Homo and many others, to say nothing of German scholars, such
as Willmans and Schulten, and especially of a great number
of enthusiastic officers of the army of occupation, who
explored all the ancient sites, and in many cases excavated
with great success (for their results see the works quoted
above). It would be impossible to enumerate here all the
monographs describing, for example, the ruins of Carthage, those
of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, the amphitheatre
of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, the royal tomb
and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the bridge of Chemtu
(Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of Tebursuk and Medeina
(Althiburus), the rich villa of the Laberii at Wadna (Uthina),
the sanctuary of Saturn Balcaranensis on the hill called
Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of Enfida (Aphrodisium,
Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis minor (Lemta), of Thenae
(near Sfax), those of the island of Meninx (Jerba), of the
peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla (Sufetula), Gigthis
(Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c.
From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence as to
the history and more especially the internal administration of
Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular we know
how rural life was there developed, and with what care the water
necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere provided.
Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial and of
minor importance; the only exceptions are certain statues found
at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the Mauretanian kings.
AUTHORITIES.--Among general works on the subject may be
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa christiana (1816); Gustave
Boissiere, L'Algerie romaine (2nd ed., 1883); E. Mercier,
Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot,
Geographie comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique
(1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint-Martin, Le Nord
de l'Afrique dans l'antiquite grecque et romaine (1883);
Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de
Lessert, Fastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulaire,
Numidie, Mauretainie) sous la domination romaine
(1896-1901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee romaine d'Afrique
(1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis
et le Byzacium (1869); Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de
l'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl,
L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches
archeologiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire
litteraire de l'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905); J.
Toutain, Les Cites romaines de la Tunisie (1895); Atlas
archeologique de la Tunisie, published by the Ministry of
Public Instruction (1895 foll.); Atlas archeologique de
l'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foll.);
Toulotte, Geographie de l'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894);
Corpus inscriptionum latiniarum, vol. viii. and Supplement
(1881). Cf. also articles CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, &c.,
JUGURTHA, and articles relating to Roman History. (E. B.n)
AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus), a member of
the natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good
Hope, whence it was introduced at the close of the 17th
century. It is a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy
in the south of England and Ireland if protected from severe
frosts. It has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow,
arching leaves, 1/2 to 2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2
to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped
flowers. The plants are easy to cultivate, and are generally
grown in large pots or tubs which can be protected from frost in
winter. During the summer they require plenty of water,
and are very effective on the margins of lakes or running
streams, where they thrive admirably. They increase by
offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the root-stock
in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are known in
cultivation; such are albidus, with white flowers, aureus,
with leaves striped with yellow, and variegatus, with leaves
almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms.
AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and historian
of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and may have
served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians in
A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except
that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to
the emperor Heliogabalus1 to ask for the restoration of the
town, which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded,
and Emmaus was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius
bar-Salibi makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a
presbyter. He wrote a history of the world(Chronografiai,
in five books) from the creation to the year A.D. 221, a
period, according to his computation, of 5723 years. He
calculated the period between the creation and the birth of
Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated the latter event by three
years. This method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian
era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches. The
history, which had an apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but
copious extracts from it are to be found in the Chronicon of
Eusebius, who used it extensively in compiling the early episcopal
lists. There are also fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and
the Paschale Chronicon. Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf.
vi. 31) gives some extracts from his letter to one Aristides,
reconciling the apparent discrepancy between Matthew and
Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a reference to the Jewish
law, which compelled a man to marry the widow of his deceased
brother, if the latter died without issue. His terse and
pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the authority of the
apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's wordy and uncritical
answer, are both extant. The ascription to Africanus of an
encyclopaedic work entitled Kestoi (embroidered girdles),
treating of agriculture, natural history, military science,
&c., has been needlessly disputed on account of its secular
and often credulous character. Neander suggests that it
was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself
to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work
see Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff.
AUTHORITIES.--Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509;
translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi.
125-140. See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus und die
byzant. Chronographie, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885);
G. Kruger, Early Christian Literature, 248-253; A.
Harnack, Altchristl. Litt. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70.
1 So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus.
AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the
Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier province of
India. The Afridis are the most powerful and independent
tribe on the border, and the largest with the exception of the
Waziris. Their special country is the lower and easternmost
spurs of the Safed Koh range, to the west and south of the
Peshawar district, including the Bazar and Bara valleys.
On their east they are bounded by British districts, on the
north by the Mohmands, on the west by the Shinwaris and on
the south by the Orakzai and Bangash tribes. Their origin
is obscure, but they are said to have Israelitish blood
in their veins, and they have a decidedly Semitic cast of
features. They are possibly the Aparytai of Herodotus,
the names and positions being identical. If this theory is
correct, they were then a powerful people, and held a large
tract of country, but have been gradually driven back by the
encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into
the following eight clans:--Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar
Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the most
turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first seven
clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate
to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting
men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less
migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a
fine, tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face,
high nose and cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own
hillside he is one of the finest skirmishers in the world,
and in the Indian army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is
apt to be home-sick when removed from the air of his native
mountains. In character the Afridi has obtained an evil name
for ferocity, craft and treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert
Warburton, who lived eighteen years in charge of the Khyber
Pass and knew the Afridi better than any other Englishman,
says:--``The Afridi lad from his earliest childhood is taught
by the circumstances of his existence and life to distrust
all mankind, and very often his near relations, heirs to his
small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his deadliest
enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to strike
the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore
become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by
a great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you
like to give him except abuse.'' In short the Afridi has the
vices and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The
fighting strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this
estimate is excessive, judged by the number and size of their
villages. They derive their importance from their geographical
position, which gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat
roads, and the history of the British connexion with them
has been almost entirely with reference to these two passes.
There have been several British expeditions against the separate clans:--
(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir Colin
Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam Khel
Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation of the Peshawar
and Kohat districts. Following the example of all previous
rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay the tribe a
subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand Afridis
attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, killing
twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they disliked
the making of a road which would lay open their fastnesses
to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops was
despatched, which traversed the country and punished them.
(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages in
1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in 1850, the
Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; but they
turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force of 1700
British traversed their country and destroyed their stronghold at
Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam Khel, who inhabit
the country lying between the Kohat Pass and the river Indus.
(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel
Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding
themselves admitted to a share of the allowances of the
Kohat Pass, commenced a series of raids on the Peshawar
border and attacked a British camp. An expedition of 1500
troops entered the country and inflicted severe punishment
on the tribe, who made their submission and paid a fine.
(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel Mocatta in
1877. In that year the government proposed to reduce the Jowaki
allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and the tribesmen resented
this by cutting the telegraph wire and raiding into British
territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated their country in
three columns, and did considerable damage by way of punishment.
