the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to show
that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative.
An Imperial decree, however, of the 18th of July 1854 restored
the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat.
This was for the war with Russia. A similar decree was published
on the 9th of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy.
On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that
the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was
kept in being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil
has decided on prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and
Germany and in Cochin China. It consists of seven judges and
a commissary of the government. An appeal to the government
in the Conseil d'Etat can be brought within three months.
It is then decided by l'Assemblee du Conseil d'Etat.
Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports,
commissions colonials and commissions consulaires,
established mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des
Prises, but sometimes, when the ship and cargo were clearly
those of the enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation.
In Prussia Regulations of the 20th of June 1864 established a
prize council consisting of a president and six associates with
a law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council
(v. Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon, tit. ``Prisengerichte'').
By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the
legality of prizes made during war has to be decided by prize
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and
their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize
courts were established under this law on the occasion of the East
African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.).
In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides
that prize matters shall be tried by a special commission
established by royal decree. On the occasion of the war with
Austria such a special commission was established by royal
decree of the 20th of June 1866. For the war with Abyssinia
a fresh commission was established by royal decree of the 16th
of August 1896. The composition of this commission, which
was slightly different in character from that established in
1866, was as follows: (a) a first president of a court of
appeal or a retired one, or a president of a section of the
council of state or of cassation; (b) two general officers
of the navy; (c) a member of the ``contentious part'' of
the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of
appeal; (e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the
government and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no
appeal; but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court
of Cassation at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without
jurisdiction or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved.
By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the whole
matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of
first instance were contemplated--port tribunals and fleet
tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the
fleet, and are to be composed of some of the principal officers
of the fleet. The former are to have presidents named by the
emperor from among those ``qui font partie de l'administration
maritime judiciaire''; the other members are to be appointed
by the ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs.
The court of appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty
with the addition of two members of the senate and a nominee
of the minister of foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p. 271).
On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals were
established under the authority of this ordinance by the lord
high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the 13th of March 1904,
at Sebastopol--Port Alexander III., Port Arthur and Vladivostock
(Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd March 1904).
Many cases were heard before these tribunals and on appeal.
The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain
is described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano),
Tratado juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz,
1746). On the occasion of the war with the United States
the Spanish government published a proclamation stating
the circumstances in which captures were to be made
and prizes taken; but information is lacking as to the
particular constitution of the prize court or courts.
In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried
by the ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal
of Athens, 1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826).
Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize
court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these
courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877.
Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize
courts at Sasebo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo.
Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure
seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns.
AUTHORITIES.--Clunet, Journal du droit international prive,
cited shortly as Clunet; v. Holzendorff, Rechtslexikon,
Leipzig, 1881; De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises
maritimes, Paris, 1855, vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore,
International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Autran,
Code international de l'abordage, de l'assistance, et du
sauvetage maritimes, Paris, 1902; Raikes, The Maritime
Codes of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and
Belgium (1898), of Italy (1900), London. (W. G. F. P.)
ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal,
or by some person whose statements are binding on that
party against the interest of that party. (See EVIDENCE.)
ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged
to a famous Frankish house, and spent much of his middle life in
Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 850 till his
death on the 16th of December 874. Several of his letters
are extant and reveal their writer as an energetic man of
wide sympathies and considerable influence. Ado's principal
works are a Martyrologium (printed inter al. in Migne,
Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181-420; append. pp. 419-436),
and chronicle, Chronicon sive Breviarium chronicorum de sex
mundi aetalibus de Adamo usque ad ann. 869 (in Migne, cxxiii.
pp. 20-138, and Pertzn Monumenta Germ. ii. pp. 315-323,
&c.). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede, with which he
combines extracts from the ordinary sources, forming the whole
into a consecutive narrative founded on the conception of the
unity of the Roman empire, which he traces in the succession of
the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs following immediately
after Constantine and Irene. ``It is,'' says Wattenbach,
``history from the point of view of authority and preconceived
opinion, which exclude any independent judgment of events.''
Ado wrote also a book on the miracles (Miracula) of St
Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (9th century), published in
the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum; a life or Martyrium of St
Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about 870 and
published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of St
Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon,
Acta Sanct. i. pp. 678-681, Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and
revised in Bollandist Acta Sanct. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843.
See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen,
vol. i. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904).
ADOBE (pronounced a-do-be; also corrupted to dobie;
from the Span. adobar, to plaster, traceable through
Arabic to an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning ``brick''), a
Spanish-American word for the sun-dried clay used by the
Indians for building in some of the south-western states of
the American Union, this method having been imported in the
16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction
is made between the smaller ``adobes,'' which are about the
size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ``adobines,''
some of which are as much as from one to two yards long.
ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolescentia, from adolescere, to
grow up, past part. adultus, grown up, Eng. ``adult''), the
term now commonly adopted for the period between childhood
and maturity, during which the characteristics--mental,
physical and moral--that are to make or mar the individual
disclose themselves, and then mature, in some cases by
leaps and bounds, in others by more gradual evolution.
The annual rate of growth, in height, weight and strength,
increases to a marked extent and may even be doubled. The
development in the man takes place in the direction of a
greater strength, in the woman towards a fitter form for
maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of nature and
religion, and an overmastering curiosity both individual and
general. This period of life, so fraught with its power for
good and ill, is accordingly the most important and by far
the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal with
efficiently. The chief points for attention may be briefly
indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity,
or the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the
individual, and environment. In an ideal system of
training these two factors will be so fitted in and adapted
to one another, that what is weak or unprovided for in
the first will be amply compensated for in the second.
In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the
country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and
take no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns,
are continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic
catarrh, tonsillitis, bronchitis,and even the far graver
pneumonia. Removed to healthier conditions in the country their
ailments tend to disappear, and normal physical development
supervenes. The residence should be on a well-drained soil,
preferably near the sea in the case of a delicate child, on
higher ground for those of more robust constitution. The
child should be lightly clad in woollen garments all the year
round, their thickness being slightly greater in winter than in
summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked food in sufficient
variety, ample time at table, where an atmosphere of light
gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from restraint
both before and after meals, should be considered fundamental
essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of food--milk
and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat once a
day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be three
days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase
the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms. The
exercise of the body must be duly attended to. Nowadays this
is provided for in the shape of games, some being optional,
others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swimming,
fencing, &c. But severe exercise should only be allowed
under adequate medical control, and should be increased very
gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and
climb with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of
life. But as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress
and strain dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately
modified. Rest should be enforced during the menstrual
periods of these earlier years, and milder, more graduated
exercise taken at other times. In the same way all mental
strain should be diminished. Instead of pressure being put
