propaganda. But, protected by William IX., duke of Aquitaine,
and soon by a great part of the southern nobility, the
heretics gained ground in the south, and in 1119 the council
of Toulouse in vain ordered the secular powers to assist the
ecclesiastical authority in quelling the heresy. The people
were attached to the bons hommes, whose asceticism imposed
upon the masses, and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter
of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord. Languedoc and
Provence, only facilitated the progress of Catharism in those
regions. In 1147 Pope Eugenius III. sent the legate Alberic
of Ostia and St Bernard to the affected district. The few
isolated successes of the abbot of Clairvaux could not obscure
the real results of this mission, and the meeting at Lombers
in 1165 of a synod, where Catholic priests had to submit to
a discussion with Catharist doctors, well shows the power of
the sect in the south of France at that period. Moreover.
two years afterwards a Catharist synod, in which heretics
from Languedoc, Bulgaria and Italy took part, was held at St
Felix de Caraman, near Toulouse, and their deliberations were
undisturbed. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus).
formerly bishop of Meaux, to Toulouse and the Toulousain in
1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano (formerly
abbot ol Clairvaux), in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary
successes. Henry of Albano attempted an armed expedition
against the stronghold of heretics at Lavaur and against
Raymond Roger. viscount of Beziers, their acknowledged
protector. The taking of Lavaur and the submission of Raymond
Roger in no way arrested the progress of the heresy. The
persistent decisions of the councils against the heretics
at this period--in particular, those of the council of Tours
(1163) and of the oecumenical Lateran council (1179)---had
scarcely more effect. But on ascending the papal throne,
Innocent III. resolved to suppress the Albigenses. At first
he tried pacific conversion, and in 1198 and 1199 sent into
the affected regions two Cistercian monks, Regnier and Guy, and
in 1203 two monks of Fontfroide, Peter of Castelnau and Raoul
(Ralph), with whom in 1204 he even associated the Cistercian
abbot, Arnaud (Arnold). They had to contend not only with
the heretics, the nobles who protected them, and the people
who listened to them and venerated them, but also with the
bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary
authority which the pope had conferred upon his legates, the
monks. In 1204 Innocent III. suspended the authority of the
bishops of the south of France. Peter of Castelnau retaliated
by excommunicating Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, as an
abettor of heresy (i207), and kindled in the nobles of the
south that animosity of which he was the first victim (1209).
As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter of Castelnau, the
pope ordered the Cistercians to preach the crusade against the
Albigenses. This implacable war, which threw the whole of
the nobility of the north of France against that of the south,
and destroyed the brilliant Provencal civilization, ended,
politically, in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king
of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater
part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its
fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an
end, but, so far as the heresy was concerned, Albigensianism
was not extinguished, in spite of the wholesale massacres of
heretics during the war. Raymond VII. of Toulouse and the
count of Foix gave asylum to the ``faidits'' (proscrtbed),
and the people were averse from handing over the bonis
hommes. The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly
in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns
during the whole of the 13th century and a great part of the
14th, succeeded in crushing the heresy. There were indeed
some outbursts of rebellion, some fomented by the nobles of
Languedoc (12401242), and others emanating from the people of
the towns, who were embittered by confiscations and religious
persecutions (e.g. at Narbonne in 1234 and Toulouse in
1235), but the repressive measures were terrible. In 1245 the
royal officers assisting the Inquisition seized the heretical
citadel of Montsegur, and 200 Cathari were burned in one
day. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement
against all laymen suspected of sympathy with the heretics
(council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252).
Hunted down by the Inquisition and quickly abandoned by the
nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more
scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only
meeting surreptitiously. There were some recrudescences of
heresy, such as that produced by the preaching (1298-1509)
of the Catharist minister, Pierre Authier; the people, too,
made some attempts to throw off the yoke of the Inquisition
and the French,i and insurrections broke out under the
leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne, and,
especially, Bernard Delicieux at the beginning of the 14th
century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot
by the Inquisition, which terrorized the district. Precise
indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors,
Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and
others. The sect, moreover, was exhausted and could find
no more adepts in a district which, by fair means or foul,
had arrived at a state of peace and political and religious
unity. After 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain but
few proceedings against Catharists. (See also under CATHARS.)
AUTHORITIES.---See C. Schmidt's Histoire de la secte des
Cathares ou Albigeois (Paris, 1849), which is still the
most important work on the subject. The following will be
found useful: D. Vaissete, Histoire de Languedoc, vols. iii.
iv. vii. viii. (new edition); Ch. Molinier, L'Inquisition
dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1880), and the other
works by the same author; L. Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux
de l'Inquisition en France (Paris, 1893). Les Albigeois,
leurs origines (Paris, 1878), by Douais, should be read with
caution. Of the sources, which are very numerous, may be
mentioned: the Liber Sententiarum of the Inquisition of
Carcassonne, published by Ph. van Limborch at the end of his
Historia Inquisitionis (Amsterdam, 1692): other registers of
the inquisition analysed at length by Ch. Molinier, op cit.,
some published in vol. ii. of the Documents pour l'histoire
de l'Inquisition (Paris, 1900), by C. Douais; numerous texts
concerning the last days of Albigensianism, collected by M.
Vidal, ``Les derniers ministres albigeois,' in Rev. de quest.
histor. (1906). See also the Rituel cathare, ed. by Cunitz
(Jena, 1852); the Nouveau Testament en provencal, ed. by
Cledat (Paris, 1887); and the very curious Debat d'Yzarn
et de Sicart de Figueiras, ed. by P. Meyer (1880). On
the ethics of the Catharists, see Jean Guiraud, Questions
d'histoire et d'archeologie chretienne (Paris, 1906); and
P. Alphandery, Les idees morales chez les heterodoxes
latins au debut du XIIIe siecle (Paris, 1903). (P. A.)
1 These they often confounded and a heretic is described aa
saying: ``Clergy and French, they are one and the same thing.''
ALBINO, a biological term (Lat. albus, white), in the usual
acceptation, for a pigmentless individual of a normally pigmented
race. Among some flowering plants, however, the character
has become one of specific rank, .and among animals we have
in the polar bear and the Greenland hare instances where
partial albinism--for in them the eyes are black and other
parts may be pigmented--has also become a specific character.
A true or complete albino is altogether devoid of pigment.
One result of this among the Vertebrata is that the eyeball
is pink in colour, since the cornea, iris and retina being
transparent, the red blood contained in the capillaries is
unmasked by the absence of pigmentary material. In man, and
doubtless also in lower forms, the absence of this pigment
produces the well marked albinotic facies. This is a condition
in which the eyelids are brought into a nearly closed position
accompanied by blinking movements and a general wrinkling of
the skin around the immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. It
is the result of the too great intensity of the light incident
upon the retina, and which in normal eyeballs is adequately
diminished by the absorptive power of the pigmentary material.
In a complete albino not only is all pigment absent in the
skin, but also that which is normally present in deeper
organs, such as the sympathetic nervous system and in the
substanlia nigra of the brain. There is some reason to
believe that a peculiar condition found in the majority of
human albinoes, and knovn as nystagmus, is correlated with
the absence of pigment in the central nervous system. This
condition is one marked by unsteadiness---a sort of flickering
rolling--of the eyeballs, and it becomes more marked as they
endeavour to adjust their accommodation to near objects. It
is thought to depend upon some connexion, not yet anatomically
demonstrated, between the third cranial nerve and its nucleus
in the floor of the iter and the substantia nigra.
In addition to complete albinism, there exist, however, various
albinotic conditions in which more or less pigment may be
present. Familiar instances of this partial albinism is
seen in the domestic breed of Himalayan rabbits. In these
animals the eyeball and the fur of the body are unpigmented,
but the tips of the ear pinnae and extremities of the fore
and hind limbs, together with the tail, are marked by more
or less well defined colour. One remarkable feature of these
animals is that for a few months after birth they are complete
albinoes. Occasionally, however, some are born with a grey
colour and a few may be quite black, but ultimately they
attain their characteristic coat. There is some reason to
believe, as we shall see later, that in spite of the presence
of a little pigment and of occasional wholly pigmented young
ones, Himalayans must be regarded as true albinoes. Other
individual rabbits, but belonging to no particular breed,
are similarly marked, but in addition the eyeballs arc
black. Some domesticated mice are entirely white with the
exception that they have black eyeballs; and individuals
of this type are known in which there is a reduction of
pigment in the eyeballs, and since the colour of the blood
is then partially visible these appear of a reddish-black
colour. Such cases are interesting as representing the last
step in the graded series through which the condition of
complete pigmentation passes into that of complete albinism.
There is evidence, as shown by G. M. Allen, that partial
albinism is a condition in which pigment is reduced around
definite body centres, so that unpigmented areas occur
between the pigment patches or at their borders. In the
mouse, ten such centres may be distinguished, arranged
symmetrically five on either side of the median plane---a
cheek patch, neck patch, shoulder patch, side patch and rump
patch. Various degrees in the reduction of the pigment
patches up to that of complete elimination may be traced.
Some animals are wholly pigmented during the summer and
autumn, but through the winter and spring they are in the
condition of extreme partial albinism and become almost complete
albinoes. Such instances are found in the Scotch blue hare
(Lepus timidus), in the Norway hare, in the North American
hare (H. americanius), in the arctic fox (Canis lagopus),
