(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier-General
Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the previous
expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude of
the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British
territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of
7400 British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed
their principal villages and occupied their country for some
time, until the tribe submitted and accepted government
terms. The Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed.
(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked
their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed
their country, and the tribesmen made their submission.
(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the
previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan
War, so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their
country, and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made
their submission. After this both the Khyber and Kohat
Passes were put on a stable footing, and no further trouble
of any consequence occurred in either down to the time of
the frontier risings of 1897, when the Afridis attacked
the Khyber Pass, which was defended by Afridi levies.
(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TIRAH CAMPAIGN.
(9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel
again made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James
Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the
following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands,
the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan.
See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884);
Warburton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.)
AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing
occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in the hour
of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snowfields
in mountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon is due
to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions
of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the
component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa in
1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the
world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly
fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion,
and then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents.
AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born at
Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher
of oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785
demonstrator of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on
the west coast of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary
of the Swedish embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he
founded the Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in
1812 became professor of materia medica at the university.
He died at Upsala in 1837. In addition to various botanical
writings, he published the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823.
His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (1753-1837),known as ARVIDSON,
was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother, PER
AF (1760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala in
1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner.
AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor, poet,
historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October
1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871
he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a
collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in
the great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor
fran forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published
also translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga,
and a history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German
translation was published in 1842), as well as original poems.
AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying
a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the
chief of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery,
cavalry and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the
seraglio. It is also employed generally as a term of
respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c.
AGAIAMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers
in British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual
report for 1904 the acting administrator of British New
Guinea stated that on a visit he paid to their district
he saw six males and four females. The Agaiambo live in
huts erected on piles in the lakes and marshes. Dwarfish
in stature but broadly built, they are remarkable for the
shortness of their legs. They live almost entirely in their
``dug-outs'' or canoes, or actually wading in the water.
Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-lily and
fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly
numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the
raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features,
colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans.
AGA KHAN I., HIS HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title
accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia,
1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under
the protection of the British government. He was believed to
have descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the
daughter of the Prophet Mahomet. Ali's son, Hosain, having
married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the
time of Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the
royal house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric,
times. His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs
of the Beni-Fatimites for a number of years, at a period
coeval with the Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from
Persia, he was appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be
governor-general of the extensive and important province of
Kerman. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and
high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time
in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the
shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues
and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites,
and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate
usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and
he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory,
preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay his
headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at its
height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the
British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help
was utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier
tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority
as their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to
the British government, and when he finally settled down in
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah
section of Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the
government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on
him, with a large pension. From that time until his death
in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful
and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British
rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions,
not only among his followers in India, but towards the
more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious
sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, Khorasan,
Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even distant Syria and
Morocco. He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the
British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned influence
among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India
he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of
trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of
India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism
of the more turbulent Mahommedans in British India,
which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings
finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner
that won the approbation of the local government, and earned
for him the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the
Indian Empire and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay.
AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became
the head of the family and its devotees. He was born in
1877, and, under the care of his mother, a daughter of the
ruling house of Persia, was given not only that religious and
oriental education which his position as the religious leader
of the Ismailians made indispensable, but a sound European
training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather. This
blending of the two systems of education produced the happy
result of fitting this Moslem chief in an eminent degree both
for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual
position, and for those social duties of a great and enlightened
leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of that
position. He travelled in distant parts of the world to
receive the homage of his followers, and with the object
either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare
by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The
distinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was
conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received
like recognition for his public services from the German emperor,
the sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates.
See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903) (M. M. BH.)
AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. agalma, statue, and
lithos, stone), a soft species of mineral, also called
pagodite, used by the Chinese for carving, especially
into grotesque figures (whence called ``figure-stone'').
AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orchomenus in
Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother Trophonius
as a wonderful architect, the constructor of underground
shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure. When
building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed one
of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever
they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the
treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes
was caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his
brother's head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus,
and swallowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On
this spot was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave;
those who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of
a ram and called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story
