of the 
janissaries.  Those who were not married were conveyed 
immediately to Asia Minor; the rest had permission to 
remain, but in fact they left the country soon afterwards. 

Meanwhile the revolution of July 1830 had broken out in 
France.  The new government found itself very much embarrassed 
by the situation bequeathed by the Restoration.  The more 
serious section in parliament were frankly opposed to the 
idea of conquering or of colonizing Algeria; on the other 
hand, popular sentiment was hostile to evacuation.  The 
French government--fearing to displease the other powers 
by following up its conquest, and hampered in particular 
by its engagements towards England, yet conscious that 
the only means of putting an end to the piracy was to 
remain--decided provisionally in favour of that intermediate 
system, called restricted occupation, which consisted 
in occupying merely the principal seaports and awaiting 
events.  The Algerians extricated the government from its 
difficulty by attacking the French troops, who were obliged 
to defend themselves.  The natives gained some successes, 
and it became necessary to avenge the honour of the flag.  In 
this gradual manner were the French led to conquer Algeria. 

General Bertrand Clausel, who succeeded Marshal de Bourmont, 
was one of the few men who at that period dreamed of conquering 
and colonizing Algeria.  His enthusiastic confidence knew no 
obstacles.  If the dey had left, the three beys remained.  
With the feeble resources at his disposal Clausel undertook an 
expedition against Bu-Meyrag, the bey of Titeri, took from him 
Blida and Medea, dismissed him, replaced him by a successor 
devoted to France, and returned to Algiers after having left 
a garrison in Medea.  Then, not having the means of directly 
extending the rule of France to the east or west, Clausel 
devised a system of protectorates.  He negotiated directly with 
the bey of Tunis with a view to installing as beys at Oran and 
Constantine Tunisian princes who recognized the authority of 
France.  But the events which were taking place in Europe made 
it imperative to send home a part of the army of Africa, and 
Medea had to be evacuated.  At the same time the negotiations 
set on foot with the bey of Tunis were censured by the 
government, and General Clausel was recalled (February 1831). 

The period of uncertainty was prolonged under his successors, 
General Pierre Berthezene (February to December 1831); A. 
J. M. R. Savary, duc de Rovigo (December 1831 to March 1833), 
General Avizard (March to April 1833), and General Voirol 
(April 1833 to September 1834).  The French, not yet certain 
whether or not they would retain Algeria, remained on the 
defensive.  At the time they occupied only the three towns 
of Algiers, Bona and Oran, with their suburbs, where their 
situation was moreover singularly precarious.  The Arabs 
would pillage the suburbs and run away.  Sometimes they cut 
off supplies by ceasing to bring provisions to the market, 
but the French were not to be turned aside by such tactics. 

At Algiers the energies of the French were devoted to 
protecting themselves against the incursions of the 
Hajutas.  This was sufficient to absorb the attention of the 
general-in-chief, who left the guardianship of the east and 
west to the initiative of the generals established at Bona and 
Oran.  At Bona, where General Monk d'Uzer was in command 
till 1836, things went fairly well.  At once firm and 
conciliatory, he had been able to attach to the French cause 
the natives whom the cruelty of Ahmed, bey of Constantine, had 
alienated.  The occupation of Bougie by General Camille Alphonse 
Trezel in October 1833 gave the French a footing at another 
point of this eastern province.  But at Oran, where General 
Desmichels had succeeded General P. F. X. Boyer in the spring 
of 1833, their situation was much less favourable.  There 
the French had found a redoubtable adversary in the young 
Abd-el-Kader, who had been proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. 

Abd-el-Kader. 

A man of rare intelligence, a fearless horseman and an eloquent 
orator, Abd-el-Kader had acquired a great reputation by his 
piety.  He reunited under his sway the tribes that had 
hitherto been divided, and infused a unique spirit into their 
resistance.  For fifteen years he held the French in check, 
treating on terms of equality with their government.  Moreover, 
the treaty which General Desmichels had the weakness to sign 
with him on the 24th of February 1834 greatly improved his 
position.  In pursuance of this treaty, French officers were 
to represent their country at the court of the amir; while 
the amir on his part was represented in the three French coast 
towns, Oran, Arzeu and Mostaganem, by vakils who immediately 
began to act as masters of the natives.  Such was the situation 
at the period when, the French having at last resolved to keep 
Algeria, the ordinance of the 22nd of July 1834 laid down the 
bases of the political and administrative organization of the 
``French possessions in the north of Africa,'' at the head 
of which was placed a governor-general.  But this date (July 
22, 1834), very important from a judicial point of view, is 
much less so from a historical point of view.  The position 
of the first governor-general, Jean Baptiste Drouet d'Erlon 
(1765- 1844), remained fully as precarious as that of his 
predecessor.  During this time the power of Abd-el-Kader 
increased.  Master of the province of Oran, he crossed the 
Shelif at the appeal of the natives, the people flocking 
to witness his progress as that of an emperor.  He entered 
Miliana and Medea, where he installed beys of his own choice.  
All the western part of Algeria belonged to him.  General 
Trezel, who had succeeded General Desmichels at Oran, resolved 
to march against the amir, but was defeated on the banks of 
the Macta (June 1835).  This defeat shook public opinion.  
Drouet d'Erlon was recalled and replaced by Marshal Clausel. 

In short, five years after the capitulation of Algiers, the 
French dominion extended as yet over only six coast towns.  
Clausel, who returned with the same colonial ambitions as in 
1830, resolved to conquer the interior of the country.  He 
marched against the amir, defeated him and entered Mascara.  
Then he proceeded to deliver the inhabitants of Tlemcen, 
who had been attacked by Abd-el-Kader, and there he left a 
garrison.  Turning towards the east, Clausel organized 
at Bona the first expedition against Constantine.  This 
failed, and the only result of it was the occupation of 
Guelma.  Clausel was recalled and replaced by General C. M. 
D. Damremont (February 1837).  The task of maintaining the 
position of France was then divided between Thomas Robert 
Bugeaud (1784-1849), acting independently in the west, and 
Damremont, who directed all his efforts towards the east.  
By the signature of the celebrated treaty of the Tafna (June 
1, 1837), Bugeaud made peace with Abd-el-Kader.  In return for 
a vague recognition of the sovereignty of France in Africa, 
this treaty gave up to the amir the whole of western Algeria.  
France reserved to herself only Oran and its environs, Mazagran, 
Algiers and the Metija; she gave up Tlemcen and the Titeri 
beylik.  This was a triumph for Abd-el-Kader, who rerarded 
the peace as but a truce which would allow him time to gain 
strength to resume the war under more favourable conditions. 

Damremont, on his part, directed a second expedition on 
Constantine.  The town was taken, but Damremont was killed 
(October 1837).  Marshal Sylvain Charles Valee (1773-1846), 
who replaced him, founded Philippeville to serve as a seaport 
for the region of Constantine, occupied Jijelli, and at the 
head of the expeditionary column returned from Constantine 
to Algiers by the interior, passing through Setif and les 
Portes de fer.  Abd-el-Kader maintained that the French had 
thus violated the treaty of the Tafna, and began the war 
again.  For two years his power had been increasing.  A whole 
hierarchy of khalifas, aghas and caids obeyed him.  He had 
a regular army of 8000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, without 
counting 50,000 goums (bodies of Arab horsemen) brought by the 
khalifas.  He was well furnished with war material, possessing 
magazines and arsenals in the heart of the Tell.  He had 
attacked and subjugated all who were not willing to recognize his 
authority.  Under his influence old rivalries were effaced; at 
his voice all the tribes joined in the holy war.  On the 18th 
of November 1839 he sent his declaration of war to Marshal 
Valee, but the impatient Hajutas had already devastated the 
Metija.  Marshal Valee marched against Abd-el-Kader, and at 
first gained some successes: the French occupied Cherchel, 
Medea and Miliana.  But at the end of 1840 valee was recalled 
and replaced by Bugeaud, who adopted totally different 
tactics.  The system of Marshal Valee had been the defensive: 
he multiplied the fortified posts in order to draw the enemy 
to a spot chosen beforehand.  Bugeaud resolutely adopted the 
offensive, reduced the weight carried by the soldiers in 
order to increase the mobility of his troops, and carried 
the war into the province of Oran, from which Abd-el-Kader 
drew his principal resources.  One after the other, all the 
magazines of the amir--those at Takdempt, Boghar, Taza, Saida 
and Sebdu--were taken and destroyed.  In the spring of 1843 
the duc d'Aumale had an opportunity of surprising the smala 
(camp) of Abd-el-Kader near Taguin.  This was a serious blow 
for the amir, whose determination to continue the contest 
was, however, as strong as ever.  He took refuge in Morocco, 
and induced that power to declare war on the French on the 
pretext that they would not give up the frontier post of 
Lalla-Maghnia.  Morocco was soon vanquished.  While Francois, 
prince de Joinville, was bombarding Tangier and Mogador, Bugeaud 
gained the victory of the Isly (August 1844).  Morocco signed 
a treaty of peace at Tangier on the 10th of September 1844. 

The struggle, however, was not ended.  Islam made a supreme 
effort in Algeria.  The Dahra and the Warsenis rose at the voice 
of a fanatic called Bu-Maza (``the goat man''), a Khuan of 
the order of the Mouley-Taieb.  Elsewhere other ``masters of 
the hour,'' false Bu-Mazas, rose.  Abd-el-Kader reappeared in 
Algeria, which he overran with a rapidity which baffled all 
pursuit.  He beat the French at Sidi Brahim, raided the tribes 
of the Tell Oranais which had abandoned him, penetrated as far 
as the borders of the Metija, and reached the Jurjura, where he 
endeavoured to rouse the Kabyles.  But his eloquence offended 
the narrow and cramped particularism of those little democratic 
cities, deaf to the sentiment of the common interest.  From 
that time he played a losing game.  He returned toward the 
west, penetrating farther and farther to the south.  Badly 
received by the great aristocratic family of the Walid-sidi- 
Sheikh, he re-entered Morocco, but the emperor of that country, 
dreading his influence and fearing difficulties with the French, 
drove him out.  This was the end.  On the 23rd of December 
1847 Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere in the 
plains of Sidi-Brahim.  His adversary, Bugeaud, was there no 
longer.  Having failed to persuade the French government 
to adopt his plans of military colonization, he had retired 
in June 1847 and had been replaced by the duc d'Aumale. 

The surrender of Abd-el-Kader marks the end of the period 
of the conquest.  It is true that Great Kabylia had to be 
subdued only ten years later, and that terrible insurrections 
still had to be quelled.  But at the end of the reign 
of Louis Philippe the essential work was accomplished.  
All that remained was to complete and to secure it. 

French progress. 

Under the second republic Algeria was governed successively 
by Generals L. E. Cavaignac (February to April 1848), N. A. 
T. Changarnier (April to September 1848), V. Charon (September 
1848 to October 1850), and A. H. d'Hautpoul (October 1850 to 
December 1851).  The policy followed at this period consisted 
in assimilating Algeria to France.  Important efforts were made 
to attract French colonists to the country, the colonization 
of Algeria appearing as a means towards the extinction of 
pauperism in the mother-country.  This point of view suggested 
numerous projects, as chimerical as they were generous; two 
millions sterling (50 million francs) were expended with a view 
to installing Parisian unemployed workmen as colonists, but 
this attempt failed miserably.  The most remarkable military 
events of this period were (1) the siege and destruction 
of the oasis of Zaatcha, where the inhabitants, displeased 
by an alteration in the tax on palms, rose at the voice of 
a fanatic named Bu-Zian; (2) the ineffectual campaign of 
Marshal Saint Arnaud in Little Kabylia, where the tribes rose 
at the instigation of Bu-Magla (``the mule man'') in 1851. 

Marshal J. L. C. A. Randon (1795-1871), named governor- 
general of Algeria after the coup d'etat, had at first 
to repress in the south a rising of a new ``master of the 
hour,'' Mahomet ben Abdallah, the sherif of Wargla.  A column 
seized Laghouat (El Aghuat) in December 1852.  Si-Hamza, 
leader of the Walidsidi-Sheikh, an ally of France, indignant 
at the growing influence of a base-born agitator, pursued him 
and seized Wargla (1853).  In 1854 General Desvaux entered 
Tuggurt.  Henceforth matters remained quiet in the region 
of the Sahara, and Marshal Randon turned his efforts towards 
Kabylia.  Neither the Romans nor the Turks had been able to 
subdue this square mountainous tract, of which Bougie, Setif, 
Aumale and Dellys form the four corners.  But in two months 
(May to June 1857) Marshal Randon made himself master of 
it, and built in the heart of this country Fort Napoleon (now 
Fort National), ``the thorn in the side of Kabylia,'' whose 
batteries commanded all the Kabyle villages of the region. 

In 1858 the creation of a ``ministry of Algeria and of 
the colonies'' brought about the resignation of Marshal 
Randon.  The administrative headquarters of Algeria was then 
transferred from Algiers to Paris.  The ministry of Algeria 
was entrusted first to Prince Napoleon, and afterwards to 
the marquis J. N. S. P. de Chasseloup-Laubat (1805-1873).  
But this office, created at the least prematurely, soon 
disappeared without causing any regrets.  This ephemeral regime 
lasted from the 24th of June 1858 to the 24th of November 
1860.  The decree of the 24th of November 1860 transferred 
the services from Paris back to Algiers, and re-established 
the functions of governor-general, which were exercised at 
the end of the second empire first by Marshal Pelissier, 
duc de Malakoff (December 1860 to September 1864) and then 
by Marshal Macmahon, duc de Magenta (September 1864 to July 
1870).  At this period the conception of the Arab kingdom 
was prevalent.  The emperor Napoleon III., in a celebrated 
letter, wrote that he was as much the emperor of the Arabs 
as the emperor of the French.  Algeria was considered as a 
kind of great military fief, and the officers who ruled there 
commonly took the side of the native chieftains against the 
civil population.  European colonization, hampered by the 
ill-will of the Arab bureaux, then made little progress. 

Revolt of 1864-1871. 

It was at this period that the great insurrection of the 
Walidsidi-Sheikh broke out in the Sud Oranais.  This powerful 
family had lived up to that time on a good understanding with 
France; Si-Hamza, chief of the elder branch, had remained 
until his death (1861) a faithful ally of France.  Thanks to 
him, the security of the southern frontier was assured.  But 
after his death his son, Si-Sliman, imbued with anti-French 
sentiments, revolted in 1864 and massacred the Beaupretre 
column.  Several years were occupied in quelling the 
insurrection.  Compelled to guard themselves on the south 
against the Walid-sidi-Sheikh,the French realized how 
much they lost by not having the support of these great 
chieftains.  They then accepted the services offered to them 
by Si-Sliman-ben- Kadour, chief of the younger branch of the 
Walid-sidi-Sheikh, who maintained tranquillity in the Sud 
Oranais during the great insurrection of Kabylia in 1871. 

The causes of this insurrection were manifold, and, moreover, 
interdependent: the injury done to the military prestige of 
France by its defeats in Europe; the fall of the imperial 
government, in which, in the eyes of the natives, the 
authority of France was incarnate; and the insults offered 
with impunity in the streets by the civil population to the 
officers, who were loved and respected by the Arabs, at the 
same time that the decree of Adolphe Cremieux accorded to 
the Algerine Jews the rights of French citizens.  The great 
native chiefs, bewildered and disquieted, thought themselves 
menaced.  The insurrection was inevitable.  Mokrani, bach-agha 
of the Mejana, whom the imperial government had loaded with 
honours, gave the signal.  He had an interview with El Haddad, 
the sheikh of the Khuans, the religious confraternity of 
Sidi-Abd-er-Rahman, whose influence was great, and having 
secured his support in April 1871, Mokrani proclaimed the holy 
war.  At the bidding of El Haddad the whole of Kabylia rose, 
and numbers of French colonists were massacred; the columns of 
Colonel Cerez and General F. G. Saussier had to engage in numerous 
fights.  The death of the bach-agha at the battle of Suflat, 
the submission of the Sheikh El Haddad, and finally the arrest 
of Bu-Meyrag, brother of Mokrani, mark the declining stages 
of the insurrection, which was completely suppressed by August 
1871.  A heavy war contribution was imposed upon the rebels 
and their lands were sequestrated.  The Beni-Manassir, who 
rose almost at the same time in the Dahra, were subdued soon 
after.  Subsequently the native population of the Algerine Tell 
remained quiet, the massacre of the colonists at Margueritte 
many years later being a local and isolated movement. 

Since 1870. 

Under the third republic Algeria was governed successively 
by Admiral L. H. de Gueydon (March 1871 to June 1873), 
General A. E. A. Chanzy (June 1873 to February 1879), J. 
P. L. Albert Grevy (March 1879 to November 1881), Tirman 
(November 1881 to April 1891), Jules Cambon (April 1891 to 
September 1897), Louis Lepine (September 1897 to August 
1898), E. J. Laferriere (August 1898 to October 1900), 
Charles Jonnart (October 1900 to June 1901), A. J. P. Revoil 
(June 1901 to April 1903), and again Jonnart.  During the 
first years of the new regime a keen reaction was produced 
against the political system of the imperial government in 
Africa.  The civil territory was considerably enlarged at 
the expense of the military.  An effort was made to attract 
French colonists to Algeria by gratuitous concessions of 
land.  Some lands were granted in particular to natives of 
Alsace-Lorraine, who preferred to retain French nationality 
after the war.  Peasants from the south of France, whose vines 
had been destroyed by the phylloxera, crossed the Mediterranean 
and established in Algeria an important vineyard.  This 
double current of immigration notably increased the French 
population of North Africa.  The tendency then was to treat 
Algeria as a piece of France.  This assimilative policy 
attained its culminating point in the so-called decrees of 
rattachement (1881), in pursuance of which each ministerial 
department in France was made responsible for Algerine 
affairs which came by their nature within its jurisdiction. 

After a great inquiry held in 1892 by a senatorial committee 
a reaction was produced in France against this excessive 
assimilation.  The system of rattachement was in great part 
abandoned, and decentralization was obtained by augmenting the 
powers of the governor-general, and by granting to Algeria legal 
personality and a special budget (see above, Central Government.) 
These reforms appear to have given satisfaction to Algerian 
opinion.  Profoundly troubled as Algeria was in the last 
years of the 19th century by the anti-Semitic agitation, which 
occasioned frequent changes of governors, it appears to-day to 
have turned aside from sterile political struggles to interest 
itself exclusively in the economic development of the country. 

The movement of expansion towards the south was continued under 
the third republic.  In 1873 General G. A. A. Gailifet entered El 
Golea.  In 1882 the oasis of Mzab was annexed.  In the Sud 
Oranais an insurrection, fomented by a marabout named Bu-Amama, 
broke out in 1881, and the insurgents massacred the European 
labourers engaged in the collection of alfa (or esparto) 
grass.  But soon the French columns re-established peace, and 
Bu-Amama had to take refuge in Morocco.  In 1883 Si-Hamza, chief 
of the elder branch of the Wahd-sidi-Sheikh, made his submission, 
and since then that family has remained devoted to France. 

The attempts at penetration into the extreme south, abandoned after 
the massacre by Tuareg of a mission sent in 1881, under Colonel 
Paul Flatters, to study the question of railway communication 
with Senegal, were begun again in 1890, in which year the British 
government recognized the western Sahara as within the French 
sphere.  Since then military stations and scientific and 
commercial exploration have increased.  But the results of 
these efforts remained inconsiderable until the spring of 1900, 
when the French authorities decided to occupy the oases of 
Gurara, Tuat and Tidikelt.  This being accomplished by March 
1901, the conquest of the Algerine Sahara was from that time 
completed, and nothing any longer hindered the attempts to 
join Algeria and the Sudan across the Sahara. (A. GIR.) 

BIBLIOORAPHY.--For a general account of Algeria, see Maurice 
Wahl, L'Algerie (5th ed., Paris, 1908); P. Leroy-Beaulieu, 
Algerie et Tunisie (2nd ed., Paris, 1897); J. A. Battandier 
and L. Trabut, L'Algerie; le sol et les habitants (Paris, 
1898), specially valuable for agriculture and fauna; Arthur 
Girault, Principes de colonisation et de legislation 
coloniale, Tome iii. ch. i.-viii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1908), 
containing valuable bibliographies of works relating to 
legislation, jurisprudence, &c.; Jules Duval, L'Algerie et 
les colonies francaises (Paris, 1877).  The Statistiaue 
generale de l'Algerie is published periodically by the 
Algerian government.  The British Foreign Office publishes 
annual Reports on the Trade of Algeria; Sir R. Lambert 
Playfair's Handbook for Travellers in Algeria (Murray's 
Handbooks), corrected to 1902, is a capital guide to the 
country, as is also Algerie et Tunisie (Paris, 1906), in the 
Guides- Joanne Series; the Bibliography of Algeria (London, 
1888), and the Supplement to the Bibliography of Algeria 
(London, 1898), by Sir Lambert Playfair, contain thousands 
of entries and many notes.  J. A. Battandier and L. Trabut, 
Flore de l'Algerie (Algiers and Paris, 1884 and onwards), 
contains a scientific and descriptive catalogue, in several 
volumes, of the indigenous flora.  For the geology of Algeria, 
see M. A. Pomel, Description stratigraphique generale 
de l'Algerie (1889), and numerous papers by E. Ficheur, L. 
Gentil, G. Rolland, P. Thomas, and J. Welsch will be found 
in the Bull.  Soc. Geol.  France, and Compt.  Rend, 
Acad.  Sci. The volumes of the International Geological 
Congress review Algerian geology.  The French government 
publication, Exploration scientifique de l'Algerie (20 
vols., 1844-1853), gives the results of investigations made in 
1840-1842.  O. Depont and X. Conpolani, Les Confeeries 
religiouses musulmanes (Algiers, 1897), and Carte de 
l,Algerie . . . domaine geographique des confreries 
(Algiers, 1898), have special reference to the Islamic sects in 
Algeria.  Stephane Gsell's Les monuments antiques de l'Algerie 
(2 vols., Baris, 1901), one of the publications of the Service 
des monuments historiques of the colony, is an authoritative 
and finely illustrated work on the antiquities of Algeria.  
For archaeology see also the bibliography in AFRICA, ROMAN. 

The best best elementary work on the history of Algeria 
is that of Cat, Petite histoire de l'Algerie (Algiers, 
1889).  For more profound researches consult: (a) for the 
Turkish period: H. D. de Gramont, Histoire d'Alger sous la 
domination turque (1887); Mercier, Histoire de l'Afrique 
septenirionale (1888-1891); Eugene Plantet, Correspondance 
des deys d'Alger avec la cour de France (1889--1892); Paul 
Masson, Histoire dec etablissements et du commerce francais 
dans l'Afrique barbaresque (1903); General Faure-Biguet, 
Histoire de l'A.irique septentrionale sous la domination 
musulmane (1905); (b) for the French period: Camille Rousset, 
La Conquete d'Alger (8th ed., 1899), Les Commencements 
d'une conquete; l,Algerie de 1830 a 1840, with atlas 
(1887), and La Conquete de l'Algerie, 1841- 1857, with 
atlas (1889); Pelissier, Annales algeriennes (1834); Leon 
Roches, Trente-deux ans a travers l'Islam (1884-1837); Colonel 
Trumelet, Histoire de l'insurrection des Guled-Sidi-Cheik 
(1887); Rinn, Histoire de l'insurrection de 1871 (1891). 

The best general maps are those of the Carte de l'Algerie, 
in numerous sheets, on the scale of 1:50,000 (published by 
the Service geographique de l'Armee, Paris). (F. R. C.) 

1 The name ``Great'' Atlas is more correctly 
applied to the main range in Morocco. 

2 The figures given are not those of the communes, but of the 
towns proper, certain classes of persons (such as troops, lunatics, 
convicts) excluded from the municipal franchise not being counted. 

3 This western beylik corresponded roughly 
with the former sultanate of Tlemcen (q.v..) 

ALGHERO, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of 
Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 21 m.  S.S.W. by rail 
from the town of Sassari.  Pop. (1901) 10,779.  The see was 
founded in 1503, but the cathedral itself dates from the 12th 
century, though it has been reconstructed.  The town was strongly 
fortified by medieval walls, which have to some extent been 
demolished.  It was originally founded by the Doria family of 
Genoa about 1102, but was occupied by the house of Aragon in 
1354, who held it successfully against various attacks until 
it fell to the house of Savoy with the rest of Sardinia in 
1720.  Catalonian is still spoken here.  Charles V. visited 
Alghero on his way to Africa in 1541.  The coral and fishing 
industries are the most important in Alghero, but agriculture 
has made some progress in the district, which produces good 
wine.  There is a large penal establishment containing over 700 
convicts.  Seven miles to the W.N.W. is the fine natural 
harbour of Porto Conte, secure in all weather, and on the 
W. of this harbour is the Capo Caccia, with two stalactite 
grottos, the finest of which, the Grotta di Nettuno, is 
accessible only from the sea.  The important prehistoric 
necropolis of Anghelu Ruju was excavated in 1904 61 
m.  N. of Alghero (Notizie degli Scavi, 1904, 301 seq.). 

ALGIDUS MONS, a portion of the ridge forming the rim of the 
larger crater of the Alban volcano (see ALBANUS MONS) and more 
especially the eastern portion, traversed by a narrow opening 
(now called the Cava d'Aglio) of which the Via Latina took 
advantage, and which frequently appears in the early military 
history of Rome.  That a distinct town existed (Dion.  Halic. x. 
21, xi. 3) on the mountain is improbable; there must have been 
a fortified post, but the extensive castle on the hill (Maschio 
d'Ariano) to the south of the Via Latina is entirely medieval, 
a fact which has not been recognized by some topographers. 

ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands), 
capital and largest city of Algeria, North Africa, seat of the 
governor- general, of a court of appeal, and of an archbishop, 
and station of the French XIX. corps d'armee. It is situated 
on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean, to which it 
gives its name, in 36 deg.  47' N., 3 deg.  4' E., and is built on 
the slopes of the Sahel, a chain of hills parallel to the 
coast.  The view of the city from the sea is one of great 
beauty.  Seen from a distance it appears like a succession 
of dazzling white terraces rising from the water's edge.  The 
houses being seemingly embowered in the luxuriant verdure of 
the Sahel, the effect is imposing and picturesque, and has 
given rise to the Arab comparison of the town to a diamond 
set in an emerald frame.  The city consists of two parts; 
the modern French town, built on the level ground by the 
seashore, and the ancient city of the deys, which climbs 
the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the 
kasbah or citadel, 400 ft. above the sea.  The kasbah forms 
the apex of a triangle of which the quays form the base. 

Extending along the front of the town is the boulevard de la 
Republique, a fine road built by Sir Morton Peto on a series of 
arches, with a frontage of 3700 ft., and bordered on one side 
by handsome buildings, whilst a wide promenade overlooking the 
harbour runs along the other.  Two inclined roads lead from 
the centre of the boulevard to the quay 40 ft. below.  On the 
quay are the landing-stages, the custom-house and the railway 
station.  At the southern end of the boulevard de la Republique 
is the square de la Republique, formerly the place Bresson, 
in which is the municipal theatre; at the other extremity of 
the boulevard is the place du Gouvernement, which is planted 
on three sides with a double row of plane trees and is the 
fashionable resort for evening promenade.  The principal streets 
of the city meet in the place du Gouvernement: the rue Bab 
Azoun (Gate of Grief) which runs parallel to the boulevard de 
la Republique; the rue Bab-el-Oued (River Gate) which goes 
north to the site of the old arsenal demolished in 1900; the 
rue de la Marine which leads to the ancient harbour, and in 
which are the two principal mosques.  A large part of the 
modern town lies south of the square de la Republique; in 
this quarter are the law courts, hotel de ville, post office 
and other public buildings.  The streets in the modern town 
are regularly laid out; several are arcaded on both sides. 

The old town presents a strong contrast to the new town.  The 
streets are narrow, tortuous and inaccessible to carriages.  
They often end in a cul-de-sac. The principal street is 
the rue de la Kasbah, which leads up to the citadel by 497 
steps.  The streets are joined by alleys just wide enough to pass 
through.  The houses, built of stone and whitewashed, are 
square, substantial, flat-topped buildings, presenting to the 
street bare walls, with a few slits protected by iron gratings 
in place of windows.  Each house has a quadrangle in the centre, 
into which it looks, and which is entered by a low, narrow 
doorway.  Shops in the native quarter are simply chambers in 
the walls of the houses, and open at the front.  In these shops 
the few Moorish industries are carried on, such as embroidery 
in gold and silver thread, the making of kid slippers of every 
kind and colour, the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments.  
To European eyes the native city, with its motley throng of 
Moors, Arabs, Jews and negroes, is the most interesting sight in 
Algiers.  Various squares are set apart for markets, and 
here are to be witnessed scenes of the greatest animation. 

The public buildings of chief interest are the kasbah, the 
government offices (formerly the British consulate), the 
palaces of the governor-general and the archbishop--all 
these are fine Moorish houses; the ``Grand'' and the ``New', 
Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Philippe, the 
church of the Holy Trinity (Church of England), and the 
Bibliotheque Nationale d'Alger--a Turkish palace built in 
1799-1800.  The kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older 
building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French 
conquest.  A road has been cut through the centre of the 
building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of 
audience allowed to fall into ruin.  There still remain a 
minaret and some marble arches and columns.  Traces exist 
of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the 
dey.  The Grand Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir) is traditionally said 
to be the oldest mosque in Algiers.  The pulpit (mimbar) 
bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 
1018.  The minaret was built by Abu Tachfin, sultan of 
Tlemcen, in 1324.  The interior of the mosque is square and 
is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches.  
The principal facade, in the rue de la Marine, consists of 
a row of white marble columns supporting an arcade.  The New 
Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid), dating from the 17th century, is 
in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white 
cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners.  The minaret 
is 90 ft. high.  The interior resembles that of the Grand 
Mosque.  The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands 
at the southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the 
demolished Fort Bab Azoun.  The interior is richly decorated 
with various coloured marbles.  Many of these marbles contain 
memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents 
(voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John 
Tipton, British consul in 1580.  One tablet records that in 1631 
two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, 
and carried off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls 
the romantic escape of Ida M`Donnell, daughter of Admiral 
Ulric, consul- general of Denmark, and wife of the British 
consul.  When Lord Exmouth was about to bombard the city in 
1816, the British consul was thrown into prison and loaded with 
chains.  Mrs. M`Donnell--who was but sixteen--escaped to the 
British fleet disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket 
of vegetables in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs.  M`Donnell 
subsequently married the duc de Talleyrand-Perigord and died 
at Florence in 1880).  Among later residents commemorated is 
Edward Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of 
esparto grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started 
an industry which is one of the most important in Algeria. 

The cathedral of St Philippe, built on the site of a mosque, 
is in the place Malakoff, next to the governor-general's 
palace.  In its construction an attempt has been made to 
produce a building suitable for Christian worship whilst the 
architecture is Moorish in style.  The principal entrance, 
reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico 
supported by four black-veined marble columns.  The roof of 
the nave is of Moorish plaster work.  It rests on a series 
of arcades supported by white marble columns.  Several of 
these columns belonged to the former mosque.  In one of the 
chapels is a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo.  The 
finding of the remains of the saint in 1853 afforded striking 
confirmation of an incident recorded by a Spanish Benedictine 
named Haedo, who published a topography of Algeria in 
1612.  Haedo sets forth that a young Arab who had embraced 
Christianity and had been baptized with the name of Geronimo 
was captured by a Moorish corsair in 1569 and taken to 
Algiers.  The Arabs endeavoured, to induce Geronimo to renounce 
Christianity, but as he steadfastly refused to do so he was 
condemned to death.  Bound hand and foot he was thrown alive 
into a mould in which a block of concrete was about to be 
made.  The block containing his body was built into an angle 
of the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours, then under construction.  
In 1853 the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours was demolished, and 
in the angle specified by Haedo the skeleton of Geronimo was 
found.  The bones were interred at St Phihppe.  Into the 
mould left by the saint's body liquid plaster of Paris was 
run, and a perfect model obtained, showing the features of the 
youth, the cords which bound him, and even the texture of his 
clothing.  This model is now in the museum at Mustapha (see below). 

Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, 
science and letters.  The college buildings are large and 
handsome.  There is also a lycee in which the instruction 
is similar to that given in France, and in which Christians, 
Jews and Mahommedans are educated together.  The museum (a 
state institution), formerly housed in the same building as 
the library, was transferred in 1897 to a new building in 
the suburb of Mustapha Superieur.  In the museum are some 
of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, 
together with medals and Algerian money.  New buildings, 
to contain specimens of Moslem art, were added in 1903. 

The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds.  There are two 
harbours, both artificial--the old or northern harbour and 
the southern or Agha harbour.  The northern harbour covers 
an area of 235 acres.  The depth at the entrance is 72 to 
108 ft., and in port from 36 to 66 ft.  Two government dry 
docks are available for merchant vessels.  The quays cover 
18,000 sq. yds.  There are three jetties, north, east and 
south.  Within this harbour is the small harbour of the deys, 
now transformed into a wet dock.  An opening in the south jetty 
affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha 
Bay. This harbour is formed by the projection of a mole, 2500 
ft. in length, from the eastern jetty of the old harbour.  It 
provides extensive quayage with a minimum depth of water of 28 
ft.  Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its 
southern side.  Algiers is the chief coaling station in the 
Mediterranean, having become so largely at the expense of 
Gibraltar.  In other respects the trade resembles that of other 
Algerian ports. (For trade statistics see ALGERIA.) The inner 
harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ed- Din (see History, 
below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, caused the island 
on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a 
mole.  The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon 
was built in 1544.  Work on the northern harbour was begun in 
1836, on the southern in 1904.  Algiers maintains communication 
with Marseilles by a quick service of steamers, which run the 
497 miles across the Mediterranean in twenty-eight to thirty 
hours.  The journey between Algiers and Paris, from which it is 
distant 1031 miles, is accomplished in about forty-five hours. 

Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until 
the close of the 19th century.  The French, after their 
occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and 
ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun to the south and 
Bab-el-Oued to the north.  The forts and part of the ramparts 
were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when 
a line of forts occupying the heights of Bu Zarea (at an 
elevation of 1300 ft. above the sea) took their place. 

Owing to the mildness of its climate Algiers has become a 
favourite resort for those seeking to escape the rigours 
of a European winter.  The city is well supplied with 
water and its sanitary state is good.  The mistral of the 
Riviera is entirely absent from Algiers, but in summer 
the city occasionally suffers from the sirocco or desert 
wind.  The environs of Algiers are noted for their beauty and 
healthiness.  Of the suburbs the most picturesque is Mustapha 
Superieur, about 2 m. from the centre of the city on the 
slopes of the hills to the south.  Here are the summer palace 
of the governor-general, many fine Moorish and French villas 
and luxurious hotels, all surrounded by beautiful gardens.  
A numerous British colony resides at Mustapha, where there is 
an English club.  Mustapha Inferieur is built on the lower 
slopes of the hills.  Farther to the south is the large Jardin 
d'Essai, containing five avenues of palms, planes, bamboos and 
magnolias.  Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858- 
1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is 
conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder 
of the Bu Zarea hills, 2 m. to the north of the city.  Above 
the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black 
woman.  The church also contains a solid silver statue of the 
archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan 
fishermen.  Beyond Notre-Dame d'Afrique is the beautiful Valley 
of the Consuls, very little changed since the time of the 
deys. (The valley was in those days the favourite residence 
of the consuls.) At the Petit Seminaire, on the site of 
the old French consulate, Cardinal Lavigerie died (1892). 

In 1906 the population of the commune of Algiers was 154,049; the 
population municipale, which excludes the garrison, prisoners, 
&c., was 145,280.  Of this total 138,240 were living in the 
city proper or in Mustapha.  Of the inhabitants 105,908 were 
Europeans.  French residents numbered 50,996, naturalized Frenchmen 
23,305, Spaniards 12,354, Italians 7368, Maltese 865, and other 
Europeans (chiefly British and Germans) 1652, besides 12,490 
Jews.  The remainder of the population--all Mahommedans--are 
Moors, Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, with a few Turks.  The vast 
majority of the Europeans are Roman Catholics.  Most of the 
naturalized French citizens are of Spanish or Italian origin. 

History.--In Roman times a small town called Icosium existed 
on what is now the marine quarter of the city.  The rue de la 
Marine follows the lines of a Roman street.  Roman cemeteries 
existed near the rues Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun.  Bishops of 
Icosium--which was created a Latin city by Vespasian --are 
mentioned as late as the 5th century.  The present city was 
founded in 944 by Bulukkin b.  Zeiri, the founder of, the 
Zeirid-Sanhaja dynasty, which was overthrown by Roger II. of 
Sicily in 1148 (see FATIMITES.) The Zeirids had before that 
date lost Algiers, which in 1159 was occupied by the Almohades, 
and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Abd-el- 
Wahid, sultans of Tlemcen.  Numinally part of the sultanate of 
Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under 
amirs of its own, Oran being the chief seaport of the Abd-el- 
Nahid.  The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently 
known as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as 
early as 1302.  Thereafter a considerable trade grew up 
between Algiers and Spain.  Algiers, however, continued of 
comparatively little importance until after the expulsion 
from Spain of the Moors, many of whom sought an asylum in the 
city.  In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other 
towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the 
Penon.  In 1516 the amir of Algiers, Selim b.  Teumi, invited 
the brothers Arouj and Khair-ed-Din (Barbarossa) to expel the 
Spaniards.  Arouj came to Algiers, caused Selim to be 
assassinated, and seized the town.  Khair- ed-Din, succeeding 
Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon (1550) and was 
the founder of the pashalik, afterwards deylik, of Algeria.  
Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary 
pirates.  In October 1541 the emperor Charles V. sought to 
capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his 
ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, was 
defeated by the Algerians under their pasha, Hassan.  Repeated 
attempts were made by various European nations to subdue the 
pirates, and in 1816 the city was bombarded by a British squadron 
under Lord Exmouth, assisted by Dutch men-of-war, and the 
corsair fleet burned.  The piracy of the Algerians was renewed 
and continued until 1830.  On the 4th of July in that year a 
French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city, which 
capitulated on the following day (see ALGERIA, History.) 

ALGOA BAY, a wide, shallow bay of South Africa, 436 m.  E. 
from the Cape of Good Hope, bounded W. by Cape Recife, E. by Cape 
Padrone.  St Croix Island in the bay is in 33 deg.  47' S. 25 deg.  
46' E. On this island Bartholomew Diaz made his second landing 
in South Africa some time after the 3rd of February 1488, and 
from the cross which he is thought to have erected on it the 
island gets its name.  Algoa Bay was the first landing-place 
of the British emigrants to the eastern province of Cape 
Colony in 1820.  At a spot 6 m.  N.E. of Cape Recife these 
emigrants founded a town, Port Elizabeth (q.v.), its harbour 
being sheltered from all winds save the S.E. By seafarers 
``Algoa Bay'' is used as synonymous with Port Elizabeth. 

ALGOL, the Arabic name (signifying ``the Demon'') of b 
Persei, a star of the second magnitude, noticed by G. Montanari 
in 1669 to fluctuate in brightness.  John Goodricke established 
in 1782 the periodicity of its change in about 2d 21h and 
suggested their cause in recurring eclipses by a large dark 
satellite.  Their intermittent character prompted the 
supposition.  The light of Algol remains constant during close 
upon 56 hours; then declines in 6 1/2 hours (approximately) 
to nearly one-fourth its normal amount, and is restored by 
sensibly the same gradations.  The amplitude of the phase 
is 1.1 magnitude; and the absence of any stationary interval 
at minimum proves the eclipse to be partial, not annular.  
Its conditions were investigated from photometric data, by 
Professor E. C. Pickering in 1880;1 and their realization 
was finally demonstrated by Dr H. C. Vogel's spectroscopic 
measures in 1889.2 Previously to each obscuration, the 
star was found to be moving rapidly away from the earth; its 
velocity then diminished to zero pari passu with the loss 
of light, and reversed its direction during the process of 
recovery.  Algol, in fact, travels at the rate of 26.3 miles 
a second round the centre of gravity of the system which it 
forms with an invisible companion, while the two together 
approach the sun with an unvarying speed of 2.3 miles per 
second.  The elements of this disparate pair, calculated by Dr 
Vogel on the somewhat precarious assumption that its dark and 
bright members are of equal mean density, are as follows:-- 


 
  Diameter of Algol .   .   .   . 1,061,000 English miles.
     ''       Satellite .   .   .   834,300    ''     ''
  Distance from centre to centre. 3,230,000    ''     ''
  Mass of Algol .   .   .   .   .  4/9 solar mass.
    ''    Satellite .   .   .   .  2/9   ''   ''
  Mean density  .   .   .   .   . about  1/4 solar.
 

The plane of the joint orbit, in which no deviation from 
circularity has yet been detected, nearly coincides with 
the line of sight.  The period of Algol, as measured by its 
eclipses, is subject to complex irregularities.  It shortened 
fitfully by eight seconds between 1790 and 1879; soon afterwards, 
restoration set in, and its exact length in 1903 was 2d 
20h 48m 56s, being only two seconds short of its original 
value.  By an exhaustive discussion, Dr S. Chandler ascertained 
in 1888 the compensatory nature of these disturbances;3 and 
he afterwards found the most important among several which 
probably conspire to produce the observed effects, to be 
comprised in a period of 15,000 light-cycles, equivalent to 
118 years.4 An explanatory hypothesis, propounded by him in 
1892,5 is still on its trial.  The system of Algol, according 
to this view, is triple; it includes a large, obscure primary, 
round which the eclipsing pair revolves in an orbit somewhat 
smaller than that of Uranus, very slightly elliptical, and 
inclined 20 deg.  to the line of sight, the periodic time being 118 
years.  The alternate delay and acceleration of the eclipses 
are then merely apparent; they represent the changes in the 
length of the light-journey as the stars perform their wide 
circuit.  If these suppositions have a basis of reality, the 
proper motion of Algol should be disturbed by a small, but 
measurable undulation, corresponding to the projection of its 
orbit upon the sky; and although certainty on the point cannot be 
attained for some years to come, Lewis Boss regarded the evidence 
available in 1895 as tending to confirm Dr Chandler's theory.6 

A rival interpretation of the phenomena it dealt with 
was put forward by F. Tisserand in 1895.7 It involved 
the action of no third mass, but depended solely upon the 
progression of the line of apsides in a moderately elliptical 
orbit due to the spheroidal shape of the globes traversing 
it.  Inequalities of the required sort in the returns of 
the eclipses would ensue; moreover, their duration should 
concomitantly vary with the varying distance from periastron at 
the times of their occurrence.  It is a moot question whether 
changes of the latter kind actually occur.  When they are 
proved to do so, Tisserand's hypothesis will hold the field. 

Algol gives a helium-spectrum which undergoes no alteration at 
minimum.  Hence the light from the marginal and central portions 
of the disc is identical in quality, and the limb can be 
little, if at all, darkened by the ``smoke-veil'' absorption 
conspicuous in the sun.  The rays of this star spend close 
upon a century in travelling hither.  Dr Chase's measures with 
the Yale heliometer indicated for it, in 1894, a parallax of 
about 0'' .035;8 and it must, accordingly, be of nearly four 
times the total brightness of Sirius, while its aerial lustre 
exceeds seventy- fold that of the solar photosphere.  Variables 
of the Algol class are rendered difficult to discover by the 
incidental character of their fluctuations.  At the end of 
1905, however, about 37 had been certainly recognized, besides 
some outlying cases of indeterminate type, in which continuous 
occultations by two bright stars, revolving in virtual 
contact, are doubtfully supposed to be in progress. (A. M. C.) 

         1 Proceedings Amer.  Acad. vol. xvi. p. 27. 
2 Astr. Nach. No. 2947.        3 Astr. Journal, No. 165.
4 Ibid. No. 509.  5 Ibid. Nos. 255-256.  6 Ibid. No. 343.
7 Comptes Rendus, t. cxx. p 125.  8 Astr. Jour. No. 318.
ALGONQUIN, or ALGONKIN (a word formerly regarded as a 
French contraction of Algomequin, ``those on the other 
side'' of the river, viz. the St Lawrence, hut now believed to 
be from the Micmac algoomaking--``at the place of spearing 
fish''), a collective term for a number of tribes of North 
American Indians dwelling in the valley of the Ottawa river 
and around the northern tributaries of the St Lawrence.  
The Algonquins allied themselves with the French against the 
Iroquois.  Many were driven west by the latter and later became 
known as Ottawa.  The French missionaries at work among the 
Algonquins early in the 17th century found their language 
to be the key to the many Indian dialects now included by 
philologists under the general term ``Algonquian stock.'' 
The chief tribes included in this stock were the Algonquin, 
Malecite, Micmac, Nascapi, Pennacook, Fox, Kickapoo, Delaware, 
Cheyenne, Conoy, Cree, Mohican, Massachuset, Menominee, Miami, 
Misisaga, Mohegan, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nipmuc, Ojibway, 
Ottawa, Pequot, Potawatami, Sac, Shawnee and Wampanoag.  The 
Indians of Algonquian stock number between 80,000 and 90,000, 
of whom rather more than half are in the United States, the 
rest being in Canada.  Of the Algonquins proper there remain 
about 1500 settled in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. 

For details see Handbook of American 
Indians, ed.  F. W. Hodge, Washington, 1907. 

ALGUAZIL, a Spanish title often to be met in stories and 
plays, derived from the Arabic ``visir'' and the article, ``
al.'' The alguazil among the early Spaniards was a judge, and 
sometimes the governor of a town or fortress.  In later times he 
has gradually sunk down to the rank of an officer of the court, 
who is trusted with the service of writs and certain police 
duties, but he is still of higher rank than the mere corchete or 
catch-poll.  The title has also been given to inspectors of 
weights and measures in market-places, and similar officials. 

ALGUM, or ALMUG TREE. The Hebrew words Algummim or 
Almuggim are translated Algum or Almug trees in the authorized 
version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, 
and ix. 10, 11); almug is an erroneous form (see Max Muller, 
Science of Language, vol. i.).  The wood of the tree was 
very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of 
India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was 
used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, 
and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, 
as well as for harps and psalteries.  It is probably the red 
sanders or red sandal-wood of India ( Pterocarpus santalinus.) 
This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order 
Papilionaceae.  The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained and of 
a fine red colour.  It is different from the white fragrant 
sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a 
tree belonging to a distinct natural order Santalaceae. 

ALHAMA DE GRANADA, a town of southern Spain, in the province 
of Granada, 24 m.  S.W. of Granada.  Pop. (1900) 7679.  Alhama 
is finely situated on a ledge of rock which overlooks a deep 
gorge traversed by the river Marchan or Alhama; while the rugged 
peaks of the Sierra de Alhamarise behind it to a height of 6800 
ft.  The town is largely modern; for over one thousand of 
its picturesque old Moorish houses, which formerly rose in 
terraces up the mountain side, were destroyed, together with 
five churches, the hospital, the theatre, the prison, and 
800 of the inhabitants, in an earthquake which took place in 
1884.  Subscriptions were received from all parts of Spain, 
and the present town was built at a little distance from its 
predecessor.  Few vestiges of antiquity survived, except the 
baths from which Alhama (in Arabic ``the Bath'') derives its 
name.  These are situated near the river, and appear to have 
been used continuously since Roman times (c. 19 B.C.-
A.D. 409) . The temperature of the hot sulphurous springs is 
about 112 deg.  F.; and, as the waters are considered beneficial 
in cases of rheumatism and dyspepsia, many visitors come 
to Alhama in spring and autumn, attracted also by the fine 
scenery of the district.  In the 15th century Alhama, and 
the neighbouring fortress of Loja (q.v.), were generally 
regarded as the keys of the kingdom of Granada, and their 
capture went far to insure the overthrow of the Moorish 
power.  Alhama was taken by the Spanish marquis of Cadiz 
in 1482; and its fall is celebrated in an ancient ballad, 
Ay de mi, Alhama, which Byron translated into English. 

ALHAMBRA, THE, an ancient palace and fortress of the Moorish 
monarchs of Granada, in southern Spain, occupying a hilly 
terrace on the south-eastern border of the city of Granada.  
This terrace or plateau, which measures about 2430 ft. in 
length by 674 ft. at its greatest width, extends from W.N.W. to 
E.S.E., and covers an area of about 35 acres.  It is enclosed 
by a strongly fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen 
towers.  The river Darro, which foams through a deep ravine on 
the north, divides the plateau from the Albaicin district of 
Granada; the Assabica valley, containing the Alhambra Park, on 
the west and south, and beyond this valley the almost parallel 
ridge of Monte Mauror, separate it from the Antequeruela district. 

The name Alhambra, signifying in Arabic ``the red,'' is 
probably derived from the colour of the sun-dried tapia, 
or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of which the outer 
walls are built.  Some authorities, however, hold that it 
commemorates the red flare of the torches by whose light the 
work of construction was carried on nightly for many years; 
others associate it with the name of the founder, Mahomet 
Ibn Al Ahmar; and others derive it from the Arabic Dar al 
Amra, ``House of the Master.'' (For an account of the period 
to which the Alhambra belongs, see GRANADA (city) .) The 
palace was built chiefly between 1248 and 1354, in the reigns 
of Al Ahmar and his successors; but even the names of the 
principal artists employed are either unknown or doubtful.  
The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to 
Yusef I., who died in 1354.  Immediately after the expulsion 
of the Moors in 1492, their conquerors began, by successive 
acts of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of the 
Alhambra.  The open work was filled up with whitewash, the 
painting and gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, torn or 
removed.  Charles V. (1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the modern 
style of the period, and destroyed the greater part of the 
winter palace to make room for a modern structure which has 
never been completed.  Philip V. (1700-1746) Italianised the 
rooms, and completed the degradation by running up partitions 
which blocked up whole apartments, gems of taste and patient 
ingenuity.  In subsequent Centuries the carelessness of the 
Spanish authorities permitted this masterpiece of Moorish 
art to be still further defaced; and in 1812 some of the 
towers were blown up by the French under Count Sebastiani, 
while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the same fate.  In 


 
 Plan of the Alhambra
 Scale of Yards
 1. Court of Myrtles
 2. Hall of Ambassadors
 3. Court of Lions
 4. Hall of the Abencerrages
 5. Room of the Two Sisters
 6. Modern Entrance
 7. Court of the Vestibule
 8. Baths
 9. Court of the Council Chamber
 10. Queens Robing Room
 

from Baedeker's Spain & Portugal, by 
permission of Karl Baedeker Emery Walker SC. 


1821 an earthquake caused further damage.  The work of 
restoration undertaken in 1828 by the architect Jose 
Contreras was endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII.; and after 
the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair 
success by his son Rafael (d. 1890), and his grandson Mariano. 

The situation of the Alhambra is one of rare natural beauty; 
the plateau commands a wide view of the city and plain of 
Granada, towards the west and north, and of the heights of 
the Sierra Nevada, towards the east and south.  Moorish poets 
describe it as ``a pearl set in emeralds,'' in allusion to 
the brilliant colour of its buildings, and the luxuriant 
woods round them.  The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), 
which in spring is overgrown with wild-flowers and grass, 
was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges and myrtles; 
its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense 
wood of English elms brought hither in 1812 by the duke of 
Wellington.  The park is celebrated for the multitude of its 
nightingales, and is usually filled with the sound of running 
water from several fountains and cascades.  These are supplied 
through a conduit 5 m. long, which is connected with the 
Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle, above Granada. 

The Moorish portion of the Alhambra resembles many medieval 
Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a 
castle, a palace and a residential annexe for subordinates.  
The Alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the 
isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau 
on the north-west.  Only its massive outer walls, towers 
and ramparts are left.  On its watch-tower, the Torre de la 
Vela, 85 ft. high, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was 
first raised, in token of the Spanish conquest of Granada, 
on the 2nd of January 1492.  A turret containing a huge 
bell was added in the 18th century, and restored after 
being injured by lightning in 1881.  Beyond the Alcazaba 
is the palace of the Moorish kings, or Alhambra properly 
so-called; and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper 
Alhambra), originally tenanted by officials and courtiers. 

In spite of the long neglect, wilful vandalism and ill-judged 
restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains the 
most perfect example of Moorish art in its final European 
development, --freed from the direct Byzantine influences 
which can be traced in the cathedral of Cordova, more elaborate 
and fantastic than the Giralda at Seville.  The majority of 
the palace buildings are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with 
all the rooms opening on to a central court; and the whole 
reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new 
quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in 
dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and 
passages.  In every case the exterior is left plain and austere, 
as if the architect intended thus to heighten by contrast the 
splendour of the interior.  Within, the palace is unsurpassed 
for the exquisite detail of its marble pillars and arches, 
its fretted ceilings and the veil-like transparency of its 
filigree work in stucco.  Sun and wind are freely admitted, 
and the whole effect is one of the most airy lightness and 
grace.  Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through 
lapse of time and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed.  
The decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional 
foliage, Arabic inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought 
into arabesques of almost incredible intricacy and ingenuity.  
Painted tiles are largely used as panelling for the walls. 

Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by 
the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a massive 
triumphal arch dating from the 15th century.  A steep ascent 
leads past the Pillar of Charles V., a fountain erected in 
1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra.  This is the Puerta 
Judiciaria (Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway, 
surmounted by a square tower, and used by the Moors as an 
informal court of justice.  A hand, with fingers outstretched 
as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate 
on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the 
corresponding place on the interior.  A narrow passage leads 
inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a 
broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish 
palace.  To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino 
(Wine Tower), built in 1345, and used in the 16th century as a 
cellar.  On the right is the palace of Charles V., a cold-looking 
but majestic Renaissance building, out of harmony with its 
surroundings, which it tends somewhat to dwarf by its superior 
size.  Its construction, begun in 1526, was abandoned about 1650. 

The present entrance to the Palacio Arabe, or Casa Real (Moorish 
palace), is by a small door from which a corridor conducts 
to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also 
called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court 
of the Pond), from the Moorish birka, ``pond,'' or berka, 
``blessing.'' This court is 140 ft. long by 74 ft. broad; 
and in the centre there is a large pond set in the marble 
pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its 
sides.  There are galleries on the north and south sides; that 
on the south 27 ft. high, and supported by a marble colonnade.  
Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and 
over it are three elegant windows with arches and miniature 
pillars.  From this court the walls of the Torre de Comares are 
seen rising over the roof to the north, and reflected in the pond. 

The Sala de los Ambajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is 
the largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Torre de 
Comares.  It is a square room, the sides being 37 ft. in 
length, while the centre of the dome is 75 ft. high.  This 
was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan 
was placed opposite the entrance.  The tiles are nearly 4 ft. 
high all round, and the colours vary at intervals.  Over them 
is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven 
with flowers and leaves.  There are nine windows, three 
on each facade, and the ceiling is admirably diversified 
with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape of 
circles, crowns and stars--a kind of imitation of the vault of 
heaven.  The walls are covered with varied stucco-work of 
most delicate pattern, surrounding many ancient escutcheons. 

The celebrated Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is 
an oblong court, 116 ft. in length by 66 ft. in breadth, 
surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble 
columns.  A pavilion projects into the court at each 
extremity, with filigree walls and light domed roof, 
elaborately ornamented.  The square is paved with coloured 
tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls 
are covered 5 ft. up from the ground with blue and yellow 
tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and 
gold.  The columns supporting the roof and gallery are 
irregularly placed, with a view to artistic effect; and 
the general form of the piers, arches and pillars is most 
graceful.  They are adorned by varieties of foliage, &c.; 
about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; and 
over the pillars is another square of exquisite filigree 
work.  In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain 
of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the 
figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with 
sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and courage. 

The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives 
its name from a legend according to which Boabdil, the last 
king of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious 
line to a banquet, massacred them here.  This room is a perfect 
square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base.  
The roof is exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, 
and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in 
a remarkably beautiful manner.  Opposite to this hall is the 
Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called 
from two very beautiful white marble slabs laid as part of the 
pavement.  These slabs measure 15 ft. by 7 1/2 ft., and are 
without flaw or stain.  There is a fountain in the middle of 
this hall, and the roof--a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, 
all different, and said to number 5000--is a magnificent 
example of the so-called ``stalactite vaulting'' of the Moors. 

Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Sala de la 
Justicia (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the 
Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule), 
and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), in which 
are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful architecture, the 
same costly and elegant decorations.  The palace and the Upper 
Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and summer- 
rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres. 

The original furniture of the palace is represented by the 
celebrated vase of the Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish 
ceramic art, dating from 1320, and belonging to the first 
period of Moorish porcelain.  It is 4 ft. 3 in. high; the 
ground is white, and the enamelling is blue, white and gold. 

Of the outlying buildings in connexion with the Alhambra. the 
foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife 
(the Moorish Jennat al Arif, ``Garden of Arif,'' or ``Garden 
of the Architect'').  This villa probably dates from the end 
of the 13th century, but has been several times restored.  Its 
gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, 
and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moorish 
character.  The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the 
summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian 
slaves who were employed to build the Alhambra, and confined 
here in subterranean cells.  The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion 
Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish 
fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and 
accommodation for a garrison of 200 men.  Several Roman tombs 
were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror. 

See Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra; 
from drawings taken on the spot by J. Goury and Owen Jones; 
with a complete translation of the Arabic inscriptions and a 
historical notice of the Kings of Granada, by P. de Gayangos. 
These two magnificent folios, though first published in London 
between 1842 and 1845, give the best pictorial representation 
of the Alhambra.  See also Rafael Contreras, La Alhanabra, 
El Alcazar, y la gran Mezquita de Occidente Madrid, 1885); 
The Alhambra, by Washington Irving, was written in 1832, 
and rewritten in 1857, when it had already become widely 
celebrated for its picturesque and humorous descriptions.  
A well-Illustrated edition was published in London in 1896. 

ALHAZEN (ABU ALI AL-HASAN IBN ALHASAN), Arabian mathematician 
of the 11th century, was born at Basra and died at Cairo in 
1038.  He is to be distinguished from another Alhazen who 
translated Ptolemy's Almagest in the 10th century.  Having 
boasted that he could construct a machine for regulating 
the inundations of the Nile, he was summoned to Egypt by 
the caliph Hakim; but, aware of the impracticability of his 
scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness 
until Hakim's death in 1021.  Alhazen was, nevertheless, 
a diligent and successful student, being the first great 
discoverer in optics after the time of Ptolemy.  According to 
Giovanni Battista della Porta, he first explained the apparent 
increase of heavenly bodies near the horizon, although Bacon 
gives the credit of this discovery to Ptolemy.  He taught, 
previous to the Polish physicist Witelo, that vision does 
not result from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote 
also on the refraction of light, especially on atmospheric 
refraction, showing, e.g. the cause of morning and evening 
twilight.  He solved the problem of finding the point in a 
convex mirror at which a ray coming from one given point shall 
be reflected to another given point.  His treatise on optics 
was translated into Latin by Witelo (1270), and afterwards 
published by F. Risner in 1572, with the title Oticae thesaurus 
Alhazeni libri VII., cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et 
nubium ascensionibus. This work enjoyed a great reputation 
during the middle ages.  Works on geometrical subjects were 
found in the Bibliotheque nationale de Paris in 1834 
by E. A. Sedillot; other manuscripts are preserved in the 
Bodleian library at Oxford and in the library of Leiden. 

See Casiri, Bibl.  Arab.  Hisp.  Escur.; J. E. Montucla, 
Histoire des mathemaltiques (1758); and E. A. Sedillot, 
Materiaux pour l'histoire des sciences mathematiques. 

ALI, in full, 'ALI BEN ABU TALIB (c. 600-661), the 
fourth of the caliphs or successors of Mahomet, was born at 
Mecca about the year A.D. 600. His father, Abu Talib, was 
an uncle of the prophet, and Ali himself was adopted by Mahomet 
and educated under his care.  As a mere boy he distinguished 
himself by being one of the first to declare his adhesion 
to the cause of Mahomet, who some years afterwards gave him 
his daughter Fatima in marriage.  Ali proved himself to be 
a brave and faithful soldier, and when Mahomet died without 
male issue, a few emigrants thought him to have the best 
claim to succeed him.  Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, however, 
occupied this position before him, and it was not until 
656, after the murder of Othman, that he assumed the title of 
caliph.  The fact that he took no steps to prevent this murder 
is, perhaps, the only real blot upon his character.  Almost 
the first act of his reign was the suppression of a rebellion 
under Talha and Zobair, who were instigated by Ayesha, 
Mahomet's widow, a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief 
hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate.  The rebel 
army was defeated at the ``Battle of the Camel,'' near Bassorah 
(Basra), the two generals being killed, and Ayesha taken 
prisoner.  Ali soon afterwards made Kufa his capital.  His 
next care was to get rid of the opposition of Moawiya, who 
had established himself in Syria at the head of a numerous 
army.  A prolonged battle took place in July 657 in the 
plain of Siffin (Suffein), near the Euphrates; the fighting 
was at first, it is said, in favour of Ali, when suddenly 
a number of the enemy, fixing copies of the Koran to the 
points of their spears, exclaimed that ``the matter ought to 
be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Moslems 
to shed each other's blood.'' The superstitious soldiers of 
Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue 
be referred to arbitration (see further CALIPHATE, section 
B. 1). Abu Musa was appointed umpire on the part of Ali, 
and `Amr-ibn-el-Ass, a veteran diplomatist, on the part of 
Moawiya.  It is said that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would 
be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should 
reign, and asked him to give his decision first.  Abu Musa 
having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Moawiya, `Amr 
declared that he also deposed Ali, and announced further that 
he invested Moawiya with the caliphate.  This treacherous 
decision (but see CALIPHATE, ib.) greatly injured the 
cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of 
Egypt.  After much indecisive fighting, Ali found his position 
so unsatisfactory that according to some historians he made an 
agreement with Moawiya by which each retained his own dominions 
unmolested.  It chanced, however--according to a legend, the 
details of which are quite uncertain--that three of the fanatic 
sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate 
Ali, Moawiya and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds 
among the faithful.  The only victim of this plot was Ali, 
who died at Kufa in 661, of the wound inflicted by a poisoned 
weapon.  A splendid mosque called Meshed Ali was afterwards 
erected near the city, but the place of his burial is unknown.  
He had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is 
said, thirty-three children, one of whom, Hassan, a son of 
Fatima, succeeded him in the caliphate.  His descendants by 
Fatima are known as the Fatimites (q.v.; see also EGYPT: 
History, Mahommedan period).  The question of Ali's right to 
succeed to the caliphate is an article of faith which divided 
the Mahommedan world into two great sects, the Sunnites and the 
Shiites, the former denying, and the latter affirming, his 
right.  The Turks, consequently, hold his memory in abhorrence; 
whereas the Persians, who are generally Shi`as, venerate 
him as second only to the prophet, call him the ``Lion of 
God'' (Sher-i-Khuda), and celebrate the anniversary of his 
martyrdom.  Ali is described as a bold, noble and generous 
man, ``the last and worthiest of the primitive Moslems, who 
imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the 
prophet himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity 
of his example.'' It is maintained, on the other hand, that his 
motives were throughout those of ambition rather than piety, and 
that, apart from the tragedy of his death, he would have been 
an insignificant figure in history. (See further CALIPHATE.) 

In the eyes of the later Moslems he was remarkable for learning 
and wisdom, and there are extant collections (almost all 
certainly spurious) of proverbs and verses which bear his name: 
the Sentences of Ali (Eng. trans., William Yule, Edinburgh, 
1832); H. L. Fleischer, Alis hundert Spruche (Leipz. 1837); 
the Divan, by G. Kuypert (Leiden, 1745, and at Bulak, 1835); C. 
Brockelmann, Gesch. d. arabisch.  Lit. (vol. i., Weimar, 1899). 

ALI, known as ALI BEY (1766-1818), the assumed name 
of DOMINGO BADIA Y LEBLICH, a Spanish traveller, born in 
1766.  After receiving a liberal education he devoted particular 
attention to the Arabic language, and made a special study 
of the manners and customs of the East.  Pretending to be 
a descendant of the Abbasids, Badia in 1803 set out on his 
travels.  Under the name of Ali Bey el Abbassi, and in Mussulman 
costume, he visited Morocco, Tripoli, Egypt, Arabia and 
Syria, and was received as a person of high rank wherever he 
appeared.  He made the pilgrimage to Mecca, at that time 
in the possession of the Wahabites.  On his return to Spain 
in 1807 he declared himself a Bonapartist, and was made 
intendant first of Segovia and afterwards of Cordova.  
When the French were driven from Spain, Badia was compelled 
to take refuge in France, and there in 1814, published an 
account of his travels under the title of Voyage d'Aii Bey 
en Asie et en Afrique, &c. A few years later he set out 
again for Syria, under the assumed name of Ali Othman, and, 
it is said, accredited as a political agent by the French 
government.  He reached Aleppo, and there died on the 30th of 
August 1818, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. 

An account of his Eastern adventures was published in London in 
1816, in two volumes, entitled Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, 
Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey, between the years 1803 and 1807. 

ALI, known as ALI PASHA (1741-1822),Turkish pasha of 
Iannina, surnamed Arslan, ``the Lion,'' was born at Tepeleni, 
a village in Albania at the foot of the Klissura mountains.  
He was one of the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some 
time held the hereditary office of bey of Tepeleni.  His father, 
a man of mild and peaceful disposition, was killed when Ali 
was fourteen years old by neighbouring chiefs who seized his 
territories.  His mother Khamko, a woman of extraordinary 
character, thereupon herself formed and led a brigand band, 
and studied to inspire the boy with her own fierce and 
indomitable temper, with a view to revenge and the recovery 
of the lost property.  In this wild school Ali proved an apt 
pupil.  A hundred tales, for the most part probably mythical, 
are told of his powers and cunning during the years he spent 
among the mountains as a brigand leader.  At last, by a 
picturesque stratagem, he gained possession of Tepeleni and 
took vengeance on his enemies.  To secure himself from rivals 
in his own family, he is said to have murdered his brother 
and imprisoned his mother on a charge of attempting to poison 
him.  With a view to establishing his authority he now made 
overtures to the Porte and was commissioned to chastise the 
rebellious pasha of Scutari, whom he defeated and killed.  He 
also, on pretext of his disloyalty, put to death Selim, pasha of 
Delvinon.  Ali was now confirmed in the possession of all 
his father's territory and was also appointed lieutenant to 
the derwend-pasha of Rumelia, whose duty it was to suppress 
brigandage and highway robbery.  This gave him an opportunity 
for amassing wealth by sharing the booty of the robbers in 
return for leaving them alone.  The disgrace that fell in 
consequence on his superior, Ali escaped by the use of lavish 
bribes at Constantinople.  In 1787 he took part in the war 
with Russia, and was rewarded by being made pasha of Trikala 
in Thessaly and derwend-pasha of Rumelia.  It now suited his 
policy to suppress the brigands, which he did by enlisting 
most of them under his own banner.  His power was now already 
considerable; and in 1788 he added to it by securing his 
nomination to the pashalik of Iannina by a characteristic trick. 

The illiterate brigand, whose boyish ambition had not 
looked beyond the recovery of his father's beylick, was now 
established as one of the most powerful viziers under the 
Ottoman government.  Success only stimulated his insatiable 
ambition.  He earned the confidence of the Porte by the cruel 
discipline he maintained in his own sanjak, and the regular 
flow of tribute and bribes which he directed to Constantinople; 
while he bent all his energies to extending his territories 
at the expense of his neighbours.  The methods he adopted 
would have done credit to Cesare Borgia; they may be studied 
in detail in the lurid pages of Pouqueville.  Soon, by 
one means or another, his power was supreme in all central 
Albania.  Two main barriers still obstructed the realization 
of his ambition, which now embraced Greece and Thessaly, as 
well as Albania, and the establishment in the Mediterranean 
of a sea-power which should rival that of the dey of Algiers.  
The first of these was the resistance of the little Christian 
hill community of Suli; the second the Venetian occupation 
of the coast, within a mile of which--by convention with the 
Porte--no Ottoman soldier might penetrate.  It needed three 
several attacks before, in 1803, Ali conquered the Suliot 
stronghold.  Events in western Europe gave him an earlier 
opportunity of becoming master of most of the coast towns.  Ali 
had watched with interest the career of Bonaparte in Italy, and 
the treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which blotted the Venetian 
republic from the map of Europe, gave him the opportunity he 
desired.  In response to his advances commissaries of the 
French republic visited him at Iannina and, affecting a 
sudden zeal for republican principles, he easily obtained 
permission to suppress the ``aristocratic'' tribes on the 
coast.  His plans in Albania were interrupted by the war against 
Pasvan Oglu, the rebellious pasha of Widdin, in which Ali 
once more did good service.  Meanwhile international politics 
had developed in a way that necessitated a change in Ali's 
attitude.  Napoleon's occupation of the Ionian Islands and 
his relations with Ali had alarmed Russia, which feared that 
French influence would be substituted for her own in the 
Balkan peninsula; and on the 5th of September 1798 a formal 
alliance, to which Great Britain soon after acceded, was signed 
on behalf of the emperor Paul and the sultan.  Once more Ali 
turned Turk and fought against his recent friends with such 
success that in the end he remained in possession of Butrinto, 
Prevesa and Vonitza on the coast, was created pasha ``of three 
tails'' by the sultan, and received the congratulations of 
Nelson.  But the campaign of Austerlitz followed, then the 
peace of Pressburg which guaranteed to Napoleon the former 
dominions of Venice, and finally the treaty of Tilsit, 
which involved, among other things, the withdrawal of the 
Russians from the Ionian Islands and the Albanian coast. 

Amid all the momentous changes the part of Ali was a difficult 
one.  He had, moreover, to contend with domestic enemies, 
and with difficulty defeated a league formed against 
him by some Mussulman tribes, under Ibrahim of Berat and 
Mustapha of Delvinon, and the Suliots.  He knew, however, 
how to retain the confidence of the sultan, who not only 
confirmed him in the possession of the whole of Albania 
from Epirus to Montenegro, but even in 1799 appointed him 
vali of Rumelia, an office which he held just long enough 
to enable him to return to Iannina laden with the spoils of 
Thessaly.  He was now at the height of his power.  In 1803 
the Suliot stronghold fell; and he was undisputed master of 
Epirus, Albania and Thessaly, while the pashalik of the Morea 
was held by his son Veli, and that of Lepanto by his son 
Mukhtar.  Only the little town of Parga held out against him 
on the coast; and in order to obtain this he once more in 1807 
entered into an alliance with Napoleon.  The French emperor, 
however, preferred to keep Parga, as a convenient gate into 
the Balkan peninsula, and it remained in French occupation 
until March 1814, when the Pargiots rose against the garrison 
and handed the fortress over to the British to save it from 
falling into the hands of Ali, who had bought the town from 
the French commander, Cozi Nikolo, and was closely investing 
it.  The cordial relations between Napoleon and the pasha 
of Iannina had not long continued.  Ali was angered by the 
refusal to surrender Parga and justly suspicious of the 
ambitions which this refusal implied; he could not feel 
himself secure with the Ionian Islands and the Dalmatian 
coast in the hands of a power whose plans in the East were 
notorious, and he was glad enough to avail himself of Napoleon's 
reverses in 1812 to help to rid himself of so dangerous a 
neighbor.  His services to the allies received their reward.  
Still bent on obtaining Parga, he sent a special mission to 
London, backed by a letter from Sir Robert Liston, the British 
ambassador at Constantinople, calling the attention of the 
government to the pasha's supereminent qualities'' and his 
services against the French.  After some hesitation it was 
decided to evacuate Parga and hand it over to the Ottoman 
government, i.e. Ali Pasha.  The convention by which this 
was effected was ultimately signed on the 17th of May 1817, 
being ratified by the sultan on the 24th of April 1819.  
By its terms the Pargiots were to receive an asylum in the 
islands, the Ottoman government undertaking to pay compensation 
for their property.  Ali had no difficulty in finding the 
money; the garrison, as soon as it was received, marched 
out with the bulk of the inhabitants; and the last citadel 
of freedom in the Balkans fell to the tyrant of Iannina.1 

Ali's authority in the great part of the peninsula subject to 
him now overshadowed that of the sultan; and Mahmud II., whose 
whole policy had been directed to destroying the overgrown 
power of the provincial pashas, began to seek a pretext for 
overthrowing the Lion of Iannina, whose all-devouring ambition 
seemed to threaten his own throne.  The occasion came in 1820 
when Ali, emboldened by impunity, violated the sanctity of 
Stamboul itself by attempting to procure the murder of his 
enemy Pacho Bey in the very precincts of the palace.  A decree 
of disposition was now issued against the sacrilegious vali, 
who had dared ``to fire shots in Constantinople, the residence 
of the caliph, and the centre of security.'' Its execution was 
entrusted to Khurshid Pasha, with the bulk of the Ottoman forces. 

For two years Ali, now over eighty years of age, held his 
own, in spite of the defection of his vassals and even of his 
sons.  At last, in the spring of 1822, after a prolonged siege 
in his island fortress at Iannina, which even the outbreak 
of the Greek revolt had not served to raise, the intrepid old 
man was forced to sue for terms.  He asked and received an 
interview with Khurshid, was received courteously and dismissed 
with the most friendly assurances.  As he turned to leave the 
grand vizier's tent he was stabbed in the back; his head was 
cut off and sent to Constantinople.  Notwithstanding their 
treason to their father, his sons met with the same fate. 

In spite of the ferocious characteristics which have been 
suggested in the above sketch, Ali Pasha is undoubtedly one 
of the most remarkable, as he is one of the most picturesque, 
figures in modern history; and as such he was recognized 
in his own day.  His court at Iannina was the centre of a 
sort of barbarous culture, in which astrologers, alchemists 
and Greek poets played their part, and was often visited by 
travellers.  Amongst others, Byron came, and has left a record 
of his impressions in ``Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,'' less 
interesting and vivid than the prose accounts of Pouqueville, 
T. S. Hughes and William M. Leake.  Leake (iii. 259) reports 
a reproof addressed by Ali to the French renegade Ibrahim 
Effendi, who had ventured to remonstrate against some 
particular act of ferocity: ``At present you are too young at 
my court to know how to comport yourself. . . . You are not 
yet acquainted with the Greeks and Albanians: when I hang up 
one of these wretches on the plane-tree, brother robs brother 
under the very branches: if I burn one of them alive, the 
son is ready to steal his father's ashes to sell them for 
money.  They are destined to be ruled by me; and no one but Ali 
is able to restrain their evil propensities.'' This is perhaps 
as good an apology as could be made for his character and 
methods.  To the wild people over whom he ruled none was 
needed.  He had their respect, if not their love; he is the hero 
of a thousand ballads; and his portrait still hangs among the 
ikons in the cottages of the Greek mountaineers.  All accounts 
agree in describing him in later life as a man of handsome 
presence, with a venerable white beard, piercing black eyes 
and a benevolent cast of countenance, the effect of which was 
heightened in conversation by a voice of singular sweetness. 

AUTHORITIES.--Apart from the scattered references in the 
published and unpublished diplomatic correspondence of the 
period, contemporary journals and books of travel contain 
much interesting material for the life of Ali. Of these may 
especially be mentioned Francois C. H. L. Pouqueville, Voyage en 
Moree, a Constantinople, en Albanie, &c. (3 vols., Paris, 
1805), of which an English version by A. Plumptre was published 
in 1815; ib. Voyage dans la Grece (5 vols., Paris, 1820, 
1821).  Pouqueville, who spent some time as French resident 
at Iannina, had special facilities for obtaining firsthand 
information, though his emotionalism makes his observations 
and deductions at times somewhat suspect.  Very interesting 
also are Thomas Smart Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania 
(2 vols., 2nd ed., Lond. 1830); John Cam Hobhouse (Lord 
Broughton), A Journey through Albania, &c. . . . during 
the years 1809 and 1810 (Lond., 4to, 1813, a new ed., 2 
vols., 1855); William Martin Leake, Travels in Northern 
Greece (4 vols., Lond. 1845).  See also Pouqueville's Hist. 
de la regeneration de la Grece, 1740-1824 (4 vols., 
Paris, 1824, 3rd ed., Brussels, 1825); R. A. Davenport, 
Life of Ali Pasha, vizier of Epirus (1861). (W. A. P.) 

1 In his report on the Ionian Treaty presented to Lord 
Castlereagh at the congress of Vienna in December 1814, Sir 
Richard Church strongly advocated, not only the retention of 
Parga, but that Vonitza, Prevesa and Butrinto also should be 
taken from Ali Pasha and placed under British protection, a 
measure he considered necessary. for the safety of the Ionian 
Islands. ``Ali Pasha,'' he wrote, ``is now busy building 
forts along his coast and strengthening his castles in the 
interior.  In January 1814 he had 14,000 peasants at work on 
the castle of Argiro Castro, and about 1500 erecting a fort at 
Porto Palermo, nearly opposite Corfu.'' In 1810 he had erected 
a fort directly opposite Santa Maura commanding the harbour. 

The fate of Parga created intense feeling at the time in 
England, and was cited by Liberals as a crowning instance of 
the perfidy of the government and of Castlereagh's subservience 
to reactionary tendencies abroad.  The step, however, 
was not lightly taken.  In occupying the town the British 
general had expressly refrained from pledging Great Britain 
to remain there; and the government held that any permanent 
occupation of a post on the mainland carried with it risks of 
complications out of all proportion to any possible benefit. 

ALIAGA, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, about 70 m.  N. by W. of Manila.  Pop. 
(1903) 11,950.  It has a comparatively cool and healthful 
climate, and is pleasantly situated about midway between the 
Pampanga Grande and the Pampanga Chico rivers, and in a large 
and fertile valley of which the principal products are Indian 
corn, rice, sugar and tobacco.  Tagalog is the most important 
language; Ilocano, Pampango and Pangasinan are also used. 

ALIAS (Lat. for ``at another time''), a term used to 
connect the different names of a person who has passed under 
more than one, in order to conceal his identity, or for 
other reasons; or, compendiously, to describe the adopted 
name.  The expression alias dictus was formerly used in 
legal indictments, and pleadings where absolute precision was 
necessary in identifying the person to be charged, as ``John 
Jones, alias dictus James Smith.'' The adoption of a name 
other than a man's baptismal or surname need not necessarily 
be for the purpose of deception or fraud; pseudonyms or 
nicknames fall thus under the description of an alias. 
Where a person is married under an alias, the marriage is 
void when both parties have knowingly and wilfully connived 
at the adoption of the alias, with a fraudulent intention.  
But if one of the parties to a marriage has acquired a new 
name by use and reputation, or if the true name of any one of 
the parties is not known to the other, the use of an alias 
in these cases will not affect the validity of the marriage. 

ALIBI (Lat. for ``elsewhere''), in law, the defence resorted 
to in criminal prosecutions, where the person charged alleges 
that he was so far distant at the time from the place where the 
crime was committed that he could not have been guilty.  An alibi, 
if substantiated, is the most conclusive proof of innocence. 

ALICANTE, a province of south-eastern Spain; bounded 
on the N. by Valencia, W. by Albacete and Murcia, S. by 
Murcia, and S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 
470,149; area, 2096 sq. m.  Alicante was formed in 1833 of 
districts taken from the ancient provinces of Valencia and 
Murcia, Valencia contributing by far the larger portion.  
The surface of the province is extremely diversified.  In 
the north and west there are extensive mountain ranges of 
calcareous formation, intersected by deep ravines; while 
farther south the land is more level, and there are many 
fertile valleys.  On the Mediterranean coast, unhealthy 
salt marshes alternate with rich plains of pleasant and 
productive huertas or gardens, such as those of Alicante and 
Denia.  Apart from Segura, which flows from the highlands 
of Albacete through Murcia and Orihuela to the sea, there is 
no considerable river, but a few rivulets flow east into the 
Mediterranean.  The climate is temperate, and the rainfall very 
slight.  Despite the want of rivers and of rain, agriculture is 
in a flourishing condition.  Many tracts, originally rocky and 
sterile, have been irrigated and converted into vineyards and 
plantations.  Cereals are grown, but the inhabitants prefer 
to raise such articles of produce as are in demand for 
export, and consequently part of the grain supply has to be 
imported.  Esparto grass, rice, olives, the sugar-cane, and 
tropical fruits and vegetables are largely produced.  Great 
attention is given to the rearing of bees and silk-worms; and 
the wine of the province is held in high repute throughout Spain, 
while some inferior kinds are sent to France to be mixed with 
claret.  There are iron and lignite mines, but the output is 
small.  Mineral springs are found at various places.  The 
manufactures consist of fine cloths, silk, cotton, woollen 
and linen fabrics, girdles and lace, paper, hats, leather, 
earthenware and soap.  There are numerous oil mills and brandy 
distilleries.  Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the 
carrying trade, while the fisheries on the coast are also 
actively prosecuted, tunny and anchovies being caught in great 
numbers.  Barilla is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores, 
and some of the saline marshes, notably those near Torrevieja, 
yield large supplies of salt.  The principal towns, which are 
separately described, include Alicante, the capital (pop. 1900, 
50,142), Crevillente (10,726), Denia (12,431), Elche (27,308), 
Novelda (11,388), Orihuela (28,530), and Villena (14,099).  
Other towns, of less importance, are Aspe (7927), Cocentaina 
(7093), Monovar (10,601), Pinoso (7946), and Villajoyosa (8902). 

ALICANTE, the capital of the Spanish province described above, 
and one of the principal seaports of the country.  Pop. (1900) 
50,142.  It is situated in 38 deg.  21' N. and 0 deg.  26' W., on 
the Bay of Alicante, an inlet of the Mediterranean Sea. It 
is the termini of railways from Madrid and Murcia.  From its 
harbour, the town presents a striking picture.  Along the 
shore extends the Paseo de los Martires, a double avenue of 
palms; behind this, the white flat-roofed houses rise in the 
form of a crescent towards the low hills which surround the 
city, and terminate, on the right, in a bare rock, 400 ft. 
high, surmounted by an ancient citadel.  Its dry and equable 
climate renders Alicante a popular health-resort.  The 
city is an episcopal see, and contains a modern cathedral. 

The bay affords good anchorage, but only small vessels can come 
up to the two moles.  The harbour is fortified, and there is 
a small lighthouse on the eastern mole; important engineering 
works, subsidized by the state, were undertaken in 1902 to 
provide better accomodation.  In the same year 1737 vessels 
of 939,789 tons entered the port.  The trade of Alicante 
consists chiefly in the manufacture of cotton, linen and woollen 
goods, cigars and confectionery; the importation of coal, 
iron, machinery, manures, timber, oak staves and fish; and 
the exportation of lead, fruit, farm produce and red wines, 
which are sent to France for blending with better vintages.  
Fine marble is procured in the island of Plana near the coast. 

Alicante was the Roman Lucentum; but, despite its 
antiquity, it has few Roman or Moorish remains.  In 718, it 
was occupied by the Moors, who were only expelled in 1304, 
and made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the city in 
1331.  Alicante was besieged by the French in 1709, and by 
the Federalists of Cartagena in 1873.  For an account of 
the events which led up to these two sieges, see SPAIN., 

For further details of the local history, see J. Pastor 
de la Roca, Historia general de la ciudad y castillo de 
Alicante, &c. (Alicante, 1854); and the Ensayo biografico 
bibliografico de escritores de Alicante y de su provincia, 
by M. R. Garcia and A. Montero y Perez (Alicante, 1890). 

ALICE MAUD MARY, GRAND-DUCHESS OF HESSE-DARMSTADT 
(1843-1878), second daughter and third child of Queen 
Victoria, was born at Buckingham Palace, on the 25th of April 
1843.  A pretty, delicate-featured child--``cheerful, merry, 
full of fun and mischief,'' as her elder sister described 
her--fond of gymnastics, a good skater and an excellent 
horsewoman, she was a general favourite from her earliest 
days.  Her first years were passed without particular incident 
in the home circle, where the training of their children was 
a matter of the greatest concern to the queen and the prince 
consort.  Among other things, the royal children were encouraged 
to visit the poor, and the effect of this training was very 
noticeable in the later life of Princess Alice.  After the 
marriage of the Princess Royal in 1858, the new responsibilities 
devolving upon Princess Alice, as the eldest daughter at 
home, called forth the higher traits of her character, and 
brought her into still closer relationship with her parents, 
and especially with her father.  In the summer of 1860, at 
Windsor Castle, Princess Alice first met her future husband, 
Prince Louis of Hesse.  An attachment quickly sprang up, and 
on the prince's second visit in November they were formally 
engaged.  In the following year, on the announcement of the 
contemplated marriage, the House of Commons unanimously voted 
a dowry of L. 30,000 and an annuity of L. 6000 to the princess.  
In December 1861, while preparations were being made for the 
marriage, the prince consort was struck down with typhoid fever, 
and died on the 14th.  Princess Alice nursed her father during 
his short illness with the utmost care, and after his death 
devoted herself to comforting her mother under this terrible 
blow.  Her marriage took place at Osborne, on the 1st of July 
1862.  The princess unconsciously wrote her own biography 
from this period in her constant letters to Queen Victoria, 
a selection of which, edited by Dr. Carl Sell, were allowed 
to be printed in 1883.  These letters give a complete picture 
of the daily life of the duke and duchess, and they also 
show the intense love of the latter for her husband, her 
mother and her native land.  She managed to visit England 
every year, and it was at her special request that when 
she died her husband laid an English flag upon her coffin. 

In the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Hesse- 
Darmstadt was upon the side of the Austrians; Prince Louis 
accompanied his troops to the front, and was duly appointed 
by the grand-duke to the command of the Hessian division.  
This was a time of intense trial to the princess, whose 
husband and brother-in-law, the crown prince of Prussia, were 
necessarily fighting upon opposite sides.  The duke of Hesse 
also took part in the principal battles of the Franco-Prussian 
war, while the duchess was actively engaged in organizing 
hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded.  The death 
of the duke's father, Prince Charles of Hesse, on the 20th 
of March 1877, was followed by that of the grand-duke on the 
13th of June, and Prince Louis succeeded to the throne as 
Grand Duke Louis IV. In the summer of 1878 the grand-duke and 
duchess, with their family, came again to England, and went 
to Eastbourne, where the duchess remained for some time.  
She returned to Darmstadt in the autumn, and on the 8th of 
November 1878 her daughter, Princess Victoria, was attacked by 
diphtheria.  Three more of her children, as well as her 
husband, quickly caught the disease, and the youngest, ``May,'' 
succumbed on the 16th.  On the 7th of December the princess 
was herself attacked, and, being weakened by nursing and 
anxiety, had not strength to resist the disease, which proved 
fatal on the 14th of December, the seventeenth anniversary of 
her father's death.  She left one son and four daughters. . 

See Carl Sell, Alice: Mittheilungen aus ihrem Leben und Briefen, 
&c. (Darmstadt, 1883), with English translation by the Princess 
Christian, Alice: biographical sketch and letters (1884). (G. F. B.) 

ALIDADE (from the Arab.), the movable index of a graduated 
arc, used in the measurement of angles.  The word is used 
also to designate the supporting frame or arms carrying 
the microscopes or verniers of a graduated circle. 

ALIEN (Lat. alienus), the technical term applied by 
British constitutional law to anyone who does not enjoy the 
character of a British subject; in general, a foreigner who 
for the purposes of any state comes into certain domestic 
relations with it, other than those applying to native-born or 
naturalized citizens, but owns allegiance to a foreign sovereign. 

English law, save with the special exceptions mentioned, admits 
to the character of subjects all who are born within the king's 
allegiance, that is, speaking generally, within the British 
dominions.  In the celebrated question of the post-nati in 
the reign of James I. of England, it was found, after solemn 
trial, that natives of Scotland born before the union of the 
crowns were aliens in England, but that, since allegiance 
is to the person of the king, those born subsequently were 
English subjects.  A child born abroad, whose father or whose 
grandfather on the father's side was a British subject, may 
claim the same character unless at the time of his birth 
his father was an attainted traitor, or in the service of 
a state engaged in war against the British empire (4th Geo. 
II. c. 21). Owing to this exceptional provision some sons of 
Jacobite refugees born abroad, who joined in the rebellion of 
1745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of war. 

It has been enacted in the United Kingdom with regard to the 
national status of women and children that a married woman 
is to be deemed a subject of the state of which her husband 
is for the time being a subject; that a natural-born British 
woman, having become an alien by marriage, and thereafter 
being a widow, may be rehabilitated under conditions slightly 
more favourable than are required for naturalization; that 
where a father or a widow becomes an alien, the children in 
infancy becoming resident in the country where the parent 
is naturalized, and being naturalized by the local law, 
are held to be subjects of that country; that those of a 
father or of a widow readmitted to British nationality or 
who obtains a certificate of naturalization, becoming during 
infancy resident with such parent in the British dominions 
in the former case or in the United Kingdom in the latter, 
become readmitted or naturalized (Naturalization Act 1870, 
s. 10). The nationality of children not covered by these 
enactments is not affected by the change of their parents' 
nationality.  The same statute provides that a declaration of 
alienage before a justice of peace or other competent judge, 
having the effect of divesting the declarant of the character 
of a British subject, may be made by a naturalized British 
subject desiring to resume the nationality of the country 
to which he originally belonged, if there be a convention 
to that effect with that country; by natural-born subjects 
who were also born subjects of another state according to 
its law; or by persons born abroad having British fathers. 

Naturalization, which means conferring the character of a subject, 
may now, under the act of 1870, be obtained by applying to the 
home secretary and producing evidence of having resided for not 
less than five years in the United Kingdom, or of having been 
in the service of the crown for not less than five years, and 
of intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under the 
crown.  Such a certificate may be granted by the secretary 
of state to one naturalized previously to the passing of the 
act, or to a British subject as to whose nationality a doubt 
exists, or to a statutory alien, i.e. one who has become 
an alien by declaration in pursuance of the act of 1870. 

In the United States the separate state laws largely determine 
the status of an alien, but subject to Federal treaties. (For 
further particulars see ALLEGIANCE and NATURALIZATION.) 

Many of the disabilities to which aliens were subject in the 
United Kingdom, either by the common law or under various acts 
of parliament, have been repealed by the Naturalization Act 
1870.  It enables aliens to take, acquire, hold and dispose 
of real and personal property of every description, and to 
transmit a title to it, in all respects as natural-born British 
subjects.  But the act expressly declares that this relaxation of 
the law does not qualify aliens for any office or any municipal, 
parliamentary or other franchise, or confer any right of a 
British subject other than those above expressed in regard to 
property, nor does it affect interests vested in possession 
or expectancy under dispositions made before the act, or by 
devolution of law on the death of any one dying before the 
act.  A ship, any share in which is owned by an alien, shall 
not be deemed a British ship (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, s. 
i.) By the Juries Act 1870, s. 8, aliens who have been domiciled 
for ten years in England or Wales, if in other respects duly 
qualified, are liable to serve on juries or inquests in England 
or Wales; and by the Naturalization Act 1870, s. 5, the ahens' 
old privilege of being tried by a jury de medietate linguae 
(that is, of which half were foreigners), was abolished. 

It seems to be a rule of general public law that an alien 
can be sent out of the realm by exercise of the crown's 
prerogative; but in modern English practice, whenever it seems 
necessary to expel foreigners (see EXPULSION), a special 
act of parliament has to be obtained for the purpose, unless 
the case falls within the extradition acts or the Aliens Act 
1905.  The latter prohibits the landing in the United Kingdom 
of undesirable alien steerage passengers, called in the act 
``immigrants,'' from ships carrying more than twenty alien 
steerage passengers, called in the act ``immigrant ships''; 
nor can alien immigrants be landed except at certain ports 
at which there is an ``immigrant officer,'' to whom power of 
prohibiting the landing is given, subject to a right of appeal 
to the immigration board of the port.  The act contains a number 
of qualifications, and among these empowers the secretary of 
state to exempt any immigrant ship from its provisions if he 
is satisfied that a proper system is maintained to prevent 
the immigration of undesirable persons.  The principal test of 
undesirableness is not having or being in a position to obtain 
the means of supporting one's self and one's dependents, or 
appearing likely from disease or infirmity to become a charge 
on the rates, provided that the immigrant is not seeking to 
avoid prosecution or punishment on religious or political 
grounds, or persecution, involving danger of imprisonment 
or danger to life or limb, on account of religious belief.  
Lunatics, idiots, persons who from disease or infirmity 
appear likely to become a detriment to the public otherwise 
than through the rates, and persons sentenced in a foreign 
country for crimes for which they could be surrendered to that 
country, are also enumerated as undesirable.  Power is also 
given to the secretary of state to expel persons sentenced 
as just mentioned, or, if recommended by the court in which 
they have been convicted, persons convicted of felony or some 
offence for which the court has power to impose imprisonment 
without the option of a fine, or of certain offences against 
the police laws; and persons in receipt of any such parochial 
relief as disqualifies for the parliamentary franchise, or 
wandering without ostensible mean of subsistence, or living 
under insanitary conditions due to overcrowding. (JNO. W.) 

ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another), the 
act or fact of being estranged, set apart or separated.  In 
law the word is used for the act of transfer of property by 
voluntary deed and not by inheritance.  In regard to church 
property the word has come to mean, since the Reformation, a 
transfer from religious to secular ownership. ``Alienation'' 
is also used to denote a state of insanity (q.v..) 

ALIEN-HOUSES, religious houses in England belonging to 
foreign ecclesiastics, or under their control.  They generally 
were built where property had been left by the donors to 
foreign orders to pray for their souls.  They were frequently 
regular ``priories,'' but sometimes only ``cells,'' and even 
``granges,', with small chapels attached.  Some, particularly 
in cities, seem to have been a sort of mission-houses.  
There were more than 100 in England.  Many alien-houses 
were suppressed by Henry V. and the rest by Henry VIII. 

ALIENIST (Lat. alienus, that which belongs to another, 
i.e. is external to one's self), one who specializes 
in the study of mental diseases, which are often included 
in the generic name ``Alienation.'' (See INSANITY.) 

ALIGARH, a city and district of British India in the Meerut 
division of the United Provinces.  The city, also known as 
Koil, was a station on the East Indian railway, 876 m. from 
Calcutta.  Sir Sayad Ahmad Khan, K.C.S.I., who died in 1898, 
founded in 1864 the Aligarh Institute and Scientific Society 
for the translation into the vernacular of western literature; 
and afterwards the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental College, under 
English professors, with an English school attached.  The 
college meets with strong support from the enlightened portion 
of the Mussulman community, whose aim is to raise it to the 
status of a university, with the power of conferring degrees.  
The population (1901) 70,434, showed an increase of 14% in the 
decade.  There are several flour-mills, cotton-presses and a dairy 
farm.  Aligarh Fort, situated on the Grand Trunk road, consists 
of a regular polygon, surrounded by a very broad and deep 
ditch.  It became a fortress of great importance under Sindhia 
in 1759, and was the depot where he drilled and organized 
his battalions in the European fashion with the aid of De 
Boigne.  It was captured from the Mahrtatas under the 
leadership of Perron, another French officer, by Lord Lake's 
army, in September 1803, since which time it has been much 
strengthened and improved.  In the rebellion of 1857 the 
troops stationed at Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from 
murdering their officers, who, with the other residents 
and ladies and children, succeeded in reaching Hathras. 

The district of Aligarh has an area of 1857 sq. m.  It is 
nearly a level plain, but with a slight elevation in the centre, 
between the two great rivers the Ganges and Jumna.  The only 
other important river is the Kali Nadi, which traverses the 
entire length of the district from north-east to south-west.  
The district is traversed by several railways and also by the 
Ganges canal, which is navigable.  The chief trading centre is 
Hathras.  In 1901 the population was 1,200,822, showing an 
increase of 15% in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation.  
There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. 

ALIGNMENT (from Fr. a and ligne, the Lat. linea, a 
line), a setting in line, generally straight, or the way 
in which the line runs; an expression used in surveying, 
drawing, and in military arrangements, the alignment of 
a regiment or a camp meaning the situation when drawn 
up in line or the relative position of the tents.  The 
alignment of a rifle has reference to the way of getting the 
sights into line with the object, so as to aim correctly. 

ALIMENT (from Lat. aliment-um, from alere to nourish), 
a synonym for ``food,'' literally or metaphorically.  
The word has also been used in the same legal sense as 
ALIMONY (q.v..) Aliment, in Scots law, is the sum paid 
or allowance given in respect of the reciprocal obligation 
of parents and children, husband and wife, grandparents and 
grandchildren, to contribute to each other's maintenance.  
The term is also used in regard to a similar obligation 
of other parties, as of creditors to imprisoned debtors, 
the payments by parishes to paupers, &c. Alimentary funds, 
whether of the kind above mentioned, or set apart as such 
by the deed of a testator, are intended for the mere support 
of the recipient, and are not attachable by creditors. 

ALIMENTARY CANAL, in anatomy.  The alimentary canal, strictly 
speaking, is the whole digestive tract from the mouth to the 
anus.  From the one orifice to the other the tube is some 
25 to 30 ft. long, and the food, in its passage, passes 
through the following parts one after the other:--mouth, 
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, caecum, large 
intestines, rectum and anus.  Into this tube at various 
points the salivary glands, liver and pancreas pour their 
secretions by special ducts.  As the mouth (q.v.) and 
pharynx (q.v.) are separately described, the detailed 
description will here begin with the oesophagus or gullet. 

The oesophagus (Gr. oiso, I will carry, and fagein, to 
eat), a muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, stretches 
from the lower limit of the pharynx, at the level of the 
cricoid cartilage, to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.  
It is about 10 in. long (25 cm.) and half to one inch in 
diameter.  At first it lies in the lower part of the neck, 
then in the thorax, and lastly, for about an inch, in the 
abdomen.  As far as the level of the fourth or fifth thoracic 
vertebra it lies behind the trachea, but when that tube ends, 
it is in close contact with the pericardium, and, at the level 
of the tenth thoracic vertebra, passes through the oesophageal 
opening of the diaphragm (q.v.), accompanied by the two 
vagi nerves, the left being in front of it and the right 
behind.  In the abdomen it lies just behind the left lobe of the 
liver.  Both in the upper and lower parts of its course it lies 
a little to the left of the mid line.  Its mucous membrane is 
thrown into a number of longitudinal pleats to allow stretching. 

The stomach (Gr. stomachos) is an irregularly pear-shaped 
bag, situated in the upper and left part of the abdomen.  
It is somewhat flattened from before backward and so has 
an anterior and posterior surface and an upper and lower 
border.  When moderately distended the thick end of the 
pear or fundus bulges upward and to the left, while 
the narrow end is constricted to form the pylorus, by 
means of which the stomach communicates with the small 
intestine.  The cardiac orifice, where the oesophagus 
enters, is placed about a third of the way along the upper 
border from the left end of the fundus, and, between it and 
the pylorus, the upper border is concave and is known as 
the lesser curvature.  From the cardiac to the pyloric 
orifice, round the lower border, is the greater curvature.  
The stomach has in front of it the liver (see fig. 1), the 
diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall, while behind it 
are the pancreas, left kidney, left adrenal, spleen, colon and 
mesocolon.  These structures form what is known as the stomach 
chamber.  When the stomach is empty it contracts into a tubular 
organ which is frequently sharply bent, and the transverse 
colon ascends to occupy the vacant part of the stomach chamber. 

The last inch of the stomach before reaching the pylorus is 


From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. 1.--The Abdominal Viscera in situ, as seen when the abdomen 
is laid open and the great omentum removed (drawn to scale from a 
photograph of a male body aged 56, hardened by formalin injections). 

The ribs on the right side are indicated by Roman numerals; 
it will be observed that the eighth costal cartilage 
articulated with the sternum on both sides.  The subcostal, 
intertubercular, and right and left Poupart lines are drawn 
in black, and the mesial plane is indicated by a dotted 
line.  The intercostal muscles and part of the diaphragm 
have been removed, to show the liver and stomach extending up 
beneath the ribs.  The stomach is moderately distended, and 
the intestines are particularly regular in their arrangement. 


usually tubular and is known as the pyloric canal. Before 
reaching this there is a bulging known as the pyloric vestibule 
(see D. J. Cunningham, Tr. R. Soc. of Edinib. vol. xlv. 
pt. 1, No. 2). The pylorus is an oval opening, averaging 
half an inch in its long axis but capable of considerable 
distension; it is formed by a special development of the 
circular muscle layer of the stomach, and during life is 
probably tightly closed.  The mucous membrane of the stomach 
is thrown into pleats or rugae when the organ is not fully 
distended, while between these it has a mammillated appearance. 

Superficial to the mucous coat is a sub-mucous, consisting 
of loose connective tissue, while superficial to this are 
three coats of unstriped muscle, the inner oblique, the middle 
circular and the outer longitudinal.  The peritoneal coat is 
described in the article on the coelom and serous membranes. 

The small intestine is a tube, from 22 to 25 ft. long, 
beginning at the pylorus and ending at the ileo-caecal 
valve; it is divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum. 

The duodenum is from 9 to 11 in. long and forms a horseshoe 
or C-shaped curve, encircling the head of the pancreas.  It 
differs from the rest of the gut in being retroperitoneal.  
Its first part is horizontal and lies behind the fundus of 
the gall-bladder, passing backward and to the right from the 
pylorus.  The second part runs vertically downward in 
front of the hilum of the right kidney, and into this part 
the pancreatic and bile ducts open.  The third part runs 
horizontally to the left in front of the aorta and vena 
cava, while the fourth part ascends to the left side of 
the second lumbar vertebra, after which it bends sharply 
downward and forward to form the duodeno-jejunal flexure. 

The jejunum forms the upper two-fifths of the rest of 
the small intestine; it, like the ileum, is thrown into 
numerous convolutions and is attached by the mesentery to the 
posterior abdominal wall. (See COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.) 

The ileum is the remaining three-fifths of the small 
intestine, though there is no absolute point at which the 
one ends and the other begins.  Speaking broadly, the jejunum 
occupies the upper and left part of the abdomen below the 
subcostal plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic), 
the ileum the lower and right part.  About 3 ft. from its 
termination a small pouch, known as Meckel's diverticulum, 
is very occasionally found.  At its termination the ileum 
opens into the large intestine at the ileo-caecal valve. 

The caecum is a blind sac occupying the right iliac fossa and 
extending down some two or three inches below the ileo- caecal 
junction.  From its posterior and left surface the vermiform 
appendix protrudes, and usually is directed upward and to the 
left, though it not infrequently hangs down into the true 
pelvis.  This worm-like tube is blind at its end and is 
usually 3 or 4 in. long, though it has been seen as long as 10. 
in.  Its internal opening into the caecum is about 1 in. below 
that of the ileum.  On transverse section it is seen to be 
composed of (1) an external muscular coat, (2) a submucous 
coat, (3) a mass of lymphoid tissue, which appears after 
birth, and (4) mucous membrane.  In many cases its lumen is 
wholly or partly obliterated, though this is probably due to 
disease (see R. Berry and L. Lack, Journ.  Anat. & Phys. 
vol.  H. p. 247).  Guarding the opening of the ileum into 
the caecum is the ileo-caecal valve, which consists of two 
cusps projecting into the caecum; of these the upper forms a 
horizontal shelf, while the lower slopes up to it obliquely.  
Complete absence of the valve has been noticed, and in one 
such case the writer found that no abdominal inconvenience had 
been recorded during life.  The caecum is usually completely 
covered by peritoneum, three special pouches of which are 
often found in its neighbourhood; of these the ileo-colic is 
just above the point of junction of the ileum and caecum, the 
ileocaecal just below that point, while the retro-caecal is 
behind the caecum.  At birth the caecum is a cone, the apex 
of which is the appendix; it is bent upon itself to form a 
U, and sometimes this arrangement persists throughout life 
(see C. Toldt, ``Die Formbildung d. menschl.  Blinddarmes,'' 
Sitz. der Wiener Akad. Bd. ciii.  Abteil. 3, p. 41). 

The ascending colon runs up from the caecum at the level of the 
ileo-caecal valve to the hepatic flexure beneath and behind the 
right lobe of the liver; it is about 8 in. long and posteriorly 
is in contact with the abdominal wall and right kidney.  It is 
covered by peritoneum except on its posterior surface (see fig. 1). 

The transverse colon is variable in position, depending largely 
on the distension of the stomach, but usually corresponding 
to the subcostal plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and 
Artistic).  On the left side of the abdomen it ascends to the 
splenic flexure, which may make an impression on the spleen (see 
DUCTLESS GLANDS), and is bound to the diaphragm opposite the 
eleventh rib by a fold of peritoneum called the phrenico-colic 
ligament.  The peritoneal relations of this part are 
discussed in the article on the coelom and serous membranes. 

The descending colon passes down in front of the left kidney 
and left side of the posterior abdominal wall to the crest 
of the ilium; it is about 6 in. long and is usually empty and 
contracted while the rest of the colon is distended with gas; 
its peritoneal relations are the same as those of the ascending 
colon, but it is more likely to be completely surrounded. 

The iliac colon stretches from the crest of the ilium 
to the inner border of the psoas muscle, lying in the left 
iliac fossa, just above and parallel to Poupart's ligament.  
Like the descending, it is usually uncovered by peritoneum 
on its posterior surface.  It is about 6 in. in length. 

The pelvic colon lies in the true pelvis and forms a 
loop, the two limbs of which are superior and inferior 
while the convexity reaches across to the right side of the 
pelvis.  In the foetus this loop occupies the right 
iliac fossa, but, as the caecum descends and enlarges 
and the pelvis widens, it is usually driven out of this 
region.  The distal end of the loop turns sharply downward 
to reach the third piece of the sacrum where it becomes the 
rectum.  To this pelvic colon Sir F. Treves (Anatomy of 
the Intestinal Canal, London, 1885) has given the name 
of the omega loop.  Formerly the iliac and pelvic colons 
were spoken of as the sigmoid flexure, but Treves and T. 
Jonnesco (Le Colon pelvien pendant la vie intra-uterine, 
Paris, 1892) have pointed out the inapplicability of the 
term, and to the latter author the modern description is due. 

The rectum, according to modern ideas, begins in front of 
the third piece of the sacrum; formerly the last part of the 
O (or omega) loop was described as its first part.  It ends 
in a dilatation or rectal ampulla, which is in contact with 
the back of the prostate in the male and of the vagina in the 
female and is in front of the tip of the coccyx.  The rectum 
is not straight, as its name would imply, but has a concavity 
forward corresponding to that of the sacrum and coccyx. 

When viewed from in front three bends are usually seen, the 
upper and lower of which are sharply concave to the left, 
the middle one to the right.  At the end of the pelvic colon 
the mesocolon ceases, and the rectum is then only covered 
by peritoneum at its sides and in front; lower down the 
lateral covering is gradually reflected off and then only 
the front is covered.  About the junction of the middle and 
lower thirds of the tube the anterior peritoneal covering 
is also reflected off on to the bladder or vagina, forming 
the recto-vesical pouch in the male and the pouch of 
Douglas in the female.  This reflexion is usually about 3 
in. above the anal aperture, but may be a good deal lower. 

The anal canal is the termination of the alimentary tract, 
and runs downward and backward from the lower surface of 
the rectal ampulla between the levatores ani muscles.  It 
is about an inch long and its lateral walls are in contact, 
so that in section it appears as an antero-posterior slit 
(see J. Symington, Journ.  Anat. and Phys. vol. 23, 1888). 

Structure of the Intestine.--The intestine has four coats: 
serous, muscular, submucous and mucous.  The serous or 
peritoneal coat has already been described wherever it is 
present.  The muscular coat consists of unstriped fibres 
arranged in two layers, the outer longitudinal and the inner 
circular (see fig. 2). In the large intestine the longitudinal 
fibres, instead of being arranged evenly round the tube as 
they are in the small, are gathered into three longitudinal 
bands called taeniae (see fig. 1); by the contraction of 
these the large intestine is thrown into a series of sacculi 
or slight pouches.  The taeniae in the caecum all lead to 
the vermiform appendix, and form a useful guide to this 
structure.  In the rectum the three taeniae once more become 
evenly arranged over the whole surface of the bowel, but 
more thickly on the anterior and posterior parts.  The 
circular layer is always thicker than the longitudinal; 
in the small intestine it decreases in thickness from the 
duodenum to the ileum, but in the large it gradually increases 
again, so that it is thickest in the duodenum and rectum. 

The submucous coat is very strong and consists of 
loose areolar tissue in which the vessels break up. 

The mucous coat is thick and vascular (see fig. 2); it 
consists of an epithelial layer most internally which 
forms the intestinal glands (see EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL 
AND GLANDULAR TISSUES.) External to this is the basement 
membrane, outside which is a layer of retiform tissue, and 
this is separated from the submucous coat by a very thin 
layer of unstriped muscle called the muscularis mucosae. In 
the duodenum and jejunum the mucous membrane is thrown into 
a series of transverse pleats called valvulae conniventes 
(see fig. 3); these begin about an inch from the pylorus and 
gradually fade away as the ileum is reached.  About 4 in. 
from the pylorus the common bile and pancreatic ducts form a 
papilla, above which one of the valvulae conniventes makes 
a hood and below which a vertical fold, the frenulum, runs 
downward.  The surface of the mucous membrane of the whole 
of the small intestine has a velvety appearance, due to 
the presence of closely-set, minute, thread-like elevations 
called vilii (see ffg. 2). Throughout the whole length of 
the intestinal tract are minute masses of lymphoid tissue 
called solitary glands (see fig. 2); these are especially 
numerous in the Caecum and appendix, while in the ileum they 
are collected into large oval patches, known as agminated 
glands or Peyer's patches, the long axes of which, 
from half an inch to 4 in. long, lie in the long axis of the 
bowel.  They are always found in that part of the intestine 
which is furthest from the mesenteric attachment.  In the 
interior of the rectum three shelf-like folds, one above 
the other, project into the cavity and correspond to the 
lateral concavities or kinks of the tube.  They are not 
in the same line and the largest is usually on the right 
side.  They are known as the plicae recti or valves of 
Houston. In the anal canal are four or five longitudinal 
folds called the columns of Morgagni. (For further 
details, see Quain's Anatomy, London, 1896; Gray's Anatomy, 
London, 1905; Cunningham's Anatomy, Edinburgh, 1906.) 

Embryology.--The greater part of the alimentary canal is 
formed by the closing-in of the entoderm to make a longitudinal 
tube, ventral and parallel to the notochord.  This tube 
is blind in front and behind (cephalad and caudad), but 
the middle part of its ventral wall is for some distance 
continuous with the wall of the yolk-sac, and this part of the 
canal, which at first opens into the yolk-sac by a very wide 
aperture, is called the mid gut. The part in front of it, 
which lies dorsal to the heart, is the fore gut, while the 
part behind the aperture of the yolk-sac is the hind gut. 

The pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum are 
developed from the fore gut, a good deal of the colon and the 

 From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 
Fig. 3.--Valvulae Conniventes (natural size).
A, As seen in a bit of jejunum which 
has been filled with alcohol and hardened. 

B, A portion of fresh intestine spread out under water. 

rectum from the hind gut, while the mid gut is responsible 
for the rest.  The cephalic part of the fore gut forms the 
pharynx (q.v.), and about the fourth week the stomach 
appears as a fusiform dilatation in the straight tube.  
Between the two the oesophagus gradually forms as the embryo 
elongates.  The opening into the yolk-sac, which at first 
is very wide, gradually narrows, as the ventral abdominal 
walls close in, until in the adult the only indication of the 
connexion between the gut and the yolk-sac is the very rare 
presence (about 2%) of Meckel's diverticulum already referred 
to.  The stomach soon shows signs of the greater and lesser 
curvatures, the latter being ventral, but maintains its straight 
position.  About the sixth week the caecum appears as a lateral 
diverticulum, and, until the third month, is of uniform calibre; 
after this period the terminal part ceases to grow at the 
same rate as the proximal, and so the vermiform appendix is 
formed.  The mid gut forms a loop with its convexity toward 
the diminishing vitelline duct, or remains of the yolk-sac, 
and until the third month it protrudes into the umbilical 
cord.  The greater curvature of the stomach grows more 
rapidly than the lesser, and the whole stomach turns over 
and becomes bent at right angles, so that what was its left 
surface becomes ventral.  This turning over of the stomach 
throws the succeeding part of the intestine into a duodenal 
loop, which at first has a dorsal and ventral mesentery (see 
COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.) The intestine now grows 
very rapidly and is thrown into a series of coils; the caecum 
ascends and passes to the right ventral to the duodenum, and 
presses it against the dorsal wall of the abdomen; then it 
descends toward its permanent position in the right iliac fossa. 

From the ventral surface on the hinder (caudal) closed end 
of the intestinal tube the allantois grows to form the 
placenta and bladder (see URINARY SYSTEM, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 
and PLACENTA), and this region is the cloaca into which 
the alimentary, urinary and generative canals or ducts all 
open, but later two lateral folds appear which, by their 
union, divide the cloaca into a ventral and a dorsal part, 
the former being genito-urinary and the latter alimentary or 
intestinal.  In this way the rectum or dorsal compartment 
is shut off from the genito-urinary.  Later an ectodermal 
invagination at the hind end of the embryo develops and 
forms the anal canal; this is the proctodaeum, and for 
some time it is separated from the hind (caudal) end of the 
rectal part of the mesodaeum (or part of the intestinal 
canal formed from the mesoderm) by a membrane called the 
anal membrane. This is eventually absorbed and the 
digestive tract now communicates with the surface by the anus. 

F. Wood Jones (British Medical Journal, 17th of December 
1904) has given a somewhat different description of the 
development of the cloaca and anus, which better explains the 
various abnormalities met with in this region but requires 
further confirmation before it is generally accepted.  For the 
development of the mouth, pharynx, lungs, liver and pancreas from 
the primitive alimentary canal, the reader is referred to the 
special articles on those structures. (For further details, see W. 
His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1880-1885); C. 
S. Minot's Embryology (New York, 1897); and J. P. M`Murrich, 
Development of the Human Body (London, 1906). (F. G. P.) 

Comparative Anatomy.--The primitive condition of the vertebrate 
alimentary canal may be described as a straight, simple 
tube, consisting of an anterior portion, the stomodaeum, 
formed by an ectodermal invagination, the mesenteron, 
a long median portion lined by endoderm, and a short 
posterior portion, the proctodaeum, formed by ectodermal 
invagination.  In the lower vertebrates the primitive tube 
subserved also the purpose of respiration, and traces of the 
double function remain in the adult structure of all vertebrates 
(see MOUTH, PHARYNX.) In fish, the pharynx, or branchial 
region, suddenly becomes narrower, posterior to the gill-slits, 
to form the oesophagus; in higher animals the oesophagus, 
in the adult, is separated from the primitive pharyngeal 
region and lies dorsal to it.  Probably, in the primitive 
vertebrata, the entire alimentary canal was lined with ciliated 
cells.  Traces of this ciliation persist in many living 
forms.  In the Ammocoete, the larval form of Petromyzon 
(see CYCLOSTOMATA), the whole canal is ciliated except the 
pharynx and the rectum; in the Dipnoi the epithelium of the 
stomach and the intestines is ciliated; in Selachii that 
of the posterior part of the gullet, and the spiral valve, is 
ciliated; extensive ciliation may occur in almost any region 
of the gut of the lower teleos. tomes, but in the higher 
forms (Teleostei) it is generally absent.  In the latter, 
however, and in higher groups of vertebrates, a peculiar 
striated border on the columnar cells lining the intestinal 
tract has been held to be a final trace of ancestral ciliation. 

The alimentary canal may be conveniently described in three 
divisions, the oesophagus or gullet, the passage by which 
food reaches the stomach, the stomach, typically an expanded 
region in which the food remains for a considerable time 
and is mechanically pulped, mixed with mucus and certain 
digestive juices (see NUTRITION) and partly macerated, 
the intestinal tract or gut, extending from the distal end 
of the stomach to the cloaca or anus, in which the food is 
subjected to further digestive action, but which is above all 
the region in which absorption of the products of digestion 
takes place, the refuse material together with quantities of 
waste matter entering the gut from the blood and liver being 
gradually passed towards the anus for discharge from the body. 

The oesophagus is essentially merely a passage, as straight 
as may be, from the pharynx to the stomach, varying in 
length with the length of the neck and thoracic regions in 
different animals, and in calibre with the nature of the 
food.  It is almost invariably lined with a many-layered 
epithelium, forming a tough coating, readily repaired and 
not easily damaged by hard food masses.  It is occasionally 
separated from the stomach by a slight constriction which may 
be capable of contraction so as to prevent regurgitation.  
There are few exceptions to this structural and functional 
simplicity.  In fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY, Anatomy) the 
swim-bladder is developed as a dorsal outgrowth of the oesophagus 
and may remain in open connexion with it.  In certain Teleosteis 
(e.g.  Liitodeira) it is longer than the length it has to 
traverse and is thrown into convolutions.  In many other 
fish, particularly Selachiis, a set of processes of the 
lining wall project into the cavity near the stomach and have 
been supposed to aid in preventing food particles, or living 
creatures swallowed without injury, escaping backwards into the 
mouth.  In some egg-eating snakes the sharp tips of the 
ventral spines (hypapophyses) of the posterior cervical 
vertebrae penetrate the wall of the oesophagus and are used 
for breaking the shells of the eggs taken as food.  In some 
aquatic Chelonians, the food of which consists chiefly of 
seaweeds, the lining membrane is produced into pointed processes 
backwardly directed.  In birds this region frequently presents 
peculiarities.  In Opisthocomus it forms an enormously 
wide double loop, hanging down over the breast-bone, which 
is peculiarly flattened and devoid of a keel in the anterior 
portion.  In many birds part of the oesophagus may be 
temporarily dilated, forming a ``crop,'' as for instance in 
birds of prey and humming birds.  In the flamingo, many ducks, 
storks, and the cormorant the crop is a permanent although 
not a highly specialized enlargement.  Finally, in the vast 
majority of seed- eating birds, in gallinaceous birds, pigeons, 
sandgrouse, parrots and many Passeres, particularly the 
finches, the crop is a permanent globular dilatation, in which 
the food is retained for a considerable time, mixed with a 
slight mucous secretion, and softened and partly macerated by 
the heat of the body.  Many birds feed their young from the 
soft contents of the crop, and in pigeons, at the breeding 
season, the cells lining the crop proliferate rapidly and 
are discharged as a soft cheesy mass into the cavity, forming 
the substance known as pigeon's milk.  Amongst Mammalia, in 
Rodentia, Carnivora, elephants and ruminants, the wall of 
the oesophagus contains a layer of voluntary muscle, by the 
contraction of which these animals induce anti- peristaltic 
movements and can so regurgitate food into the mouth. 

Stomach.--Where the oesophagus passes into the stomach, the 
lining wall of the alimentary tract changes from a many-layered 
epithelium to a mucous epithelium, consisting of a single layer 
of endodermal cells, frequently thrown into pits or projecting 
as processes; from being chiefly protective, it has become 
secretory and absorbing, and maintains this character to the 
distal extremity where it passes into the epiblast of the 
proctodaeum.  In most cases the course of the alimentary 
canal from the distal end of the oesophagus to the cloaca or 
anus is longer than the corresponding region of the body, and 
the canal is therefore thrown into folds.  The fundamental 
form of the stomach is a sac-like enlargement of the canal, 
the proximal portion of which is continuous with the line 
of the oesophagus, but the distal portion of which is bent 
in the proximal portion, the whole forming an enlarged bent 
tube.  At the distal end of the tube the intestinal tract 
proper begins, and the two regions are separated by a muscular 
constriction.  In fishes the stomach is generally in one of two 
forms; it may be a simple bent tube, the proximal limb of which 
is almost invariably much wider than the distal, anteriorly 
directed limb; or the oesophagus may pass directly into an 
expanded, globular or elongated sac, from the anterior lateral 
wall of which, not far from the oesophageal opening, the duodenum 
arises.  In Batrachia and Reptilia the stomach is in most 
cases a simple sac, marked off from the oesophagus only by 
increased calibre.  In the Crocodilia, however, the anterior 
portion of the stomach is much enlarged and very highly 
muscular, the muscles radiating from a central tendinous 
area on each of the flattened sides.  The cavity is lined by 
a hardened secretion and contains a quantity of pebbles and 
gravel which are used in the mechanical trituration of the 
food, so that the resemblance to the gizzard of birds is well 
marked.  This muscular chamber leads by a small aperture into 
a distal, smaller and more glandular chamber.  In birds the 
stomach exhibits two regions, an anterior glandular region, the 
proventriculus, the walls of which are relatively soft and 
contain enlarged digestive glands aggregated in patches (e.g. 
some Steganopodes), in rows (e.g. most birds of prey) or 
in a more or less regular band.  The distal region is larger 
and is lined in most cases by a more or less permanent lining 
which is thick and tough in birds with a muscular gizzard, 
very slight in the others.  In many birds, specially those 
feeding on fish, the two regions of the stomach are of equal 
width, and are indistinguishable until, on opening the cavity, 
the difference in the character of the lining membrane becomes 
visible.  In other birds the proventriculus is separated 
by a well marked constriction from the posterior and larger 
region.  In graminiferous forms the latter becomes a 
thick-walled muscular gizzard, the muscles radiating from 
tendinous areas and the cavity containing pebbles or gravel. 

In mammals, the primitive form of the stomach consists of a 
more or less globular or elongated expansion of the oesophageal 
region, forming the cardiac portion, and a forwardly curved, 
narrower pyloric portion, from which the duodenum arises.  
The whole wall is muscular, and the lining membrane is richly 
glandular.  In the Insectivora, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and 
in most Edentata, Chiroptera, Rodentia and Primates, this 
primitive disposition is retained, the difference consisting 
chiefly in the degrees of elongation of the stomach and the 
sharpness of the distal curvature.  In other cases the cardiac 
portion may be prolonged into a caecal sac, a condition most 
highly differentiated in the blood-sucking bat, Desmodeus, 
where it is longer than the entire length of the body.  There 
are two cardiac extensions in the hippopotamus and in the 
peccary.  In many other mammals one, two or three protrusions 
of the cardiac region occur, whilst in the manatee and in 
some rodents the cardiac region is constricted off from the 
pyloric portion.  In the Artiodactyla the stomach is always 
complex, the complexity reaching a maximum in ruminating 
forms.  In the Suidae a cardiac diverticulum is partly 
constricted from the general cavity, forming an incipient 
condition of the rumen of true ruminants; the general cavity 
of the stomach shows an approach to the ruminant condition 
by the different characters of the lining wall in different 
areas.  In the chevrotains, which in many other respects show 
conditions intermediate between nonruminant artiodactyles 
and true ruminants, the oesophagus opens into a wide cardiac 
portion, incompletely divided into four chambers.  Three of 
these, towards the cardiac extremity, are lined with villi 
and correspond to the rumen or paunch; the fourth, which 
lies between the opening of the oesophagus and the pyloric 
portion of the stomach, is the ruminant reticulum and its 
wall is lined with very shallow ``cells.'' A groove runs 
along its dorsal wall from the oesophageal aperture to a 
very small cavity lined with low, longitudinally disposed 
folds, and forming a narrow passage between the cardiac and 
pyloric divisions; this is an early stage in the development 
of the omasum, psalterium or manyplies of the ruminant 
stomach.  The fourth or true pyloric chamber is an elongated 
sac with smooth glandular walls and is the abomasum, or rennet 
sack.  In the camel the rumen forms an enormous globular 
paunch with villous walls and internally showing a trace of 
division into two regions.  It is well marked off from the 
reticulum, the ``cells'' of which are extremely deep, forming 
the well-known water-chambers.  The psalterium is sharply 
constricted off from the reticulum and is an elongated chamber 
showing little trace of the longitudinal ridges characteristic 
of this region; it opens directly into the relatively small 
abomasum.  In the true ruminants, the rumen forms a capacious, 
villous reservoir, nearly always partly sacculated, into which 
the food is passed rapidly as the animal grazes.  The food 
is subjected to a rotary movement in the paunch, and is thus 
repeatedly subjected to moistening with the fluids secreted 
by the reticulum, as it is passed over the aperture of that 
cavity, and is formed into a rounded bolus.  Most ruminants 
swallow masses of hairs, and these, by the rotary action of the 
paunch, are aggregated into peculiar dense, rounded balls which 
are occasionally discharged from the mouth and are known as 
``hair-balls'' or ``bezoars.'' The food bolus, when the animal 
is lying down after grazing, is passed into the oesophagus 
and reaches the mouth by antiperistaltic contractions of the 
oesophagus.  After prolonged mastication and mixing with 
saliva, it is again swallowed, but is now passed into the 
psalterium, which, in true ruminants, is a small chamber with 
conspicuous longitudinal folds.  Finally it reaches the large 
abomasum where the last stages of gastric digestion occur. 

In the Cetacea the stomach is different from that found in 
any other group of mammals.  The oesophagus opens directly 
into a very large cardiac sac the distal extremity of which 
forms a long caecal pouch.  At nearly the first third of 
its length this communicates by a narrow aperture into the 
elongated, relatively narrow pyloric portion.  The latter 
is convoluted and constricted into a series of chambers that 
differ in different groups of Cetacea. In the Sirenia 
the stomach is divided by a constriction into a cardiac and 
a pyloric portion, and the latter has a pair of caeca.  In 
most of the Marsupialia the stomach is relatively simple, 
forming a globular sac with the oesophageal and pyloric 
apertures closely approximated; in the kangaroos, on the 
other hand, the stomach is divided into a relatively small, 
caecal cardiac portion and an enormously long sacculated 
and convoluted pyloric region, the general arrangement of 
which closely recalls the large caecum of many mammals. 

Intestinal Tract.--It is not yet possible to discuss the 
general morphology of this region in vertebrates as a group, 
as, whilst the modifications displayed in birds and mammals 
have been compared and studied in detail, those in the 
lower groups have not yet been systematically co-ordinated. 

Fishes.--In the Cyclostomata, Holocephali and a few 
Teleostei the course of the gut is practically straight from 
the pyloric end of the stomach to the exterior, and there is 
no marked differentiation into regions.  In the Dipnoi, a 
contracted sigmoid curve between the stomach and the dilated 
intestine is a simple beginning of the complexity found in other 
groups.  In very many of the more specialized teleosteans, the 
gut is much convoluted, exhibiting a series of watchspring-like 
coils.  In a number of different groups, increased surface for 
absorption is given, not by increase in length of the whole gut, 
but by the development of an internal fold known as the spiral 
valve.  This was probably originally a longitudinal fold 
similar to the typhlosole of chaetopods.  It forms a simple 
fold in the larval Ammocoete, and in its anterior region 
remains straight in some adult fish, e.g.  Polypterus, but 
in the majority of cases it forms a complex spiral, wound 
round the inner wall of the expanded large intestine, the 
internal edge of the fold sometimes meeting to form a central 
column.  It occurs in Cyclostomata, Selachii, Holocephali, 
Chondrostei, Crossopterygii, Amiidae, Lepidosteidae and 
Dipnoi. A set of organs peculiar to fish and known as the 
pyloric caeca are absent in Cyclostomata and Dipnoi, 
in most Selachii and in Amia, but present, in numbers 
ranging from one to nearly two hundred, in the vast majority of 
fish.  These are outgrowths of the intestinal tract near 
the pyloric extremity of the stomach, and their function is 
partly glandular, partly absorbing.  In a few Teleostei 
there is a single caecal diverticulum at the beginning of 
the ``rectum,'' and in the same region a solid rectal gland 
occurs in most elasmobranchs, whilst, again, in the Dipnoi 
a similar structure opens into the cloaca.  These caeca have 
been compared with the colic caeca of higher vertebrates, 
but there is yet no exact evidence for the homology. 

In the Batrachia the course of the intestinal tract is 
nearly straight from the pyloric end of the stomach to the 
cloaca, in the case of the perennibranchiates there being no 
more than a few simple loops between the expanded ``rectum'' 
and the straight portion that leaves the stomach.  In the 
Caducibranchiata the anterior end of the enlarged rectum 
lies very close to the distal extremity of the stomach, and 
the gut, between these two regions, is greatly lengthened, 
forming a loop with many minor loops borne at the periphery 
of an expanse of mesentery, recalling the Meckelian tract of 
birds and mammals.  In the tadpole this region is spirally 
coiled and is still longer relatively to the length of the 
whole tract.  In Hyla and Pipa there is a small caecum 
comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammals. 

In Reptilia the configuration of the intestinal tract does 
not differ much from that in Batrachia, the length and 
complexity of the minor coils apparently varying with the general 
configuration of the body, that is to say, in reptiles with a 
long, narrow, and snake-like body the minor loops of the gut 
are relatively short and unimportant, whilst in those with 
a more spacious cavity, such as chelonians, many lizards and 
crocodiles, the gut may be relatively long and disposed in many 
minor coils.  There is comparatively little differentiation 
between the mid-gut and the gut in cases where the whole 
gut is long; in the others the hind-gut is generally marked 
by an increase of calibre.  A short caecal diverticulum, 
comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammals, is 
present in many snakes and lizards and in some chelonians. 

In fishes, batrachians and reptiles the intestinal tract 
is swung from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by a 
mesentery which is incomplete on account of secondary absorption 
in places, and which grows out with the minor loops of the 
gut.  There are also traces, more abundant in the lower 
forms, of the still more primitive ventral mesentery. 

Intestinal Tract in Birds and Mammals.--There is no doubt but 
that the similarity of the modes of disposition of the alimentary 
tract in birds and mammals points to the probability of the 
chief morphological features of this region in these animals 
having been laid down in some common ancestor, although we 

FIG. 4.--Intestinal Tract of Chauna chavaria. 
c.c. Colic caeca.         p.v. Cut root of portal vein.
d. Duodenum.              r.v. Rectal vein.
g. Glandular patch.       s. Proventriculus.
l.l. Meckel's tract.      y. Meckel's diverticulum, or
l.i. Hind-gut.                   Yolk-sac vestige.
have not yet sufficient exact knowledge of the gut in Pisces, 
Batrachia and Reptilia to find amongst these with any 
certainty the most probable survival from the ancestral 
condition.  The primitive gut must be supposed to have run 
backwards from the stomach to the cloaca suspended from the 
dorsal wall of the body-cavity by a dorsal mesentery.  This 
tract, in the course of phylogeny of the common ancestors 
of birds and mammals, became longer than the straight length 
between its extreme points and, consequendy, was thrown into 
a series of folds.  The mesentery grew out with these folds, 
but the presence of adjacent organs, the disturbance due to 
the outgrowth of the liver, and the secondary relations brought 
about between different portions of the gut, as the out-growing 
loops invaded each other's localities, disturbed the primitive 
simplicity.  Three definite regions of outgrowth, however, 
became conspicuous and are to be recognized in the actual 
disposition of the gut in existing birds and mammals.  The 
first of these is the duodenum. In the vast majority of 
birds, and in some of the simpler mammals, the portion of 
the gut immediately distal of the stomach grows out into a 
long and narrow loop (fig. 4, d), the proximal and distal 
ends of which are close together, whilst the loop itself may 
remain long and narrow, or may develop minor loops on its 
course.  In mammals generally, however, the duodenum is complex 
and is not so sharply marked off from the distal portion 
of the gut as in birds.  The second portion is Meckel's 
tract. It consists of the part generally known as the small 
intestines, the jejunum and ileum of human anatomy, and 



Fig. 5,--Intestinal Tract of Canis vulpes.  S, cut 
end of duodenum; C, caecum; R, cut end of rectum. 


stretches from the distal end of the duodenum to the caecum or 
caeca.  It is the chief absorbing portion of the gut, and in nearly 
all birds and mammals is the longest portion.  It represents, 
however, only a very small part of the primitive straight 
gut, corresponding to not more than two or three somites of the 
embryo.  This narrow portion grows out to form the greater part 
of what is called the pendent loop in mammalian embryology.  
Its anterior or proximal end lies close to the approximated 


Fig. 6.--Intestinal Tract of Macropus bennetti. S, 
cut end of duodenum; R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; 
C2, accessory caecum; C.L, colic loop of hind-gut. 


proximal and distal ends of the duodenal loop, whilst its 
distal end passes into the hind-gut at the colic caecum or 
caeca.  In the embryos of all birds and mammals, the median 
point of Meckel's tract, the part of the loop which has 
grown out farthest from the dorsal edge of the mesentery, is 
marked by the diverticulum caecum vitelli, the primitive 
connexion of the cavity of the gut with the narrowing stalk 
of the yolk-sac (fig. 4, y.) Naturally, in birds where the 
yolk-sac is of great functional importance this diverticulum 
is large, and in a majority of the families of birds persists 
throughout life, forming a convenient point of orientation.  In 
mammals, no doubt in association with the functional reduction 
of the yolk-sac, this diverticulum, which is known as Meckel's 
diverticulum, has less importance, and whilst it has been 
observed in a small percentage of adult human subjects has not 
been recognized in the adult condition of any lower Mammalia. 

In birds, Meckel's tract falls into minor folds or loops, 
the disposition of which forms a series of patterns 
remarkably different in appearance and characteristic of 
different groups.  In fig. 4 an extremely primitive type is 
represented.  In mammals Meckel's tract remains much more 
uniform; it may be short, or increase enormously in length, 
but in either case it falls into a fairly symmetrical shape, 
suspended at the circumference of a nearly circular expanse 
of mesentery.  Where it is short it is thrown into very 
simple minor loops (figs. 5, 6 and 7); where it is long, 
these minor loops form a convoluted mass (figs. 8 abd 9). 

FIG. 7.--Intestinal Tract of Tapir. S, cut end of 
duodenum; R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; CL, colon. 


The third portion of the gut should be termed the hind-gut and 
lies between the caecum or caeca and the anus, corresponding to 
the large intestines, colon and rectum of human anatomy.  It is 
formed from a much larger portion of the primitive straight gut 
than the duodenum and Meckel's tract together, and its proximal 
portion, in consequence, lies very close to the origin of the 
duodenum.  In the vast majority of birds, the hind-gut in the 
adult is relatively extremely short, often being only from 

Fig. 8.--Intestinal Tract of Giraffe. S, cut end of duodenum; 
R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; P.C.L, post-caecal 
loop; S.P, spiral loop; SF, third loop of hind-gut. 


one-eighth to one-thirtieth of the whole length of the 
gut.  A certain number of primitive birds, however, have 
retained a relatively long condition of the hind-gut (fig. 
4), the greatest relative length occurring in struthious 
birds, and particularly in the ostrich, where the hind-gut 
exceeds in length the duodenum and Meckel's tract together.  
Mammals may be contrasted with birds as a group in which 
the hind-gut is always relatively long, sometimes extremely 
long, and in which, moreover, there is a strong tendency to 
differentiation of the hind-gut into regions the characters 
of which are of systematic importance.  The first region is 
the colon, which forms a very simple expansion in mammals 
such as Carnivora (fig. 5), where the whole hind-gut is 
relatively short, or a series of simple loops in mammals 
in which the whole gut has a primitive disposition (e.g.  
Marsupialia, fig. 6). In the odd-toed Ungulata, the colon 
(fig. 7) forms an enormously long loop, the two limbs of which 
are closely approximated and the calibre of which is very 
large.  In Ruminantia (fig. 8) the colon is still more 
highly differentiated, displaying first a simple wide loop, 
then a complicated watchspring-like coil, and finally a very 
long, irregular portion.  In the higher Primates (fig. 9) 
it forms one enormous very wide loop, corresponding to the 
ascending, transverse and descending colons of human anatomy, 
and a shorter distal loop, the omega loop of human anatomy.  
Other striking patterns are displayed in other mammalian groups. 

The second region of the hind-gut is usually known as the rectum. 
and although it is sometimes lengthened it is typically little longer 
than the portion of the primitive straight gut that it represents. 



FIG. 9.--Intestinal Tract of Gorilla. S, cut end of 
duodenum; R, cut end of rectum; C, vermiform appendix of 
caecum; X, X2, X3, cut ends of factors of the portal vein. 



Adaptations of the Intestinal Tract to Function.--The chief 
business of the gut is to provide a vascular surface to which 
the prepared food is applied so that the nutritive material 
may be absorbed into the system.  Overlying and sometimes 
obscuring the morphological patterns of the gut, are many 
modifications correlated with the nature of the food and 
producing homoplastic resemblances independent of genetic 
affinity.  Thus in birds and mammals alike there is a direct 
association of herbivorous habit with great relative length of 
gut.  The explanation of this, no doubt, is simply that 
the vegetable matter which such creatures devour is in a 
form which requires not only prolonged digestive action, 
but, from the intimate admixture of indigestible material, 
a very large absorbing surface.  In piscivorous birds and 
mammals, the gut is very long, with a thick wall and a 
relatively small calibre, whilst there is a general tendency 
for the regions of the gut to be slightly or not at all 
defined.  Fish, as it is eaten by wild animals, contains a 
large bulk of indigestible matter, and so requires an extended 
absorbing surface; the thick wall and relatively small 
calibre are protections against wounding by fish bones.  In 
frugivorous birds the gut is strikingly short, wide and simple, 
whilst a similar change has not taken place in frugivorous 
mammals.  Carnivorous birds and mammals have a relatively short 
gut.  In birds, generally, the relation of the length and 
calibre of the gut to the size of the whole creature is 
striking.  If two birds of similar habit and of the same 
group be compared, it will be found that the gut of the larger 
bird is relatively longer rather than relatively wider.  
The same general rule applies to Meckel's tract in mammals, 
whereas in the case of the hind-gut increase of capacity is 
given by increase of calibre rather than by increased length. 

The Colic Caeca.--These organs lie at the junction of 
the hind-gut with Meckel's tract and are homologous in 
birds and mammals although it happens that their apparent 
position differs in the majority of cases in the two 
groups.  In most birds, the hind-gut is relatively very 
short, and the caecal position, accordingly, is at a very 
short distance from the posterior end of the body. whereas 
in most mammals the hind-gut is very long and the position of 
the caecum or caeca is relatively very much farther from the 
anus.  Next, in most birds, the caeca when present are 
paired, whereas in most mammals there is only a single 
caecum.  On the other hand, in certain birds (herons) as a 
normal occurrence, and in many birds as an individual variation, 
only a single caecum occurs.  In some mammals, e.g. many 
armadillos, in Hyrax and the manatee, the caeca are normally 
paired; in many other (e.g. some rodents and marsupials) 
in addition to the normal caecum there is a reduced second 
caecum, whilst in quite a number of forms the relation of 
the caecum, ileum and colon at their junction is readily 
intelligible on the assumption that the caeca were originally 
paired.  The origin and many of the peculiarities of the 
ileo-caecal valve find their best explanation on this hypothesis. 

The caeca are hollow outgrowths of the wall of the gut, the 
blind ends being directed forwards.  The caecal wall is in 
most cases highly glandular and contains masses of lymphoid 
tissue.  In birds and in mammals this tissue may be so 
greatly increased as to transform the caecum into a solid 
or nearly solid sac, the calibre of which is for the most 
part smaller than that of the unmodified caecum.  In some 
birds, the whole area of the caecum may be modified in 
this way; in mammals, it is generally the terminal portion, 
which then becomes the vermiform appendix, familiar in 
the anthropoid apes, in man and in some rodents.  It is 
difficult to see in this modification merely a degeneration; 
not improbably it is the formation of a new glandular organ. 

The caeca exhibit almost every gradation of development, 
from relatively enormous size to complete absence, and there 
is no definite, invariable connexion between the nature of 
the food and the degree of their development.  In the case 
of birds, it may be said that on the whole the caeca are 
generally large in herbivorous forms and generally small in 
insectivorous, frugivorous, carnivorous and piscivorous 
forms, but there are many exceptions.  Thus, owls and falcons 
have a diet that is closely similar, and yet owls have a 
pair of very long caeca, whilst in the Falconidae these 
organs are much reduced and apparently functionless.  The 
insectivorous and omnivorous rollers, motmots and bee-eaters 
have a pair of large caeca, whilst in passerine birds of 
similar habit the caeca are vestigial glandular nipples.  It 
is impossible to doubt that family history dominates in this 
matter.  Certain families tend to retain the caeca, others 
to lose them, and direct adaptation to diet appears only to 
accelerate or retard these inherited tendencies.  So also 
in mammals, no more than a general relation between diet 
and caecal development can be shown to exist, although the 
large size of the single caecum of mammals is more closely 
associated with a herbivorous as opposed to a carnivorous, 
frugivorous, piscivorous or omnivorous diet than is the case in 
birds.  There is no relationship between diet and the complete 
or partial presence of both members of the primi-pair of caeca in 
mammals, the occurrence of the pair being rather an ``accident'' 
of inheritance than in any direct relation to function. 

LITERATURE.--T.  W. Bridge, in The Cambridge Natural History 
(vol. vii).; D. S. Jordan, A Guide to the Study of Fishes; R. 
Owen, Anatomy of Vertebrates; M. Weber, Die Saugethiere; 
W. H. Flower, The Organs of Digestien in Mammalia; R. 
Wiedersheim, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der 
Wirbelthiere; A. Oppel, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden 
mikroskopischen Anatomie der Wirbelthiere; Chalmers Mitchell, 
``The Intestinal Tract of Birds,'' Transactions of the 
Linn.  Soc. of London (vol. viii., 1901); and ``On the 
Intestinal Tract of Mammals,'' Transactions of the Zool.  
Soc. of London (vol. xvii., 1905). (In the two latter 
memoirs a fuller list of literature is given.) (P. C. M.) 

ALIMONY (from Lat. afere, to nourish), in law the 
allowance for maintenance to which a wife is entitled out of 
her husband's estate for her support on a decree for judicial 
separation or for the dissolution of the marriage.  Though, 
as a rule, payable to a wife, it may, if the circumstances 
of the case warrant it, be payable by the wife to the 
husband.  Alimony is of two kinds, (a) temporary (pendente 
lite), and (b) permanent. Temporary alimony, or alimony 
pending suit, is the provision made by the husband for the 
wife in causes between them to enable her to live during the 
progress of the suit, and is allowed whether the suit is by 
or against the husband and whatever the nature of the suit may 
be.  The usual English practice is to allot as temporary 
alimony about one-fifth of the husband's net income; where 
it appears that the husband has no means or is in insolvent 
circumstances, the court will refuse to allot temporary 
alimony.  So where the wife is supporting herself by her own 
earnings, this fact will be taken into consideration.  And 
where the wife and husband have lived apart for many years 
before the institution of the suit, and she has supported 
herself during the separation, no alimony will be allotted.  Nor 
will the wife be entitled to alimony where she has sufficient 
means of support independent of her husband. Permanent 
alimony is that which is allotted to the wife after final 
decree.  By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1907, the court may, 
if it think fit, on any decree for dissolution or nullity of 
marriage, order that the husband shall, to the satisfaction 
of the court, secure to the wife such a gross sum of money or 
such annual sum of money for any term not exceeding her life, 
as having regard to her fortune (if any), to the ability of 
her husband, and to the conduct of the parties, it may deem 
reasonable.  The court may suspend the pronouncing of its 
decree until a proper deed or instrument has been executed by 
all necessary parties.  The court may also make an order on the 
husband for payment to the wife during their joint lives of a 
reasonable monthly or weekly sum for her maintenance; the court 
may also at any time discharge, modify, suspend or increase 
the order according to the altered means of the husband; the 
court has also power to make provision for children.  Alimony 
is paid direct to the wife or to a trustee or trustees on her 
behalf, but the court may impose any restrictions which seem 
expedient.  We may also describe as a kind of alimony the 
allowance of a reasonable weekly sum not exceeding L. 2 which 
in England, under the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) 
Act 1895, may be given to a married woman on applying to 
a court of summary jurisdiction if she has been forced by 
cruelty to leave her husband or has been deserted by him. 

United States.--Alimony is granted by the courts of the 
several states on much the same principle as in England, though 
in many states the courts of equity as such may grant alimony 
without divorce or separation proceedings independently of 
any statute, on the ground that it is just that the husband 
should support his wife when she lives apart from him for his 
fault, and since the courts of common law provide no remedy 
the courts of equity will.  This is so in Alabama (Brady v. 
Brady, 1905, 39 So. Rep. 237), Kentucky, North Carolina, Iowa, 
California, Ohio, Virginia, South Dakota and the District of 
Columbia.  In other states alimony without such proceedings 
is allowed by statute, and such alimony is now very general 
throughout the United States.  The usual grounds for the 
allowance of it are desertion and such conduct as would amount 
to legal cruelty.  After divorce a vinculo, alimony or 
separate maintenance is sometimes granted on good reason.  
The marriage must be proven as a fact, but a ``common law'' 
marriage, i.e. one established by cohabitation and repute, is 
sufficient.  In several states alimony or maintenance is by 
statute allowed to the husband in certain cases out of the wife's 
property.  This is so in Massachusetts, Virginia, Rhode Island and 
Iowa.  In Oregon he is entitled to one-third of his wife's 
real estate in addition to maintenance on divorce for her 
fault.  The amount of alimony depends upon the circumstances of 
each case as in England.  Permanent alimony is generally more 
than when pendenite lite, and usually one-third the husband's 
income.  It may generally be changed from time to time as the 
circumstances of the parties change.  Judgment for alimony is 
considered a judgment in personam and not in rem, and can 
only be enforced outside the state where rendered in case the 
husband has been personally served with process within that 
state.  The remarriage of the man is not sufficient ground for 
reducing the alimony (Smith v. Smith, 1905, 102 N.W. Rep. 
631), but on remarriage of a woman to one able to support 
her, her former husband being in poor circumstances, it will 
be reduced (Kiralfy v. Kiralfy, 1901, 36 Wisc.  N.S. 407). 

ALIN, OSCAR JOSEF (1846--1900), Swedish historian and 
politician, was born at Falun on the 22nd of December 1846.  
In 1872 he became docent, and in 1882 professor of political 
economy at Upsala, of which university he was afterwards 
rector.  In September 1888 he was elected a member of the 
first chamber of the Riksdag, where he attached himself to 
the conservative protectionist party, over which, from the 
first, he exercised great authority.  But it is as a historian 
that Alin is most remarkable.  Among his numerous works 
the following are especially worthy of note: Bidrag till 
svenska radets historia under. medeltiden (Upsala, 1872); 
Sveriges Historia, 1511-1611 (Stockholm, 1878); Bidrag 
till svenska statsrickets historia (Stockholm, 1884-1887); 
Den svensk-norsk Unionen (Stockholm, 1889-1891), the best 
book on the Norwego-Swedish Union question from the Swedish 
point of view; Fjerde Artiklen af Fredstraktaten i Kiel 
(Stockholm, 1899); Carl Johan och Sveriges yttre politik, 
1810-1815 (Stockholm, 1899); Carl XIV. och Rikets Stander, 
1840-1841 (Stockholm, 1893).  He also edited Sveniska 
Riksdagsakter, 1521-1554 (Stockholm, 1887), in conjunction 
with E. Hildebrand, and Sveriges Grundlagar (Stockholm, 
1892).  He died at Upsala on the 31st of December 1900. 

Obituary notice in Sv. Hist.  Tidssk. (1901). (R. N. B.) 

ALIPUR, a suburb of Calcutta, containing Belvedere 
House, the official residence of the lieutenant-governor of 
Bengal, and a number of handsome mansions.  It lies within 
the limits of the south suburban municipality, and is a 
cantonment of native troops.  On the Calcutta maidan, 
opposite Alipur Bridge, stood two trees under which 
duels were fought.  It was here that the meeting in 1780 
between Warren Hastings and Sir Philip Francis took place. 

ALIQUOT (a Lat. word meaning ``some,'' ``so many''), 
a term generally occurring in the phrase ``aliquot 
part,'' and meaning that one quantity is exactly 
divisible into another; thus 3 is an aliquot part of 6. 

ALIRAJPUR, a native state of India, under the Bhopawar agency 
in Central India.  It lies in Malwa, near the frontier of 
Bombay.  It has an area of 836 sq. m.; and a population (1901) of 
50,185.  The country is hilly, and many of the inhabitants are 
aboriginal Bhils.  It has from time to time been under British 
administration.  The chief, whose title is Rana, is a Rahtor 
Rajput.  He has an estimated revenue of L. 8700, and pays 
a tribute of L. 700.  The Victoria bridge at Alirajpur 
was built to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of 1897. 

ALISMACEAE (from the Gr. alisma, a water-plant mentioned by 
Dioscorides), in botany, a natural order of monocotyledons belonging 
to the series Helobieae, and represented in Britain by the water 
plantain, Alisma Plantago, the arrow-head, Sagittaria, 
the star-fruit, Damasonium, and flowering rush, Butomus 
(from the Gr. bous, ox, temnein, to cut, in allusion to 
leaves cutting the tongues of oxen feeding on them).  They are 
marsh- or water-plants with generally a stout stem (rhizome) 
creeping in the mud, radical leaves and a large, much branched 
inflorescence.  The leaves show a great variety in shape, often 


FIG. 1.--Flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus.) 1, Flower in 
vertical section; 2, horizontal plan of arrangement of flower. 


the same plant, according to their position in, on or above the 
water.  The submerged leaves are long and grass- like, the 
floating leaves oblong or rounded, while the aerial leaves 
are borne on long, thin stalks above the water, and are often 
heart- or arrow-shaped at the base.  The flower-bearing stem 
is tall; the flowers are borne in whorls on the axis as in 
arrow-head, on whorled branchlets as in water plantain or in 
an umbel as in Butomus (fig. 1). The flowers are regular 
and rather showy, generally with three greenish sepals, 
followed in regular succession by three white or purplish 
petals, six to indefinite stamens and six to indefinite free 
carpels.  The floral arrangement thus recalls that of a 
buttercup, a resemblance which extends to the fruit, which is 
a head of achenes or follicles.  The flowers contain honey, 
and attract flies, short-lipped bees or other small insects 
by the agency of which pollination is effected.  The fruit 
of Butomus is of interest in having the seeds borne over 
the inner face of the wall of the leathery pod (follicle). 
Damasonium derives its popular name, star-fruit, from the 
fruits spreading when ripe in the form of a star.  It is a western 


FIG. 2.--Water Plantain (Alisma Plantago.) Plant 
about 3 ft. high. 1, Flower; 2, same in vertical 
section; 3, horizontal plan of flower; 4, mature fruit. 


Mediterranean plant which spreads to the south of England, 
where it is sometimes found in gravelly ditches and pools.  
The order contains about fifty species in fourteen genera, and 
is widely distributed in temperate and warm zones. Alisma 
Plantago (fig. 2), a common plant in Britain (except in the 
north) in ditches and edges of streams, is widely distributed 
in the north temperate zone, and is found in the Himalayas, 
on the mountains of tropical Africa and in Australia. 

ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839), Scottish author, son of 
Patrick Alison, provost of Edinburgh, was born on the 13th of 
November 1757 at Edinburgh.  After studying at the university 
of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, he took orders in 
the Church of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy 
of Brancepeth, near Durham.  In 1784 he married Dorothea, 
youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh.  The next 
twenty years of his life were spent in Shropshire, where he 
held in succession the livings of High Ercall, Roddington and 
Kenley.  In 1800 he removed to Edinburgh, having been appointed 
senior incumbent of St Paul's Chapel in the Cowgate.  For 
thirty-four years he filled this position with much ability, 
his preaching attracting so many hearers that a new and 
larger church was built for him.  His last years were spent at 
Colinton, near Edinburgh, where he died on the 17th of May 
1839.  Alison published, besides a Life of Lord Woodhouselee, 
a volume of sermons, which passed through several editions, 
and a work entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles of 
Taste (1790), based on the principle of association (see under 
AESTHETICS, p. 288).  His elder son, Dr Wilham Pulteney Alison 
(1790-1859), was a distinguished Edinburgh medical professor. 

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, Bart. (1792-1867), the historian, 
was the younger son, and was born at Kenley, Shropshire, on 
the 29th of December 1792.  He studied at the university of 
Edinburgh, distinguishing himself especially in Greek and 
mathematics.  In 1814 he passed at the Scottish bar, but he 
did not at once practise.  The close of the war had opened 
up the continent, and Alison set out in the autumn of 1814 
for a lengthened tour in France.  It was during this period 
that the idea of writing his history first occurred to him.  
A more immediate result of the tour was his first literary 
work of any importance, Travels in France during the Years 
1814-1815, written in collaboration with his brother and A. F. 
Tytler, which appeared in the latter year.  On his return to 
Edinburgh he practised at the bar for some years with very fair 
success.  In 1822 he became one of the four advocates-depute 
for Scotland.  As a result of the experience gained in this 
office, which he held until 1830, he wrote his Principles of 
the Criminal Law of Scotland (1832) and Practice of the 
Criminal Law of Scotland (1833), which in 1834 led to his 
appointment by Sir Robert Peel to the office of sheriff of 
Lanarkshire, which ranks next to a judgeship in the supreme 
court.  The office, though by no means a sinecure, gave him 
time not only to make frequent contributions to periodical 
literature, but also to write the long-projected History 
of Europe, for which he had been collecting materials for 
more than fifteen years.  The history of the period from the 
beginning of the French Revolution till the restoration of 
the Bourbons in 1815 was completed in ten volumes in 1842, 
and met with a success almost unexampled in works of its 
class.  Within a few years it ran through ten editions, and 
was translated into many of the languages of Europe, as well 
as into Arabic and Hindustani.  At the time of the author's 
death it was stated that 108,000 volumes of the library 
edition and 439,000 volumes of the popular edition had been 
sold.  A popularity so widespread must have had some basis of 
merit, and the good qualities of Alison's work lie upon the 
surface.  It brought together, though not always in a 
well-arranged form, an immense amount of information that 
had before been practically inaccessible to the general 
public.  It at least made an attempt to show the organic 
connexion in the policy and progress of the different nations 
of Europe; and its descriptions of what may be called external 
history--of battles, sieges and state pageants--are spirited and 
interesting.  On the other hand the faults of the work are 
numerous and glaring.  The general style is prolix, involved 
and vicious; mistakes of fact and false deductions are to be 
found in almost every page; and the constant repetition of 
trite moral reflections and egotistical references seriously 
detracts from its dignity.  A more grave defect resulted from 
the author's strong political partisanship, which entirely 
unfitted him for dealing with the problems of history in 
a philosophical spirit.  His unbending Toryism made it 
impossible for him to give any satisfactory explanation of 
so complex a fact as the French Revolution, or accurately to 
estimate the forces that were to shape the Europe of the 19th 
century.  A continuation of the History, embracing the period 
from 1815 to 1852, which was completed in four volumes in 
1856, did not meet with the same success as the earlier 
work.  The period being so near as to be almost contemporary, 
there was a stronger temptation, which he seems to have found 
it impossible to resist, to yield to political prejudice, while 
the materials necessary for a clear knowledge of the influences 
shaping European affairs were not as yet accessible.  The book 
is now almost wholly out of date.  In 1845 Alison was chosen 
rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1851 of Glasgow 
University.  In 1852 a baronetcy was conferred upon him, and 
in the following year he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford.  His 
literary activity continued till within a short time of his 
death, the chief works he published in addition to his History 
being the Principles of Population (1840), in answer to 
Malthus; a Life of Marlborough (1847, 2nd edition greatly 
enlarged, 1852); and the Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir C. 
Stewart (1861.) This latter, based on MS. material preserved at 
Wynyard Park, is still of value, not only as the only available 
biography, but more especially because Alison's Tory sympathies 
enabled him to give a juster appreciation of the character 
and work of Castlereagh than the Liberal writers by whom for 
many years he was misjudged and condemned (see LONDONDERRY, 
Robert Stewart, 2nd marquess of).  Three volumes of Alison's 
political, historical and miscellaneous essays were reprinted in 
1850.  He died at Possil House, Glaagow, on the 23rd of May 
1867.  His autobiography, Some Account of my Li/e and 
Writings, edited by his daughter-in-law, Lady Alison, was 
published in 1883 at Edinburgh.  Sir Archibald Alison married 
in 1825 Elizabeth Glencairn, daughter of Colonel Tytler, by 
whom he had three children, Archibald, Frederick and Eliza 
Frances Catherine.  Both sons became distinguished officers. 

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, Bart. (1826-1907), the elder of the 
sons, entered the 72nd Highlanders in 1846.  He served 
at the siege of Sevastopol; and during the Indian Mutiny 
he was military secretary to Sir Colin Campbell and was 
severely wounded at the relief of Lucknow, losing an 
arm.  From 1862 to 1873 he was assistant adjutant-general at 
headquarters, Portsmouth and Aldershot.  He was second in 
command of the Ashanti expedition 1873-1874, and was made a 
K.C.B.  For three years Alison was deputy adjutant-general in 
Ireland, and then, for a few months, commandant of the Staff 
College.  He was promoted to be major-general in 1877, 
and was head of the intelligence branch of the war office 
(1878-1882).  He commanded the troops at Alexandria in 1882 
until the arrival of Sir Garnet Wolseley, led the Highland 
brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and remained in command 
of the army of occupation until 1883.  He commanded at Aldershot 
1883-1888, was for some months adjutant-general to the forces 
during Lord Wolseley's absence in Egypt, was made G.C.B. in 
1887, was promoted general, and became a military member of the 
Council of India in 1889.  He retired in 1893 and died in 1907. 

ALIWAL, a village of British India, in the Ludhiana district 
of the Punjab, situated on the left bank of the Sutlej, and 
famous as the scene of one of the great battles of the 1st Sikh 
War. Late in January 1846 it was held by Ranjur Singh, who had 
crossed the river in force and threatened Ludhiana.  On the 28th 
Sir Harry Smith, with a view to clearing the left or British 
bank, attacked him, and after a desperate struggle thrice pierced 
the Sikh troops with his cavalry, and pushed them into the 
river, where large numbers perished, leaving 67 guns to the 
victors.  The consequence of the victory was the submission 
of the whole territory east of the Sutlej to the British. 

ALIWAL NORTH, a town of South Africa, on the south bank 
of the Orange River, 4300 ft. above the sea, and 282 m. by 
rail N.W. by N. of the port of East London.  Pop. (1904) 
5566, of whom 1758 were whites.  The town, a trading and 
agricultural centre for the N.E. part of the Cape and the 
neighbouring regions of Basutoland and Orange Free State, 
presents a pleasing appearance.  It contains many fine stone 
buildings.  The streets are lined with trees, and water from 
the neighbouring sulphur springs flows along them in open 
channels.  The river, here the boundary between the Cape province 
and Orange Free State, is crossed by a stone bridge 860 ft. 
long.  The sulphur springs, 1 m. from the town, which yield 
over 500,000 gallons daily, are resorted to for the cure 
of rheumatism and skin diseases.  By reason of its dry and 
bracing climate, Aliwal North is also a favourite residence 
of sufferers from chest complaints.  In the neighbourhood are 
stone quarries.  Aliwal North is the capital of a division 
of the province of the same name, with an area of 1330 sq. 
m. and a pop. (1904) of 14,857, of whom 40% are whites. 

Aliwal North was so called to distinguish it from Aliwal 
South, now Mossel Bay, the seaport of the pastoral Grasveld 
district, on the west side of Mossel Bay. Both places were 
named in honour of Sir Harry Smith, governor of Cape Colony 
1847-1852, Aliwal (see above) being the village in the Punjab 
where in 1846 he gained a great Victory over the Sikhs.  
Crossing the Orange River at this spot in September 1848, Sir 
Harry noted that it was ``a beautiful site for a town,'' and 
in the May following the town was founded.  In the early months 
of the Boer War of 1899-1902 Aliwal North was held by the 
Boers.  It was reoccupied by the British in March 1900. 

ALIZARIN, or 1.2 DIOXYANTHRAQUINONE, 

            /CO\
 C6H4    C6H2(OH)2[1.2],
            \CO/
a vegetable dyestuff formerly prepared from madder root (Rubia 
tinctorum) which contains a glucoside ruberythric acid 
(C26H28O14).  This glucoside is readily hydrolysed by 
acids or ferments, breaking up into alizarin and glucose: 

 C26H28O14 + 2H2O = 2C6H12O6 + C14H8O4 
Ruberythric acid = Glucose + Alizarin.
Alizarin was known to the ancients, and until 1868 was obtained 
entirely from madder root.  The first step in the synthetical 
production of alizarin was the discovery in 1868 of C. Graebe 
and C. Liebermann that on heating with zinc dust, alizarin 
was converted into anthracene.  In order to synthesize 
alizarin, they converted anthracene into anthraquinone and 
then brominated the quinone.  The dibrominated product so 
obtained was then fused with caustic potash, the melt dissolved 
in water, and on the addition of hydrochloric acid to the 
solution, alizarin was precipitated.  This process, owing 
to its expensive nature, was not in use very long, being 
superseded by another, discovered simultaneously by the 
above-named chemists and by Sir W. H. Perkin; the method being 
to sulphonate anthraquinone, and then to convert the sulphonic 
acid into its sodium salt and fuse this with caustic soda. 

In practice, the crude anthracene is purified by solution 
in the higher pyridine bases, after which treatment it is 
frequently sublimed.  It is then oxidized to anthraquinone 
by means of sodium dichromate and sulphuric acid in leaden 
vats, steam heated so that the mixture can be brought to the 
boil.  When oxidation is complete the crude anthraquinone 
is separated in filter presses and heated with an excess 
of commercial oil of vitriol to 120 deg.  C., the various 
impurities present in the crude material being sulphonated 
and rendered soluble in water, whilst the anthraquinone is 
unaffected; it is then washed, to remove impurities, and 
dried.  The anthraquinone so obtained is then heated for 
some hours at about 150-160 deg.  C. with fuming sulphuric acid 
(containing about 40-50% SO3), and by this treatment is 
converted into anthraquinone-b-monosulphonic acid.  The 
solution is poured into water and sodium carbonate is added 
to neutralize the excess of acid, when the sodium salt of 
the monosulphonic acid (known as silver salt) separates out 
This is filtered, washed, and then fused with caustic soda, 
when the sulpho-group is replaced by a hydroxyl group, and a 
second hydroxyl group is simultaneously formed; in order to 
render the formation of this second group easier, a little 
potassium chlorate or sodium nitrate is added to the reaction 
mixture.  The melt is dissolved in water and the dyestuff is 
liberated from the sodium salt by hydrochloric or sulphuric 
acid, or is converted into the calcium salt by digestion with hot 
milk of lime, then filtered and the calcium salt decomposed by 
acid.  The precipitated alizarin is then well washed and made 
into a paste with water, in which form it is put on to the market. 

K. Lagodzinski (Berichte, 1895, 28, p. 1427) has synthesized 
alizarin by condensing hemipinic acid [(CH3O)2C6H2(COOH)2] 
with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride.  The 
product on acidification gives a compound C15H12O5.H2O 
which is probably an oxy-methoxy-benzoyl benzoic acid.  This 
is dissolved in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, in which 
it forms a yellowish red solution, but on heating to 100 deg.  
C. the colour changes to red and violet, and on pouring out 
upon ice, the monomethyl ether of alizarin is precipitated.  
This compound is hydrolysed by hydriodic acid and alizarin is 
obtained.  It can also be synthesized by heating catechol 
with phthalic anhydride and sulphuric acid at 150 deg.  C. 


 
            /CO\                                                    /CO\
  C6H4    O + C6H4(OH)2[1.2] = H2O + C6H4    C6H2(OH)2.
            \CO/                                                    \CO/
 

Pure alizarin crystallizes in red prisms melting at 200 deg.  
C. It is insoluble in water, and not very soluble in 
alcohol.  It dissolves readily in caustic alkalis on account 
of its phenolic character, and it forms a yellow-coloured 
di-acetate.  Its value as a dyestuff depends on its power of 
forming insoluble compounds (lakes) with metallic oxides.  It 
has no affinity for vegetable fibres, and consequently cotton 
goods must be mordanted before dyeing with it (see DYEING.) 

Numerous derivatives of alizarin are known.  On solution in 
glacial acetic acid and addition of nitric acid, b-nitroalizarin 


 
                              OH
                              |
 (alizarin orange)  / \ /CO\ / \OH 
                   |   |    |   |
                    \ / \CO/ \ /NO2
 

is produced, and this on heating with sulphuric 
acid and glycerin is converted into alizarin blue. 

The trioxyanthraquinones--purpurin, anthrapurpurin, anthragallol 
and flavopurpurin---are also very valuable dyestuffs.  These 
compounds may be represented by the following formulae: 


 
             OH                 OH                OH                OH
             |                  |                 |                 |
   / \ /CO\ / \OH   HO/ \ /CO\ / \OH    / \ /CO\ / \OH    / \ /CO\ / \OH
  |   |    |   |     |   |    |   |    |   |    |   |    |   |    |   |
   \ / \CO/ \ /       \ / \CO/ \ /    HO\ / \CO/ \ /      \ / \CO/ \ /OH
             |
             OH
 
    Purpurin.        Anthrapurpurin.    Flavopurpurin.      Anthragallol.
 

Purpurin (1.2.4 trioxyanthraquinone) is found with 
alizarin in madder root; it is now prepared synthetically 
by oxidizing alizarin with manganese dioxide and sulphuric 
acid.  After the separation of the silver salt (see above) 
obtained on sulphonating anthraquinone, the remaining acid 
liquid gives on treatment with calcium carbonate the calcium 
salt of anthraquinone 2.6 disulphonic acid (anthraquinone-
a-disulphonic acid).  This is converted into the sodium salt 
by means of sodium carbonate, and on alkali fusion yields 
fiavopurpurin. In a similar manner anthrapurpurin is 
prepared by alkali fusion of anthraquinone 2.8 disulphonic 
acid. Anthragallol is synthetically prepared by the 
condensation of benzoic and gallic acids with sulphuric acid 


 
                   OH                               OH
                   |                                |
   / \COOH        / \OH                   / \ /CO\ / \OH
  |   |       +  |   |    = 2 H2O  +  |   |    |   |
   \ /        HOOC\ /OH                   \ / \CO/ \ /OH
 

or from pyrogallol and phthalic anhydride in 
the presence of sulphuric acid or zinc chloride. 

A. Baeyer in 1890, by heating alizarin with fuming sulphuric 
acid for 24-48 hours at 35-40 deg.  C., obtained a product, which 
after treatment with caustic soda gave a sulphuric acid ester 
of quinalizarin, and this after acidification and boiling was 
converted into quinalizarin (Alizarin Bordeaux) or 1.2.6.9 
tetra-oxyanthraquinone.  Penta-oxyanthraquinones have been 
obtained from purpurin and anthrapurpurin, while a hexa- 
oxyanthraquinone has been obtained from 1.5 dinitro- anthraquinone. 

ALKAHEST (a pseudo-Arabic word believed to have been invented by 
Paracelsus), a liquid, much sought after by the alchemists, having 
the power of dissolving gold and every other substance, which 
it was supposed would possess invaluable medicinal qualities. 

ALKALI, an Arabic term originally applied to the ashes of 
plants, from which by lixiviation carbonate of soda was obtained 
in the case of sea-plants and carbonate of potash in that of 
land-plants.  The method of making these ``mild'' alkalis into 
``caustic'' alkalis by treatment with lime was practised in 
the time of Pliny in connexion with the manufacture of soap, 
and it was also known that the ashes of shore-plants yielded 
a hard soap and those of land-plants a soft one.  But the 
two substances were generally confounded as ``fixed alkali'' 
(carbonate of ammonia being ``volatile alkali''), till Duhamel 
du Monceau in 1736 established the fact that common salt and 
the ashes of sea-plants contain the same base as is found in 
natural deposits of soda salts (``mineral alkali''), and that 
this body is different from the ``vegetable alkali'' obtained 
by incinerating land- plants or wood (pot-ashes).  Later, 
Martin Heinrich Klaproth, finding vegetable alkali in certain 
minerals, such as leucite, proposed to distinguish it as 
potash, and at the same time assigned to the mineral alkali the 
name natron, which survives in the symbol, Na, now used for 
sodium.  The word alkali supplied the symbol for potassium, 
K (kalium.) In modern chemistry alkali is a general term 
used for compounds which have the property of neutralizing 
acids, and is applied more particularly to the highly soluble 
hydrates of sodium and potassium and of the three rarer ``alkali 
metals,'' caesium, rubidium and lithium, also to aqueous 
ammonia.  In a smaller degree these alkaline properties are 
shared by the less soluble hydrates of the ``metals of the 
alkaline earths,'' calcium, barium and strontium, and by thallium 
hydrate.  An alkali is distinguished from an acid or neutral 
substance by its action on litmus, turmeric and other indicators. 

ALKALI MANUFACTURE. The word ``alkali'' denotes both soda and 
potash, but by ``alkali manufacture'' we understand merely 
the manufacture of sodium sulphate, carbonate and hydrate.  
The corresponding potash compounds are not manufactured in 
the United Kingdom, but exclusively in Germany (from potassium 
chloride and from the mother-liquor of the strontia process 
in the manufacture of beetroot sugar) and in France (from 
vinasse) . The term alkali is employed in a technical sense 
for the carbonate and hydrate (of sodium), but since in the 
Leblanc process the manufacture of sodium sulphate necessarily 
precedes that of the carbonate, we include this as well as 
the manufacture of hydrochloric acid which is inseparable from 
it.  We also treat of the utilization of hydrochloric acid 
for the manufacture of chlorine and its derivatives, which 
are usually comprised within the meaning of the term ``alkali 
manufacture.'' A great many processes have been proposed 
for the manufacture of alkali from various materials, but 
none of these has become of any practical importance except 
those which start from sodium chloride (common salt); and 
among the latter again only three classes of processes 
are actually employed for manufacturing purposes, viz. the 
Leblanc, the ammonia-soda, and the electrolytic processes. 


I. THE LEBLANC PROCESS 

The Leblanc process, which was invented by Nicolas 
Leblanc (q.v.) about 1790, begins with the decomposition 
of sodium chloride by sulphuric acid, by which sodium 
sulphate and hydrochloric acid are produced.  The sodium 
sulphate is afterwards fluxed with calcium carbonate and 
coal, and a mixture is thus obtained from which sodium 
carbonate can be extracted by exhausting it with water. 

Leblanc himself for a time carried out his process on a 
manufacturing scale, but he was ruined in the political troubles 
of the time and died by his own hand in 1806.  His invention 
was, however, at once utilized by others in France; and in 
Great Britain, after a few previous attempts on a small scale, 
it was definitely introduced by James Muspratt (q.v.) in 
1823.  From that time onward the Leblanc process spread more and 
more, and for a considerable period nearly all the alkali of 
commerce was made by it.  The rise of the ammonia-soda process 
(since 1870) gradually told upon the Leblanc process, which 
in consequence has been greatly restricted in Great Britain 
and Germany, and has become practically extinct in all other 
countries, except as far as its first part, the manufacture 
of sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid, is concerned. 

The production of alkali in Great Britain, soon after the 
introduction of the Leblanc process, became the most extensive 
in the world, and outstripped that of all other countries put 
together.  With the rise of the ammonia-soda process, for 
which the economic conditions are nearly as favourable in other 
countries, the predominance of Great Britain in that domain 
has become less, but even now that country produces more alkali 
than any other single country.  Most of the British alkali 
works are situated in South Lancashire and the adjoining part of 
Cheshire, near the mouth of the Tyne and in the West of Scotland. 

Various industries are carried on in Leblanc alkali works, as follows:-- 

1. Manufacture of sodium sulphate. 

2. Manufacture of hydrochloric acid. 

3. Preparation of chlorine. 

4. Employment of chlorine for the manufacture 
of bleaching- powder and of chlorates. 

5. Manufacture of ordinary alkali from sulphate of soda. 

6. Manufacture of caustic soda. 

7. Manufacture of soda crystals. 

8. Recovery of sulphur from alkali waste. 

1. Manufacture of Sodium Sulphate.--This is commercially 
known as salt-cake, and is made by decomposing common 
salt with sulphuric acid of about 80%, the reaction being 
2NaCl + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2HCl.  This reaction proceeds 
in two stages.  At first principally acid sodium sulphate, 
NaHSO4, is formed together with some normal sulphate; 
later, when the temperature has risen, the NaHSO4 acts 
with more NaCl so that nearly all of it is converted into 
Na2SO4.  The gaseous hydrochloric acid evolved during 
all this time must be absorbed in water, unless it is 
directly converted into chlorine (see below, 2 and 3). 

The process is carried out either in hand-wrought furnaces, or 
mechanical furnaces, both called ``decomposing'' or ``salt-cake 
furnaces.'' In the former case, the first reaction is produced 
in cast- iron pans or ``pots,'' very heavy castings of circular 
section, fired from below, either directly or by the waste 
heat from the muffle- furnace.  The reaction is completed 
in a ``roasting- furnace.'' The latter was formerly often 
constructed as a revereratory funace, which is easy to build 
and to work, but the hydrochloric acid given off here, being 
mixed with the products of the combustion of fuel, cannot 
be condensed to strong acid and is partly, if not entirely, 
wasted.  It is, therefore, decidedly preferable to employ 
``muffle-furnaces'' in which the heating is performed from 
without, the fire-gases passing first over the arch and 
then under the bottom of the muffle.  This requires more 
time and fuel than the work in ``open'' furnaces, but in 
the muffles the gaseous hydrochloric acid is separated 
from the fire-gases, just like that evolved in the pot, and 
can therefore be condensed into strong hydrochloric acid, 
like the pot-acid.  This roaster-acid is, however, of less 
value than the pot-acid, as it contains more impurities. 

It is not easy to keep the muffles permanently tight, and as soon 
as any leakages occur, either hydrochloric acid must escape into 
the fire-flue, or some fire-gases must enter into the muffle.  
The former is decidedly more objectionable than the latter, as 
it means that uncondensed hydrochloric acid is sent into the 
air.  This drawback has been overcome by the construction of 
``plus-pressure'' furnaces (figs. 1 and 2), where the fire-grate 
is placed 11 ft. below the top of the muffle.  In consequence 
the fire-gases, when arriving there by the chimney shaft 
(a), have already a good upward draught, and when circulatung 
round the muffle are at a lower pressure than the gases within 
the muffle, so that in case of any cracks being formed, no 
hydrochloric acid escapes into the fire-flues, but vice versa. 

Since the work with ordinary hand-wrought salt-cake furnaces 
is disagreeable and costly, many attempts have been made 
to construct mechanical salt-cake furnaces.  Of these J. 
Mactear's furnaces (fig. 3) have met with the greatest 
success.  They consist of a horizontal pan, 17 ft. wide, 
which is made up of a central pan (e), and a series 
of concentric compartments (C1), (C2), (C3), and 
which is supported on a frame (d d), revolving round a 
perpendicular axis on the wheels (n n).  It is with an 
arch and heated on the top from one side (l), either by an 
ordinary coal-grate or by a gas-producer.  A set of stirring 
blades carried in the frame (b b), and driven by gearing, 


FIGS. 1. and 2.--Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation and Plan.) Scale 

Figs. 1-9 from Lunge's Handbuch der Soda-Industrie, 
by permission of Friedr.  Vieweg u.  Sohn. 


passes through a gap in the arch in such a manner that the gases 
cannot escape outwards.  The salt is conveyed to the furnace 
by a chain of buckets running on the pulley (g), and passing 
into the hopper (h), and through the pipe (i) is mixed 
with the proper amount of acid supplied by the pipe ( f.) 
The mixture is fed in continuously to the central pan (e.) 
whence it overflows into the compartments (c1), (c2), (c3) 
successively until it reaches the circumference, where it is 
discharged continously by o and p into the collecting-box 
(q), being now converted into salt-cake.  This furnace acts 
very well, and has been widely introduced both in Great Britain 
and in other countries, but it has one great drawback, apart 
from its high cost, viz. that all the hydrochloric acid gas 
gets mixed with fire-gases, and consequently is condensed 
in a weaker and less pure form than from ordinary pots and 
muffles.  This has led some factories which had introduced 
such furnaces to revert to hand-wrought muffle-furnaces. 

Much was expected at one time from the.``direct salt-cake 
process'' of Hargreaves and Robinson, in which common salt 
is subjected in a series of large cast-iron cylinders to 
the action of pyrites-burner gases and steam at a low red 
heat.  The reaction going on here is: 2NaCl + SO2 + O 
+ H2O = Na2SO4 + 2HCl.  This means that the previous 
manufacture of sulphuric acid in the vitriol-chambers is 
done away with, but this apparently great simplification is 
balanced by the great cost of the Hargreaves plant, and by 
the fact that the whole of the hydrochloric acid is mixed 
with nine or ten times its volume of inert gases.  Owing to 
this, it is practically impossible to condense the gaseous 
hydrochloric acid into the commercial acid, although this 
acid may be obtained sufficiently strong to be worked up in 
the Weldon chlorine process (see below, 3). Therefore the 
Hargreaves process has been introduced only in a few places. 

Although the consumption of salt-cake for the manufacture of 
alkali is now much less than formerly, since the Leblanc alkali 
process has been greatly restricted, yet it is largely made and 
will continue to be made for the use of glassmakers, who use it 
for the ordinary description of glass in the place of soda-ash.  
Nor must it be overlooked that salt-cake must be made as long 


FIG. 3.--Mechanical Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation.) Scale 


as there is a sale for hydrochloric acid, or a 
consumption of the latter for the manufacture of chlorine. 

2. Manufacture of Hydrochloric Acid (commercially also 
known as ``muriatic acid'').  This unavoidable gaseous 
bye-product of the manufacture of salt-cake was, during 
the first part of the 19th century, simply sent into the 
air.  When its deleterious effects upon vegetation, building 
materials, &c., became better known, and when at the same 
time an outlet had been found for moderate quantities of 
hydrochloric acid, most factories made more or less successful 
attempts to ``condense'' the gas by absorption in water.  But 
this was hardly anywhere done to the fullest possible extent, 
and in those districts where a number of alkali works were 
located at no great distance from one another, their aggregate 
escapes of hydrochloric and other acids created an intolerable 
nuisance.  This was most notably the case in South Lancashire, 
and it led to the passing of Lord Derby's ``Alkali Act,'' in 
1863, supplemented by further legislation in 1874, 1881 and 
later.  There is hardly another example in the annals of 
legislative efforts equal to this, in respect of the real 
benefit conferred by it both on the general public and 
on the manufacturers themselves.  This is principally the 
consequence of the exemplary way in which the duties of 
inspector under these acts were carried out by Dr R. Angus 
Smith (1817-1884) and his successors, who directed their 
efforts not merely to their primary duty of preventing 
nuisance, but quite as much to showing manufacturers how to 
make the most of the acid formerly wasted in one shape or 
another.  Not merely Great Britain but all mankind has been 
immensely benefited by the labours of the British alkali 
inspectors, which were, of course, supplemented by the work of 
technical men in all the countries concerned.  The scientific 
and technical principles of the condensation of hydrochloric 
acid are now thoroughly well understood, and it is possible 
to recover nearly the whole of it in the state of strong 
commercial acid, containing from 32 to 36% of pure hydrochloric 
acid, although probably the majority of the manufacturers are 
still content to obtain part of the acid in a weaker state, 
merely to satisfy the requirements of the law prescribing the 
prevention of nuisance.  The principles of the condensation, 
that is of converting the gaseous hydrochloric acid given 
off during the decomposition of common salt into a strong 
solution of this gas in water, can be summarized in a few 
words.  The hydrochloric acid gas, which is always diluted 
with air, sometimes to a very great extent, must be brought 
into the most intimate contact possible with water, which 
greedily absorbs it, forming ordinary hydrochloric acid, 
and this process must be carried so far that scarcely any 
hydrochloric acid remains in the escaping gases.  The maximum 
escape allowed by thc Alkali Acts, viz. 5 % of the total 
hydrochloric acid, is far above that which is now practically 
attained.  For a proper utilization of the condensed acid it 
is nearly always imperative that it should be as strong as 
possible, and this forms a second important consideration 
in the construction of the condensing apparatus.  Since the 
solubility of hydrochloric acid in water decreases with the 
increase of the temperature, it is necessary to keep the 
latter down--a task which is rendered somewhat difficult 
both by the original heat retained by the gases on their 
escape from the decomposing apparatus, and by the heat given 
off through the reaction of hydrochloric acid upon water. 

Very different methods have been employed to effect all the 
above purposes.  In Great Britain Gay-Lussac's coke-towers, 
adapted by W. Gossage to the condensation of hydrochloric 
acid, are still nearly everywhere in use, frequently combined 
with a number of stone tanks through which the gas from 
the furnaces travels before entering the towers, meeting 
on its way the acid condensed in the tower.  This process 
is excellent for effecting a complete condensation of the 
hydrochloric acid as prescribed by the Alkali Acts, and for 
recovering the bulk of the acid in a tolerably strong state, 
but less so for recovering nearly the whole of it in the 
most concentrated state, although even this is occasionally 
attained.  On the continent of Europe, where the last-named 
requirement has been for a long time more urgent than in Great 
Britain, another system has been generally preferred, namely, 
passing the gas through a long series of stoneware receivers, 
and ultimately through a small tower packed with stoneware or 
coke, making the acid flow in the opposite direction to the 
gas.  Great success has also been obtained by ``plate-towers'' 
made of stoneware, which allow both the coke-towers and 
most of the stoneware receivers to be dispensed with. 

3. Preparation of Chlorine.--In this place we speak only 
of the preparation of chlorine from hydrochloric acid by 
chemical processes; the electrolytic processes will be treated 
hereafter.  It is clear that free chlorine must be prepared 
from hydrochloric acid by oxidizing the hydrogen.  This can 
be done most easily by ``active'' oxygen, such as is present 
in the peroxides, in chromic or permanganic acid.  Practically 
the only agent employed in this way, and that already by C. W. 
Scheele, the discoverer of chlorine, in 1774, is the peroxide 
of manganese (manganese dioxide), found in considerable 
quantities in nature as ``manganese ore'' (the purest of which 
is called pyrolusite), and also artificially regenerated from 
the waste liquors of a former operation.  Even now, where 
chlorine is required for immediate use in some other chemical 
operations on a comparatively small scale, it is obtained by 
the action of hydrochloric acid on native manganese dioxide, 
according to the equation: Mno2 + 4HCl = MnCl2 + Cl2 + 
2H2O.  This action must be promoted by heating the mixture, 
but even then nothing like all of the hydrochloric acid 
employed is made to act as above, because the attack on the 
manganese ore requires a certain minimum concentration of the 
acid.  Formerly, instead of free hydrochloric acid a mixture 
of common salt and sulphuric acid was sometimes employed, but 
this is never done on a manufacturing scale now.  Owing to 
the impossibility of employing any metal in contact with the 
acid, the ``chlorine stills,'' where the above reaction is 
carried out, must be made of acid-proof stones or ``chemical'' 
stoneware.  This process is very costly, as much of the 
acid and all of the manganese is wasted.  Moreover it is 
of a most disagreeable kind, as the waste ``still-liquor,'' 
containing very much free hydrochloric acid and even some free 
chlorine, forms a most deleterious impurity when finding its 
way into drains or water- courses, apart from the intolerable 
nuisance caused by the escapes of chlorine from the stills 
and otherwise, which cannot be at all times avoided. 

Many endeavours were made to avoid the loss of the 
manganese in this operation, but with only partial or no 
success.  The difficulty was only overcome by the Weldon 
process, being the inventions of Walter Weldon from 1866 
onwards, and his process up to this day furnishes the greater 
proportion of chlorine manufactured in the world.  It begins 
with ``still-liquor,'' obtained in the old way from native 
manganese ore and hydrochloric acid.  This liquor is first 
treated with carbonate of lime (ground chalk or limestone) 
in a ``neutralizing-well,'' made of acid-proof material and 
provided with wooden stirring-gear.  Here the free hydrochloric 
acid is converted into calcium chloride, and at the same time 
any ferric chloride present is converted into insoluble ferric 
hydroxide: 2FeCl3 + 3CaCO3 + 3 H2O = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 
3CO2.  The sulphuric acid present is mostly precipitated as 
calcium sulphate.  The mud thus formed is settled out, and 
the clear liquor, which is now quite neutral and contains 
both manganese and calcium chlorides, is mixed with cream of 
lime and treated by a strong current of air, produced by a 
blowing-engine.  This is done in a tall iron cylinder, say 
9 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, called the ``oxidizer.'' The 
air-pipe goes right to the bottom of the cylinder and there 
branches out into perforated side-pipes, so that the mass 
is thoroughly stirred up all the time.  The first action of 
the lime is to convert the manganese chloride into manganous 
hydrate (Mn(OH)2) and calcium chloride; then more lime 
is added which greatly promotes and hastens the oxidizing 
process.  The object of the latter is to convert the 
manganous hydroxide by the atmospheric oxygen into manganese 
dioxide, but this would take place much too slowly if there 
was not an excess of lime present ready to combine with the 
manganese dioxide to form a calcium manganite.  Only so much 
lime is used that an acid manganite is formed corresponding 
to one molecule of calcium oxide to two of manganous 
oxide.  This additional lime, which is called the ``basis,'' 
certainly takes up hydrochloric acid in the next stage of 
the process, but that causes no more waste of acid than 
the incomplete action on native manganese ore, mentioned 
before.  The product obtained, called ``Weldon mud,'' is of 
such fine texture that it acts immediately with hydrochloric 
acid when mixed with it in the ``Weldon stills'' (fig. 
4), and that this acid can be almost entirely neutralized 
thereby.  The new still liquor formed in this manner is treated 
as above, so that the manganese does its work over and over 
again.  There is only a slight mechanical loss, which 
is reduced in the best managed works to about 2 parts of 
manganese dioxide to 100 of bleaching- powder.  There are 
also other advantages of this process which explain its wide 
extension, in spite of the fact that only from 30 to 35 
parts of the hydrochloric acid employed is converted into 
chlorine, the remainder ultimately leaving the factory in the 
shape of a harmless but useless solution of calcium chloride. 

Weldon's later attempts at superseding his classical process 
by other inventions which utilize a larger proportion 
of the chlorine, introduced as hydrochloric acid, have 
not been successful in the long run, although some of 
them were aided by the great technical skill of A. R. 
Pechiney.  But the Deacon process, the invention of Henry 
Deacon (who was greatly aided by his chemist Dr Ferdinand 
Hurter), carried out since 1868, has attained to better, 
although nothing like complete, success in that direction. 

The Deacon process, like the Weldon process, effects its object 
by the oxidizing action of atmospheric air, but in a very 
different manner.  Weldon retained the principle of the Scheele 


FIG. 4.--Weldon Chlorine Still. (Sectional Elevation.) Scale 

C, Stone steam column resting in stone socket K. 


process by employing the active oxygen of manganese dioxide 
to convert hydrochloric acid into free chlorine, and he 
employed the atmospheric oxygen only indirectly, for the 
recovery of manganese dioxide from the manganese chloride 
formed.  But Deacon worked on the direct reaction: 2HCl + 
O = H2O + Cl2.  This reaction in ordinary circumstances 
is so slow as to be practically useless.  If, however, a 
``contact-substance'' is employed and that at the proper 
temperature, the process goes on at an immensely quickened 
rate and can even be carried out as a continuous operation.  
The only substance which possesses sufficiently strong 
catalytic properties for the reaction is cupric chloride.  
If pieces of porous clay are soaked in a solution of this 
salt and dried and kept at a temperature of 450 deg.  C. (in 
practice it is necessary to go to a rather higher temperature), 
it is possible continuously to convert a united stream of 
hydrochloric acid and atmospheric air, passed through the 
contact- substance in a ``decomposer'' (fig. 5), to a larger 
extent into chlorine and water, of course mixed with the excess 
of oxygen and all the nitrogen of the air.  On a small scale 
it is possible to push the decomposition as far as 90% of the 
hydrochloric acid, but on the large scale only at most 60% is 
reached.  The mixture of hydrochloric acid and air is taken 
directly from the ``decomposing-pan'' of an ordinary salt-cake 
furnace, is first cooled down in pipes sufficiently to 
condense most of the moisture present (together with about 
8% of the hydrochloric acid), and then passed through a 
cast-iron superheater and from this into the ``decomposer.'' 
The gaseous mixture, issuing from the latter, is washed with 
water in the usual condensing apparatus, to remove the 40 or 
50 parts of hydrochloric acid left unchanged, and can then be 
immediately employed for the manufacture of chlorate of potash. 

Where (as is the more usual case) the chlorine has to serve for 
the manufacture of bleaching-powder, it must first be deprived 
of the great amount of moisture which it contains, by means of 


FIG. 5.--Deacon ``Decomposer.'' (Sectional Elevation.) 
Scale  1/40. a,a, Upright cast-iron cylinders; b,b, 
brick jacket; c,c, flues; d,e, iron plates arranged 
like venetian blinds, between which the contact-substance 
is contained; f, charging hole; g, discharging hole; 
h, entrance pipe for gas; i, exit pipe for gas. 


coke-towers fed with moderately strong sulphuric acid.  As 
the gas issuing from these contains only about 5 volumes % of 
hydrochloric acid, it cannot be made to act upon lime in the 
ordinary bleaching-powder chambers, but specially constructed 
chambers must be provided (see fig. 4). The movement of 
the gases through all this complicated set of apparatus is 
produced by a Root's blower placed at the end of it all. 

The Deacon process makes cheaper chlorine than the Weldon 
process, but the plant is complicated and costly and the 
working requires a great deal of attention.  In skilled 
hands it has been proved to yield excellent results. 

The hydrochloric acid from the calcining-furnaces or 
``roasters'' cannot be employed immediately for the Deacon 
process, as the sulphuric acid always contained in the roaster 
gases soon ``poisons'' the contact-substance and renders it 
inoperative.  This acid must, therefore, be condensed in the 
ordinary way into liquid hydrochloric acid and formerly could 
be worked up only by the Weldon process.  R. Hasenclever 
has overcome this drawback by running this impure acid into 
moderately strong sulphuric acid (140 deg.  Twaddell), blowing in 
air at the same time.  This produces a mixed current of pure 
hydrochloric acid gas and air, which is carried into a Deacon 
decomposer where it acts in the usual manner.  The sulphuric 
acid, of which 6 or 7 parts are used to one of impure liquid 
hydrochloric acid, is always reserved for use in the same 
process, by driving off the excess of water in a lead pan, 
fired from the top, so that the principal expense of the 
process is that of the fuel required for the last operation. 

4. Applications of Chlorine.--Some of the chlorine manufactured 
(practically only such as is obtained by the electrolysis 
of chlorides) is condensed by cold and pressure into liquid 
chlorine. If this is anhydrous, as it must be in any case for 
this purpose, it does not act upon the metal of the compressors, 
nor upon the iron bottles in which it is sent out.  It may 
even be sent out in tank wagons, similar to those which are 
employed for carrying sulphuric acid, holding 10 tons each. 

Sometimes the chlorine is employed directly for bleaching 
purposes, especially for some kinds of paper.  A number of 
organic chlorinated products are also produced on a large 
scale.  But most of the chlorine is utilized for the production 
of bleaching- powder, of bleach-liquor, and of chlorate of potash. 

Bleaching-powder is a compound obtained by the action 
of free chlorine on hydrated lime, containing a slight 
excess of water at ordinary temperatures or slightly above 
these.  Its composition approaches the formula CaOCl2, 
and it is regarded as a double salt of calcium chloride and 
hypochlorite, which by the action of water splits up into 
a mixture of these salts.  It always contains a certain 
quantity of chemically combined water and also an excess of 
lime.  Usually this lime is regarded only as mechanically 
mixed with the bleaching-compound, CaOCl2, but some chemists 
adopt formulae in which this lime is equally represented. 

For the manufacture of bleaching-powder, limestone of high 
degree of purity (especially free from magnesia and iron) is 
carefully burned so as to drive out nearly all the carbon dioxide 
without overheating the lime.  The quick-lime is then slaked 
with the requisite quantity of water; the product is passed 
through a fine-meshed wire sieve and is spread in layers of 2 
or 3 in. at the bottom of large boxes, the ``bleaching-powder 
chambers,'' made of lead, or sometimes of cast-iron protected by 
paint, of slate or even of tarred wood.  Chlorine, generated 
in an ordinary or a Weldon still, is passed in and is rapidly 
absorbed.  When the absorption becomes slow, the gas is cut 
off and the chamber is left to itself for twelve hours or more, 
when it will be found that all the chlorine has been taken 
up.  Now the door of the chamber is opened, the powder lying 
at the bottom is turned over and the treatment with gas is 
repeated.  Sometimes a third treatment is necessary in order 
to get the product up to the strength required in commerce, 
viz. 35% of ``available'' chlorine.  The finished product is 
packed into wooden casks lined with brown paper.  The work of 
packing is a most disagreeable and unhealthy operation which 
is best relieved by erecting the chambers at a higher level 
and placing the casks underneath, communication being made by 
means of traps in the chamber-bottom. so that the packers can 
do their work outside the chambers.  The bleaching-powder casks 
must be kept in a dry place, as cool as possible, and never 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, in order to prevent a 
decomposition which now and then has even led to explosions. 

The weak chlorine from the Deacon process cannot be treated in 
this manner, as chambers of impossibly large dimensions would be 
required.  Originally the absorption of the Deacon chlorine took 
place in a set of chambers, constructed of large slabs of stone, 
containing a great many horizontal shelves superposed over one 
another.  About sixteen such chambers were combined in such 
manner that the fresh gas passed into that chamber which had 
been the longest time at work and in which the bleaching-powder 
was nearly finished, and so forth until the gas, now all but 
entirely exhausted, reached the last-filled chamber in which 
it met with fresh lime and there gave up the last of the 
chlorine.  These ``Deacon chambers'' occupied a large space, 
besides being expensive to build and difficult to keep in repair. 

They are now mostly replaced by an apparatus, the invention of R. 
Hasenclever, consisting of four horizontal cast-iron cylinders 
with internal stirring-gear.  The fresh lime is continually 
charged into the top cylinder, is gradually moved towards the 
other end, falls down into the next lower cylinder and thus 
gradually makes its way to the lowest cylinder.  The weak chlorine 
gas from the Deacon apparatus travels precisely the opposite 
way, from the bottom upwards, the result being that finished 
bleaching- powder is continually discharged at the bottom 
and air free from chlorine leaves the apparatus at the top. 

Bleaching-powder is manufactured to the extent of several 
hundred thousands of tons annually, almost entirely for the 
use of papermakers and cotton bleachers.  Smaller quantities 
are used for disinfection and other purposes.  It is usually 
sold in ``tierces,'' that is, casks containing about 10 cwt. 

Bleach-liquors.--If the chlorine is made to act on cream of 
lime, care being taken that the temperature does not rise 
above 35 deg.  and that the chlorine is not in excess, a solution 
is obtained containing a mixture of calcium chloride and 
hypochlorite which is a very convenient agent for bleachers, 
but which does not bear the expense of carriage over long 
distances.  Similar liquids are obtained with a basis of sodium 
(``eau de Javel''), by passing chlorine into solutions of sodium 
carbonate.  The former kind of bleach-liquor is mostly used 
in the industry of cotton, the latter in that of linen. 

Chlorate of Potash.--Formerly all chlorate of potash, as 
some is still, was obtained by passing chlorine into milk 
of lime, allowing the temperature to rise almost to the 
boiling-point, and continuing until the bleaching-solution, 
originally formed, is converted into a mixture of calcium 
chlorate and chloride, the final reaction being 6Ca(OH)2 
+ 6Cl2 = 5Cacl2 + Ca(ClO3)2 + 6H2O.  On adding to this 
solution, after settling out the mud, a quantity of potassium 
chloride equivalent to the calcium chlorate, the reaction 
Ca(ClO3)2 + 2KCl = CaCl2 + 2KClO3 is produced, the ultimate 
proportions thus being theoretically 2KClO3 to 6CaCl2, though 
in reality there is rather more calcium chloride present.  
When this solution is concentrated by evaporation and cooled 
down, about five-sixths of the chlorate of potash crystallizes 
out.  It is purified by redissolving and crystallization, and 
is sold either in the state of crystals or finely ground.  
During these operations care must be taken lest a spark should 
produce the inflammation of the chlorate on contact with any 
organic substance.  Large quantities of potassium chlorate 
exposed to strong heat in contact with the wood of casks 
or the timber of a roof have produced violent explosions. 

Most of the chlorate of potash is now prepared by electrolysis 
of potassium chloride (see below).  It is employed for 
fire-works, for some descriptions of explosives, for safety 
matches and as an oxidizer in some operations, especially 
in dyeing and tissue printing.  For the last-named purpose 
it is sometimes replaced by sodium chlorate.  The chlorates 
are usually sold in wooden kegs containing 1 cwt. each. 

5. The Manufacture of Soda-ash from Salt-cake by the Leblanc 
process.--This process consists in heating a mixture of commercial 


FIG. 6.--Black-ash Furnace and Boiling-down Pan. Scale 


[14051]


sulphate of soda (salt-cake) with about the same weight of 
crushed limestone and half its weight of coal, until the 
materials are fluxed and a reaction has taken place, the 
principal phase of which is expressed by the equation Na2SO4 
+ CaC03 + 2C = 2CO2 + Na2CO3 + CaS. A number of secondary 
reactions, however, occur, owing partly to the excess of 
calcium carbonate and coal and partly to the impurities 
present, so that the solid product of the process, which is 
called ``black-ash,'' has a somewhat complicated composition.  
Its principal constituents are always sodium carbonate 
and calcium sulphide, which are separated by the action of 
water, the former being soluble and the latter insoluble. 

The furnace in which the reaction takes place is shown in 
fig. 6 in a sectional plan.  It is called a ``black-ash'' 
furnace, and belongs to the class of reverberatory furnaces.  
A large fire-grate (ab), having a cave (c) to facilitate 
stoking and stepped back at (d), is bounded on one side by a 
fire-bridge (e); on the other side of this, separated by an 
air-channel (g), there is first the proper fluxing bed (h), 
and behind this the ``back-bed'' (i) for pre-heating the 
charge.  The flame issuing from the furnace by (o) is always 
further utilized for boiling down the liquors obtained in 
a later stage, either in a pan (p) fired from the top and 
supported on pillars (qq) as shown in the drawing, or in 
pans heated from below.  The charge of salt-cake (generally 
3 cwt.), limestone and coal is roughly mixed and put upon 
the back-bed; when the front- bed has become empty it is 
drawn forward and exposed to the full heat of the fire, 
with frequent stirring.  After about three- quarters of an 
hour the substances are so far fluxed or softened that the 
reaction now sets in fully, as shown by the copious escape of 
gas.  This is at first colourless carbon dioxide, but later 
on inflammable gases come out of the mass, which at this stage 
has turned into a thicker, pasty condition, showing that the 
end of the reaction is near.  The inflammable gas is carbon 
monoxide, which, however, does not burn with its proper purple 
flame, but with a flame tinged bright yellow by the sodium 
present.  This carbon monoxide is formed by the action of 
coal on the lime formed at this stage from the original 
limestone.  When the ``candles'' of carbon monoxide appear, 
the pasty mass is quickly drawn out of the furnace into iron 
``bogies,'' where it solidifies into a grey, porous mass, the 
``black-ash.'' Care must be taken to heat it no longer than 
necessary, as it otherwise turns red and yields bad soda. 

The hand-wrought black-ash furnace has been mostly superseded 
in the large factories by the revolving black-ash furnace, 
shown in fig. 7. These furnaces possess a large cylindrical 
shell (e), lined with fire-bricks, and made to revolve 
round its horizontal axis by means of a toothed wheel fixed 
on its exterior; (ff) are tire-seats holding tires (gg), 
which work in friction rollers (h).  The flame of a fixed 
fireplace (a) enters through an ``eye'' (b) in the centre 
of the front end of the cylinder and issues in the centre of 


FIG. 7.--Revolving Black-ash Furnace. (Elevation.) Scale 


the back end, first into a large dust-chamber (m.) and 
then over or under boiling-down pans (p.) These mechanical 
furnaces do the work of from four to ten ordinary furnaces 
according to their size. with comparatively very little 
expense for labour, but they must be very carefully managed 
and the black-ash from them is more difficult to lixiviate 
than that from hand-wrought furnaces, because it is less 
porous.  The lixiviation of the black- ash requires great 
care, as the calcium sulphide is liable to be changed into 
soluble calcium compounds, which immediately react with sodium 
carbonate and destroy a corresponding quantity of the latter, 
rendering the soda weaker and impure.  This change of the 
calcium sulphide may be brought about either by the oxidizing 
action of the air or by ``hydrolysis,'' produced by prolonged 
contact with hot water, the use of which, on the other hand, 
cannot be avoided in order to extract the sodium carbonate 
itself.  The apparatus which has been found most suitable 
for the purpose was devised by Professor H. Buff of Giessen, 
and first practically carried out by Charles Dunlop at St 
Rollox.  It consists of a number of tanks or ``vats,'' placed 
at the same level and connected by pipes which reach nearly to 
the bottom of one tank and open out at the top into the next 
tank.  The vats are also provided with false bottoms, outlet 
cocks, steam pipes and so forth.  Tepid water is run in at one 
end of the series, where nearly exhausted black-ash is present; 
the weak liquor takes up more soda from the intermediate tanks 
and at last gets up to full strength in the last tank, charged 
with fresh black-ash and kept at a higher temperature, viz. 
60 deg.  C. When the first tank has been quite exhausted, the 
water is turned on to the next, the first tank is emptied by 
discharging the ``alkali- waste,'' and is filled with fresh 
black-ash, whereupon it becomes the last of the series.  In 
spite of all precautions a certain quantity of impurities is 
always formed, but this should be kept down as much as possible 
by strictly watching the temperature in the vats and by taking 
care that the black-ash in the wet state is never exposed to the 
air.  The unavoidable contamination with muddy particles 
of vat-waste is removed by allowing the vat- liquor to rest 
for some hours in a separate tank and settling out the mud. 

The clear vat-liquor, if allowed to cool down to ordinary 
temperature, would separate out part of the sodium carbonate 
in the shape of decahydrated crystals.  As these do not 
come out sufficiently pure, they would not be marketable and 
therefore they are not allowed to be formed, but the liquid, 
while still hot, is either run into the boiling-down pans, or 
submitted to one of the purifying operations to be described 
below.  If it is boiled down without further purification, 
the resulting soda-ash is not of the first quality, but it is 
sufficiently pure for many purposes.  The boiling down is most 
economically performed by means of large iron pans covered 
with a brick arch and heated from the top by the waste flame 
issuing from the black-ash furnaces (see figs. 6 and 7). It 
is continued until the contents of the pan have been converted 
into a thick paste of small crystals of monohydrated sodium 
carbonate, permeated by a mother-liquor which is removed by 
draining on perforated plates or by a centrifugal machine, 
and is always returned to the pans.  The drained crystals are 
dried and heated to redness in a reverberatory furnace; when 
``finished,'' the mass is of an impure white or light yellow 
colour and is sold as ordinary ``soda-ash.'' It is not easy 
to make it stronger than 92% of sodium carbonate, which is 
technically expressed as ``52 degrees of available soda'' (see next 
page).  If purer and stronger soda-ash is wanted, the boiling 
down must be carried out in pans fired from below, and the 
crystals of monohydrated sodium carbonate ``fished'' out as 
they are formed, but this is mostly done after submitting the 
liquor to the purifying operations which we shall now describe. 

The dried or ``finished'' soda-ash is ground to a pretty fine 
powder and is packed into wooden casks or ``tierces,'' holding from 
10 to about 20 cwt. each, according to the way of filling them. 

The principal impurities of crude vat-liquor are sodium 
hydrate and sulphide, the latter of which always leads to 
the formation of soluble double sulphur salts of sodium and 
iron.  The other impurities are of minor importance.  
The sulphides can be removed by ``oxidizing'' them into 
thiosulphates by means of atmospheric air, with or without 
the assistance of other agents, such as manganese peroxide; 
or by ``carbonating'' them with lime-kiln or other gases 
containing carbon dioxide; or by precipitating them with 
lead or zinc oxide.  The last mentioned is the best but 
costliest method, and is employed only in the manufacture 
of the highest strengths of caustic soda.  The most usual 
process, where soda-ash is to be made, is the ``carbonating.'' 
This is usually effected either by forcing lime-kiln gas 
through the liquor, contained in a closed iron vessel, or by 
passing the gases through an iron tower filled with coke or 
other materials, suitable for subdividing the stream of the 
gases and that of the vat-liquor which trickles down in the 
tower.  The same apparatus is used for ``oxidizing'' by means 
of atmospheric air passed through by means of an injector; 
sometimes both air and carbon dioxide are passed in at the same 
time.  The operation is finished when all the sodium sulphide 
has been converted into normal sodium carbonate, partly also 
into acid sodium carbonate (bicarbonate) NaHCO3; at the 
same time a precipitate is formed, consisting of ferrous 
sulphide, alumina and silica, which is removed by another 
settling tank, and the clear liquor is now ready either 
for boiling down in a ``fishing-pan'' for the manufacture 
of white soda-ash, or for the process of causticizing. 

Soda-ash (as well as caustic soda) is sold by degrees of 
``available soda.'' This means that portion which neutralizes the 
acid employed for testing, and the degrees mean the percentage 
of Na2O thus found, whether it be present as Na2CO3, NaOH, 
or sodium aluminate or silicate.  The purest soda-ash, equal 
to 100% Na2CO3, would be 58 1/2 degrees of available soda.  The 
ordinary commercial strength of Leblanc soda-ash is from 52 to 
54 degrees (in former times much was sold in the state of 48%). 

6. Manufacture of Caustic Soda.--Most of the Leblanc liquor 
is nowadays converted into caustic soda, as white soda-ash 
is more easily and cheaply made by the ammonia-soda process.  
We shall therefore in this place describe the manufacture 
of caustic soda.  This is always made from the carbonate by 
the action of slaked lime: Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + 
2NaOH.  The calcium carbonate, being insoluble, is easily 
separated from the caustic liquor by filtration.  But as 
this reaction is reversible, we must observe the conditions 
necessary for directing it in the right sense.  These are: 
diluting with water so as not to exceed 10% of sodium carbonate 
to 90% of water; boiling this mixture; and keeping it well 
agitated.  At the best about 92% of the sodium carbonate 
can be converted into caustic soda, 8% remaining unchanged. 

The operation is performed in iron cylinders, provided 
with an agitating arrangement.  This may consist of a steam 
injector by means of which air is made to bubble through the 
liquid, which produces both the required agitation and the 
heating, and at the same time oxidizes at least part of the 
sulphides; but this method of agitation causes a great waste 
of steam and at the same time a further dilution of the 
liquor.  Many, therefore, prefer mechanical stirring by means 
of paddles, fixed either to a vertical or to a horizontal 
shaft, and inject only sufficient steam to keep the mass 
at the proper temperature.  Some heat is also gained by 
the slaking of the caustic lime within the liquor.  After 
from half an hour to a whole hour the conversion of sodium 
carbonate into sodium hydrate is brought about as far as is 
practicable.  The whole mass is now run into the filters, 
which are always constructed on the vacuum principle.  They 
are iron boxes, in which a bed is made of bricks, above 
them gravel, and over this sand, covered on the top by iron 
grids.  The space below the sieve thus formed is connected 
by means of an outlet tap with a closed tank, and this again 
communicates with a vacuum pump.  By this means the filtration 
is quickened by the atmospheric pressure, and goes on very 
rapidly, as also does the subsequent washing.  The filtered 
caustic liquor passes to the concentration plants; the 
washings are employed for diluting fresh vat-liquor for the 
next operation, or for dissolving solid soda-ash for the same 
purpose.  The washed-out calcium carbonate, which always contains 
much calcium hydrate and 2 or 3% of soda in various forms, 
usually goes back to the black-ash furnaces, but it cannot be 
always used up in this way, and what remains is thrown upon a 
heap outside the works.  Attempts have been made to use it in 
the manufacture of Portland cement, but without much success. 

The clear caustic soda liquor must be concentrated in such 
a way that the caustic soda cannot to any great extent be 
reconverted into sodium carbonate, and that the ``salts'' 
which it contains, sodium carbonate, sulphate, chloride, &c., 
can be. separated during the process.  Formerly the most usual 
concentrating apparatus was the ``boat-pan'' (fig. 8). This is an 


FIG. 8.--Caustic Soda Concentration Boat-pan. (Sectional Elevation.) Scale 


oblong iron pan, the bottom of which slopes from both sides 
to a narrow channel.  The latter rests on a brick pillar; 
the remaining part of the sloping bottom is heated, either 
by the waste fire from a black-ash furnace or by a special 
fireplace.  This arrangement has the effect that the salts, as 
they separate out, slide down the sloping part and arrive in 
the central channel, which is not exposed to the fire-gases, 
so that they quietly settle there, without caking to the pan, 
until they are fished out by means of perforated ladles.  These 
boat-pans were for many years almost everywhere employed, and 
did their work quite well, but rather expensively.  At many works 
they have been replaced by either Thelen pans or vacuum pans. 

The ``Thelen pan'' (thus named from its inventor, a foreman 
at the Rhenania works near Aachen) is a mechanically worked 
fishing-pan, which requires considerably less labour and 
coal than ordinary boat-pans.  It is a long trough, of nearly 
semicircular section, the whole bottom being exposed to the 
fire- gases.  A horizontal shaft runs length-ways through the 
trough, and is provided with stirring blades, arranged in 
such a manner that they constantly scrape the bottom, so that 
the salts cannot burn fast upon it, and are at the same time 
moved forward towards one of the ends of the trough where 
they are automatically removed by means of a chain of buckets. 

The most efficient evaporating apparatus, as far as economy 
of fuel is concerned, is the vacuum-pan, of which from two to 
five are combined to form a set, but it has the drawback that 
the removal of the salts is much more difficult than with the 
older pans, described above.  In this apparatus only the first 
of the pans is heated directly, usually by means of ordinary 
boiler- steam circulating round a number of pipes, containing 
the liquid to be concentrated.  The steam rising from the latter 
is passed into a similar pan, in which it circulates round 
another set of pipes, but as it could not bring the liquid in 
the latter to boil under ordinary conditions, the second pan 
is connected with a vacuum-pump so that the boiling-point of 
the liquid in this pan is lowered.  This pan may be followed by 
a third pan, in which a stronger vacuum is maintained, and so 
forth.  By this means the latent heat of the steam, issuing 
from all pans but the last, is utilized for evaporating 
purposes, and from half to three-fourths of the fuel is saved. 

After being concentrated up to a certain point, and after 
the separation of nearly all the salts, the caustic liquor 
is transferred to cast-iron ``finishing-pots'' (fig. 9), 
holding from ten to twenty tons.  Here it is further boiled 
down until the greater part or nearly all of the water 
has been removed, and until the salts on cooling would 
set to a solid mass.  This requires ultimately a good red 
heat.  Before the mass has reached that point the sulphides 
still present have been destroyed, either by the addition of 
solid nitrate of soda or by blowing air through the red-hot 
melt.  Before finishing, the molten mass must be kept at a quiet 


FIG. 9.--Caustic Soda ``Finishing-pot.'' (Sectional Elevation.) Scale 


heat for some hours in order to settle out the ferric oxide which 
it always contains, and which becomes insoluble (through the 
destruction of the sodium ferrite) only at high temperatures.  
When it has completely cleared, the liquid caustic is ladled 
or pumped out into sheet-iron drums, holding about 6 cwt. each, 
where it solidifies and forms the caustic soda known to commerce. 

The best caustic soda tests from 75 to 76 degrees of 
``available soda''; this is only a few per cent removed 
from the composition of pure NaOH, which would be = 77.5 
degrees Na2O.  Most of the caustic soda is sold at a 
strength of 70 degrees, sometimes as low as 60 degrees. 

Caustic soda is used in very large quantities in the 
manufacture of soap, paper, textile fabrics, alizarin 
and other colouring matters, and for many other purposes. 

7. Soda-Crystals.--Another product made in alkali works is 
soda-crystals.  Their formula in Na2CO3, 10H2O, corresponding 
to 37% of dry sodium carbonate.  They are made by dissolving 
ordinary soda-ash in hot water, adding a small quantity of 
chloride of lime for the destruction of colouring matter and the 
oxidation of any ferrous salts present, carefully settling the 
solution, without allowing its temperature to fall below the 
point of maximum solubility (34 deg.  C.), and running the clarified 
liquid into cast-iron crystallizers or ``cones,'' where, on 
cooling down, most of the sodium carbonate is separated in 
large crystals of the decahydrated form.  This process lasts 
about a week in winter, and up to a fortnight in summer.  In 
France the crystallization of soda is performed not in large 
tanks but in sheet-iron dishes holding only about  1/4 cwt., 
and requires only from 27 to 48 hours in the cool season; it 
is not carried on at all in warmer climates during the summer 
months.  The mother-liquor, drained from the soda-crystals, on 
boiling down to dryness yields a very white, but low-strength 
soda-ash, as the soluble impurities of the original soda-ash 
are nearly all collected here; it is called ``mother-alkali.'' 

Although the soda-crystals contain the alkali combined 
with such a large quantity of water, they are made in large 
quantities, because their form, together with their complete 
freedom from caustic soda, makes them very suitable for domestic 
purposes.  Hence they are best known as ``washing-soda.'' 
Sometimes they are made, not from soda-ash, but from Leblanc 
soda-liquor before ``finishing'' the ash, or from the crude 
bicarbonate of the ammonia-soda process by prolonged boiling, 
until nearly half of the carbonic acid has been expelled. 

Formerly bicarbonate of soda was made from Leblanc soda- 
crystals by the action of carbonic acid, but this article 
is now almost exclusively made in the ammonia-soda process. 

8. The Recovery of Sulphur from Alkali-waste.--For many 
years all the sulphur used in the Leblanc process in the 
shape of sodium sulphate, and originally imported into the 
manufacture in the shape of brimstone or pyrites, was wasted 
in the crude calcium sulphide remaining from the lixiviation of 
black-ash.  This ``alkali-waste,'' also called tank-waste or 
vat- waste, was thrown into heaps where the calcium sulphide 
was gradually acted upon by the moisture and the oxygen of the 
air.  The sulphur was by these converted partly into gaseous 
sulphuretted hydrogen, partly into soluble polysulphides, 
thiosulphates and other soluble compounds, and in all shapes 
caused a nuisance which became more and more intolerable as 
the number and size of alkali works increased.  Both the air 
and the water in their neighbourhood were contaminated thereby. 

Both this nuisance and the loss of the sulphur (whose cost 
sometimes amounted to more than half of the total cost of the 
soda-ash) led to many attempts at extracting the sulphur from the 
alkali-waste.  This was first done with a certain amount of 
success by the processes of M. Schaffner (1861) and L. Mond 
(1862), but as these required the use of hydrochloric acid, 
and as they only recovered about half of the sulphur, they 
were superseded by another--a process which had been originally 
proposed by W. Gossage in 1837, but has been made practicable 
only by the inventions of C. F. Claus, in 1883, and from 1887 
onward by the technical skill of Messrs Chance Brothers, of 
Oldbury.  The Claus-Chance process, as it is called, comprises 
the following operations.  The wet alkali-waste as it comes 
from the lixiviating vats, is transferred into upright 
iron cylinders in which it is systematically treated with 
lime-kiln gases until the whole of the calcium sulphide has 
been converted into calcium carbonate, the carbon dioxide of 
the lime-kiln gases being entirely exhausted.  The sulphur 
issues as sulphuretted hydrogen, mixed with the nitrogen of the 
air.  It is mixed with fresh air containing sufficient oxygen 
for the combustion of the hydrogen, and the mixture is passed 
through red-hot iron oxide (burnt pyrites) which by its 
catalytic action causes the reaction H2S + O = H2O + S to take 
place.  By cooling the vapours the sulphur is condensed in a 
very pure form, and about 85% of the whole of it is recovered, 
the remaining 15% escaping in the shape of sulphur dioxide 
(SO2) and H2S.  Unfortunately it has been hitherto found 
impossible to deal with these gases in any profitable way. 

It should be noted that this ``recovered sulphur,'' which is equal 
in purity to the ``refined brimstone'' of commerce, has a far 
higher value than the sulphur contained in the originally employed 
pyrites, so that the recovery is a paying process, in spite of 
the somewhat considerable cost of the plant and of the working 
operations.  It has been introduced at most large Leblanc alkali 
works, and has, so to say, given them a new lease of life. 

II. THE AMMONIA-SODA PROCESS 

In spite of the great improvements effected during recent 
times the Leblanc process cannot economically compete with 
the ammonia-soda process, principally for two reasons.  The 
sodium in the latter costs next to nothing, being obtained 
from natural or artificial brine in which the sodium chloride 
possesses an extremely slight value.  The fuel required is less 
than half the amount used in the Leblanc process.  Moreover, 
the ammonia process has been gradually elaborated into a very 
complicated but perfectly regularly working scheme, in which 
the cost of labour and the loss of ammonia are reduced to a 
minimum.  The only way in which the Leblanc process could still 
hold its own was by being turned in the direction of making 
caustic soda, to which it lends itself more easily than the 
ammonia-soda process; but the latter has invaded even this 
field.  One advantage, however, still remained to the Leblanc 
process.  All endeavours to obtain either hydrochloric acid 
or free chlorine in the ammonia- soda process have proved 
commercial failures, all the chlorine of the sodium chloride 
being ultimately lost in the shape of worthless calcium 
chloride.  The Leblanc process thus remained the sole 
purveyor of chlorine in its active forms, and in this way 
the fact is accounted for that, at least in Great Britain, 
the Leblanc process still furnishes nearly half of all the 
alkali made, though in other countries its proportional 
share is very much less.  The profit made upon the chlorine 
produced has to make up for the loss on the alkali. 

The ammonia-soda process was first patented in 1838 by H. G. 
Dyar and J. Hemming, who carried it out on an experimental 
scale in Whitechapel.  Many attempts were soon after made 
in the same direction, both in England and on the continent 
of Europe, the most remarkable of which was the ingenious 
combination of apparatus devised by J. J. T. Schloesing and E. 
Rolland.  But a really economical solution of the problem 
was first definitely found in 1872 by Ernest Solvay, 
as the result of investigations begun about ten years 
previously.  The greater portion of all the soda-ash of 
commerce is now made by Solvay's apparatus, which alone we 
shall describe in this place, although it should be borne 
in mind that the principles laid down by Dyar and Hemming 
have been and are still successfully carried out in a number 
of factories by an entirely different kind of apparatus. 

The leading reaction of this process is the mutual decomposition 
of ammonium bicarbonate and sodium chloride: NaCl + NH4HCO3 
= NaHCO3 + NH4Cl.  It begins, however, not with ready-made 
ammonium bicarbonate, but with the substances from which 
it is formed--ammonia, water and carbon dioxide--which are 
made to act on sodium chloride.  In practice the process 
is carried out as follows.  A nearly saturated solution of 
sodium chloride is obtained by purifying natural or artificial 
brine, i.e. an impure solution of common salt, especially 
removing the alkaline earths and so forth by addition of 
sodium or ammonium carbonate and settling out the precipitate 
formed.  This solution is saturated with ammonia, produced 
in the recovery plant (see below), in vessels provided with 
mechanical agitators and strongly cooled by coils of pipes through 
which cold water is made to flow.  These vessels, as well as 
all others which are used in the process, are not open to the 
air, but communicate with it through washers in which fresh 
salt solution is employed for retaining any escaping vapours of 
ammonia.  The ammoniacal salt solution is now saturated with 
carbon dioxide.  This is employed in the shape of lime-kiln 
gases, obtained in a comparatively pure and strong form (up 
to 33% CO2), in very large kilns, charged with limestone and 
coke.  The kilns are closed at the top, and the gases are drawn 
out by powerful air-pumps, washers being interposed between the 
kilns and the pumps for the purpose of purifying and cooling the 
gas.  The heat evolved by the compression in the air-pumps 
(which rises to four atmospheres or upwards) is again removed 
by cooling, and the gas is now passed upwards in the ``Solvay 
tower'' (fig. 10). This is a tall iron erection, built up from 
superposed cylinders, which are separated from one another by 
perforated horizontal diaphragms, constructed in such a way 
that the gases are over and over again subdivided into many 
smaller streams and are thus thoroughly brought into contact 
with the ammoniacal salt solution with which the tower is about 
two-thirds filled.  There the reaction mentioned above takes 
place, and owing to the concentration of the liquid the sodium 
bicarbonate formed is to a great extent precipitated in the 
shape of small crystals, forming with the mother-liquor a thin 
magma.  This takes place with considerable evolution of heat 
which is removed by internal and external cooling with water.  
The temperature must not be allowed to rise beyond a certain 
point, for the reaction NaCl + NH4HCO3 = NaHCO3 + NH4Cl is 
reversible, and at a temperature of about 60 deg.  or 70 deg.  C. it 
is in fact practically going the wrong way, viz. from right to 
left.  On the other hand the cooling must not be carried too 
far, for in this case the crystals of sodium bicarbonate 
become so fine that the muddy mass is very difficult to 
filter.  The best temperature seems to be about 30 deg.  C. 

Either at certain intervals, or continuously, a portion of 
the contents of the tower is withdrawn and fresh ammoniacal 
salt solution is introduced higher up.  The muddy liquid 
running out is passed on to the vacuum filters (Z, fig. 
10). Here a separation takes place between the crystals 
of sodium bicarbonate and the mother-liquor.  The former 
are washed with water until the chlorides are nearly 
removed, and are then carried into the drying apparatus. 


From Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 
by permission of Longmans, Green & Co. 

FIG. 10.--Ammonia - soda Carbonating Towers and Filters. 
(Sectional Elevation.) Scale  1/100. AA, Tower; B, ammoniacal brine 
main; E, gas-inlet; Z, vacuum filter; V, pipe to air-pump. 


This must be constructed in such a manner that the bicarbonate, 
which always contains some ammonium salts, is first freed 
from these by moderate heating (of course taking care that the 
ammonia is completely recovered), and later on, by raising the 
temperature, it is decomposed into solid sodium carbonate and 
gaseous carbon dioxide.  The former needs only grinding to 
constitute the final product, ammonia- soda ash; the latter is 
again employed in the process of treating the ammoniacal salt 
solution with carbon dioxide.  Various forms of apparatus are 
employed for this treatment of the crude bicarbonate--sometimes 
semi-circular troughs with mechanical agitators on the 
principle of the Thelen pan (see above)--all acting on the 
principle that the escaping ammonia and carbon dioxide must 
be fully utilized over again.  The soda-ash obtained in the 
end is of a high degree of purity, testing from 98 to 99% 
Na2CO3, the remaining 1 or 2% consisting principally of NaCl. 

A very important part of the process has still to be described, 
viz. the recovery of the ammonia from the mother-liquor 
coming from the vacuum filters and various washing liquors.  
Unless this recovery is carried out in the most efficient 
manner, the process cannot possibly pay; but so much progress 
has been made in this direction that the loss of ammonia 
is very slight indeed, merely a fraction per cent.  The 
ammonia is for the major part found in the mother-liquor as 
ammonium chloride.  A smaller but still considerable portion 
exists here and in the washings in the shape of ammonium 
carbonates.  These compounds differ in their behaviour to 
heat.  The ammonium carbonates are driven out from their 
solutions by mere prolonged boiling, being thereby decomposed 
into ammonia, carbon dioxide and water, but the ammonium 
chloride is not volatile under these conditions, and must 
be decomposed by milk of lime: 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 = 2NH3 
+ CaCl2 + 2H2O.  The solution of calcium chloride is run 
to waste, the ammonia is re-introduced into the process. 

Both these reactions are carried out in tall cylindrical columns 
or ``stills,'' Consisting of a number of superposed cylinders, 
having perforated horizontal partitions, and provided with 
a steam-heating arrangement in the enlarged bottom portion.  
The milk of lime is introduced at a certain distance from the 
bottom.  The steam causes the action of the lime on the 
ammonium chloride to take place in this lower portion of the 
still, from which the steam, mixed with all the liberated 
ammonia, rises into the upper portion of the column where its 
heat serves to drive out the volatile ammonium carbonate.  Just 
below the top there is a cooling arrangement, so that nearly 
all the water is condensed and runs back into the column, while 
the ammonia, with the carbon dioxide formerly combined with 
part of it, passes on first through an outside cooler where 
the remaining water is condensed, and afterwards into the 
vessels, already described, where the ammonia is absorbed by 
a solution of salt and thus again introduced into the process. 

The reversible character of the principal reaction has 
the consequence that a considerable portion of the sodium 
chloride (up to 33%) is lost, being contained in the waste 
calcium chloride solution which issues from the ammonia 
stills.  This is, however, not of much importance, as it 
had been introduced in the shape of a brine where its value 
is very slight (6d. per ton of NaCl).  It is true that all 
the chlorine combined with the sodium is lost partly as NaCl 
and partly as CaCl2; none of the innumerable attempts at 
recovering the chlorine from the waste liquor has been made to 
pay, and success is less likely than ever since the perfection 
of the electrolytic processes. (See CHLORINE.) For all 
that, especially in consequence of the small amount of fuel 
required, and the total absence of the necessity of employing 
sulphur compounds as an intermediary, the ammonia-soda process 
has supplanted the Leblanc process almost entirely on the 
continent of Europe and to a great extent in Great Britain. 

III. ELECTROLITIC ALKALI MANUFACTURE 

In theory by far the simplest process for making alkalis together 
with free chlorine is the electrolysis of sodium (or potassium) 
chloride.  When this takes place in an aqueous solution, the 
alkaline metal at once reacts with the water, so that a solution 
of an alkaline hydrate is formed while hydrogen escapes.  The 
reactions are therefore (we shall in this case speak only of the 
sodium compounds): (1) NaCl = Na + Cl, (2) Na + H2O = NaOH + H. 

The chlorine escapes at the anode, the hydrogen at the 
cathode.  If the chlorine and the sodiun hydrate can act upon 
each other within the liquid, bleach-liquors are formed: 2NaOH 
+ Cl2 = NaOCl + NaOH + H2O.  The production of these for the 
use of papermakers and bleachers of textile fabrics has become 
an important industry, but does not enter into our province. 

If, however, the action of the chlorine on the sodium hydrate is 
prevented, which can be done in various ways, they can both be 
collected in the isolated state and utilized as has been previously 
described, viz. the chlorine can be used for the manufacture of 
liquid chlorine, bleaching-powder or other bleaching compounds, 
or chlorates, and the solution of sodium hydrate can be sold 
as such, or converted into solid caustic soda.  Precisely the 
same can be done in the electrolysis of potassium chloride. 

There is a third way of conducting the action, viz. so that 
the chlorine can act upon the caustic soda or potash at a 
higher concentration and temperature, in which case chlorates 
are directly formed in the liquid: KCl + 8H2O = KClO3 + 
8H2.  This has indeed become the principal, because it is the 
cheapest, process for the manufacture of potassium and sodium 
chlorate.  Perchlorates can also be made in this way. 

In all these cases the chlorine, or the products made from 
it, really play a greater part than the alkali.  From 58.5 
parts by weight of NaCl we obtain theoretically 23Na = 40NaOH = 
53Na2CO3, together with 35.5 Cl, or 100 bleaching-powder.  
As the weight of bleaching-powder consumed in the world is at 
most one-fifth of that of alkali, calculated as Na2CO3, it 
follows that only about one-tenth of all the alkali required 
could be made by electrolysis, even supposing the Leblanc process 
to be entirely abolished.  The remaining nine-tenths of alkali 
must be supplied from other sources, chiefly the ammonia-soda 
process.  As long as the operation of the Leblanc process is 
continued, it will supply a certain share of both kinds of 
products.  Trustworthy statistics on this point cannot be 
obtained, because most firms withhold any information 
as to the extent of their production from the public. 

The first patents for the electrolysis of alkaline chlorides 
were taken out in 1851 and several others later on; but 
commercial success was utterly impossible until the invention 
of the dynamo machine allowed the production of the electric 
current at a sufficiently cheap rate.  The first application 
of this machine for the present purpose seems to have been 
made in 1875 and the number of patents soon rapidly increased; 
but although a large amount of capital was invested and 
many very ingenious inventions made their appearance, it 
took nearly another twenty years before the manufacture of 
alkali in this way was carried out in a continuous way on a 
large scale and with profitable results.  A little earlier 
the manufacture of potassium chlorate (on the large scale 
since 1890) had been brought to a definite success by H. 
Gall and the Vicomte A. de Montlaur; a few years later the 
processes worked out at the Griesheim alkali works (near 
Frankfort) for the manufacture of caustic potash and chlorine 
established definitely the success of electrolysis in the 
field of potash, but even then none of the various processes 
working with sodium chloride had emerged from the experimental 
stage.  Only more recently the manufacture of caustic soda 
by electrolysis has also been established as a permanent and 
paying industry, but as the greatest secrecy is maintained 
in everything belonging to this domain, and as neither patent 
specifications nor the sanguine assertions and anticipations 
of interested persons throw much real light on the actual 
facts of the case, nothing certain can be said either in 
regard to the date at which the profitable manufacture 
of caustic soda was first carried out by electrolysis, or 
as to what extent this is the case at the present moment. 

We shall here give merely an outline of those more important processes 
which are known to be at present working profitably on a large scale. 

(1) The Diaphragm process is probably the only one employed 
at present for the decomposition of potassium chloride, and 
it is also used for sodium chloride.  A hot, concentrated 
solution of the alkaline chloride is treated by the electric 
current in large iron tanks which at the same time serve as 
cathodes.  The anodes are made of retort-carbon or other 
chlorine-resisting material, and they are mounted in cells 
which serve as diaphragms.  The material of these cells 
is usually cement, mixed with certain soluble salts which 
impart sufficient porosity to the material.  The electrolysis 
is carried on until about a quarter of the chloride has 
been transformed; it must be stopped at this stage lest 
the formation of hypochlorite and chlorate should set 
in.  The alkaline liquid is now transferred to vacuum pans, 
constructed in such a manner that the unchanged chloride, 
which ``salts out'' during the concentration, can be removed 
without disturbing the vacuum, and here at last a concentrated 
pure solution of KOH or NaOH is obtained which is sold in 
this state, or ``finished'' as solid caustic in the manner 
described in the section treating of the Leblanc soda. 

(2) The Castner-Kellner process employs no diaphragm, but a 
mercurial cathode.  The electrolysis takes place in the central 
compartment of a tripartite trough which can be made to rock 
slightly either to one side or the other.  The bottom of the 
trough is covered with mercury.  The sodium as it is formed 
at the cathode at once dissolves in the mercury which protects 
it against the action of the water as long as the percentage 
of sodium in the mercury does not exceed, say, 0.02%.  When 
this percentage has been reached, the cell is rocked to the 
other side, so that the amalgam flows into one of the outer 
compartments where the sodium is converted by water into sodium 
hydrate.  At the same time fresh mercury, from which the 
sodium had been previously extracted, flows from the other 
outside compartment into the central one.  After a certain time 
the whole is rocked towards the other side, and the process 
is continued until the outer compartments contain a strong 
solution of caustic soda, free from chloride and hypochlorite. 

(3) Aussig process.--Here the anode is fixed in a bell, 
mounted in a larger iron tank where the cathodes are 
placed.  The whole is filled with a solution of common 
salt.  As the electrolysis goes on, NaOH is formed at the 
cathodes and remains at the bottom.  The intermediate layer 
of the salt solution, floating over the caustic soda solution, 
plays the part of a diaphragm, by preventing the chlorine 
evolved in the bell from acting on the sodium hydrate formed 
outside, and this solution offers much less resistance to 
the electric current than the ordinary diaphragms.  This 
process therefore consumes less power than most others. 

(4) The Acker-Douglas process electrolyses sodium chloride 
in the molten state, employing a cathode consisting of molten 
lead.  The latter dissolves the sodium as it is formed and 
carries it to an outer compartment where by the action of 
water the sodium is converted into caustic soda, while the 
lead returns to the inner compartment.  This process is carried 
on at Niagara Falls, but it is uncertain to what extent. 

(5) The Hargreaves-Bird process avoids certain drawbacks 
attached to other processes, by employing a wire diaphragm 
and converting the caustic soda as it issues on the other 
side of this, by means of carbon dioxide, into a mixture 
of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate, which separates out 
in the solid state.  This process is but little used. 

It stands to reason that the electrolytic processes have 
been principally developed in localities where the electric 
current can be produced in the cheapest possible manner by 
means of water power, but this is not the only condition 
to be considered, as the question of freight to a centre of 
consumption and other circumstances may also play an important 
part.  Where coal is very cheap indeed and the other 
conditions are favourable, it is possible to establish such 
an industry with a prospect of commercial success, even when 
the electric current is produced by means of steam-engines. 

Natural Soda.--This is the term applied to certain 
deposits of alkaline salts, or their solutions, which occur, 
sometimes in very large quantities, in various parts of the 
world.  The oldest and best known of these are the Natron 
lakes in Lower Egypt.  The largest occurrence of natural soda 
hitherto known is that in Owen's Lake and other salt lakes 
situated in eastern California.  The soda in all of these 
is present as ``sesquicarbonate,'' in reality  4/3 carbonate: 
NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O, and is always mixed with large 
quantities of chloride and sulphate, which makes its extraction 
more difficult than would appear from the outset.  Hence, 
although for many centuries (up to Leblanc's invention) 
hardly any soda was available except from this source, and 
although we now know that millions of tons of it exist, 
especially in the west of the United States, there is as yet 
very little of it practically employed, and that only locally. 

REFERENCES.--The principal work on the manufacture of alkali 
is G. Lunge's Sulphuric Acid anid Alkali (2nd ed., vols. ii. 
and iii., 1895-1896).  This work has also appeared in a German 
and a French edition.  The same author wrote the articles 
on the manufacture of sodium and potassium compounds and on 
chlorine in Thorpe's Dictionary of applied Chemistry (3 
vols., 1890-1893).  The subject is also treated, very much 
more briefly, in Sorel's Industrie chimique minerale 
(1902), and of course in every other general treatise on 
chemical technology.  A special treatise on the manufaciure 
of ammonia soda ash has been published in German by H. 
Schreib.  Consult also the official Annual reports on Alkali, 
&c., and, from 1864 onwards, Journal of the Society of 
Chemical Industry, Fischers Jahresberichte der chemischen 
Technologie, and Zeitschrift fur angewandte Chemie. (G. L.) 

ALKALINE EARTHS. The so-called alkaline earth-metals are 
the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and 
barium.  By the early chemists, the term earth was used to 
denote those non-metallic substances which were insoluble in 
water and were unaffected by strong heating; and as some of 
these substances (e.g. lime) were found to be very similar in 
properties to those of the alkalis, they were called alkaline 
earths.  The alkaline earths were assumed to be elements until 
1807, when Sir H. Davy showed that they were oxides of various 
metals.  The metals comprising this group are never found in 
the uncombined condition, but occur most often in the form 
of carbonates and sulphates; they form oxides of the type RO, 
and in the case of calcium, strontium and barium, of the type 
RO2.  The oxides of type RO are soluble in water, the solution 
possessing a strongly alkaline reaction and rapidly absorbing 
carbon dioxide on exposure; they are basic in character and 
dissolve readily in acids with the formation of the corresponding 
salts.  As the atomic weight of the element increases, it is 
found that the solubility of the sulphates in water decreases. 

Beryllium to a certain extent stands alone in many of its 
chemical properties, resembling to some extent the metal 
aluminium.  Beryllium and magnesium are permanent in dry air; 
calcium, strontium and barium, however, oxidize rapidly on 
exposure.  The salts of all the metals of this group usually 
crystallize well, the chlorides and nitrates dissolve readily 
in water, whilst the carbonates, phosphates and sulphates 
are either very sparingly soluble or are insoluble in water. 

ALKALOID, in chemistry, a term originally applied to any 
organic base, i.e. a nitrogenous substance which forms 
salts with acids; now, however, it is usual to restrict 
the term to bases of vegetable origin and characterized by 
remarkable toxicological effects.  Such bases occur almost 
exclusively in the dicotyledons, generally in combination with 
malic, citric, tartaric or similar plant-acids.  They may 
be extracted by exhausting the plant-tissues with a dilute 
acid, and precipitating the bases with potash, soda, lime or 
magnesia.  The separation of the mixed bases so obtained 
is effected by repeated fractional crystallization, or by 
taking advantage of certain properties of the constituents. 

A chemical classification of alkaloids is difficult on 
account of their complex constitution.  I. A. Wyschnegradsky, 
and afterwards W. Konigs, expressed the opinion that the 
alkaloids were derivatives of pyridine or quinoline.  This 
view has been fairly well supported by later discoveries; 
but, in addition to pyridine and quinoline nuclei, alkaloids 
derived from isoquinoline are known.  The purely chemical 
literature on the alkaloids is especially voluminous; 
and from the assiduity with which the constitutions of 
these substances have been and are still being attacked, 
we may conclude that their synthesis is but a question of 
time.  Piperine, conine, atropine, belladonine, cocaine, 
hyoscyamine and nicotine have been already synthesized; the 
constitution of several others requires confirmation, while 
there remain many important alkaloids--quinine, morphine, 
strychnine, &c.--whose constitution remains unknown. 

The following classification is simple and convenient; the 
list of alkaloids makes no pretence at being exhaustive. 

 (1) Pyridine group.  Piperine; conine; trigonelline; 
     arecaidine; guvacine; pilocarpine; cytisine; nicotine;
     sparteine.
 (2) Tropine group.  Alkaloids characterized by containing 
     the tropine (q.v.) nucleus. Atropine; cocaine; hygrine;
     ecgonine; pelletierine.
 (3) Quinoline group.  The alkaloids of the quina-barks: 
     quinine, &c.; the strychnos bases: strychnine, brucine;
     and the veratrum alkaloids: veratrine, cevadine, &c.
 (4) Isoquinoline group.  The opium alkaloids: morphine, 
     codeine, thebaine, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, &c.;
     and the complicated substances hydrastine and berberine.
In addition to the above series there are a considerable number 
of compounds derived from purin which are by some writers 
classed with the alkaloids.  These are treated in the article 
PURIN. There are also reasons for including such compounds 
as muscarine, choline, neurine and betaine in this group. 

The greater number of these substances are of considerable 
medicinal value; this aspect is treated generally in the 
article PHARMACOLOGY. Reference should also be made 
to the articles on the individual alkaloids for further 
details as to their medicinal and chemical properties. 

The chemistry of the alkaloids is treated in detail by Ame 
Pictet in his La Constitution chimique des alcatoides vegetaux 
(Paris, 1897); enlarged and translated by H. C. Biddle wiih 
the title The Vegetable Alkaloids (New Vork, 1904); and by 
J. W. Bruhl, F. HJelt, and O. Aschan: Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide 
(1900).  A pamphlet, Die Alkaloidchemie in den Jahren 
1900-1904, by Julius Schmidt, may also be consulted. 

ALKAN, CHARLES HENRI VALENTIN MORHANGE (1813-1888), French 
musical composer, was born and died in Paris.  Alkan was his 
nom de guerre. Admitted to the Conservatoire of Paris in his 
sixth year, he had a distinguished career there until 1830.  
He visited London in 1833, after which he settled in Paris as 
a pianoforte teacher till his death.  He is important as the 
composer of a large number of pianoforte etudes, embodying 
the most extravagant technical difficulties.  His invention 
was not modern enough to secure for these works that attention 
which they deserve as representing a pianoforte technique 
and sense of effect in some respects more advanced even 
than that of Liszt, though lacking Liszt's economy and tact. 

ALKANET (dim. from Span. alcana, Arab. al-hena = henna, 
Egyptian privet, or Lawsonia inermis), a plant, Alkanna or 
Anchusa tinctoria, of the order Boraginaceae, also known as 
orchanet, dyer's bugloss, Spanish bugloss or bugloss of Languedoc, 
which is grown in the south of France and on the shores of the 
Levant.  Its root yields a fine red colouring matter which 
has been used to tint tinctures, oils, wines, varnishes, &c. 

AL KASR AL KEBIR (``the great castle,'' in Span. ALCAZAR 
KEBIR, in Port. ALCACER QUBIR), a town of Morocco, on the 
river Lekkus, 80 m.  N.W. of Fez. Pop. about 10,000.  Its mud 
and pantile dwellings are here and there relieved by a mosque 
tower, but the aspect of the town is far from inviting.  It 
is frequently flooded in winter and in consequence fever is 
prevalent.  The weekly market, held on Sundays in the centre 
of the town, gives to the place an appearance of bustle.  
A vice-governor is appointed for the town by the basha of 
Laraiche, one for the country round by the sultan of Morocco, 
a condition which causes much confusion on market-days.  Al 
Kasr al Rebir was built, according to Leo Africanus, by Yakub 
el Mansur (1186-1199).  Not far from the town, by the banks 
of the river Makhazan, is the site of the battle fought in 
1578 between Dom Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the Moors 
under Abd el Malek, in which the Moors were victorious, though 
both kings perished, as well as the deposed Mahommed XI., who 
had called in the Portuguese to his aid against Abd el Malek. 

ALKMAAR, a town in the province of North Holland, kingdom of 
Holland, 24 1/2 m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam, connected by 
steam-tramway with Haarlem and Amsterdam, and on the North Holland 
canal.  Pop. (1900) 18,373.  Alkmaar is a typical North Holland 
town, with tree-lined canals and brightly coloured 17th-century 
houses.  The old city walls have been replaced by pleasant 
gardens and walks, and there is a park in which stands a fine 
monument (1876) by J. T. Stracke (1817- 1891), symbolizing 
Alcmaria victrix, to commemorate the siege by the Spaniards in 
1573.  The Groote Kerk (1470-1498), dedicated to St Lawrence, 
is a handsome building and contains the tomb of Floris 
V., count of Holland (d. 1296), a brass of 1546, and some 
paintings (1507).  In the town hall (1507) are the library 
and a small museum with two pictures by the 17th century 
artist Caesar van Everdingen, who with his more celebrated 
brother Allart van Everdingen (q.v.) was a native of the 
town.  The weigh-house (1582) is a picturesque building 
with quaint gable and tower.  Just outside the town lies the 
Alkmaar wood, at the entrance to which stands the military 
cadet school which serves as a preparatory school for the 
royal military academy at Breda.  Alkmaar derives its chief 
importance from being the centre of the flourishing butter 
and cheese trade of this region of Holland.  It is also a 
considerable market for horses, cattle and grain, and there is 
a little boat-building and salt and sail-cloth manufacture.  
Tramways connect Alkmaar with Egmond and with the pretty summer 
resort of Bergen, which lies sheltered by woods and dunes. 

The name of Alkmaar, which means ``all sea,'' first occurs 
in the 10th century, and recalls its former situation in the 
midst of marshlands and lakes.  It was probably originally a 
fishing-village, but with the reclamation of the surrounding 
morasses, e.g. that of the Schermer in 1685, and their 
conversion into rich meadow land, Alkmaar gradually acquired 
an imporiant trade.  In 1254 it received a charter from 
William II., count of Holland, similar to that of Haarlem, 
but in the 15in century duke Philip the Good of Burgundy 
made the impoverishment of the town, due to ill-government, 
the excuse for establishing an oligarchical regime, by 
charters of 1436 and 1437.  As the capital of the ancient 
district of Kennemerland between den Helder and Haarlem, 
Alkmaar frequently suffered in the early wars between the 
Hollanders and the Frisians, and in i517 )xas captured by the 
united Gelderlaiiders and Frisians.  In 1573 it successfully 
sustained a seven-weeks' siege by 16,000 Spaniards under the 
duke of Alva.  In 1799 Alkmaar gave its name to a conxention 
signed by the duke of York and the French general Brune, in 
accordance with which the Russo-British army of 23,000 men, 
which was defeated at Bergen, evacuated Holland.  A monument 
was erected in 1901 to commemorate the Russians who fell. 

ALLACCI, LEONE [LEO ALLATIUS] (1586-1669), Greek scholar 
and theologian, was born in the island or Chios.  His early 
years were passed in Calabria and at Rome, where he finally 
settled as teacher of Greek at the Greek college, at the 
same time devoting himself to the study of classics and 
theology.  In 1622, after the capture of Heidelberg by Tilly, 
the elector Maximilian of Bavaria presented its splendid 
library composed of 196 cases of MSS. (bibliotheca Palatina) 
to Pope Gregory XV. Allacci was sent to superintend its 
removal to Rome, where it was incorporated with the Vatican 
library.  On the death of Gregory, Allacci became librarian to 
Cardinal Berberini, and subsequently (1661) librarian of the 
Vatican, which post he held till his death on the 18th (or 
19th) of January 1669.  It is noteworthy that, although a Greek 
by birth, he became an ardent Roman Catholic and the bitter 
enemy of all heretics, including his own countrymen.  Allacci 
was a very industrious and voluminous writer, but his works, 
although they bear ample testimony to his immense learning, 
show an absence of the true critical faculty, and are full of 
intolerance, especially on religious subjects.  For a list 
of these, J. A. Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca (xi. 437) 
should be consulted, where they are divided into four classes: 
editions, translations and commentaries on ancient authors; works 
relating to the dogmas and institutions of the Greek and Roman 
Churches; historical works; miscellaneous works.  The number 
of his unpublished writings is also very large; the majority 
of them are included in the MSS. of the Vallicellian library. 

The main source of our knowledge of Allatius is the incomplete 
life by Stephanus Gradi, Leonis Allatii vita, published by 
Cardinal Mai, in Nova Bibliotheca Patrum. A complete enumeration 
of his works is contained in E. Legrand, Bibliographie 
hellenique du XVIIeme siecle (Paris, 1895, iii. 
435-471).  The accounts of C. N. Sathas in Neoellenvike 
filologia (Athens, 1868), and of the pseudo-prince Demetrius 
Rhodokanakis, Leonis Allatii Hellas (Athens, 1872, are 
inaccurate and untrustworthy.  For a special account of his 
share in the foundation of the Vatican Library, see Curzio 
Mazzi, Leone Allacci e la Palatina di Heidelberg (Bologna, 
1893).  The theological aspect of his works is best 
treated by the Assumptionist Father L. Petit in A. Vacant's 
Dictionnaire de theologie (Paris, 1900, cols. 830-833). 

ALLAH, the Arabic name used by Moslems of all nationalities 
for the one true God. It is compounded of al, the definite 
article, and ilah, meaning a god.  The same word is 
found in Hebrew and Aramaic as well as in ancient Arabic 
(Sabaean).  The meaning of the root from which it is derived 
is very doubtful; cf.  Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon, p. 
82, and the Oxford Hebrew and English Lexicon, pp. 61 ff. 

ALLAHABAD, a city of British India, the capital of the United 
Provinces of Agra and Oudh, giving its name to a district and a 
division.  The city is situated at the confluence of the 
Ganges and the Jumna in 25 deg.  26' N. lat. and 81 deg.  50' E. 
long., 564 m. from Calcutta by rail.  Its most conspicuous 
feature is the fort, which rises directly from the banks of the 
confluent rivers and completely commands the navigation of both 
streams.  Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, 
erected by the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of 
his.  A great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hall 
is converted into an arsenal.  Outside the fort the places 
of most importance are the sarai and gardens of Khasru, the 
son of the Emperor Jehangir, and the Jama Masjid or Great 
Mosque.  When the town first came into the hands of the 
English this mosque was used as a residence by the military 
officer commanding the station, and afterwards as an assembly 
room.  Ultimately it was returned to its former owners, but 
the Mahommedans considered it desecrated, and it has never 
since been used as a place of worship.  Allahabad (Illahabad) 
was the name given to the city when Akbar built the great 
fort.  To the Hindus it is still known by its ancient name 
of Prag or Prayag (``place of sacrifice''), and it remains 
one of the most noted resorts of Hindu pilgrimage.  It owes 
its sanctity to its being the reputed confluence of three 
sacred streams--the Ganges, the Jumna and the Saraswati.  This 
last stream, however, actually loses itself in the sands of 
Sirhind, 400 m. north-west of Allahabad.  The Hindus assert 
that the stream joins the other two rivers underground, and 
in a subterraneous temple below the fort a little moisture 
trickling from the rocky walls is pointed out as the waters 
of the Saraswati.  An annual fair is held at Allahabad at 
the confluence of the streams on the occasion of the great 
bathing festival at the full moon of the Hindu month of 
Magh.  It is known as the Magh-mela, lasts for a whole 
month, and is attended by as many as 250,000 persons in 
ordinary years, either for religious or commercial purposes.  
Every twelfth year there is a special occasion called the 
Kumbh-mela, which is attended by a million of devotees at one 
time.  Allahabad was taken by the British in 1765 from the 
wazir of Oudh, and assigned as a residence to Shah Alam, 
the titular emperor of Delhi.  Upon that prince throwing 
himself into the hands of the Mahrattas, the place was 
resumed by the British in 1771 and again transferred to 
the nawab of Oudh, by whom it was finally ceded together 
with the district to the British in 1801, in commutation of 
the subsidy which the wazir had agreed to pay for British 
protection.  During the Mutiny of 1857, Allahabad became 
the scene of one of the most serious outbreaks and massacres 
which occurred in the North-Western Provinces.  The fort was 
held by a little garrison of Europeans and loyal Sikhs, until 
it was relieved by General Neill on June 11th of that year. 

The modern buildings of Allahabad include Government House, the 
High Court, the Mayo memorial and town hall, the Muir central 
college, the Thornhill and Mayne memorial library and museum, 
the Naini central jail, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic 
cathedrals.  The Jumna is crossed by a railway bridge and 
there are two bridges of boats over the Ganges.  The military 
cantonments contain accommodation for all three arms and 
are the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division of 
the eastern army corps.  At Allahabad is published the 
Pioneer, perhaps the best known English paper in India.  
There is an American mission college.  Here is the junction 
of the great railway system which unites Bengal with Central 
India and Bombay, and is developing into a great centre of 
1nland and export trade.  The population in 1901 was 172,032. 

The DISTRICT OF ALLAHABAD has an area of 2811 sq. m.  In 
shape it is an irregular oblong, and it is very difficult to 
define its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into 
Oudh, while on the south the villages of the state of Rewa 
and those of this district are hopelessly intermingled.  The 
Jumna and the Ganges enclose within their angle a fertile 
tract well irrigated with tanks and wells.  The East Indian 
railway and the Grand Trunk road afford the principal means 
of land communication.  In 1901 the population was 1,489,358, 
showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due to famine. 

The division of Allahabad has an area of 17,270 sq. m.  The 
population in 1901 was 5,540,702, showing a decrease of 4% in the 
decade due to the famine of 1896-1897, which was severely felt 
throughout the division.  It comprises the seven districts of 
Cawnpore, Fatehpur, Banda, Hamirpur, Allahabad, Jhansi and Jalaun. 

ALLAMANDA, named after J. N. S. Allamand (1713-1787), of 
Leiden, a genus of shrubby, evergreen climbers, belonging 
to the natural order Apocynaceae, and a native of tropical 
America.  Several species are grown in hot-houses for the 
beauty of their folliage and flowers; the latter, borne in 
many-flowered panicles, have a funnel-shaped corolla with 
a narrow tube, and often yellow in colour.  The plants 
are of comparatively easy culture, and very effective 
when trained to wires beneath the roof of the house. 

ALLAN, DAVID (1744-1796), Scottish historical painter, 
was born at Alloa.  On leaving Foulis's academy of painting 
at Glasgow (1762), after seven years' successful study, he 
obtained the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar, 
on whose estate he had been born.  The latter furnished him 
with the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where he remained 
for a number of years engaged principally in copying the old 
masters.  Among the original works which he then painted 
was the ``Origin of Portraiture''--representing a Corinthian 
maid drawing her lover's shadow--well known through Domenico 
Cunego's excellent engraving.  This gained for him the gold 
medal given by the Academy of St Luke in the year 1773 for 
the best specimen of historical composition.  Returning 
from Rome in 1777, he resided for a time in London, and 
occupied himself in portrait-painting.  In 1780 he removed 
to Edinburgh, where, on the death of Alexander Runciman in 
1786, he was appointed director and master of the Academy of 
Arts.  There he painted and etched in aquatint a variety of 
works, those by which he is best known--as the ``Scotch 
Wedding,'' the ``Highland Dance,'' the ``Repentance Stool,'' 
and his ``Illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd''--being 
remarkable for their comic humour.  He was called the ``Scottish 
Hogarth''; but his drolleries hardly entitle him to this 
comparison.  Allan died at Edinburgh on the 6th of August 1796. 

ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810-1882), Canadian financier, was 
born on the 29th of September 1810, at Saltcoats, Ayrshire, 
Scotland, the son of Captain Alexander Allan, a shipmaster.  
He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and in 1831 entered the 
employ of the chief shipbuilding and grain-shipping firm of 
Montreal, of which he became a junior partner in 1835.  In 
1853 he organized the Allan Line of steamships, plying between 
Montreal.  Liverpool and Glasgow; till his death he was 
closely associated with the commercial growth and prosperity 
of Canada, and in 1871 was knighted in recognition of his 
services.  In 1872- 1873 he obtained from the Canadian government 
a charter for building the Canadian Pacific railway, but the 
disclosures made with reference to his contributions to the 
funds of the Conservative party led to the Pacific scandal 
(see CANADA, History), and that company was soon afterwards 
dissolved.  He died in Edinburgh on the 9th of December 1882. 

See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (1881). 

ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1850), Scottish painter, was born at 
Edinburgh, and at an early age entered as a pupil in the School 
of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of Trustees 
for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions, John 
Wilkie, John Burnet the engraver, and others who afterward 
distinguished themselves as artists.  Here Allan and Wilkie 
were placed at the same table, studied the same designs, and 
contracted a lifelong friendship.  Allan continued his studies 
for some time in London; but his attempt to establish himself 
there was unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal 
Academy (1805) his first picture, ``A Gipsy Boy and Ass,'' 
an imitation in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his 
scanty resources, to seek his fortune abroad.  He accordingly 
set out the same year for Russia, but was carried by stress of 
weather to Memel, where he remained for some time, supporting 
himself by his pencil.  At last, however, he reached St 
Petersburg, where the kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton, 
the court physician, and other friends procured him abundant 
employment.  By excursions into southern Russia, Turkey, 
the Crimea and Circassia, he filled his portfolio with vivid 
sketches, of which he made admirable use in his subsequent 
pictures.  In 1814 he returned to Edinburgh, and in the two 
following years exhibited at the Royal Academy ``The Circassian 
Captives'' and ``Bashkirs tonducting Convicts to Siberia.'' 
The former picture remained so long unsold, that, thoroughly 
disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia when, 
through the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a subscription of 
1000 guineas was obtained for the picture, which fell by lot 
into the possession of the earl of Wemyss.  About the same time 
the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards tsar of Russia, visited 
Edinburgh, and purchased his ``Siberian Exiles'' and ``Haslan 
Gheray crossing the River Kuban,'' giving a very favourable 
turn to the fortunes of the painter, whose pictures were now 
sought for by collectors.  From this time to 1834 he achieved 
his greatest success and firmly established his fame by the 
illustration of Scottish history.  His most important works 
of this class were ``Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor''; ``John 
Knox admonishing Mary Queen of Scots'' (1823), engraved by 
Burnet; ``Mary Queen of Scots signing her Abdication'' (1824); 
and ``Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.'' 
The last procured his election as an associate of the Royal 
Academy (1825).  Later Scottish subjects were ``Lord Byron'' 
(1831), portraits of Scott and ``The Orphan'' (1834), which 
represented Anne Scott seated near the chair of her deceased 
father.  In 1830 he was compelled, on account of an attack of 
ophthalmia, to seek a milder climate, and visited Rome, Naples and 
Constantinople.  He returned with a rich store of materials, 
of which he made excellent use in his ``Constantinople Slave 
Market'' and other productions.  In 1834 he visited Spain and 
Morocco, and in 1841 went again to St Petersburg, when he 
undertook, at the request of the tsar, his ``Peter the Great 
teaching his Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding,'' exhibited 
in London in 1845, and now in the Winter Palace of St 
Petersburg.  His ``Polish Exiles'' and ``Moorish Love-letter,'' 
&c., had secured his election as a Royal Academician in 1835; 
he was appointed president of the Royal Scottish Academy 
(1838), and royal limner for Scotland, after Wilkie's death 
(1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knighthood.  His 
later years were occupied with battle-pieces, the last he 
finished being the second of his two companion pictures of the 
``Battle of Waterloo.'' He died on the 22nd of February 1850, 
leaving a large unfinished picture--``Bruce at Bannockburn.'' 

ALHAN-DESPREAUX, LOUISE ROSALIE (1810-1856), French 
actress, was ``discovered'' by Talma at Brussels in 1820, when 
she played Joas with him in Athalie. At his suggestion she 
changed her surname, Ross, for her mother's maiden name, and, as 
Mlle.  Despreaux, was engaged for children's parts at the 
Comedie Francaise.  At the same time she studied at the 
Conservatoire.  By 1825 she had taken the second prize for 
comedy, and was engaged to play inigenue parts at the Comeedie 
Francaise, where her first appearance in this capacity was as 
Jenny in L'Argent on the 8th of December 1826.  In 1831 the 
director of the Gymnase succeeded in persuading her to join his 
company.  Her six years at this theatre, during which she 
married Allan, an actor in the company, were a succession of 
triumphs.  She was then engaged at the French theatre at St 
Petersburg.  Returning to Paris, she brought with her, as 
Legouve says, a thing she had unearthed, through a Russian 
translation, a little comedy never acted till she took it up, 
a production half-forgotten, and esteemed by those who knew it 
as a pleasing piece of work in the Marivaux style--Un Caprice 
by Alfred de Musset, which she had played with success in St 
Petersburg.  Her selection of this piece for her reappearance 
at the Theatre Francaise (1847) laid the corner-stone 
of Musset's lasting fame as a dramatist.  In the following 
year his comedy Il ne faut jurer de rien was acted at the 
same theatre, and thus led to the production of his finer 
plays.  Among plays by other authors in which Mme. Allan won 
special laurels at the Theatre Francaise. were Par droit 
de conquete, Peril en la demeure, La joie fait peur, 
and Lady Tartuffe. In the last, with a part of only fifty 
lines, and playing by the very side of the great Rachel, she 
yet held her own as an actress of the first rank.  Mme. Allan 
died in Paris, in the height of her popularity, in March 1856. 

                                         /NH-CH-NH-CO-NH2 ALLANTOIN, C4H6N4O3 or CO | 
                                        \NH-CO
the diureide of glyoxylic acid.  It is found in the allantoic 
liquid of the cow, and in the urine of sucking calves.  It 
can be obtained by the oxidation of uric acid by means of lead 
dioxide, manganese dioxide, ozone or potassium permanganate: 

 C5H4N4O3 + H2O + O = C4H6N4O3 + CO2. 

It has been synthesized by E. Grimaux by heating one part of 
glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea for ten hours at 100 deg.  
C.: 2CO(NH2)2 + CH(OH)2COOH = 3H2O + C4H6N4O3.  It 
forms glancing prisms of neutral reaction slightly soluble in 
water.  On standing with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution 
it gives potassium allantoate C4H7N4O4K.  On heating with 
water it undergoes hydrolysis into urea and allanturic acid 
C3H4O3N2.  It is reduced by sodium amalgam to glycouril 
C4H6N4O2, whilst with hydriodic acid it yields urea and hydantoin 
C3H4N2O2.  Hot concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes 
allantoin, with production of ammonia, and carbon monoxide and 
dioxide.  By dry distillation it gives ammonium cyanide. 

ALLEGHANY, or THE ALLEGHANIES (a spelling now more common 
than Allegheny), a name formerly used of all the Appalachian 
Mountains (q.v.), U.S.A., and now sometimes of all that 
system lying W. and S. of the Hudson river, being steep 
and narrow-crested in Pennsylvania (1500-1800 ft.), and in 
Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia higher (3000 ft.-4473 
ft). and with broader crests.  Another usage applies to 
the ridges ( ``the Alleghany Ridges'') parallel to the Blue 
Ridge; the north-western part of this region is sometimes 
called the Alleghany Front or the Front of the Alleghany 
Plateau.  The Alleghany Plateau is the north-westernmost 
division of the Appalachian system; it is an eroded mass of 
sedimentary rock sloping north-westward to the Prairie and 
Lake Plains and reaching south-west from the south-western 
part of New York state through Tennessee and into Alabama. 

ALLEGHENY, formerly a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers. 
opposite Pittsburg; since 1907 a part of Pittsburg.  
Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,896, of whom 30,216 were 
foreign-born and 3315 were negroes; of the foreign-born 12,022 
were from Germany, 5070 from Ireland, 3929 from Austria, and 
2177 from England; (1906, estimate) 145,240.  Allegheny is 
served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pittsburg & Western 
railways, by the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, the Western 
Pennsylvania, the Buffalo & Allegheny Valley, the Cleveland & 
Pittsburg, the Erie & Pittsburg, the Pittsburg, Youngstown & 
Ashtabula, and the Chautauqua divisions of the Pennsylvania 
railway system, and by Ohio river freight and passenger 
boats.  Extending along the river fronts for about 6 1/2 m. 
are numerous large manufactories and the headquarters of 
the shipping interests; farther back are the mercantile 
quarters and public buildings; and on the hills beyond are 
the residence districts, commanding extensive views of the 
valley.  Two of the principal thoroughfares, Federal and Ohio 
streets, intersect at a central square, in which are the city 
hall, public library, post office and the marketplace; and 
surrounding the main business section on the E., N. and W. 
is City Park of 100 acres, with lakes and fountains, and 
monuments to the memory of Alexander von Humboldt, George 
Washington and T. A. Armstrong.  Farther out is Riverview 
Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astronomical 
Observatory, and elsewhere are a soldiers' monument and a 
monument (erected by Andrew Carnegie) in memory of Colonel Johnes 
Anderson.  In Allegheny are the following institutions of 
higher learning:--the Allegheny Theological Seminary (United 
Presbyterian), opened in 1825; the Western Theological 
Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, opened in 1827; and 
the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterians, 
opened in 1856.  There is a fine Carnegie library with a 
music-hall.  Among penal and charitable institutions are the 
Riverside State Penitentiary, three hospitals, three homes 
for orphans, a home for the friendless and an industrial 
school.  Six bridges spanning the river and electric lines 
crossing them have brought Allegheny into close industrial and 
social relations with the main part of Pittsburg, and on the 
hills of Allegheny are beautiful homes of wealthy men.  As a 
manufacturing centre Allegheny was outranked in 1905 by only 
two cities in the state--Philadelphia and Pittsburg; among 
the more important of its large variety of manufactures are 
the products of slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, 
iron and steel rolling mills, the products of foundries and 
machine- shops, pickles, preserves and sauces, the products of 
railway- construction and repair shops, locomotives, structural 
iron and plumbers' supplies.  In 1905 the total value of 
Allegheny's factory products was $45,830,272; this showed an 
apparent decrease (exceeded by one city only) of $7,365,106, 
from the product-value of 1900, but the decrease was partly 
due to the more careful census of 1905, in which there were not 
the duplications or certain items which occurred in the 1900 
census.  But in the live years there was a decrease of 3865 
in the average number of wage-earners, and the iron and 
steel output was much less.  In 1905 Allegheny ranked first 
among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of 
pickles, preserves and sauces, the product ($6,216,778) being 
20.9% of that for the whole country.  An important industry 
is the shipment of coal, especially on barges down the Ohio. 

Allegheny was laid out in 1788 on a portion of a tract which 
the state had previously reserved opposite Pittsburg, with a 
view to bringing some valuable land into the market for the 
payment of its soldiers' claims.  When ordered by the state to 
be laid out, it was also named as the site of the county-seat 
of the newly erected county of Allegheny, but the opposition 
of Pittsburg was so strong that by a supplementary act in the 
following year that town was made the county-seat.  In 1828 
Allegheny was incorporated as a borough and in 1840 it was 
chartered as a city.  The city suffered severely in 1874 from 
a fire started by a fire-cracker on the 4th of July and from 
a flood caused by a great rain-storm on the 26th of the same 
month, but these calamities were followed by years of great 
prosperity and rapid growth.  In 1906 the question of uniting 
Allegheny with Pittsburg under one municipal government was 
submitted to a joint vote of the electorate of the two cities, 
in accordance with an act of the state legislature, which had 
been passed in February of that year, and a large majority 
voted for the union; but there was determined opposition in 
Allegheny, every ward of the city voting in the negative; 
the constitutionality of the act was challenged; the supreme 
court of the state on the 11th of March 1907 declared the 
act valid, and on the 18th of November 1907 this decision 
was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States. 

See J. E. Parke, Recollections of Seventy Years and Historical 
Gleanings of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Boston, 1886). 

ALLEGIANCE (Mid.  Eng. ligeaunce; med.  Lat. ligeantia, 
&c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with 
another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. 
allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from 
``liege,'' of which the derivation is given under that heading; 
the connexion with Lat. ligare, to bind, is erroneous), 
the duty which a subject or a citizen owes to the state or to 
the sovereign of the state to which he belongs.  It is often 
used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided 
by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the 
deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions 
of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in 
its proper sense, in which it indicates national character 
and the subjection due to that character, that the word is 
important.  In that sense it represents the feudal liege 
homage, which could be due only to one lord, while simple 
homage might be due to every lord under whom the person in 
question held land.  The English doctrine, which was at one 
time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance 
was indelible:-- Nemo potest exuere patriam. Accordingly, 
as the law stood before 1870, every person who by birth or 
naturalization satisfied the conditions described in the article 
ALIEN, though he should be removed in infancy to another 
country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the 
British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by 
act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence 
or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he 
resided.  By the Naturalization Act 1870, it was made possible 
for British subjects to renounce their nationality and 
allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are 
defined.  So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in 
a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such 
naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized 
before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire 
to remain British subjects within two years from the passing 
of the act.  Persons who from having been born within British 
territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under 
the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also 
persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of 
parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British 
nationality.  Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British 
nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states 
to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is 
one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion. 

The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance 
without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in 
the United States, and in 1868 congress declared that ``the 
right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all 
people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of 
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,'' and one of 
``the fundamental principles of the republic'' (United 
States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999).  Every citizen of a 
foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it 
and one to the United States.  He may be guilty of treason 
against one or both.  If the demands of these two sovereigns 
upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the 
United States have the paramount authority in American law. 

The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign 
taken by all persons holding important public office and as a 
condition of naturalization.  By ancient common law it might 
be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was 
repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected.  In England it 
was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (1558) 
and its form has more than once been altered since.  Up to 
the time of the revolution the promise was, ``to be true and 
faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to 
bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or 
hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him 
therefrom.'' This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute 
non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament 
enacted the form that has been in use since that time--``I 
do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and 
bear true allegiance to His Majesty . . .'' (see OATH.) 

See also the articles CITIZEN, NATURALIZATION: and 
Salmond on ``Citizenship and Allegiance,'' in the Law 
Quarterly Review (July 1901, January 1902). (JNO. W.) 

ALLEGORY (allos, other, and agoreuein, to speak), a 
figurative representation conveying a meaning other than and in 
addition to the literal.  It is generally treated as a figure of 
rhetoric, but the medium of representation is not necessarily 
language.  An allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is 
often embodied in painting, sculpture or some form of mimetic 
art.  The etymological meaning of the word is wider than that 
which it bears in actual use.  An allegory is distinguished 
from a metaphor by being longer sustained and more fully 
carried out in its details, and from an analogy by the fact 
that the one appeals to the imagination and the other to the 
reason.  The fable or parable is a short allegory with one 
definite moral.  The allegory has been a favourite form in 
the literature of nearly every nation.  The Hebrew scriptures 
present frequent instances of it, one of the most beautiful 
being the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth 
of a vine in the 80th psalm.  In classical literature one 
of the best known allegories is the story of the stomach and 
its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32); 
and several occur in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the 
most elaborate and the most successful specimens of allegory 
are to be found in the works of English authors.  Spenser's 
Faerie Queene, Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision 
of Mirza, and, above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are 
examples that it would be impossible to match in elaboration, 
beauty and fitness, from the literature of any other nation. 

ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, Italian priest and musical composer, 
probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome either 
in 1560 or in 1585.  He studied music under G. Maria 
Nanini, the intimate friend of Palestrina.  Being intended 
for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of 
Fermo.  Here he composed a large number of motets and sacred 
pieces, which, being brought under the notice of Pope Urban 
VIII., obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the 
Sistine Chapel at Rome.  He held this from December 1629 
till his death on the 18th of February 1652.  His character 
seems to have been singularly pure and benevolent.  Among 
the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of 
concerti, published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets, 
published in 1620 and 1621; besides a number of works still in 
manuscript.  He was one of the earliest composers for 
stringed instruments, and Kircher has given one specimen 
of this class of his works in the Musurgia. But the most 
celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere, still 
annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome.  It is 
written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four 
voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not entirely 
factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic merits 
alone.  The mystery in which the composition was long 
enshrouded, no single copy being allowed to reach the public, 
the place and circumstances of the performance, and the added 
embellishments of the singers, account to a great degree for 
much of the impressive effect of which all who have heard 
the music speak.  This view is confirmed by the fact that, 
when the music was performed at Venice by permission of the 
pope, it produced so little effect that the emperor Leopold 
I., at whose request the manuscript had been sent, thought 
that something else had been substituted.  In spite of the 
precautions of the popes, the Miserere has long been public 
property.  In 1769 Mozart (q.v.) heard it and wrote it down, 
and in 1771 a copy was procured and published in England by Dr 
Burney.  The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri's 
Miserere included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and 
Hartel.  Interesting accounts of the impression produced by 
the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of 
Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy. 

ALLEGRO (an Italian word, meaning ``cheerful,'' as in Milton's 
poem), a term in music to indicate quick or lively time, coming 
between andante and presto; it is frequently modified by 
the addition of qualifying words.  It is also used of a separate 
piece of music, or of a movement in a sonata, symphony, &c. 

ALLEINE, JOSEPH (1634-1668), English Nonconformist divine, 
belonged to a family originally settled in Suffolk.  As early 
as 1430 some of them--sprung of Alan, lord of Buckenhall 
--settled in the neighbourhood of Calne and Devizes, whence 
descended the immediate ancestors of ``worthy Mr Tobie Alleine 
of Devizes,'' father of Joseph, who, the fourth of a large 
family, was born at Devizes early in 1634. 1645 is marked in 
the title-page of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, 
as the year of his setting forth in the Christian race. 
His elder brother Edward had been a clergyman, but in this 
year died; and Joseph entreated his father that he might be 
educated to succeed his brother in the ministry.  In April 
1649 he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, and on the 3rd of 
November 1651 he became scholar of Corpus Christi College.  
On the 6th of July 1653 he took the degree of B.D., and became 
a tutor and chaplain of Corpus Christi, preferring this to a 
fellowship.  In 1654 he had offers of high preferment in the 
state, which he declined; but in 1655 George Newton, of 
the great church of St Mary Magdalene, Taunton, sought him 
for assistant and Alleine accepted the invitation.  Almost 
coincident with his ordination as associate pastor came 
his marriage with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of Richard 
Alleine.  Friendships among ``gentle and simple''--of the 
former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of the protector 
Somerset--bear witness to the attraction of Alleine's private 
life.  His public life was a model of pastoral devotion.  This 
is all the more remarkable as he found time to continue his 
studies, one monument of which was his Theologia Philosophica 
(a lost MS.), a learned attempt to harmonize revelation and 
nature, which drew forth the wonder of Baxter.  Alleine was 
no mere scholar or divine, but a man who associated on equal 
terms with the founders of the Royal Society.  These scientific 
studies were, however, kept in subordination to his proper 
work.  The extent of his influence was, in so young a 
man, unique, resting on the earnestness and force of his 
nature.  The year 1662 found senior and junior pastors 
like-minded, and both were among the two thousand ejected 
ministers.  Alleine, with John Wesley (grandfather of the 
celebrated John Wesley), also ejected, then travelled about, 
preaching wherever opportunity was found.  For this he was 
cast into prison, indicted at sessions, bullied and fined.  His 
Letters from Prison were an earlier Cardiphonia than John 
Newton's.  He was released on the 26th of May 1664; and in 
spite of the Conventicle, or Five Mile Act, he resumed his 
preaching.  He found himself again in prison, and again 
and again a sufferer.  His remaining years were full of 
troubles and persecutions nobly borne, till at last, worn 
out by them, he died on the 17th of November 1668; and the 
mourners, remembering their beloved minister's words while 
yet with them, ``If I should die fifty miles away, let me 
be buried at Taunton,'' found a grave for him in St Mary's 
chancel.  No Puritan nonconformist name is so affectionately 
cherished as is that of Joseph Alleine.  His chief 
literary work was An Alarm to the Unconverted (1672), 
otherwise known as The Sure Guide to Heaven, which had 
an enormous circulation.  His Remains appeared in 1674. 

See Life, edited by Baxter; Joseph Alleine: his 
Companions and Times, by Charles Stanford (1861); Wood's 
Athenae, iii. 819; Palmer's Nonc.  Mem. iii. 208. 

ALLEINE, RICHARD (1611-1681), English Puritan divine, was 
born at Ditcheat, Somerset, where his father was rector.  He 
was a younger brother of William Alleine, the saintly vicar of 
Blandford.  Richard was educated at St Alban's Hall, Oxford, 
where he was entered commoner in 1627, and whence, having 
taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to New Inn, 
continuing there until he proceeded M.A. On being ordained 
he became assistant to his father, and immediately stirred 
the entire county by his burning eloquence.  In March 1641 
he succeeded the many-sided Richard Bernard as rector of 
Batcomb (Somerset).  He declared himself on the side of the 
Puritans by subscribing ``The testimony of the ministers 
in Somersetshire to the truth of Jesus Christ,'' and ``The 
Solemn League and Covenant,'' and assisted the commissioners 
of the parliament in their work of ejecting unsatisfactory 
ministers.  Alleine continued for twenty years rector of 
Batcomb and was one of the two thousand ministers ejected in 
1662.  The Five Mile Act drove him to Frome Selwood, and in 
that neighbourhood he preached until his death on the 22nd 
of December 1681.  His works are all of a deeply spiritual 
character.  His Vindiciae Pietatis (which first appeared 
in 1660) was refused licence by Archbishop Sheldon, and was 
published, in common with other nonconformist books, without 
it.  It was rapidly bought up and ``did much to mend this 
bad world.'' Roger Norton, the king's printer, caused a 
large part of the first impression to be seized on the 
ground of its not being licensed and to be sent to the royal 
kitchen.  Glancing over its pages, however, it seemed to 
him a sin that a book so holy--and so saleable--should be 
destroyed.  He therefore bought back the sheets, says Calamy, 
for an old song, bound them and sold them in his own shop.  
This in turn was complained of, and he had to beg pardon on 
his knees before the council-table; and the remaining copies 
were sentenced to be ``bisked,'' or rubbed over with an inky 
brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting fires.  Such 
``bisked'' copies occasionally occur still.  The book was not 
killed.  It was often reissued with additions, The Godly 
Man's Portion in 1663, Heaven Opened in 1666, The World 
Conquered in 1668.  He also published a book of sermons 
Godly Fear, in 1664, and other less noticeable devotional compilations. 

See Calamy, s.v.; Palmer's Nonconf: Mem. iii. 167-168; 
C. Stanford's Joseph Ailleine; Researches at Batcomb 
and Frome Selwood; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), iv. 13. 

ALLEMANDE (Fr. for danse allemande, or German dance), 
a name for two kinds of dance, one a German national dance, 
in 2-4 time, the other somewhat resembling a waltz.  The 
movement in a suite following the prelude, and preceding 
the courante (q.v.), with which it is contrasted in 
rhythm, is also called an allemande, but has no connexion 
with the dance.  The name, however, is given to pieces 
of music based on the dance movement, examples of which 
are found in Beethoven's German dances for the orchestra. 

ALLEN, ETHAN (1739--1789), American soldier, was born at 
Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 10th of January 1739.  He 
removed, probably in 1769, to the ``New Hampshire Grants,'' 
where he took up lands, and eventually became a leader of those 
who refused to recognize the jurisdiction of New York, and 
contended for the organization of the ``Grants'' into a separate 
province.  About 1771 he was placed at the head of the ``Green 
Mountain Boys,'' an irregular force organized for resistance 
to the ``Yorkers.'' On the 10th of May 1775, soon after the 
outbreak of the War of American Independence, in command of a 
force, which he had assisted some members of the Connecticut 
assembly to raise for the purpose, he captured Ticonderoga 
from its British garrison, calling upon its commanding officer 
--according to the unverified account of Allen himself-- to 
surrender ``in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental 
Congress.'' Seth Warner being elected colonel of the ``Green 
Mountain Boys'' in July 1775, Allen, piqued, joined General 
Philip Schuyler, and later with a small command, but without 
rank, accompanied General Richard Montgomery's expedition 
against Canada.  On the 25th of September 1775 near Montreal 
he was captured by the British, and until exchanged on the 
6th of May 1778 remained a prisoner at Falmouth, England, at 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, and in New York.  Upon his release 
he was brevetted colonel by the Continental Congress.  He 
then, as brigadier-general of the militia of Vermont, resumed 
his opposition to New York, and from 1779 to 1783, acting 
with his brother, Ira Allen, and several others, carried on 
negotiations, indirectly, with Governor Frederick Haldimand of 
Canada, who hoped to win the Vermonters over to the British 
cause.  He seems to have assured Haldimand's agent that 
``I shall do everything in my power to make this state a 
British province.'' In March 1781 he wrote to Congress, with 
characteristic bluster, ``I am as resolutely determined to 
defend the independence of Vermont as congress that of the United 
States, and rather than fail will retire with the hardy Green 
Mountain Boys into the desolate caverns of the mountains and 
wage war with human nature at large.'' He removed to Burlington, 
Vermont, in 1787, and died there on the 11th of February 
1789.  He was, says Tyler, ``a blustering frontier hero--an 
able-minded ignoramus of rough and ready humour, of boundless 
self-confidence, and of a shrewdness in thought and action 
equal to almost any emergency.'' Allen wrote a Narrative of 
Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity (1779), the most celebrated 
book in the ``prison literature'' of the American revolution; A 
Vindication of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the Government of 
New York and their Right to term an Independent Slate (1779); 
and Reason, the Only Oracle of Man; or A Compendious System 
of Natural Religion, Alternately adorned with Confutations 
of a Variety of Doctrines incompatible with it (1784). 

Ethan's youngest brother, IRA ALLEN (1751--1814), born 
on the 21st of April 1751 at Cornwall, Connecticut, also 
removed to the New Hampshire Grants, where he became one of 
the most influential political leaders.  In 1775 he took part 
in the capture of Ticonderoga and the invasion of Canada.  
He was a member of the convention which met at Winchester, 
Vermont, and in January 1777 declared the independence of the 
New Hampshire Grants; served (1776-1786) as a member of the 
Vermont council of safety; conducted negotiations, on behalf of 
Vermont, for a truce with the British and for an exchange of 
prisoners, in 1781; served for eight terms in the general 
assembly, and was state treasurer from 1778 to 1786 and 
surveyor-general from 1778 to 1787.  In 1789, by a gift of 
L. 4000, he made possible the establishment of the university of 
Vermont, of which institution, chartered in 1791 and built at 
Burlington in deference to his wishes, he was thus virtually the 
founder.  In 1795, on behalf of the state, he purchased from 
the French government arms for the Vermont militia, of which 
he was then the ranking major-general, but he was captured by 
a British cruiser west of Ireland on his return journey, was 
charged with attempting to furnish insurrectionary Irish with 
arms, and after prolonged litigation in the British courts, 
the case not being finally decided until 1504, returned to 
Vermont in 1801.  During his absence he had been dispossessed 
of his large holdings of land through the operation of tax 
laws, and to escape imprisonment for debt, he removed to 
Philadelphia, where on the 4th of January 1814 he died.  
He published a dull and biassed, but useful Natural and 
Political History of Vermont (1798), reissued (1870) in vol. 
i. of the Collections of the Vermont Historical Society. 

There is no adequate biography of Ethan Allen, but Henry 
Hall's Ethan Allen (New York, 1892) may be consulted.  The 
best literary estimate may be found in M. C. Tyler's Literary 
History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897). 

ALLEN, GRANT [CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIE], (1848--1899), 
English author, son of a clergyman of Irish descent, was born 
at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, on the 24th of February 1848.  
He was educated partly in America and France, and in England 
at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and afterwards at Merton, 
Oxford.  He was for a few years a schoolmaster in Jamaica, but 
then made his home in England, where he became prominent as a 
writer.  He died at his house on Hindhead, Haslemere, on 
the 24th of October 1899.  Grant Allen was a voluminous 
author.  He was full of interesting scientific knowledge and 
had a gift for expression both in biological exposition and in 
fiction.  His more purely scientific books (such as Physiological 
Aesthetics, 1877; The Evolutionist at Large, 1881; The 
Evolution of the Idea of God, 1897) contain much original 
matter, popularly expressed, and he was a cultured exponent 
of the evolutionary idea in various aspects of biology and 
anthropology.  He first attracted attention as a novelist 
with a sensational story, The Devil's Die (1888), though 
this was by no means his first attempt at fiction; and The 
Woman who Did (1895), which had a succes de scandale on 
account of its treatment of the sexual problem, had for the 
moment a number of cheap imitators.  Other volumes flowed 
from his pen, and his name became well known in contemporary 
literature.  But his reputation was essentially contemporary and 
characteristic of the vogue peculiar to the journalistic type. 

ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850- ), American novelist, was born near 
Lexington, Rentucky, on the 21st of December 1850.  He graduated 
at Kentucky University, Lexington, in 1872, taught at Fort 
Spring, Kentucky, at Richmond and at Lexington, Missouri, and 
from 1877 to 1879 at the academy of Kentucky University, where 
he was principal and taught modern languages; in 1880 he was 
professor of Latin and English at Bethany College, Bethany, 
West Virginia; and then became head of a private school at 
Lexington, Kentucky.  Subsequently he gave up teaching, went 
to New York City, where he secured commissions for sketches of 
the ``Blue Grass'' region, and thereafter devoted himself to 
literature.  His Choir Invisible, coming after other 
successful stories, made his name well known in England as 
well as America.  His published works include: With Flute 
and Violin (1891), The Blue Grass Region (1892), John 
Gray (1893), A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), Aftermath 
(1895), A Summer in Arcady (1896), The Choir Invisible 
(1897), The Reign of Law' (1900), The Mettle of the 
Pasture (1903), and The Bride of the Mistleloe (1909.) 

ALLEN, JOHN (1476--1534), English divine, after studying 
at both Oxford and Cambridge, was sent by Archbishop Warham 
on an ecclesiastical mission to Rome.  On his return he held 
a number of livings in succession, and in 1516 was rector of 
South Ockendon, Essex, and prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral.  
In the suppression of the minor monasteries in 1524--1525 
he gave Wolsey much assistance, and became prebendary of 
Nottingham in 1526 and of St Paul's, London, in 1527.  These 
prebends he resigned in 1528 on his election as archbishop of 
Dublin.  For four years he was chancellor of Ireland but his 
career was full of trouble.  In 1531 he was fined under the 
Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, and in 1534 met a violent 
death at the hands of Lord Thomas Fitzgerald's followers. 

ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632), English mathematician, 
was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire on the 21st of December 
1542.  He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, 
in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567.  In 1580 he quitted 
his college and fellowship, retired to Gloucester Hall, and 
became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, philosophy and 
mathematics.  Having received an invitation from Henry Percy, 
earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of men of 
science, he spent some time at the earl's house, where he 
became acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee and other famous 
mathematicians.  He was also intimate with Sir Robert Cotton, 
William Camden, and their antiquarian associates.  Robert 
Dudley, earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen, 
and would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love 
of solitude made him decline the offer.  His great skill in 
mathematics and astrology earned him the credit of being a 
magician; and the author of Leicester's Commonwealth accuses 
him of employing the art of ``figuring'' to further the earl 
of Leicester's unlawful designs, and of endeavouring by the 
black art to bring about a match between his patron and Queen 
Elizabeth.  Allen was indefatigable in collecting scattered 
manuscripts relating to history, antiquity, astronomy, 
philosophy and mathematics.  A considerable part of his 
collection was presented to the Bodleian library by Sir Kenelm 
Digby.  He died on the 30th of September 1632 at Gloucester 
Hall.  He published in Latin the second and third books 
of Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, Concerning the Judgment 
of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the 
Quadripartite Construction, with an Exposition. He also 
wrote notes on John Bale's De Scriptoribus M. Britanniae. 

ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594), English cardinal, born at 
Rossall, Lancashire, went in 1547 to Oriel College, 
Oxford, and in 1556 became principal of St Mary Hall and 
proctor.  According to Anthony Wood, he was appointed to a 
canonry at York in or about 1558; he therefore had already 
entered the clerical state by receiving the tonsure.  On 
the accession of Elizabeth, he was deprived upon refusing 
the oath of supremacy, but remained in Ihe university until 
1561.  His known opposition to the new learning in religion 
giving much offence, he escaped from England and went to 
Louvain, where were gathered many students who had left the 
English universities for conscience' sake.  Here he continued 
his theological studies and began to write controversial 
treatises.  In 1562, on account of health, he returned 
secretly to Lancashire and did much, by exhortation and 
private meetings, to restrain those Catholics who attended 
the new services in order to save their property from 
confiscation.  His presence being known to the government, 
he left Lancashire and retired to the neighbourhood of 
Oxford, which he frequently visited, and where he influenced 
many of the students.  After writing a treatise in defence 
of the priestly power to remit sins, he was obliged to 
leave and retired to Norfolk, leaving England soon after in 
1565.  He returned to Flanders, was ordained at Malines, and 
began to lecture in theology at the Benedictine college in that 
city.  In 1567 he went to Rome for the first time, and there 
began his plan for establishing a college where English 
students could live together and finish their theological 
course.  The idea subsequently developed into the establishing 
of a missionary college, or seminary, to keep up a supply 
of priests for England as long as the country remained 
separated from the Holy See. With the help of friends, 
and notably of the Benedictine abbots of the neighbouring 
monasteries, a college was established at Douai (September 
29, 1568); and here Allen was joined by many of the English 
exiles.  This college, the first of the seminaries ordered 
by the council of Trent, received the papal approval shortly 
after its establishment; the king of Spain took it under his 
protection and assigned it an annual grant.  Allen continued 
his own theological studies and, after taking his doctorate, 
became regius professor at the university.  Gregory XIII. in 
1575 granted him a monthly pension of 100 golden crowns, and, 
as the number of students had now risen to one hundred and 
twenty, summoned him to Rome to undertake the establishing of 
a similar college in the papal city.  By Allen's advice, the 
old English hospice was turned into a seminary and Jesuits 
were placed there to help Dr Maurice Clennock, the rector.  
The pope appointed Allen to a canonry in Courtrai and sent 
him back to Douai (July 1576); but here he had to face a new 
difficulty.  Besides the reported plots to assassinate him 
by agents of the English government, the insurgents against 
Spain, urged on by Elizabeth's emissaries, expelled the 
students from Douai as being partisans of the enemy (March 
1578).  Allen moved his establishment to Reims under the 
protection of the house of Guise; and it was here that the 
English translation of the Scriptures, known as the Douai 
Version, was begun under his direction (see BIBLE, ENGLISH.) 
In 1577 he began a correspondence with Robert Parsons (q.v.), 
the Jesuit, an intimacy that was fraught with disaster.  He was 
summoned again to Rome in 1579 to quell the first of the many 
disturbances that befell the English college under the Jesuit 
influence.  Brought now into personal contact with Parsons, 
Allen fell completely under the dominating personality of 
the redoubtable Jesuit, and gave himself up entirely to his 
influence.  He arranged that the Society should take over the 
English college at Rome and should begin the Jesuit mission 
to England (1580).  This short-sighted policy was the cause 
of much grave trouble in the near future.  Returning to 
Reims he began to take a part in all the political intrigues 
which Parsons' fertile brain had hatched for the promotion 
of the Spanish interest in England.  Allen's political 
career dates from this period.  Parsons had already intended 
to remove Allen from the seminary at Reims, and for this 
purpose, as far back as the 6th of April 1581, had recommended 
him to Philip II. to be promoted to the cardinalate.  In 
furtherance of the intrigues, Allen and Parsons went to Rome 
again in 1585 and there Allen was kept for the rest of his 
life.  In 1587, during the time that he was being skilfully 
played with by Philip's agents, he wrote, helped by Parsons, 
a shameless defence of a shameful deed.  Sir William Stanley, 
an English olficer, had surrendered Deventer to the Spaniards; 
and Allen wrote a book in defence of Stanley, saying that 
all Englishmen were bound, under pain of damnation, to 
follow the traitorous example, as Elizabeth was no lawful 
queen.  He shared in all the projects for the invasion of 
England, and was to have been archbishop of Canterbury and 
lord chancellor had they succeeded.  Representing in reality 
only his own party, Allen had on the continent the position 
of the head of the Roman Catholics of England; and as such, 
just after the death of Mary, queen of Scots, he wrote to 
Philip II. (March 19, 1587) to exhort him to undertake the 
enterprise against England, and declared that the Catholics 
there were clamouring for the king to come and punish ``this 
woman, hated by God and man.'' After much negotiation, he 
was made cardinal by Sixtus V. on the 7th of August 1587, 
nominally to supply the loss of the queen of Scotland, but in 
reality to ensure the success of the Armada.  On his promotion 
Allen wrote to Reims that he owed the hat, under God, to 
Parsons.  One of his first acts was to issue, under his own 
name, two violent works for the purpose of inciting the Catholics 
of England to rise against Elizabeth: ``The Declaration of 
the Sentence of Sixtus V.'' a broadside, and a book, All 
Admonition to the nobility and people of England (Antwerp, 
1588).  On the failure of the Armada, Philip, to get rid of 
the burthen of supporting Allen as a cardinal, nominated him to 
the archbishopric of Malines, but the canonical appointment was 
never made.  Gregory XIV. made him librarian at the Vatican; 
and he served on the commission for the revision of the 
Vulgate.  He took part in four conclaves, but never had any 
real influence after the failure of the Armada.  Before his 
death, which took place in Rome on the 16th of October 1594, 
he found reasons to change his mind concerning the wisdom 
of the Jesuit politics in Rome and England, and would have 
tried to curb their activities, had he been spared.  The rift 
became so great that ten years after his death, Agazzari could 
write to Parsons: ``So long as Allen walked in this matter 
(the scheme for England) in union with and fidelity to the 
Company, as he used to do, God preserved him, prospered and 
exalted him; but when he began to leave this path, in a manner, 
the threads of his plans and life were cut short together.'' 
As a cardinal Allen had lived in poverty and he died in debt. 

While we cannot withhold a tribute of respect from Allen for 
his zeal and earnestness, and recognize that his foundation 
at Douai survives to-day in the two Catholic colleges at 
Ushaw and Ware, it is impossible to deny that he injured 
the work with which his name will ever be associated, by 
his disastrous intercourse with Father Parsons.  Known as a 
sharer in that plotter's schemes, he gave a reasonable pretext 
to Elizabeth's government for regarding the seminaries as 
hotbeds of sedition.  That they were not so is abundantly 
proved.  The superiors kept their political actions secret 
from the students, and would not allow such matters even to 
be talked about or treated as theoretical abstractions in the 
schools.  Dr Barrett, writing (April 14, 1583) to Parsons, 
makes open complaint of Allen's secrecy and refusal to 
communicate.  How far Allen was really admitted to the full 
confidence of Parsons is a question; and his later attitude to 
the Society goes to prove that he at last realized that he had 
been tricked.  Like James II. with Fr. Petre, Allen had been 
``bewitched'' for a time and only recovered himself when too late. 

AUTHORITIES. -- T. F. Knox, Letters and Memorials of Cardinal 
Allen (London, 1882); A. Bellesheim, Wilhelm Cardinal Allen 
und die englischen Seminare auf dem Festlande (Mainz, 1885); 
First and Second Diaries of the English College, Douai 
(London, 1878); Nicholas Fitzherbert, De Antiquitate et 
continuatione religionis in Anglia et de Alani Cardinalis vita 
libellus (Rome, 1608); E. Taunton, History of the Jesuits 
in England (London, 1901); Teulet, vol. v.; the Spanish 
State Papers (Simancas), vols. iii. and iv.; a list of 
Allen's works is given in J. Gillow, Biographical Dictionary 
of English Catholics, vol. i., under his name. (E. TN.) 

ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1830-1889), American classical 
scholar, was born at Northborough, Massachusetts, on the 5th 
of September 1830.  He graduated at Harvard College in 1851 and 
subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to literary work and 
teaching.  In 1867 he became professor of ancient languages 
and history (afterwards Latin language and Roman history) 
in the university of Wisconsin.  He died in December 1889.  
His contributions to classical literature chiefly consist of 
schoolbooks published in the Allen (his brother) and Greenough 
series.  The Collection of Slave Songs (1867), of which he was 
joint-editor, was the first work of the kind ever published. 

ALLEN, BOG OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses 
in Kildare, King's County, Queen's County and Westmeath, 
Ireland.  Clane Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 m. 
of Dublin, and the morasses extend westward almost to the 
Shannon.  Their total area is about 238,500 acres.  They do 
not form one continuous bog, the tract of the country to which 
the name is given being intersected by strips of dry cultivated 
land.  The rivers Brosna, Barrow and Boyne take their rise 
in these morasses, and the Grand and Royal canals cross 
them.  The Bog of Allen has a general elevation of 250 ft. 
above sea level, and the average thickness of the peat of which 
it consists is 25 ft.  It rests on a subsoil of clay and marl. 

ALLENSTEIN, a garrison town of Germany, in the province 
of East Prussia, on the river Alle, 100 m. by rail N.E. from 
Thorn, and 30 m. from the Russian frontier.  Pop. (1900) 
24,295.  It has a medieval castle, several churches, a synagogue 
and various industries--iron-foundries, saw-mills, brick-works, 
and breweries; also an extensive trade in cereals and timber. 

ALLENTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Lehigh county, 
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 62 m.  N.N.W. of 
Philadelphia.  Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 35,416, of whom 
2994 were foreign-born, 1065 being of German birth; (1910) 
51,913.  It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the 
Lehigh Valley, the Perkiomen (of the Reading system) and the 
Philadelphia & Reading railways.  The city is situated on 
high ground sloping gently towards the river and commanding 
diversified views of the surrounding country.  Hamilton 
Street, the principal business thoroughfare, extends over 
2 m. from E. to W., and in what was once the centre of the 
city is Centre Square, in which there is a monument to the 
memory of the soldiers and sailors who fell in the Civil War. 
Allentown is the seat of a state homoeopathic hospital for the 
insane, of the Allentown College for Women (Reformed Church, 
1867), and of Muhlenberg College (1867), an Evangelical 
Lutheran institution which grew out of the Allentown Seminary 
(established in 1848 and incorporated as the ``Allentown 
Collegiate Institute and Military Academy'' in 1864); in 
1907 the college had 191 students, of whom 109 were in the 
Allentown Preparatory School (1904), formerly the academic 
department of the college and still closely afliliated with 
it.  The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture, and 
slate, iron ore, cement rock and limestone are found in the 
vicinity.  Allentown is an important manufacturing centre, and 
the value of its manufactured products increased 90.9% from 
1890 to 1900, and of its factory product 13.2% between 1900 and 
1905.  In 1905 the city ranked sixth among the cities of the 
country in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, its most 
important industry.  Other important manufactures are iron and 
steel, slaughtering and meat-packing products, boots and shoes, 
cigars, furniture, men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods, 
jute and jute goods, linen-thread, malt liquors, brick, cement, 
barbed wire, wire nails and planing-mill products.  Allentown's 
total factory product in 1905 was valued at $16,966,550, 
of which $3,901,249, or 23%, was the value of silk and silk 
goods.  The municipality owns and operates its water-works.  
Allentown was first settled in 1751; in 1762 it was laid out 
as a town by James Allen, the son of a chief-justice of the 
province, in honour of whose family the city is named; in 1811 
it was incorporated as a borough and its name was changed to 
Northampton; in 1812 it was made the county-seat; in 1838 the 
present name was again adopted; and in 1867 the first city 
charter was secured.  The silk industry was introduced in 1881. 

ALLEPPI, or AULAPALAY, a seaport of southern India, in the 
state of Travancore, 33 m. south of Cochin, situated on a strip 
of coast between the sea and one of those backwaters that here 
form the chief means of inland communication.  Pop. (1901) 
24,918.  There is a lighthouse, 85 ft. high, with a revolving 
white light visible 18 m. out at sea.  Though the third town 
in the state in point of population, Alleppi is the first in 
commercial importance.  It commands a fine harbour, affording 
safe anchorage for the greater part of the year.  It was 
opened to foreign trade towards the latter end of the 18th 
century.  The exports consist of coffee, pepper, cardamoms and 
coco-nuts.  There are factories for coir-matting.  The raja 
has a palace, and Protestant missionaries have a church. 

ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, RICHARD (1619.-1681), royalist 
divine and provost of Eton College, son of Robert Allestree, 
and a descendant of an ancient Derbyshire family, was born 
at Uppington in Shropshire.  He was educated at Coventry 
and later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby.  
He entered as a commoner in 1636, was made student shortly 
afterwards, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and of M.A. in 
1643.  In 1642 he took up arms for the king under Sir John 
Biron.  On the arrival of the parliamentary forces soon 
afterwards in Oxford he secreted the Christ Church valuables, 
and the soldiers found nothing in the treasury ``except 
a single groat and a halter in the bottom of a large iron 
chest.'' He escaped severe punishment only by the hasty 
retirement of the army from the town.  He was present at 
the battle of Edgehill in October 1642, after which, while 
hastening to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ 
Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers 
from Broughton House, being soon afterwards set free on the 
surrender of the place to the king's forces.  In 1643 he 
was again under arms, performing ``all duties of a common 
soldier'' and ``frequently holding his musket in one hand and 
his book in the other.'' At the close of the Civil War, he 
returned to his studies, took holy orders, was made censor 
and became a ``noted tutor.'' But he still remained an ardent 
royalist.  He voted for the university decree against the 
Covenant, and, refusing submission to the parliamentary 
visitors in 1648, he was expelled.  He found a retreat as 
chaplain in the house of the Hon. Francis Newport, afterwards 
Viscount Newport, in whose interests he undertook a journey to 
France.  On his return he joined two of his friends, Dolben 
and Fell, afterwards respectively archbishop of York and 
bishop of Oxford, then resident at Oxford, and later joined 
the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury.  
He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between 
the king and the royalists in England.  In May 1659 he brought 
a command from Charles in Brussels, directing the bishop 
of Salisbury to summon all those bishops, who were then 
alive, to consecrate clergymen to various sees ``to secure 
a continuation of the order in the Church of England,'' then 
in danger of becoming extinct.1 While returning from one 
of these missions, in the winter before the Restoration, he 
was arrested at Dover and committed a prisoner to Lambeth 
Palace, then used as a gaol for apprehended royalists, but was 
liberated after confinement of a few weeks at the instance, 
among others, of Lord Shaftesbury.  At the Restoration he 
became canon of Christ Church, D.D. and city lecturer at 
Oxford.  In 1663 he was made chaplain to the king and regius 
professor of divinity.  In 1665 he was appointed provost of 
Eton College, and proved himself a capable administrator.  
He introduced order into the disorganized finances of the 
college and procured the confirmation of Laud's decree, which 
reserved five of the Eton fellowships for members of King's 
College.  His additions to the college buildings were less 
successful; for the ``Upper School,'' constructed by him at 
his own expense, was falling into ruin almost in his lifetime, 
and was replaced by the present structure in 1689.  Allestree 
died on the 28th of January 1681, and was buried in the chapel 
at Eton College, where there is a Latin inscription to his 
memory.  His writings are:--The Privileges of the Universily 
of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647)--a tract answered 
by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected; 18 
sermons whereof 15 preached before the king . . . (1669); 
40 sermons whereof 21 are now first published . . . (2 
vols., 1684); sermons published separately including A 
Sermon on Acts xiii. 2, (1660); A Paraphrase and Annotations 
upon all the Epistles of St Paul (joint author with Abraham 
Woodhead and Obadiah Walker, 1675, see edition of 1853 and 
preface by W. Jacobson).  In the Cases of Conscience by 
J. Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (1692), Allestree's judgment 
on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is included.  A share 
in the composition, if not the sole authorship, of the 
books published under the name of the author of the Whole 
Duty of Man has been attributed to Allestree (Nichols's 
Anecdotes, ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism 
is to regard him as the author.  His lectures, with which he 
was dissatisfied, were not published.  Allestree was a man of 
extensive learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher.  
He was generous and charitable, of ``a solid and masculine 
kindness,'' and of a temper hot, but completely under control. 

AUTHORITIES.---Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by 
Bliss), iii. 1269; W.ood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57, 
241, 370; Richard Allestree, 40 sermons, with biographical 
preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684); Sufferings of the 
Clergy, by John Walker; Architectural History of Eton and 
Cambridge, by R. Willis, i. 420; Hist. of Eton College, 
by Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte; Hist. of Eton College, by Lionel 
Cust (1899); Egerton MSS., Brit.  Mus. 2807 f. 197 b.  For 
Allestree's authorship of the Whole Duty of Man, see Rev. F. 
Barham, Journal of Sacred Literature, July 1864, and C. E. 
Doble's articles in the Academy, November 1884. (P. C. Y.) 

1 Egerton MSS., Brit.  Mus. 2807 f. 197 b; Li/e of Dr John 
Barwick, ed. by G. F. Barwick (1903), pp. 107, 129, 134. 

ALLEY (from the Fr: allee, a walk), a narrow passageway 
between two buildings available only for foot passengers or 
hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known as a 
``blind alley,'' or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to 
the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played. 

ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626), English actor and founder of 
Dulwich College, was born in London on the 1st of September 
1566, the son of an innkeeper.  It is not known at what date 
he began to act, but he certainly gained distinction in his 
calling while a young man, for in 1586 his name was on the 
list of the earl of Worcester's players, and he was eventually 
rated by common consent as the foremost actor of his time.  
Ben Jonson, a critic little prone to exalt the merits of men 
of mark among his contemporaries, bestowed unstinted praise 
on Alleyn's acting (Epigrams, No. 89). Nash expresses in 
prose, in Pierce Penniless, his admiration of him, while 
Heywood calls him ``inimitable,'' ``the best of actors,'' 
``Proteus for shapes and Roscius for a tongue.'' Alleyn 
inherited house property in Bishopsgate from his father.  
His marriage on the 22nd of October 1592 with Joan Woodward, 
stepdaughter of Philip Henslowe, brought him eventually more 
wealth.  He became part owner in Henslowe's ventures, and 
in the end sole proprietor of several play-houses and other 
profitable pleasure resorts.  Among these were the Rose Theatre 
at Bankside, the Paris Garden and the Fortune Theatre in St 
Luke's--the latter occupied by the earl of Nottingham's company, 
of which Alleyn was the head.  He filled, too, in conjunction 
with Henslowe, the post of ``master of the king's games of 
bears, bulls and dogs.'' On some occasions he directed the 
sport in person, and Stow in his Chronicles gives an account 
of how Alleyn baited a lion before James I. at the Tower. 

Alleyn's connexion with Dulwich began in 1605, when he bought 
the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Cation.  The landed 
property, of which the entire estate had not passed into Alleyn's 
hands earlier than 1614, stretched from the crest of that 
range of Surrey hills on whose summit now stands the Crystal 
Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three miles nearer 
London, known in its several portions as Herne Hill, Denmark 
Hill and Champion Hill.  Alleyn acquired this large property for 
little more than L. 10,000.  He had barely got full possession, 
however, before the question how to dispose of it began to occupy 
him.  He was still childless, after twenty years of wedded 
life.  Then it was that the prosperous player--the man ``so 
acting to the life that he made any part to become him'' (Fuller, 
Worthies)--began the task of building and endowing in his 
own lifetime the College of God's Gift at Dulwich.  All was 
completed in 1617 except the charter or deed of incorporation 
for setting his lands in mortmain.  Tedious delays occurred 
in the Star Chamber, where Lord Chancellor Bacon was scheming 
to bring the pressure of kingly authority to bear on Alleyn 
with the aim of securing a large portion of the proposed 
endowment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and 
Cambridge.  Alleyn finally carried his point and the College 
of God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and endowed under letters 
patent of James I., dated the 21st of June 1619.  The building 
had been already begun in 1613 (see DULWICH.) Alleyn was 
never a member of his own foundation, but he continued to 
the close of his life to guide and control its affairs under 
powers reserved to himself in the letters patent.  His diary 
shows that he mixed much and intimately in the life of the 
college.  Many of the jottings in that curious record of daily 
doings and incidents favour the inference that he was a genial, 
kind, amiable and religious man.  His fondness for his old 
profession is indicated by the fact that he engaged the boys 
in occasional theatrical performances.  At a festive gathering 
on the 6th of January 1622 ``the boyes play'd a playe.'' 

Alleyn's first wife died in 1623.  The same year he married 
Constance, daughter of John Donne, the poet and dean of St 
Paul's.  Alleyn died in November 1626 and was buried in the 
chapel of the college which he had founded.  His gravestone 
fixes the day of his death as the 21st, but there are 
grounds for the belief that it was the 25th.  A portrait of 
the actor is preserved at Dulwich.  Alleyn was a member of 
the corporation of wardens of St Saviour's, Southwark, in 
1610, and there is a memorial window to him in the cathedral. 

ALL FOURS, a card game (known also in America as Seven 
Up, Old Sledge or High-Low-Jack) usually played by two 
players, though four may play.  A full pack is used and 
each player receives seven counters.  Four points can be 
scored, one each for high, the highest trump out, for 
low, the lowest trump dealt, for Jack, the knave of 
trumps, and for game, the majority of pips in the cards 
of the tricks that a player has won.  Ace counts 4, King 3, 
Queen 2, Knave 1, and ten 10 points. Low is scored by the 
person to whom it is dealt; High of course wins a trick; 
Jack is scored by the player who finally has it among his 
tricks.  If Jack is turned up the dealer scores the point.  
A player who plays a high or low trump is entitled to ask if 
they are High or Low. The game is 10 or 11 points.  Six 
cards are dealt to each, the thirteenth being turned up for 
trumps.  The non-dealer may propose or beg if he does not 
like his hand.  If the dealer refuses the elder hand scores 
a point; if he consents he gives and takes three more cards, 
the seventh being turned up for trumps, which must be of a 
different suit from the original trump card; otherwise six 
more cards are dealt out, and so on till a fresh trump suit 
appears.  The non-dealer then leads; the other must trump or 
follow suit, or forfeit a point. Jack may be played to any 
trick.  Each pair of cards is a trick, and is collected by the 
winner.  A fresh deal may be claimed if the dealer exposes 
one of his adversary's cards, or if he gives himself or his 
adversary too few or too many.  In that case the error must be 
discovered before a card is played (see also AUCTION PITCH.) 

ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettinia), a small tributary of the 
river Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about 11 
m.  N. of Rome.  It gave its name to the terrible defeat which 
the Romans suffered at the hands of the Gauls on the 18th of 
July 390 B.C. Livy (v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with 
regard to the site of the battle, the former putting it on the 
left, the latter on the right bank of the Tiber.  Mommsen and 
others support Diodorus, but the question still remains open. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 24. 

ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the 
Mahoning river, about 57 m.  S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080 
ft. above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake 
Erie.  Pop. (1890) 7607; (1900) 8974, of whom 1029 were 
foreign-born: (1906, estimate) 9796.  It is served by the 
Pennsylvania and the Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways, 
and by an electric line connecting with Canton and Salem.  The 
city is the seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal), 
opened in 1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907 
a library of about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department 
(opened in 1858), a normal department (1858), a school of 
music (1855), a commercial school (1868), a faculty of 29 
teachers, and an enrolment of 524 students, of whom 274 were 
women.  Among the manufactures of Alliance are structural 
iron, steel castings, pressed sheet steel, gun carriages, 
boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs, street-car indicators, 
sashes and doors, and account registers and other material 
for file and cabinet-bookkeeping.  The municipality owns 
and operates its water-works.  Alliance was first settled in 
1838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom; 
it was named Alliance in 1851, was incorporated as a village 
in 1854, and became a city of the second class in 1888. 

ALLIANCE, in international law, a league between independent 
states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action, 
defensive or offensive, or both.  Alliances have usually 
been directed to specific objects carefully defined in the 
treaties.  Thus the Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great 
Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance 
of 1689 between the emperor, Holland, England, Spain and 
Saxony, were both directed against the power of Louis XIV. 
The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the 
treaty of Chaumont, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and 
Prussia, had for its object the overthrow of Napoleon and his 
dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional 
boundaries.  The Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, 
Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation 
of European peace against any possible aggressive action 
of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years 
later, to the Dual Alliance between Russia and France, for 
mutual support in case of any hostile action of the other 
powers.  Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to 
give alliances a more general character.  Thus the ``Holy 
Alliance'' (q.v.) of the 26th of September 1815 was an 
attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the emperor 
Alexander I. of Russia, to find in the ``sacred precepts of the 
Gospel'' a common basis for a general league of the European 
governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of 
peace.  So, too, by Article VI. of the Quadruple Treaty signed 
at Paris on the 20th of November 1815--which renewed that of 
Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle--the 
scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common 
interest not specifically defined in the treaties.  The article 
runs:--``In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites 
the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High 
Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, 
either under their own auspices or by their respective 
ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to 
the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs 
shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of 
the nations and the maintenance of the tranquillity of Europe.'' 

It was this article of the treaty of the 20th of November 
1815, rather than the ``Holy Alliance,'' that formed the basis 
of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 
and 1822, to govern Europe in concert, which will be found 
outlined in the article on the history of Europe.  In general 
it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly 
defined as to its objects, and that in the long run the treaty 
in which these objects are defined must---to quote Bismarck's 
somewhat cynical dictum --``be reinforced by the interests'' 
of the parties concerned.  Yet the ``moral alliance'' of 
Europe, as Count Nesselrode called it, though it failed to 
secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective 
instrument for peace during the years immediately following 
the downfall of Napoleon; and it set the precedent for those 
periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for 
the discussion and settlement of questions of international 
importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for 
constructive work, have contributed much to the preservation 
of the general peace (see EUROPE: History.) (W. A. P.) 

ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisymbrium 
Alliaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the-hedge, or 
sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to the natural order 
Cruciferae.  It is a rankly scented herb, 2 to 3 ft. high, with 
long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small white flowers 
which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods.  It is widely 
spread through the north temperate region of the Old World. 

ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816-1889), American author and 
bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 
17th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry.  
He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in 
mercantile business in his native city.  He, however, devoted 
himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research; 
acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American 
literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the well-known 
Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and 
American Authors (3 vols.: vol. i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii. 
1871).  To this, two supplementary volumes, edited by John 
Foster Kirk, were added in 1891.  From 1867 to 1873, and 
again in 1877-1879, Allibone was book editor and corresponding 
secretary of the American Sunday School Union; and from 
1879 to 1888 he was librarian of the Lenox Library, New York 
City.  He died at Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September 
1889.  In addition to his Critical Dictionary he published 
three large anthologies and several religious tracts. 

See the ``Memoir'' by S. D. M`Connell, an address delivered before 
the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890). 

ALLIER (anc. Elaver), a river of central France flowing 
into the Loire.  It rises in the department of Lozere, among 
the Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of 
Mende.  The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains 
of the Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most 
part through deep gorges.  The river then traverses the plains 
of Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon 
some miles above the town of Issoire.  Swelled by torrents 
from the mountains of Dore and Dome, it unites with the river 
Dore at its entrance to the department to which it gives its 
name.  It then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining 
the Sioule some distance above Moulins, the chief town on its 
banks.  It soon after becomes the boundary line between the 
departments of Cher and Nievre, and reaches the Loire 4 m. 
west of Nevers, after a course of 269 m.  Its basin has an 
area of 6755 sq. m.  The Allier is classed as navigable for the 
last 154 m. of its course, but there is little traffic on it. 

ALLIER, a department of central France, formed in 1790 
from the old province of Bourbonnais.  Pop. (1906) 417,961.  
Area, 2849 sq. m.  It is bounded N. by the department of 
Nievre, E. by Saone-et-Loire, from which it is divided by 
the river Loire, S.E. by Loire, S. by Puy-de-Dome, S.W. by 
Crouse and N.W. by Cher.  Situated on the northern border 
of the Central Plateau, the department slopes from south to 
north.  Its highest altitudes are found in the south-east, 
in the Bois-Noirs, where one point reaches 4239 ft., and in 
the Monts de la Madeleine.  Plains alternating with forests 
occupy the northern zone of the department, while the central 
and western regions form an undulating and well-watered 
plateau.  Entering the department in the south, and, like the 
other chief rivers, flowing almost due north, the Allier drains 
the central district, receiving on its left the Sioule.  East 
of the Allier is the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the 
limits of the department; and on the west the Cher, with its 
tributary the Aumance.  Rigorous and rainy in the south-east, 
the climate elsewhere is milder though subject to sudden 
variations.  Agriculturally the department is flourishing, 
the valleys of the Allier and the Sioule known as the Limagne 
Bourbonnaise comprising its most fertile portion.  Wheat, oats, 
barley and other cereals are grown and exported, and owing to 
the abundance of pasture and forage, sheep and cattle-rearing 
are actively carried on.  Potatoes and mangels yield good 
crops.  Wines of fair quality are grown in the valley of the 
Sioule; walnuts, chestnuts, plums, apples and pears are principal 
fruits.  Goats, from the milk of which choice cheese is 
made, and pigs are plentiful.  A large area is under forests, 
the oak, beech, fir, birch and hornbeam being the principal 
trees.  The mineral waters at Vichy (q.v.), Neris, 
Theneuille, Cusset and Bourbon l'Archambault are in much 
repute.  The mineral wealth of the department is considerable, 
including coal as well as manganese and bituminous schist; 
plaster, building stone and hydraulic lime are also 
produced.  Manufactories of porcelain, glass and earthenware 
are numerous.  Montlucon and Commentry are ironworking 
centres.  There are flour mills, breweries and saw-mills; and 
paper, chemicals, wooden shoes, wool and woollen goods are 
produced.  Besides the products of the soil Allier exports 
coal, mineral waters and cattle for the Paris market.  Building 
materials, brandy and coal are among the imports.  The railways 
belong chiefly to the Orleans and Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean 
companies.  The lateral canal of the Loire, the Berry Canal and 
the canal from Roanne to Digoin together traverse about 57 m. 
in the department.  Allier is divided into the arrondissements 
of Moulins, Gannat, Lapalisse and Montlucon (29 cantons, 321 
communes).  It forms the diocese of Moulins and part of the 
ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and falls within the 
academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the 
region of the XIII. army-corps.  Its court of appeal is at 
Riom.  Moulins, the capital, Montlucon and Vichy, are the 
principal towns.  Souvigny possesses the church of a famous 
Cluniac priory dating from the 1ith-12th and 15th centuries, 
and containing the splendid tombs (15th century) of Louis 
II. and Charles I. of Bourbon.  At St Menoux, Ebreuil and 
Gannat there are fine Romanesque churches.  Huriel has a 
church of the 11th century and a well-preserved keep, the 
chief survival of a medieval castle.  St Pourcain-sur-Sioule 
has a large church, dating from the 11th to the 18th 
centuries.  The castle of Bourbon l'Archambault, which 
belonged to the dukes of Bourbon, dates from the 13th and 15th 
centuries.  The Romanesque churches of Veauce and Ygrande, 
and the chateaus of Veauce and Lapalisse, are also of 
interest, the latter belonging to the family of Chabannes. 

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903), English historical 
writer, was born at Midsomer Norton, near Bristol, on the 
12th of February 1813.  He was educated at Eton and at 
Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 
1833.  In 1840 Bishop Blomfield of London appointed him his 
examining chaplain and presented him to the rectory of Launton, 
Oxfordshire, which he resigned in 1850 on becoming a Roman 
Catholic.  Allies was appointed secretary to the Catholic poor 
school committee in 1853, a position which he occupied till 
1890.  He died in London on the 17th of June 1903.  Allies 
was one of the ablest of the English churchmen who joined the 
Church of Rome in the early period of the Oxford movement, his 
chief work, The Formation of Christendom (London, 8 vols., 
1865-1895) showing much originality of thought and historical 
knowledge.  His other writings: St Peter, his Name and Office 
(1852); The See of St Peter, the Rock of the Church (1850); 
Per Crucem ad Lucem (2 vols., 1879), have gone through 
many editions and been translated into several languages. 

See his autobiography, A Life's Decision (1880); and the study of 
his daughier, Mary H. Allies, Thomas Allies, the Story of a Mind 
(London, 1906), which contains a full bibliography of his works. 

ALLIFAE (mod. Alife), a town of the Samnites, 15 
m.  N.W. of Telesia, and 17 m.  E.N.E. of Teanum.  The 
site of the Samnite city, which in the 4th century B.C. 
had a coinage of its own, is not known; the Roman town 
lay in the valley of the Vulturnus, and its walls (4th 
century) enclose a circuit of 1 1/2 m., in which are preserved 
remains of large baths ( Thermae Herculis) and a theatre. 

ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, ``the lizard''), an animal 
so closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists 
have classed them together as forming one genus.  It differs 
from the true crocodile principally in having the head 
broader and shorter, and the snout more obtuse; in having 
the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not 
into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within 
the upper one; in wanting a jagged fringe which appears on 
the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the 
toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the 
tips.  Alligators proper occur in the fluviatile deposits of 
the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die 
out until the Pliocene age; they are now restricted to two 
species, A. mississippiensis or lucius in the southern 
states of North America up to 12 ft. in length, and the small 
A. sinensis in the Yang-tse-kiang.  In Central and South 
America alligators are represented by five species of the genus 
Caiman, which differs from Alligator by the absence of a 
bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is 
composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed 
of two parts united by a suture. C. sclerops, the spectacled 
alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico 
to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a bulky 
size.  The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 
20 ft., is the C. niger, the jacare-assu or large caiman 
of the Amazons.  The names ``alligator'' and ``crocodile'' 
are often confounded in popular speech; and the structure 
and habits of the two animals are so similar that both are 
most conveniently considered under the heading CROCODILE. 

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889), Irish man of letters and 
poet, was born at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on the 19th of 
March 1824 (or 1828, according to some authorities), and was 
the son of the manager of a local bank.  He obtained a post 
in the custom-house of his native town and filled several 
similar situations in Ireland and England until 1870, when 
he had retired from the service, and became sub-editor of 
Fraser's Magazine, which he edited from 1874 to 1879.  He 
had published a volume of Poems in 1850, followed by Day 
and Night Songs, a volume containing many charming lyrics, in 
1855.  Allingham was on terms of close friendship with D. G. 
Rossetti, who contributed to the illustration of the Songs. 
His Letters to Allingham (1854-1870) were edited by Dr 
Birkbeck Hill in 1897. Lawrence Bloomfield, a narrative 
poem illustrative of Irish social questions, appeared in 
1864.  Allingham married in 1874 Helen Paterson, known under 
her married name as a water-colour painter.  He died at 
Hampstead on the 18th of November 1889.  Though working on 
an unostentatious scale, Allingham produced much excellent 
lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of his pieces 
are thoroughly national in spirit and local colouring. 

William Allingham: a Diary (1907), edited by Mrs Allingham 
and D. Radford, contains many interesting reminiscences 
of Tennyson, Carlyle and other famous contemporaries. 

ALLISON, WILLIAM BOYD (1829-1908), American legislator, was 
born at Perry, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1829.  Educated at 
Allegheny and Western Reserve Colleges, he studied law, and 
practised in Ohio until 1857.  In that year he settled in 
Dubuque, Iowa, where he took a prominent part in Republican 
politics; and in 1860 he was a delegate to the national 
convention at Chicago which nominated Abraham Lincoln for the 
presidency.  In 1861 he was appointed a member of the staff 
of Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood (1813-1894), and was of great 
service in the work of equipping and organizing the Iowa 
volunteers.  From 1863 until 1871 he served with distinction 
in the House of Representatives; in 1873 he was elected to the 
United States Senate, and re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 
1902.  Here he became one of the highest authorities on questions 
connected with finance, and from 1877 he was a member of the 
Senate committee on finance.  In 1881-1893, and again from 
1895, he was chairman of the committee on appropriations, in 
which position he had great influence.  He declined offers of 
the secretaryship of the treasury made to him by Presidents 
Garfield and Harrison.  He was a prominent candidate for the 
presidential nomination in the Republican national conventions 
of 1888 and 1896.  In 1892 he was chairman of the American 
delegation to the International Monetary Conference at 
Brussels.  He died at Dubuque, Iowa, on the 4th of August 1908. 

ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and littera, letter), the 
commencing of two or more words, in close juxtaposition, with 
the same sound.  As Milton defined rhyme to be ``the jingling 
sound of like endings,'' so alliteration is the jingle of like 
beginnings.  All language has a tendency to jingle in both 
ways, even in prose.  Thus in prose we speak of ``near and 
dear,'' ``high and dry,'' ``health and wealth.'' But the 
initial form of jingle is much more common--``safe and sound,'' 
``thick and thin,'' ``weal or woe,'' ``fair or foul,'' ``spick 
and span,'' ``fish, flesh, or fowl,'' ``kith and kin.'' The 
poets of nearly all times and tongues have not been slow 
to seize upon the emphasis which could thus be produced. 

Although mainly Germanic in its character, alliteration 
was known to the Latins, especially in early times, and 
Cicero blames Ennius for writing ``O Tite tute, Tati, 
tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti.'' Lucretius did not disdain 
to employ it as an ornament.  We read in Shakespeare:-- 
    ``Full fathom five thy father lies:
      Of his bones are corals made.''
In Pope:-- 
    ``Here files of pins extend their shining rows,
      Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux.',
In Gray:-- 
    ``Weave the warp and weave the woof,
      The winding-sheet of Edward's race.''
In Coleridge:- 
    ``The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
        The furrow followed free:
      We were the first that ever burst
        Into that silent sea.''
Churchill describes himself, in his Prophecy of Famine, as one 
    ``Who often, but without success, had prayed
      For apt alliteration's artful aid,''--
an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for 
alliteration is never effective unless it runs upon consonants. 

As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly 
dependent on the poet's fancy.  He may use it or not, or 
use it much or little, at his pleasure.  But there is an 
extensive range of Teutonic poetry whose metrical laws 
are entirely based on alliteration.  This, for example, is 
the principle on which Icelandic verse is founded; and we 
have a yet nearer interest in it, because it furnishes the 
key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early English 
verse.  For a specimen take the following lines, the spelling 
modernized, from the beginning of Piers the Plowman:-- 
    ``But in a May morning | on Malvern hills,
      Me befel a ferly | of fairy methought;
      I was weary of wandering | and went me to rest
      Under a broad bank | by a burn-side;
      And as I lay and leaned | and looked on the waters,
      I slumbered in a sleeping | it sounded so merry.''
The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of 
syllables it may contain, but imperative as to the number of 
accented ones.  The line is divided in the middle by a pause, 
and each half ought to contain two accented syllables.  Of 
the four accented syllables, the first three should begin with 
the same letter; the fourth is free and may start with any 
letter.  Those who wish for a more minute analysis of the 
laws of alliterative verse, as practised by the Anglo-Saxon 
and early English poets, may consult an exhaustive essay 
on the subject by Professor W. W. Skeat, prefixed to vol. 
iii. of Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript; only the reader 
must be on his guard against an error which pervades it, 
and which this able writer seems to have derived from Rask.  
The question arises--What is the nature of the cadence in 
alliterative verse? Now all metrical movement is of two kinds, 
according as the beat or emphasis begins the movement or ends 
it.  If the beat is initial, we say in classical language that 
the movement is trochaic or dactylic, according to the number 
of its syllables; and if the beat is final, we in like manner 
say that the movement is iambic or anapaestic.  Skeat and many 
others object with some reason to use the classical terms, 
and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the question 
in the simplest form--Has the movement of alliterative verse 
got the initial or the final beat? In the middle of the 18th 
century Bishop Percy decided this question with sufficient 
accuracy, though he mixed up his statement with a blunder 
which it is not easy to account for.  He points out how the 
poets began to introduce rhyme into alliterative verse, until 
at length rhyme came to predominate over alliteration, and 
``thus was this kind of metre at length swallowed up and lost 
in the common burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as 
    ``A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall.''
Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of Alexandrine 
to anapaestic verse; but he is quite right in his general 
statement that alliterative verse became lost in a measure 
the movement of which had the final beat.  Conybeare has 
stated the fact still more accurately. ``In the Saxon poetry 
a trochaic character is predominant.  In Piers the Plowman 
there is a prevailing tendency to an anapaestic cadence.'' 
It is the result of a change in the language--the loss of 
inflexion.  Take the word man. The genitive in Saxon would 
be mannes, a trochee; in English, of man, an iambus.  
The tendency of the language was thus to pass from a metrical 
movement, in which the beat was initial, to one in which it was 
final.  It may therefore be quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon 
alliterative poetry as trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to 
apply the same terms to the cadence of our later alliterative 
verse.  And this is precisely the error into which Skeat has 
fallen.  He says--``Lines do not always begin with a loud 
syllable, but often one or two and sometimes (in early English 
especially) even three soft syllables precede it.  These 
syllables are necessary to the sense, but not to the scanision 
of the line.'' That is just the point at issue.  By leaving 
out of account the light syllable or syllables at the beginning 
of a line, and taking his start from the first syllable that 
has the alliterative beat, Skeat may certainly prove that 
all the later alliterative poetry has a movement of initial 
beat.  But English ears will not submit to this rule.  It is 
those light syllables of no account which have altered the rhythm 
of English descant from one of initial to one of final beat. 

ALLIUM (Lat. for ``garlic''), a genus of plants, natural order 
Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in 
Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the 
dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central 
America.  The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded 
radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a 
head or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped 
white, pink, red, yellow or blue perianth.  Several species 
afford useful foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa), leek (A. 
Porrum), shallot or eschallot (A. ascalonicum), garlic (A. 
sativum), and chives (A. schoenoprasum.) A few species are 
cultivated as border plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden 
plant with bright yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the 
well-known white-flowered species, both natives of southern Europe. 

ALLIX, PIERRE (1641-1717), French Protestant divine, was born at 
Alencon.  He was pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and 
then at Charenton, near Paris.  The revocation of the edict of 
Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, where, 
under the sanction of James II., he opened a church for the French 
exiles.  His reputation for learning was such as to obtain for 
him, soon after his arrival, the degree of doctor of divinity 
from both universities, and in 1690 he received from Bishop 
Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurership and 
a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral.  He died at London in March 
1717.  The works of Allix, which are numerous, are chiefly of 
a controversial and apologetic character, and must be used with 
caution.  In opposition to Bossuet he published Some Remarks 
upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches 
of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical 
History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692), 
with the idea of showing that the Albigenses were not 
Manichaeans, but historically identical with the Waldenses. 

ALLMAN, GEORGE JAMES (1812-!898), British biologist, was born 
in Cork, Ireland, in 1812, and received his early education at 
the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.  For some time he 
studied for the Irish bar, but ultimately gave up law in favour 
of natural science.  In 1843 he graduated in medicine at Dublin, 
and in the following year was appointed professor of botany 
in that university, succeeding his namesake, William Allman 
(1776-1846).  This position he held for about twelve years 
until he removed to Edinburgh as regius professor of natural 
history.  There he remained till 1870, when considerations of 
health induced him to resign his professorship and retire to 
Dorsetshire, where he devoted himself to his favourite pastime of 
horticulture.  The scientific papers which came from his pen are 
very numerous.  His most important work was upon the gymnoblastic 
hydrozoa, on which he published in 1871-1872, through the Ray 
Society, an exhaustive monograph, based largely on his own 
researches and illustrated with drawings of remarkable excellence 
from his own hand.  Biological science is also indebted to 
him for several convenient terms which have come into daily 
use, e.g. endoderm and ectoderm for the two cellular 
layers of the body-wall in Coelenterata.  He became a fellow 
of the Royal Society in 1854, and received a Royal medal in 
1873.  For several years he occupied the presidential chair 
of the Linnaean society, and in 1879 he presided over the 
Sheffield meeting of the British Association.  He died 
on the 24th of November 1898 at Parkstone, Dorsetshire. 

ALLOA, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of 
Clackmannanshire, Scotland.  It is situated on the north 
bank of the Forth, 32 m. from Edinburgh by the North British 
railway via the Forth Bridge, and 28 m. from Leith by 
steamer.  Pop. (1891) 12,643; (1901) 14,458.  The Caledonian 
railway enters the town from the south-west by a bridge 
across the river, and also owns a ferry to South Alloa, on the 
opposite shore, in Stirlingshire.  Between Alloa and Stirling 
the stream forms the famous ``links,'' the course being so 
sinuous that whereas by road the two towns are but 6 1/2 m. 
apart, the distance between them by river is nearly 12 m. 

For its size and population the town enjoys unusual prosperity, 
in consequence of its several flourishing industries.  Its 
manufactures of yarn are on the largest scale, the spinning 
mills often working night and day for many months together.  
There are also numerous breweries, and Alloa ale has always 
been famous.  The great distillery at Carsebridge yields an 
immense supply of yeast as well as whisky.  Other thriving 
trades include the glass-works on the shore, pottery-works in 
the ``auld toon,'' dye-works and a factory for the making of 
electrical appliances.  There is a good deal of shipbuilding, 
some ironfounding and a brass foundry.  The chief article of 
export is coal from the neighbouring collieries, the other 
leading exports being ale, whisky, glass and manufactured 
goods.  The imports comprise timber, grain, iron, linseed and 
flax.  The docks, accessible only at high water, include a 
wet basin and a dry dock.  Amongst the principal buildings 
are the fine Gothic parish church, with a spire 200 ft. high; 
the town hall, including the free public library, from designs 
by Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., the gift of Mr J. Thomson Paton; 
the county and municipal buildings; handsome public baths and 
gymnasium, presented to the town by Mr David Thomson; the 
accident hospital; the fever hospital; the museum of the 
Natural Science and Archaeological Society; the academy, 
the burgh school and a secondary school with the finest 
technical equipment in Scotland, given by Mr A. Forrester 
Paton.  There is a public park, besides bowling-greens and 
cricket and football fields.  The old burying-ground was the 
kirkyard of the former parish church, the tower of which still 
exists, but a modern cemetery has been formed in Sunnyside.  
The town owns the water-supply, gas-works and electric-lighting. 

Alloa Park, the seat of the earl of Mar and Kellie, is in the 
immediate vicinity, and in its grounds stand the ruins of Alloa 
Tower, an ancient structure 89 ft. high, with walls 11 ft. 
thick, which was built about 1315, and was once the residence 
of the powerful family of Erskine, descendants of the earl of 
Mar. The earl who promoted the Jacobite rising in 1715 was born 
here.  Many of the Scots princes received their education 
as wards of the Lords Erskine and the earls of Mar, the last 
to be thus educated being Henry, the eldest son of James VI. 

ALLOBROGES (in Gr. usually 'Allobriges), a Celtic tribe 
in the north of Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the low ground 
called the ``island'' between the Rhodanus, the Isara and 
the Graian Alps, corresponding to the modern Dauphine and 
Savoy.  If the name is rightly interpreted as meaning 
``aliens,'' they would seem to have driven out the original 
inhabitants.  Their chief towns were Vienna (Vienne), 
Genava (Geneva) and Cularo (afterwards Gratianopolis, whence 
Grenoble).  The Allobroges first occur in history as taking 
part with Hannibal in the invasion of Italy.  After the 
subjugation of the Salluvii (Salyes) by the Romans in 123 
B.C., having given shelter to their king Tutomotulus and 
refused to surrender him, the Allobroges were attacked and 
finally defeated (August 8, 121) at the junction of the Rhodanus 
and Isara by Q. Fabius Maximus (afterwards Allobrogicus).  But 
they still remained hostile to Rome, as is shown by the conduct 
of their ambassadors in the Catilinarian conspiracy (63; see 
CATILINE); two years later a revolt under Catugnatus was 
put down by Gaius Pomptinus at Solonium.  Under Augustus they 
were included in Gallia Narbonensis; later, in the Viennensis. 

See A. Desjardins, Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine, 
ii. (1876-1893); . E. Herzog, Galliae Narbonensis Historia 
(Leipzig, 1864); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome (Eng. trans.). bk. 
iii. ch. 4, iv. ch. 5; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of 
Gaul (1899): G. Long in Smith's Dict. of Greek anid Roman 
Geography: M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, 
i. 2 (1894); A. Holder, Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz; 
and bibliography in La grande encyclopedie (s.v.). 

ALLOCATUR (from med.  Lat. allocatur, it is allowed), 
in law, a certificate given by a taxing master, at the 
termination of an action, for the allowance of costs. 

ALLOCUTION (Lat. allocutio, an address), a name given to the 
formal addresses made by the pope to the College of Cardinals 
and through them to the church generally.  They are usually 
called forth by ecclesiastical or political circumstances, 
and aim at safeguarding papal principles and claims.  They are 
published by being affixed to the door of St Peter's Church. 

ALLODIUM, or ALODIUM, a legal term for lands which are 
the absolute property of their owner, and not subject to 
any service or acknowledgment to a superior.  It is thus 
the opposite of fe-odum or fief.  The proper derivation 
of the word has been much discussed and is still doubtful, 
though it is probably compounded of all, whole or entire, 
and odh, property.  Allodial tenure seems to have been 
common throughout northern Europe.  It exists in Orkney and 
Shetland, but is unknown in England, the feudal system 
having been made universal by William the Conqueror. 

ALLOMEROUS (Gr. allos, other meros, part), the quality 
of bodies (e.g. mineral) by virtue of which they can change 
their elements and proportions while preserving their form. 

ALLON, HENRY (1818-1892), English Nonconformist divine, 
was born on the 13th of October 1818 at Welton near Hull in 
Yorkshire.  Under Methodist influence he decided to enter the 
ministry, but, developing Congregational ideas, was trained 
at Cheshunt College.  In 1844 he became co-pastor with the 
Rev. Thomas Lewis of Union Chapel, Islington.  In 1852, 
on the death of Lewis, Allon became sole pastor, and this 
position he held with increasing influence till his death in 
1892.  Union Chapel, originally founded by evangelical 
members of the Church of England and Nonconformists acting 
in harmony, became during Anon's co-pastorate definitely 
Congregational in principle and fellowship, and exercised an 
ever-expanding influence.  His chief service to Nonconformity 
was in connexion with the improvement of congregational 
worship, and especially the service of praise.  In 1852 
Dr. H. J. Gauntlett became organist at Union of this class, 
Allon published the original edition of his well-known 
Congregational Psalmist. For many years his collection of 
hymns, chants and anthems was used in hundreds of churches 
throughout England.  In 1860 Allon began to write, at first 
chiefly for the Patriot, then under the editorship of T. C. 
Turbeville.  In 1864, at the age of forty-five, he was elected 
chairman of the Congregational Union, and in 1866 he undertook 
the editorship of the British Quarterly Review with H. R. 
Reynolds, the principal of Cheshunt.  In 1877 he became sole 
editor, and in that capacity came into touch with such men 
as W. E. Gladstone, Matthew Arnold, F. D. Maurice and Dean 
Stanley.  The magazine was discontinued in 1886.  In 1871 
he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Yale, 
U.S.A.  In 1874 the congregation at Islington decided to 
erect new buildings.  The church, which was built at a cost of 
L. 50,000, was specially adapted for congregational worship 
and was mentioned by an architectural journal as one of the 
hundred remarkable buildings of the century.  The church had 
in its Yarious departments about 300 teachers in charge of 
more than 3000 children, and was in its organization one of 
the earliest instances of the type known as the institutional 
church.  In 1881. on the occasion of the jubilee of the 
Congregational Union of England and Wales, Allon was again 
elected chairman.  In were A Memoir of James Sherman (1863); 
the Sermons of Thomas Binney, with a biographical and 
critical sketch (1869); The Vision of God and other sermons 
(1876); The Indwelling Christ (1892).  Allon was a man of 
sound judgment, strong will, great moral courage and personal 
kindness.  His acquaintance with literature was wide, his 
own style lucid and decisive.  In social and political 
affairs he was a convinced individualist.  Both as leader of 
Union Chapel and in denominational affairs his courage and 
discretion, his simple faith, combined with a broad-minded 
symoathy with the intellectual movements of the time, made 
his ministry a widespread influence for good. (D. MN.) 

ALLONGE (from Fr. alloinger, to draw out), a slip of 
paper affixed to a negotiable instrument, as a bill of 
exchange, for the purpose of receiving additional indorsements 
for which there may not be sufficient space on the bill 
itself.  An indorsement written on the allonge is deemed to 
be written on the bill itself.  An allonge is more usually 
met with in those countries where the Code Napoleon is in 
force, as the code requires every indorsement to express the 
consideration.  Under English law, as the simple signature of 
the indorser on the bill, without additional words, is sufficient 
to operate as a negotiation, an allonge is seldom necessary. 

ALLOPHANE, one of the few minerals known only in the amorphous 
state.  It is a glassy substance, usually occurring as 
thin encrustations with a mammillary surface; occasionally, 
however, it is earthy and pulverulent.  The colour varies 
considerably. from colourless to yellow, brown, blue or 
green.  Specimens of a brilliant sky-blue colour, such as 
those found formerly in Wheal Haniblyn, near Bridestowe in 
Devonshire, and in Sardinia, are specially attractive in 
appearance; the colour is here due to the presence of the 
copper mineral chrysocolla.  The hardness is 3, and the 
specific gravity 1.9. Chemically, it is a hydrous aluminium 
silicate, Al2SiO5.5H2O.  Allophane is always of secondary 
origin, resulting from the decomposition of various aluminous 
silicates, such as felspar.  It is often found copper and 
iron.  It was first observed in 1809 in marl at Grafenthal, 
near Saalfield in Thuringia; and has been found in lines 
fissures and funnel-shaped cavities.  The name allophane was 
given by F. Stromeyer in 1816, from the Gr. allos, another, 
and faino, to appear, in allusion to the fact that the 
mineral crumbles and changes in appearance when heated 
before the blowpipe.  Other names for the species are 
riemannite and elhuyarite, whilst closely allied minerals are 
carolathine, samoite and schrotterite (opal-allophane). 

ALLORI, ALESSANDRO (1535--1607), Italian painter of the 
Florentine school, was brought up and trained in art by his uncle, 
Angelo Bronzino (q.v.) whose name he sometimes assumed in his 
pictures.  Visiting Rome in his nineteenth year, he carefully 
studied the works of Michelangelo; but the influence of that 
great master can only be traced in the anatomical correctness 
of his drawing of nude figures.  He was successful as a portrait 
painter.  His son CRISTOFANO ALLORI (1577-1621), born at 
Florence, received his first lessons in painting from his father, 
but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing and 
cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of Gregorio 
Pagani (1558-1605) who was one of the leaders of that later 
Florentine school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring 
of the Venetians with the correct drawing of Michelangelo's 
disciples.  Allori became one of the foremost of this school.  
His pictures are distinguished by their close adherence to 
nature and the delicacy and technical perfection of their 
execution.  His technical skill is proved by the fact that 
several copies he made after Correggio have been taken to be 
duplicates by Correggio himself.  His extreme fastidiousness 
limited his power of production, though the number of his works 
is not so small as is sometimes asserted.  Several specimens 
are to be seen at Florence and elsewhere.  The finest of 
all his works is his ``Judith and Holofernes,'' in the Pitti 
Palace.  The model for the Judith was his mistress, the beautiful 
Mazzafirra, who is also represented in his Magdalene; and the 
head of Holofernes is generally supposed to represent himself. 

ALLOTMENT from O. Fr. a and loter, to divide by 
lot), the act of allotting; a share or portion assigned.  
In England, the term denotes a portion of land assigned 
on partition or under an inclosure award (see COMMONS); 
also a division of land into small portions for cultivation 
by a labourer or artisan at a small rent (see ALLOTMENTS 
AND SMALL HOLDINOS). In company law, ``allotment'' is 
the appropriation to an applicant by a resolution of the 
directors of a certain number of shares in response to an 
application.  The document sent to such an applicant, which 
announces the number of shares assigned and concludes the 
contract, is called a letter of allotment or allotment 
certificate. A letter of allotment in England requires a 
sixpenny stamp if the value of the shares amounts to L. 5 or 
over, and a penny stamp if less than L. 5. (See COMPANY.) 

Allotment note is a writing by a seaman authorising his 
employers to make an allotment of part of his wages, while he 
is on a voyage, in favour either of a ``near'' relative (wife, 
father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, child, grandchild, 
brother or sister of the seaman), or of a savings bank.  Every 
allotment note must be in a form sanctioned by the Board of Trade. 

ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS. As the meaning of these 
terms in agricultural tenure varies in different localities, 
it may be as well to say at once that for the present purpose 
they are definable as pieces of land detached from cottages, 
and hired or owned by labouring men to supplement their main 
income.  We do not include any farm, however small, from 
which the occupier derives his entire support by dairying, 
market-gardening, or other form of la petite culture. So, 
also, no account is taken of the tiny garden plot, used for 
growing vegetables for the table and simple flowers, which 
is properly an appurtenance of the cottage.  Clearing away 
what is extraneous, the essential point round which much 
controversy has raged is the labourer's share in the land.  
The claim advanced depends upon tradition.  In agriculture, 
the oldest of all industries, a cash payment is not even now 
regarded as discharging the obligations between master and 
servant.  Mr Wilson Fox, in reporting to the Board of Trade on 
the earnings of agricultural labourers in Great Britain, gives, 
as a typical survival of an old custom, the case of a shepherd 
whose total income was calculated at L. 60 a year, but who got 
only L. 16 in money, the rest being made up by rights of grazing 
live-stock, growing crops on his master's land, and kindred 
privileges.  That is exactly in the spirit that used to pervade 
agriculture, and doubtless had its origin in the manorial 
system.  If we turn back to the 13th century, from Walter of 
Henley's Husbandry it will be seen that practically there 
were only two classes engaged in agriculture, and corresponding 
with them were two kinds of land.  There were, on the one 
hand, the employer, the lord, and his demesne land; on the 
other, the villeins and the land held in villenage.  Putting 
aside for the moment any discussion of the exact degree of 
servitude, it will be seen that the essence of the bargain was 
that the villein should be permitted to cultivate a virgate of 
land for his own use in return for service rendered on the home 
farm.  This is not altered by the fact that the conditions 
approached those of slavery, that the villeins were adscripti 
glebae, that in some cases their wives and sons were bequeathed 
by deed to the service of religious houses, and that in many 
other respects their freedom was limited.  Out of this, in 
the course of centuries, was developed the system prevailing 
to-day.  Lammas lands are indeed a survival from it.  There 
are in the valley of the Lea, and close to London, to take one 
example, lands allotted annually in little strips till the 
crops are carried, when, the day being fixed by a reeve, the 
land becomes a common pasture till the spring closing takes 
place once more.  Perhaps the feature of this old system 
that bears most directly on the question of allotments was 
the treatment of the waste of the manor.  The lord, like his 
tenants, was limited by custom as regards the number of 
beasts he could graze on it.  After the havoc of the Black 
Death in 1349, many changes were necessitated by the scarcity 
and dearness of labour.  It became less unusual for land 
to be let and for money payment to be accepted instead of 
services.  There was a great demand for wool, and to conduct 
sheep-farming on a large scale necessitated a re-arrangement 
of the manor and the enclosure of many common fields under 
the statute of Merton and the statute of Westminster the 
Second.  Nevertheless, up to the 18th century, a vast proportion 
of agricultural land was technically waste, on which rights 
of common were exercised by yeomen, some of whom had acquired 
holdings by the ordinary methods of purchase or inheritance, 
while others had merely squatted and built a house on the 
waste.  It is to this period that belongs a certain injustice 
to which the peasantry were subject.  No reasonable doubt 
can be entertained of the necessity of enclosure.  Husbandry, 
after long stagnation, was making great advance; and among 
others, Arthur Young raised his voice against the clumsy 
inconvenient common fields that were the first to be enclosed.  
Between 1709 and 1797 no fewer than 3110 acts, affecting, as 
far as can be calculated, about 3,000,000 acres, were put into 
operation.  They seem mostly to have been directed to the common 
fields.  In the first half of the 19th century the movement 
went on apace.  In a single year, 1801, no fewer than 119 
acts were passed; and between 1801 and 1842 close on 2000 
acts were passed---many of them expressly directed to the 
enclosure of wastes and commons.  The same thing continued till 
1860.  It touched the peasant directly and indirectly.  The 
enclosure of the common fields proved most hurtful to the 
small farmer; the enclosure of the waste injured the labourer 
by depriving him, without adequate compensation, of such 
useful privileges as the right to graze a cow, a pig, geese 
or other small animals.  It also discouraged him by tending 
to the extinction of small tenancies and freeholds that were 
no longer workable at a profit when common rights ceased 
to go with them.  The industrious labourer could previously 
nourish a hope of bettering his condition by obtaining a small 
holding.  Yet though the labourer suffered, impartial study 
does not show any intentional injustice.  He held a very 
weak position when those interested in a common affixed to 
the church door a notice that they intended to petition.  
As Mr Cowper (afterwards Lord Mount Temple) said in the 
House of Commons on the 13th of March 1844, ``the course 
adopted had been to compensate the owner of the cottage to 
whom the common right belonged, forgetting the claims of 
the occupier by whom they were enjoyed''; and in the same 
debate Sir Robert Peel pointed out that not only the rights 
of the tenant, but those of his successors ought to have been 
studied.  The course adopted divorced the labourer from the soil. 

Parliament, as a matter of fact, had from a very early 
period recognized the wisdom of contenting the peasant.  
In the 14th century the labourer lived in rude abundance.  
Next century a rural exodus began, owing to the practice of 
enclosing the holdings and turning them into sheep walks.  
In 1487 an act was passed enjoining landlords to ``keep up 
houses of husbandry,'' and attach convenient land to them.  
Within the next hundred years a number of similar attempts 
were made to control what we may call the sheep fever of the 
time.  Then we arrive at the reign of Elizabeth and the famous 
Small Holdings Act passed in 1597--an anticipation of the 
three-acres-and-a-cow policy advocated towards the end of 
the 19th century.  It required that no person shall ``build, 
convert or ordain any cottage for habitation or dwelling 
for persons engaged in husbandry'' unless the owner ``do 
assign and lay to the same cottage or building four acres of 
ground at the least.'' It also provided against any ``inmate 
or under-sitter'' being admitted to what was sacred to one 
family.  This measure was not conceived in the spirit of 
modern political economy, but it had the effect of staying 
the rural exodus.  It was repealed in 1775 on the ground 
that it restricted the building of cottages.  By that time 
the modern feeling in favour of allotments had begun to 
ripen, and it was contended that some compensation should be 
made to the labourers for depriving them of the advantages 
of the waste.  Up to then the English labouring rustic had 
been very well off.  Food was abundant and cheap, so were 
clothes and boots; he could graze his cow or pig on the 
common, and also obtain fuel from it.  Now he fell on evil 
days.  Prices rose, wages fell, privileges were lost, and in 
many cases he had to sell the patch of land whose possession 
made all the difference between hardship and comfort.  All 
this was seen plainly enough both by statesmen and private 
philanthropists.  One of the first experiments was described 
by Sir John Sinclair in a note to the report of a select 
committee of the House of Commons on waste lands in 1795.  
About 1772 the lord of the manor of some commonable lands 
near Tewkesbury had with great success set out 25 acres in 
allotments for the use of some of the poor.  Sir John was very 
much struck with the result, and so heartily applauded the idea 
that the committee recommended that any general enclosure bill 
should have a clause in it providing for ``the accommodation 
of land.'' Sir Thomas Bernard and W. Wilberforce took an 
active part in advocating the principle of allotments, on the 
ground, to summarize their argument in language employed 
later by a witness before the House of Commons, that ``it 
keeps the cottagers buoyant and makes them industrious.'' In 
1806, at the suggestion of the rector, a clause assigning an 
allotment of half an acre to every cottage was inserted in an 
enclosure bill Wiltshire.  This was done, ``and the example 
was followed by nearly every adjoining parish in that part of 
Wiltshire.  Passing over several praiseworthy establishments 
of allotments by private persons, we come to 1819, when 
parliament passed an act akin in spirit to several that came 
into existence during the later portion of the Victorian 
era.  It empowered the churchwardens and overseers of any 
parish, with the consent of the vestry, to purchase or hire 
land not exceeding 25 acres, and to let it in portions to 
``any poor and industrious inhabitant of the parish.'' This 
was amended in 1831 by an act extending the quantity of land 
enable the same authorities to enclose from any waste or 
common, land not exceeding 50 acres to be devoted to the same 
purpose.  This was followed next year by an act relating to 
fuel, and in 1834 the Poor Law Commissioners reported favourably 
on the principle of granting allotments.  In 1843 an important 
inquiry into the subject was made by a committee of the House of 
Commons, which produced a number of valuable suggestions.  One 
consequence was the bill of 1845, brought into parliament by Mr 
Cowper.  It passed the House of Commons; and there Mr Bright 
made a remark that probably summarized a general opinion, since 
it never came to a third reading in the House of Lords.  He 
said that ``the voluntary system of arrangement would do all the 
good that was expected to accrue from the allotment system.'' 

At this point in the history of the movement it may be as 
well to cause and ask what was the net result of so much 
legislation and benevolent action.  Messrs Tremenheere and 
Tufnall, who prefixed an admirable epitome of what had been 
done to the report of the commission ``appointed to inquire 
into the employment of women, young persons and children in 
agriculture'' (1867), expressed considerable disappointment.  
Between 1710 and 1867, 7,660,413 statute acres were added to 
the cultivated area of England and Wales, or about one-third of 
the area in cultivation at the latter date; and of this total, 
484,893 acres were enclosed between 1845 and 1867.  Of the 
latter, only 2119 acres were assigned as public allotments for 
gardens to the labouring poor.  It was found to be the case, 
as it is now, that land was taken up more readily when offered 
privately and voluntarily than when it came through offcial 
sources.  Meanwhile competent and thoughtful men saw well that 
the sullen discontent of the peasantry continued, in Lord Bacon's 
phrase, to threaten ``the might and manhood of the kingdom.'' 
It had existed since the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, 
and had become more articulate with the spread of education.  
We shall see a consciousness of its presence rehected in the 
minds of statesmen and politicians as we briefly examine the 
later phase of the movement.  This found expression in the 
clauses against enclosure introduced by Lord Beaconsheld in 
1876, and gave force to the three-acres-and-a-cow agitation, 
of which the more prominent leaders were Joseph Arch and Jesse 
Collings.  In 1882 the Allotments Extension Act was passed, 
the object of which was to let the parishioners have charity 
land in allotments, provided it or the revenue from it was 
not used for apprenticeshio, ecclesiastical or educational 
purposes.  A committee of the House of Commons, appointed 
in 1885 to inquire into the housing of the working classes, 
reported strongly in favour of allotments, and this was followed 
in 1887 by the Allotments Act---the first measure in which the 
principle of compulsory acquisition was admitted in regard to 
other than charity lands.  Its administration was first given 
to the sanitary authority, but passed to the district councils 
when these bodies were established in 1894. the local body 
is empowered to hire or purchase suitable land, and if they 
do not find any in the market they are to petition the county 
council, which after due inquiry may issue a provisional 
order compeihng owners to sell land, and the Local Government 
Board may introduce a bill into parliament to confirm the 
order.  It was found that the sanitary authority did not 
carry out the scheme, and in 1890 another act was passed 
for the purpose of allowing applicants for allotments, when 
the sanitary authority failed to provide land, to appeal to 
the county council.  Judging from the evidence laid before 
the commission on agricultural depression (1894), the act of 
1887 was not a conspicuous success.  Most of the witnesses 
reported in such terms as these---``the Allotments Act has 
been quite inoperative in Cornwall''; ``the act has been a 
dead letter in the district (Wigtownshire)''; ``the Allotments 
Act has not been in operation in Flintshire''; ``nothing has 
been done in the district of Pembrokeshire under the act.'' 
No evidence whatever was adduced to show that in a single 
district a different state of things had to be recorded.  
From a return presented by the Local Government Board to 
parliament in 1896 we learn that eighty-three rural sanitary 
authorities had acquired land for allotment prior to the 28th 
of December 1894, the date at which these authorities ceased 
to exist under the provisions of the Local Government Act 
1894.  Land was acquired by compulsory purchase in only one 
parish; by purchase or agreement in eighteen parishes; by hire 
by agreement in 132 parishes.  The total acreage dealt with 
was 1836 acres 1 rood 34 poles, and the total number of tenants 
4711.  The number of county councils that up to the same 
date had acquired land was twelve, and they had done so by 
compulsory purchase in one parish, by purchase or agreement 
in five parishes, by hire by agreement in twenty-four 
parishes.  The total area dealt with was only 413 acres 1 rood 5 
poles, and the total number of tenants 825.The complete totals 
affected at the date of the return (August 21, 1895) by the 
acts, therefore, were 2249 acres 2 roods 29 poles, and 5536 
tenants.  A considerable extension has taken place since. 

The Small Holdings Act introduced by Mr Henry Chaplin, and 
passed by parliament in 1892 was an attempt to appease the rural 
discontent that had been seething for some time past and was 
silently but most eloquently expressed in a steady migration 
from the villages.  The object of this measure was to help the 
deserving labouring man to acquire a small holding, that is to 
say, a portion of land not less than one acre or more than 
fifty acres in extent and of an annual value not exceeding 
L. 50.  It is not necessary here to describe the legal steps 
by which this was to be accomplished.  The essence of the 
bargain was that a fifth of the purchase money should be paid 
down, and the remainder in half-yearly instalments spread 
over a period not exceeding fifty years.  But if the local 
authority thought fit a portion of the purchase money, not 
exceeding one-fourth. might remain unpaid, and be secured by 
a perpetual rent charge upon the holding.  It cannot be said 
that this act has attained the object for which it was drawn 
up.  From a return made to the House of Commons in 1895 it 
was shown that eight county councils had acquired land under 
the Small Holdings Act, which amounted in the aggregate to 483 
acres.  A further return was made in 1903, which showed that 
the total quantity of land acquired from the commencement 
of the act up to the end of 1902 was only 652 acres. 

It is, however, an English characteristic to prefer private 
to public arrangements, and probably a very great majority 
of the allotments and small holdings cultivated in 1907 were 
due to individual initiative.  There are no means of arriving 
at the exact figures, but data exist whereby it is at least 
possible to form some rough idea of them.  It is not the custom 
to give in the annual agricultural returns any statement of 
the manner in which land is held, and the information is to 
be found in the returns presented to parliament from time to 
time.  From the following table, which includes both the 
holdings owned and tenanted, it will be seen that between 
1895 and 1904 the tendency was for the holdings to decrease 
in number; while the holdings of from 50 to 300 acres slightly 
increased, those from 5 to 50 acres were almost stationary, 
and there was a decrease in those between 1 and 5 acres. 


 
                            1895.                     1904.
                      Number.    Per cent.      Number.    Per cent.
 1 to    5 acres     117,968       22.68        110,974      21.69
 5 to   50 ''        235,481       45.28        232,470      45.44
 50 to 300 ''        147,870       28.43        150,050      29.33
 Above 300 ''         18,787        3.61         18,084       3.54
 

These figures become doubly instructive when considered in 
connexion with the decline of the strictly rural population.  
It will, therefore, be useful to place beside them a summary 
published in a report on the decline of rural population in Great 
Britain issued by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906. 


 
     Class.          1881.     1891.     1901.     Increase (+) or Decrease (-)
                                                   1881-1891.      1891-1901.
                      No.       No.       No.          No.             No.
 Farmers and
   Graziers        279,126   277,943   277,694       -1,183           -249
 Farm Bailiffs
   and Foremen      22,895    21,453    27,317       -1,442         +5,864
 Shepherds          33,125    31,686    35,022       -1,439         +3,336
 Agricultural
   Labourers       983,919   866,543   689,292     -117,376       -177,251
 

These figures must of course be approximate.  The effect of 
recent development in methods of travelling and the growing custom 
for townsmen either to live wholly in the country or to take 
week-end cottages, has made it impossible to draw a strict line 
of demarcation between rural and urban populations.  Still they 
are near enough for practical purposes, and they amply justify 
the efforts of those who are trying to stay the rural exodus. 

While legislation had not, up to 1908, achieved any noteworthy 
result in the creation of small holdings, and still left doubts 
as to the practicability of re-creating the English yeoman by 
act of parliament, many successful efforts have been made by 
individuals.  One of the most interesting is that of the earl of 
Carrington at Sleaford in Lincolnshire.  In this case the most 
noteworthy feature is that between the landlord and the tenants 
there is a body called the South Lincolnshire Small Holdings 
Association, which took 650 acres from Lord Carrington on a 
twenty years' lease.  These acres used to be let to four or five 
tenants.  They were in 1905 divided among one hundred and 
seventy tenants.  The Small Holders' Association guaranteed 
the rent, which works out at about 33s. per acre, to Lord 
Carrington.  They let the men on yearly tenancy have it at about 
40s. an acre, the difference being used to meet the expenses 
of dividing the lands into small holdings, maintaining drains, 
fences and roads connected with them, and other unavoidable 
outlays.  In this way the landlord is assured of his rent, 
and the association has lost nothing, as the men were very 
punctual in their payments.  But very great care was bestowed 
in choosing the men for the holdings.  They were in a sense 
picked men, but men must be picked to work the business 
satisfactorily.  Lincolnshire is pre-eminently a county of 
small holdings, and the labouring residents in it have been 
accustomed to the management of them from their infancy 
onwards.  Here as elsewhere the provision of suitable houses 
formed a difficulty, some of the tenants having to walk several 
miles to their holdings.  Lord Carrington availed himself as 
much as possible of the buildings that existed, dividing the 
old farm houses so as to make them suitable for the small 
tenants.  At Cowbit farm, many of the ordinary labourers' 
cottages, which were put up at a cost of about L. 300 a pair, 
have by the addition of little dairies and other alterations 
been made suitable for the tenants.  From facts collected 
on the spot we have come to the conclusion that on the small 
holdings a good tenant makes an average profit of about L. 4 an 
acre, but on an allotment cultivated by means of the spade 
it would probably be at the rate of over L. 6 an acre.  Lord 
Carrington was also successful in establishing small holdings 
on the Humberston estate in North Lincolnshire and on his 
Buckinghamshire estate, near Aylesbury.  At Newport Pagnell 
the attempt failed because the demand was artificial, the 
ground arable, and the men not capable of dealing with it. 

Other examples of the establishment of small holdings can 
only receive brief reference.  The Norfolk Small Holdings 
Association acquired three farms at Whissonsett, Watton and 
Swaffham, which are broken up into small lots and let mostly 
to the village tradespeople.  Sir Pearce Edgecumbe established 
small holdings at Rew, some of which have been purchased by the 
occupiers, and Mr A. B. Markham created similar ownerships at 
Twyford (Leicestershire) . At Cudworth in Surrey a group was 
formed, but the owners were actuated more by the desire to lead 
a simple life than to prove the remunerative value of small 
holdings.  Mr W. J. Harris created small holdings in Devon, 
each of which is let on a life tenancy.  There the rural exodus 
has been more than arrested.  Mr James Tomkinson established 
in Cheshire a number of graduated holdings, so contrived as 
to offer the successful holders a chance of stepping upwards. 

The earl of Harrowby made an interesting experiment on his 
Sandon estate in Staffordshire in the midst of a pretty, broken 
and undulating country.  The estate consists of about 6000 
acres, one-third of which is laid out in small holdings.  
These fall naturally into three divisions.  First, there are 
those which belong to men who have regular employment, and 
would therefore find it impossible to cultivate any great 
quantity of land.  Many of that class are anxious to have 
a holding of some sort, as it lends a certain elasticity 
to their incomes and provides them with a never-failing 
interest.  One who may be taken as typical hired six acres 
with a good cottage and a large garden, paying a rent of L. 20 a 
year.  When this holding was created it had already a suitable 
cottage, but L. 100 was needed to provide outbuildings, and 
Lord Harrowby's custom is to charge 5% on outlay of this 
kind.  This L. 5, however, is included in the total rent of 
L. 20 paid for cottage, land and garden.  The man was not only 
content, but wished to get some more land.  The next class 
consists of those who have not enough land to live on but 
eke out their livelihood by casual labour.  Usually a man 
of this sort requires from 35 to 50 acres of land mostly 
pasture.  He can attend to it and yet give a certain number 
of days to estate work.  The third class is that of the small 
farmer who gains his entire livelihood from the land.  The 
obstacle to breaking up large farms into small lies of course 
in the expense of providing the necessary equipment.  It has 
been found here that a cottage suitable for a small farmer 
costs about L. 400 to build in a substantial manner, and the 
outbuildings about L. 200.  This makes an addition therefore of 
about L. 30 to the rent of the land.  The ardour with which these 
tenancies were sought when vacant formed the best testimony 
to the soundness of the principle applied by Lord Harrowby. 

A nest of small holdings was created at Winterslow, near 
Salisbury, by Major R. M. Poore.  The holders completed the 
purchase by 1906, and the work may be pronounced a complete 
success.  Major Poore originally conceived the idea when land 
was cheap in 1892, owing to the depression in agriculture.  
He purchased an estate that came into the market at the 
time.  The price came to an average of L. 10 an acre, and 
the men themselves made the average for selling it out again 
L. 15 on a principle of instalments.  His object was not to 
make any profit from the transaction, and he formed what is 
termed a Landholders' Court, formed of the men themselves, 
every ten choosing one to represent them.  This court was 
found to act well.  It collected the instalments, which are 
paid in advance; and of course the members of it, down to 
the minutest detail, knew not only the circumstances but the 
character of every applicant for land.  The result speaks for 
itself.  The owners are, in the true sense of the word, 
peasants.  They do not depend on the land for a living, but 
work in various callings---many being woodmen---for wages 
that average about 15s. a week.  The holdings vary in size 
from less than an acre to ten acres, and are technically 
held on a lease of 1999 years, practically freehold, though 
by the adoption of a leasehold form a saving was effected 
in the cost of transfer.  On the holdings most of the men 
have erected houses, using for the purpose chalk dug up 
from their gardens, it lying only a few inches below the 
surface.  It is not rock, but soft chalk, so that they 
are practically mud walls; but being as a rule at least 18 
inches thick, the houses are very cool in summer and warm in 
winter.  Major Poore calculated that in seven years these 
poor people--there are not thirty of them altogether--managed 
to produce for their houses and land a gross sum of not 
less than L. 5000.  This he attributed to the loyal manner 
in which even distant members of the family have helped. 

The class of holding which owes its existence to the act of 
1802 may be illustrated by the history of the Worcestershire 
small holdings.  The inception of the scheme was due to the 
decline of the nail-making business, which caused a number 
of the inhabitants to be without occupation.  Two candidates 
for election to the county council looking out for a popular 
cry found it in the demand for land.  They promised to do 
their best in this direction, and thanks to the energetic 
action of Mr Willis Bund, the chairman, the act was put in 
force.  Woodrow Farm, adjoining the village of Catshill in 
the neighbourhood of Birmingham, was purchased on terms that 
enabled the land to be sold to the peasant cultivator at L. 40 an 
acre.  They were paying this back at the rate of 4% on the 
purchase money, a rate that included both interest and sinking 
fund, so that at the end of forty years they would own the 
small estates free from encumbrance.  The huge population of 
Birmingham is close to the properties.  The men turned their 
attention mostly to strawberries, to which many acres were 
devoted.  Costermongers would come out from Birmingham and buy 
fruit on the spot, selling part of it to the villas on the way 
back, and part in the Birmingham market.  The experience gained 
in working the act enabled the committee on small holdings to 
make a number of practical suggestions for future legislation. 

It remains to note the passing in 1907 of a new English 
Small Holdings and Allotments Act, experience of which is 
too recent for its provisions to be more than indicated 
here.  The act transferred to the Board of Agriculture the 
duties generally of the Local Government Board, and transferred 
to parish councils or parish meetings the powers and duties 
of rural district councils; it required county councils to 
ascertain the demand for land without previous representation to 
them, and gave power for its compulsary acquisition; and the 
maximum holding of an allotment was raised from one acre to 
five.  Both compulsary purchase and compulsary hiring (for not 
less than 14 nor more than 35 years) were authorized, value 
and compensation begin decided by a single arbitrator.  A 
coercive authority was applied to the county councils in the 
form of commissioners appointed by the Board of Agriculture, 
who were to hold inquiries independently and to take action 
themselves in the case of a defaulting county council.  They 
were to ascertain the local demand for small holdings, and to 
report to the Board, who might then require a county council 
to prepare a scheme, whihc, when approved, it was to carry out, 
the commissioners begin empowered to do so in the alternative. 

Foreign Countries.--It remains to give a brief outline of what 
small holdings are like outside Great Britain.  From the results 
of the Belgian Agricultural Inquiry in 1895 the following table 
has been compiled, assuming that one hectare = 2 1/2 acres:-- 


 
 
                        Occupied by Owner.     Occupied by Tenant.      Total.
 Size of Holding        Whole. More than Half. More than half. Whole.
                          No.        No.             No.        No.      No.
 1 1/4 acres and under  109,169     8,759          34,779     305,413  458,120
 1 1/4 acres and under
   5 acres               27,395    19,544          58,829      70,465  176,233
 5 acres and under
   10 acres              12,089    13,873          30,340      25,006   81,308
 10 acres and under
   50 acres              16,690    18,909          33,443      28,387   97,429
 50 or 100 acres          2,021     1,497           3,315       4,517   11,350
 Over 100 acres            903        470           1,417       2,395    5,185
     Total             168,267     63,052         162,123     436,183  829,625
 

It will bbe seen from this table that Belgium is pre-eminently 
a country of small holdings, more than half of the total 
number being under 50 acres in extent.  Of course it is largely 
a country of market gardens; but as the holdings are most 
numerous in Brabant, East and West Flanders and Hainault, 
the provinces showing the largest number of milch cows, it 
would seem that dairying and la petite culture go together 

There is a slight tendency for the holdings to decrease in 
number.  In Germany the number of small holdings is proportionately 
much larger than in Great Britain.  The returns collected 
in 1895 showed that there were 3,235,169, or 58.22% of the 
total number of holdings under 5 acres in area; and of these 
no fewer than 11% are held by servants as part of their 
wages.  The table below compiled for the Journal at 
the Board of Agriculture enables us to compare the other 
holdings with those of Great Britain.  Great Britain, it 
will be seen, has over 40% of large farms of between 50 and 
500 acres as compared with Germany's 12.6, while the latter 
has 86.8 of small holdings, compared with England's 58.6. 

France also has a far larger proportion of small holdings 
than Great Britain; its cultivated area of 85,759,000 acres 
being divided into 5,618,000 separate holdings, of which the 
size averages a little over 15 acres as against 63 in Great 
Britain.  Of the whole number, 4,190,795 are farmed by the 
owners, 934,338 are in meteyage, and 1,078,184 by tenants.  
The leading feature is the peasant proprietary.  Half of the 
arable, more than half of the pasture, six-sevenths of the 
vineyards and two-thirds of the garden lands are farmed by their 
owners.  Comparison with Great Britain is difficult; but it would 
appear that, whereas only 11% of British 520,000 agricultural 
holdings are farmed by the owners, the proportion in France is 
75%. A further point to be noted is that the average agricultural 
tenancy in France is just one-fourth of what it is in Great 
Britain, and the average owner-farmed estate only one-sixth. 


 
                                 Germany.             Great Britain.
 Size of Holdings           Number.    Per cent.    Number.    Per cent.
 5 to   50 acres           2,014,940       86.8     235,481        58.6
 50 to 500  ''               292,982       12.6     161,438        40.1
 Over  500  ''                13,809        0.6       5,219         1.3
 Total                     2,321,731      100       402,138       100
 

In France the tendency is for the very small holdings to increase 
in number owing to subdivision, with the consequent decrease 
of the size of the average holding.  Between the years 1882 
and 1892 there was a decrease of 138,237 in the total number of 
proprietors, the larger properties moving towards consolidation 
and those of the peasant proprietors towards subdivision. 

Those interested in the formation of small holdings in Great 
Britain will find much to interest them in the history of Danish 
legislations.  British policy for many generations was to 
preserve demesne land, and there are many devices for insuring 
that a spendthrift life-owner shall not be able to scatter 
the family inheritance; but as long ago as 1769 the Danish 
legislators set an exactly opposite example.  They enacted that 
peasant land should not be incorporated or worked with estate 
land; it must always remain in the ownership and occupation of 
peasants.  In this spirit all subsequent legislation was 
conceived, and the allotment law that came into force in October 
1899 bears some resemblance to the English Small Holdings Act of 
1892.  It provides that labourers able to satisfy certain 
conditions as to character may obtain from the state a loan equal 
to nine-tenths of the purchase money of the land they wish to 
acquire.  This land should be frm 5 to 7 acres in extent 
and of medium quality, but the limits are from 2 3/4 to 10 3/4 
acres in the case of better or poorer land.  The total value 
should not exceed 4000 kr. (L. 222).  The interest payable on 
the loan received from the state is 3%. The load itself is 
repayable after the first five years by annual instalments 
of 4% until half is paid off; the remainder by instalments of 
3 1/2%, including interest.  Provision is, however, made for 
cases where the borrower desired to pay off the loan in larger 
sums.  Regulations are laid down regarding the transfer of 
such properties and also their testamentary disposition.  
The Treasury was empowered to devote a sum of 2,000,000 kr. 

Number and Size of Holdings in Denmark in 1901. 


 
          Groups                Percentage           Percentage    Average size
 Tondeland.  Acres.     Number.  of Number.  Acreage  of Area.      in Acres.
 Under 1   Under 1.36    68,380      27.3     23,455     .3            .34
 1-3        1.36-4       18,777       7.5     58,553     .7           3.12
 3-27       4-36.7       93,060      37.2  1,408,549   15.8          15.14
 27-108    36.7-147      60,872      24.4  4,459,077   50.1          73.25
 108-216   147-294        6,502       2.6  1,272,398   14.3         195.69
 Over 216  Over 294       2,392       1.0  1,674,730   18.8         700.14
            Total       249,983     100.0  8,896,762  100.0          35.59    
 

(L. 111,000) this purpose for five years; 
after that the land is . subject to revision. 

Even before this law was passed Denmark was a country of small 
holdings, the peasant farms amounting to 66% of the whole, 
and the number is bound to increase, since the incorporation 
of farms is illegal, while there is no obstacle to their 
division.  Between 1835 and 1885, the number of small holdings 
of less than one tondekarthorn increased from 24,800 to 
92,856.  What gives point to these remarks is, that Denmark seems 
in the way to arrest its rural exodus, and was one of the first 
countries to escape from the agricultural depression due to the 
extraordinary fall in grain prices.  The distribution of land 
in Denmark may be gathered from a glance at the preceding table 
for the compilation of which we are indebted to Major Craigie. 

AUTHORITIES.---Walter of Henley's Husbandry; The English 
Village Community, by Frederick Seebohm; Annals of 
Agriculture by Arthur Young; The Agricultural Labourer, 
by T. E. Kebbel; Report on the Employment of Messrs 
Tremenheere and Tufnall); A Study of Small Holdings, 
by W. E. Bear; The Law and the Labourer, by C. W. Stubbs; 
``Agricultural Holdings in England and Abroad,'' by Major 
Craigie (Statistical Society's Journal, vol. i.); The 
Return to the Land, by Senator Jules Meline; Land 
Reform, by the Right Hon. Jesse Collings, M.P.; Report 
on the Decline in the Agricultural Population of Great 
Britain, issued by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries; 
Report of the Departmental Committee appointed by the Board 
of Agriculture and Fisheries to enquire into and report upon 
the subject of Small Holdings in Great Britain. (P. A. G.) 

ALLOTROPY (Gr. allos, other, and tropos, manner), a name 
applied by J. J. Berzelius to the property possessed by certain 
substances of existing in different modifications.  Custom has 
to some extent restricted its use to inorganic chemistry; the 
corresponding property of organic compounds being generally termed 
isomerism (q.v..) Conspicuous examples are afforded by oxygen, 
carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, mercuric oxide and iodide. 

ALLOWANCE (from ``allow,'' derived through O. Fr. alouer 
from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, 
to assign a place; so that the English word combined the 
general idea of ``assigning with approval''), the action of 
allowing, or the thing allowed; particularly, a certain limited 
apportionment of money or food and diet (see DIETARY.) 

In commercial usage ``allowance'' signifies the deduction made 
from the gross weight of goods to make up for the weight of 
the box or package, waste, breakages, &c. Allowance, which is 
customary in most industries, varies according to the trade, 
district or country; e.g. in the coal trade it is customary 
for the merchant to receive from the pit 21 cwts. of coal for 
every ton purchased by him, the difference of 1 cwt. being the 
allowance for the purpose of making good the waste caused through 
transhipment, screening and cartage (see TARE AND TRET.) 

ALLOXAN, or MESOXALYL UREA, C4H2N2O4 

 
   /NH-CO\
 CO       CO
   \NH-CO/
 

an oxidation product of uric acid, being obtained from it 
by the action of cold nitric acid, C5H4N4O3 + H2O + 
O = C4H2N3O4 + CO(NH2)2.  It crystallizes from water 
in colourless rhombic prisms, containing four molecules 
of water of crystallization, and possesses a very acid 
reaction.  It serves as the starting-point for the preparation 
of many related substances.  Zinc and hydrochloric acid in 
the cold convert it into alloxantin (q.v.), hydroxylamine 
gives nitroso-barbituric acid, C4H2N2O3: NOH, baryta 
water gives alloxanic acid, C4H4N2O5, hot dilute nitric 
acid oxidizes it to parabanic acid (q.v.), hot potassium 
hydroxide solution hydrolyses it to urea and mesoxalic 
acid (q.v.) and zinc and hot hydrochloric acid convert 
it into dialuric acid, C4H4N2O4.  M. Nencki has shown 
that alloxan combines with thiourea in alcoholic solution, 
in the presence of sulphur dioxide to form pseudothiouric 
acid, C5H6N4SO3.  Methyl and dimethylalloxans are also 
known, the former being obtained on oxidation of methyl uric 
acid, and the latter on oxidation of caffeine (q.v..) 

ALLOXANTIN, C8H4N4O7.3H2O, a product obtained by the combination 
of alloxan and dialuric acid, probably possessing the constitution 


 
                   NH--CO        CO--NH
                   |   |         |   |
                   CO  C(OH)--O--CH  CO
                   |   |         |   |
                   NH--CO        CO--NH
 

one of the three molecules Of water bema possibly constitutional.  
It forms small hard prisms which become red on exposure to air 
containing ammonia, owing to the formation of murexide (ammonium 
purpurate), C8H4(NH4)N5O6.  It may also be obtained by the 
action of sulphuretted hydrogen on alloxan.  The tetramethyl 
derivative, amalic acid, C8(CH3)4N4O7, has been prepared 
by oxidizing caffeine (q.v.) with chlorine water, and forms 
colourless crystals which are only slightly soluble in hot 
water.  The formation of murexide is used as a test for the 
presence of uric acid, which on evaporation with dilute nitric 
acid gives alloxantin, and by the addition of ammonia to the 
residue the purple red colour of murexide becomes apparent. 

ALLOYS (through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to 
combine), a term generally applied to the intimate mixtures 
obtained by melting together two or more metals, and allowing 
the mass to solidify.  It may conveniently be extended to similar 
mixtures of sulphur and selenium or tellurium, of bismuth and 
sulphur, of copper and cuprous oxide, and of iron and carbon, 
in fact to all cases in which substances can be made to mix in 
varying proportions without very marked indication of chemical 
action.  The term ``alloy'' does not necessarily imply 
obedience to the laws of definite and multiple proportion or 
even uniformity throughout the material; but some alloys are 
homogeneous and some are chemical compounds.  In what follows 
we shall confine our attention principally to metallic alloys. 

If we melt copper and add to it about 30% of zinc, or 20% of 
tin, we obtain uniform liquids which when solidified are the 
well-known substances brass and bell-metal.  These substances 
are for all practical purposes new metals.  The difference in 
the appearance of brass and copper is familiar to everyone; 
brass is also much harder than copper and much more suitable 
for being turned in a lathe.  Similarly, bell-metal is 
harder, more sonorous and more brittle than either of its 
components.  It is almost impossible by mechanical means 
to detect the separate ingredients in such an alloy; we may 
cut or file or polish it without discovering any lack of 
homogeneousness.  But it is not permissible to call brass a 
chemical compound, for we can largely alter its percentage 
composition without the substance losing the properties 
characteristic of brass; the properties change more or less 
continuously, the colour, for example, becoming redder with 
decrease in the percentage of zinc, and a paler yellow when 
there is more zinc.  The possibility of continuously varying 
the percentage composition suggests analogy between an alloy 
and a solution, and A. Matthiessen (Phil.  Trans., 1860) 
applied the term ``solidified solutions'' to alloys.  Regarded 
as descriptive of the genesis of an alloy from a uniform liquid 
containing two or more metals, the term is not incorrect, and 
it may have acted as a signpost towards profitable methods of 
research.  But modern work has shown that, although alloys 
sometimes contain solid solutions, the solid alloy as a 
whole is often far more like a conglomerate rock than a uniform 
solution.  In fact the uniformity of brass and bell-metal is 
only superficial; if we adopt the methods described in the 
article METALLOGRAPHY, and if, after polishing a plane face 
on a bit of gun-metal, we etch away the surface layer and 
examine the new surface with a lens or a microscope, we find 
a complex pattern of at least two materials.  Fig. 1 (Plate) 
is from a photograph of a bronze containing 23.3% by weight of 
tin.  The acid used to etch the surface has darkened the 
parts richest in copper, while those richest in tin remained 
white.  The two ingredients revealed by this process are not 
pure copper and pure tin, but each material contains both 
metals.  In this case the white tin-rich portions are themselves 
a complex that can be resolved into two substances by a higher 
magnification.  The majority of alloys, when examined thus, 
prove to be complexes of two or more materials, and the patterns 
showing the distribution of these materials throughout the 
alloy are of a most varied character.  It is certain that the 
structure existing in the alloy is closely connected with the 
mechanical properties, such as hardness, toughness, rigidity, 
and so on, that make particular alloys valuable in the arts, 
and many efforts have been made to trace this connexion.  These 
efforts have, in some cases, been very successful; for example, 
in the case of steel, which is an alloy of iron and carbon, a 
microscopical examination gives valuable information concerning 
the suitability' of a sample of steel for special purposes. 

Mixture by fusion is the general method of producing an 
alloy, but it is not the only method possible.  It would 
seem, indeed, that any process by which the particles of 
two metals are intimately mingled and brought into close 
contact, so that diffusion of one metal into the other can 
take place, is likely to result in the formation, of an 
alloy.  For example, if vapours of the volatile metals 
cadmium, zinc and magnesium are allowed to act on platinum or 
palladium, alloys are produced.  The methods of manufacture 
of steel by cementation, case-hardening and the Harvey 
process are important operations which appear to depend on 
the diffusion of the carburetting material into the solid 
metal.  When a solution of silver nitrate is poured on to 
metallic mercury, the mercury replaces the silver in the 
solution, forming nitrate of mercury, and the silver is 
precipitated; it does not, however, appear as pure metallic 
silver, but in the form of crystalline needles of an alloy 
of silver and mercury.  F. B. Mylius and O. Fromm have shown 
that alloys may be precipitated from dilute solutions by zinc 
cadmium, tin, lead and copper.  Thus a strip of zinc plunged 
into a solution of silver sulphate, containing not more than 
0.03 gramme of silver in the litre, becomes covered with a 
flocculent precipitate which is a true alloy of silver and 
zinc, and in the same way, when copper is precipitated 
from its sulphate by zinc, the alloy formed is brass.  They 
have also formed in this way certain alloys or definite 
composition, such as AuCd3, Cu2Cd, and. more interesting 
still, Cu2Sn.  A very similar fact, that brass may be formed 
by electrodeposition from a solution containing zinc and 
copper, has long been known.  W. V. Spring has shown that by 
compressing a finely divided mixture of 15 parts of bismuth, 
8 parts of lead, 4 parts of tin and 3 parts of cadmium, an 
alloy is produced which melts at 100 deg.  C., that is. much 
below the melting-point of any of the four metals.  But these 
methods or forming alloys, although they suggest questions 
of great interest, cannot receive further discussion bore. 

Our knowledge of the nature of solid alloys has been much 
enlarged by a careful study of the process of solidification.  
Let us suppose that a molten mixture of two substances A and 
B, which at a sufficiently high temperature form a uniform 
liquid, and which do not combine to form definite compounds, 
is slowly cooled until it becomes wholly solid.  The phenomena 
which succeed each other are then very similar, whether A 
and B are two metals, such as lead and tin or silver and 
copper, or are a pair of fused salts, or are water and common 
salt.  All these mixtures when solidified may fairly be termed 
alloys.1 If a mixture of A and B be melted and then allowed 
to cool, a thermometer immersed in the mixture will indicate 
a gradually falling temperature.  But when solidification 
commences. the thermometer will cease to fall, it may even 
rise slightly, and the temperature will remain almost constant 
for a short time.  This halt in the cooling, due to the heat 
evolved in the solidification of the first crystals that form 
in the liquid is called the freezing-point of the mixture; 
the freezing-point can generally be observed with considerable 
accuracy.  In the case of a pure substance, and of a certain 
small class of mixtures, there is no further fall in temperature 
until the substance has become completely solid, but, in 
the case of most mixtures, after the freezing-point has been 
reached the temperature soon begins to fall again, and as the 
amount of solid increases the temperature becomes lower and 
lower.  There may be other halts in the cooling, both before 
and after complete solidification, due to evolution of 
heat in the mixture.  These halts in temperature that occur 
during the cooling of a mixture should be carefully noted, 
as they give valuable information concerning the physical and 
chemical changes that are taking place.  If we determine the 
freezing-points of a number of mixtures varying in composition 
from pure A to pure B, we can plot the freezing-point 
curve.  In such a curve the percentage composition can be 
plotted horizontally and the temperature of the freezing-point 
vertically, as in fig. 5. In such a diagram, a point P defines 
a particular mixture, both as to percentage, composition and 
temperature; a vertical line through P corresponds to the 
mixture at all possible temperatures, the point Q being its 
freezing-point.  In the case of two substances which neither 
form compounds nor dissolve each other in the solid state, 
the complete freezing-point curve takes the form shown in 
fig. 5. It consists of two branches AC and BC, which meet 
in a lowest point C. It will be seen that as we increase 
the percentage of B from nothing up to that of the mixture 
C, the freezing-point becomes lower and lower, but that if 
we further increase the percentage of B in the mixture, the 
freezing-point rises.  This agrees with the well-known fact 
that the presence of an impurity in a substance depresses its 
melting-point.  The mixture C has a lower freezing or melting 
point than that of any other mixture; it is called the eutectic 
mixture.  All the mixtures whose composition lies between 
that of A and C deposit crystals of pure A when they begin to 
solidify, while mixtures between C and B in composition deposit 
crystals of pure B. Let us consider a little more closely the 
solidification of the mixture represented by the vertical line 
PCRS.  As it cools from P to Q the mixture remains wholly 
liquid, but when the temperature Q is reached there is a 
halt in the cooling, due to the formation of crystals of A. 
The cooling soon recommences and these crystals continue to 
form, but at lower and lower temperatures because the still 
liquid part is becoming richer in B. This process goes on 
until the state of the remaining liquid is represented by 
the point C. Now crystals of B begin to form, simultaneously 
with the A crystals, and the composition of the remaining 
liquid does not alter as the solidification progresses.  
Consequently the temoerature does not change and there is 
another well-marked halt in the cooling, and this halt lasts 
until the mixture has become wholly solid.  The corresponding 
changes in the case of the mixture TUVW are easily understood 
--the first halt at U, due to the crystallization of pure 
B, will probably occur at a different temperature, but the 
second halt, due to the simultaneous crystallization of A and 
B, will always occur at the same temperature whatever the 
composition of the mixture.  It is evident that every mixture 
except the eutectic mixture C will have two halts in its 
cooling, and that its solidification will take place in two 
stages.  Moreover, the three solids S, D and W will differ 
in minute structure and therefore, probably, in mechanical 
properties.  All mixtures whose temperature lies above the 
line ACB are wholly liquid, hence this line is often called 
the ``liquidus''; all mixtures at temperatures below that 
of the horizontal line through C are wholly solid, hence 
this line is sometimes called the ``solidus,'' but in more 
complex cases the solidus is often curved.  At temperatures 
between the solidus and the liquidus a mixture is partly solid 
and partly liquid.  This general case has been discussed at 
length because a careful study of it will much facilitate the 
comprehension or the similar but more complicated cases that 
occur in the examination of alloys.  A great many mixtures 
of metals have been examined in the above-mentioned way. 

Fig. 6 gives the freezing-point diagram for alloys of lead and 
tin.  We see in it exactly the features described above.  
The two sloping lines cutting at the eutectic point are the 
freezing-point curves of alloys that, when they begin to 
solidify, deposit crystals of lead and tin respectively.  The 
horizontal line through the eutectic point gives the second 
halt in cooling, due to the simultaneous formation of lead 
crystals and tin crystals.  In the case of this pair of metals, 
or indeed of any metallic alloy, we cannot see the crystals 
forming, nor can we easily filter them off and examine them 
apart from the liquid, although this has been done in a few 
cases.  But if we polish the solid alloys, etch them if 
necessary, and examine them microscopically, we shall find 
that alloys on the load side of the diagram consist of 
comparatively large crystals of lead embedded in a minute 
complex, which is due to the simultaneous crystallization 
of the two metals during the solidification at the eutectic 
temperature.  If we examine alloys on the tin side we shall 
find large crystals of tin embedded in the same complex.  The 
eutectic alloy itself, fig. 2 (Plate), shows the minute complex 
of the tin-lead eutectic, photographed by J. A. Ewing and W. 
Rosenhain, and fig. 3 (Plate), photographed by F. Osmond, shows 
the structure of a silver-copper alloy containing considerably 
more silver than the eutectic.  Here, the large dark masses 
are the silver or silver-rich substance that crystallized 
above the eutectic temperature, and the more minute black 
and white complex represents the eutectic.  It is not safe 
to assume that the two ingredients we see are pure silver 
and pure copper; on the contrary, there is reason to think 
that the crystals of silver contain some copper uniformly 
diffused through them, and vice versa.  It is, however, not 
possible to detect the copper in the silver by means of the 
microscope.  This uniform distribution of a solid substance 
throughout the mass of another, so as to form a homogeneous 
material, is called ``solid solution,'' and we may say that 
solid silver can dissolve copper.  Solid solutions are probably 
very common in alloys, so that when an alloy of two metals 
shows two constituents under the microscope it is never safe 
to infer, without further evidence, that these are the two 
pure metals.  Sometimes the whole alloy is a uniform solid 
solution.  This is the case with the copper-tin alloys 
containing less than 9% by weight of tin; a microscopic 
examination reveals only one material, a copper-like substance, 
the tin having disappeared, being in solution in the copper. 

Much information as to the nature of an alloy can be obtained 
by placing several small ingots of the same alloy in a furnace 
which is above the melting-point of the alloy, and allowing 
the temperature to fall slowly and uniformly.  We then extract 
one ingot after another at successively lower temperatures 
and chill each ingot by dropping it into water or by some 
other method of very rapid cooling.  The chilling stereotypes 
the structure existing in the ingot at the moment it was 
withdrawn from the furnace, and we can afterwards study this 
structure by means of the microscope.  We thus learn that 
the bronzes referred to above, although chemically uniform 
when solid, are not so when they begin to solidify, but that 
the liquid deposits crystals richer in copper than itself, 
and therefore that the residual liquid becomes richer in 
tin.  Consequently, as the final solid is uniform, the 
crystals formed at first must change in composition at a later 
stage.  We learn also that solid solutions which exist at 
high temperatures often break up into two materials as they 
cool; for example, the bronze of fig. 1, which in that figure 
shows two materials so plainly, if chilled at a somewhat 
higher temperature but when it was already solid, is found 
to consist o

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