many of them handsome villas, and all of modern European
type. In all the communities schools have multiplied, but
the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type. The
only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys---a government
institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars.
Like the Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has
two sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course
of education in each language, the pupils following both
courses. The several communities have each their own
charitable institutions, the Jews being socially well endowed
in this respect, The Greeks have a literary society, and
there is a well-organized club to which members of all the
native communities, as well as many foreigners, belong.
The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired by
the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery
when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by
a Customs cordon rendered the situation more than ever.
Adrianople had previously been the commercial headquarters
of all Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between
the Balkans and the Danube, now Bulgaria. But the separation
of Eastern Rumeha isolated Adrianople, and transferred to
Philippopolis at least two-thirds of its foreign trade which,
as regards sea-borne merchandise, is carried on through the
port of Burgas (q.v.). The city manufactures silk, leather,
tapestry, woollens, linen and cotton, and has an active general
trade. Besides fruits and agricultural produce, its exports
include raw silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of
roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey red. The surrounding
country is extremely fertile, and its wines are the best
produced in Turkey. The city is supplied with fresh water
by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over an extensive
valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the Tunja.
Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama or
Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman emperor
Hadrian (117-138). In 378 the Romans were here defeated
by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish
sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I., until
1453, when Constantinople fell. It was occupied by the
Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS).
ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian,
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent
ranges. The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged
originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus
vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but
was gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in
importance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense
only extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion
being called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however,
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete
and Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from
40 deg. to 45 deg. 45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500
m., and a mean breadth of about 110 m., but the Strait of
Otranto, through which it connects at the south with the
Ionian Sea, is only 45 m. wide. Moreover, the chain of
islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore
reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 90
m. The Italian shore is generally low, merging, in the
north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand
of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment of
which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles
within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has
its unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and
rocky. South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the
Gulfs of Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero,
the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as
Ragusa. The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis
lying parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather
abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, while on the
mainland, notably in the magnificent inlet of the Bocche di
Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea. This
coast, though beautiful, is somewhat sombre, the prevalent
colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly
with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is
luxuriant. The north part of the sea is very shallow, and
between the southern promontory of Istria and Rimini the depth
rarely exceeds 25 fathoms. Between Sebenico and Ortona a
well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which
exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point between Curzola
and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano there is
a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few
islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of
Durazzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls
below 800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133
fathoms. The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence
of sudden squalls from this quarter or the south-east, are
dangers to navigation in winter. Tidal movement is slight.
(See also MEDITERRANEAN.) For the ``Marriage of the
Adriatic,'' or more properly ``of the sea,'' a ceremony formerly
performed by the doges of Venice, see the article BUCENTAUR.
ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write),
something written ajier, as opposed to ``subscript,'' which
means written under. A labourer was called an ``adscript
of the soil'' (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or
transferred with it, as in feudal days, and as in Russia until
1861. Carlyle speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts.
ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe
of Judah, perhaps the modern Aid-el-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of
Beit-Jibrin. It was in the stronghold (``cave'' is a scribal
error) of this town that David took refuge on two occasions
(1 Sam. xxii. 1; 2 Sam. v. 17). The tradition that Adullam
is in the great cave of Rhareitun (St Chariton) is probably
due to the crusaders. From the description of Adullam as the
resort of ``every one that was in distress,'' or ``in debt,''
or ``discontented,'' it has often been humorously alluded
to, notably by Sir Walter Scott, who puts the expression into
the mouth of the Baron of Bradwardine in Waverley, chap.
lvii., and also of Balfour of Burley in Old Mortality. In
modern political history the expression ``cave of Adullam''
(hence ``Adullamites'') came into common use (being first
employed in a speech by John Bright on the 13th of March
1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert
Howe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal
supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866. But
others had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g.
President Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864),
and the Tories in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined
C. J. Fox in his temporary secession. From the same usage
is derived the shorter political term ``cave'' for any body
of men who secede from their party on some special subject.
ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify),
the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object
of passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine
commodity for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an
inferior article for a superior one, to the detriment of the
purchaser. Although the term is mainly used in connexion
with the falsification of articles of food, drink or
drugs, and is so dealt with in this article, the practice
of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured products
and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and (as was
once suggested by (John Bright) is an almost inseparable
--though none the less reprehensible---phase of keen trade
competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce
itself, it has progressed with the growth of knowledge and
of science, and is, in its most modern developments, almost
a branch--and that not the least vigorous one---of applied
science. From the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a
stone in a loaf of bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in
a musk baa or in a piece of opium, it has developed into the
use of aniline dyes, of antiseptic chemicals, of synthetic
sweetening agents in foods, the manufacture of butter from
cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed and of pepper from olive
stones. Its growth and development has necessitated the
employment of multitudes of scientific officers charged with its
detection and the passing of numerous laws for its repression and
punishment. While for all common forms of fraud the common
law is in most cases considered strong enough, special laws
against the adulteration of food have been found necessary
in all civilized countries. A vigorous branch of chemical
literature deals with it; there exist scientific societies
specially devoted to its study; laboratories are maintained
by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for
its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes,
but becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to
health. There are numerous references to adulteration in the
classics. The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in
Hiero's crown, by the light specific gravity of the latter, is
a well-known instance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration
of minium with lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other
plant juices and with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white
clay. Both in Rome and in Athens wine was often adulterated
with colours and flavouring agents, and inspectors were
charged with looking after it. In England, so far hack as the
reign of John (1203), a proclamation was made throughout the
kingdom, enforcing the legal obligations of assize as regards
bread; and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III.
Stat. 6) entitled ``the pillory and tumbrel'' was framed
for the express purpose of protecting the public from the
dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers and
others. This statute is the first in which the adulteration
of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it seems
to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the
hiber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward
I., for it states that: ``If any default shall be found in
the bread of a baker in the city, the first time, let him
be drawn upon a hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house
through the great street where there be most people assembled,
and through the great streets which are most dirty, with
the faulty loaf hanging from his neck; if a second time he
shall be found committing the same offence, let him be drawn
from the Guildhall through the great street of Cheepe in the
manner aforesaid to the pillory, and let him be put upon the
pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day; and
the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be
drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker made
to foreswear the trade in the city for ever.'' The assize
of 1634 provides that ``if there be any manner of person or
persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell
any meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it
