Vanutelli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bottego: L'Omo
(Milan, 1899); P. Foureau, D'Alger au Congo par le Tchad
(Paris, 1902); C. Lemaire, Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga:
Journal de route, 1 vol., Resultats des observations,
16 parts (Brussels, 1902); A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from
South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E.
Lenfant, La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905); Boyd
Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907).
sec. VI. Historical and Political.--H.Schurtz, Africa
(World's History, vol. 3, part 3) (1903); Sir H. H. Johnston,
History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races
(Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional chapter ``Latest
Developments,'' 1905); A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the
Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations of
Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of
Ancient Egypt (1881); A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902); J. de
Barros, Asia: Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J.
Strandes, Die Portugiesenzeit von . . . Ostafrika (Berlin,
1899); R. Schuck, Brandenburg- Preussens Kolonial-Politik
. . . 1641-1721, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1889): G. M`Call Theal,
History and Ethnography of Africa south of the Zambesi
. . . to 1795, 3 vols. (1907-1910), and History of South
Africa since September 1795 (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem,
Records of South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898-1903; Lady
Lugard, A Tropical Dependency: Outline of the History of
the Western Sudan, &c.; (1905); Sir F. Hertslet, The Map
of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909); J . S. Keltie,
The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895); F. Van Ortroy,
Conventions internationales definissant les limites . . .
en Afrique (Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference
of Berlin, 1885: The Surveys and Explorations of British
Africa (Colonial Reports, No. 500) (1906), and annual reports
thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard, The Rise or our East African
Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les colonies francaises,
2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904); E. Rouard de Card, Les Traites
de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 1870-1895
(Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d'Afrique
Lisbon, 1900); B.Trognitz, ``Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents
Afrika,'' Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, ``Die
Bevolkerung der Erde,'' xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh.
146 (Gotha, 1904) (deals with areas as well as population).
sec. VII. Commerce and Economics.--A. Silva White, The
Development of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892): K. Dove, ``Grundzuge
einer Wirtschaftsgeographie Afrikas,'' Geographische
Zeitschrift, 1905, i-18; E. Hahn, ``Die Stellung Afrikas in
der Geschichte des Welthandels,'' Verhandl. 11. Deutsch.
Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896); L. de Launay,
Les Richesses minerales de l'Afrique (Paris, 1903); K.
Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion
(Berlin, 1894); P. Reichard, ``Das afrikan. Elfenbein und
sein Handel,'' Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir
A. Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887);
Dewevre, ``Les Caoutchoucs africains,'' Ann. Soc. Sci.
Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade
and its Remedy (1840); C. M. A. Lavigerie, L'Esclavage
africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les chemins de fer
coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905); H. Meyer,
Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); G.
Grenfell, ``The Upper Congo as a Waterway,'' Geogr. Journ.,
Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, ``The Nile and Zambezi Systems
as Waterways,'' Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901; K. Lent,
``Verkehrsmittel in Ostafrika,'' Deutsches Kolonialblatt,
1894; ``Trade of the United Kingdom with the African Continent
in 1898-1902,'' Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and
Consular Peports, Annual Series; Colonial Reports; T. H.
Parke, Guide to Health in Africa (1893); R. W. Felkin,
Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases in Africa (1895)
The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay,
Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs a l'Afrique, &c. (San Remo,
1875); P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur von 1500 bis 1750
(Vienne, 1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol.
3, Africa (specially for government publications). (E. HE.)
1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be understood.
AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya
(Aibbe.) It comprised the whole of the portion of the
African continent known to the ancients, except Egypt and
Ethiopia. But besides this general sense, which occurs in
Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the
official and administrative language used the word Africa
in a narrower sense, which is noticed below. The term was
certainly borrowed by the Romans from the language of the
natives. In Latin literature it was employed for the
first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the interval
between the First and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.; Sat.
iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of
Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the
Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made
as to the etymology of the term Africa ('Afrike) may be
quoted that which derives it from the Semitic radical resh
daleth pe (``separate''), Africa being considered, in this
connexion, as a Phoenician settlement ``separated'' from the
mother country, Asiatic Phoenicia. It has also been held that
the word Africa comes from friqi, farikia (the country of
fruit). The best hypothesis in the writer's opinion is that
maintained by Charles Tissot, who sees in the word ``Africa''
the name of the great Berber tribe, the Aourigha (whose name
would have been pronounced Afarika), the modern Aouraghen,
now driven back into the Sahara, but in ancient times the
principal indigenous element of the African empire of Carthage
(Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa was originally,
in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, the country
inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians called
Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was then
excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west.
At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Carthaginians
was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It comprised
the territory bounded by a vague line running from the mouth
of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of Tabraca
(Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the mouth
of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into the
hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans.
After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this
territory was erected into a Roman province, and a trench,
the fossa regia, was dug to mark the boundary of the
Roman province of Africa and the dominions of the Numidian
princes. There have been discovered (1907) the remains of
this ditch protected by a low wall or a stone dyke; some of
the boundary stones which marked its course, and inscriptions
mentioning it, have also been found. From Testur on the
Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by these indications
for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid. The ditch ran
northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina. The importance
of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch which
in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the
boundary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, ``Le fosse
des frontieres romaines'' in Melanges Boissier, 1905, p.
227; L. Poinssot in Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscript.
et Belles Lettres, 1907, p. 466; Classical Review, 1907,
December, p. 255). The government of the Roman province thus
delimited was entrusted to a praetor or propraetor, of
whom several are now known, e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor
Africae, according to coins of Hadrumetum of the year 94
B.C. The towns which had fought on the side of the Romans
during the Third Punic War were declared civitates liberae,
and became exceedingly prosperous. They were Utica (Bu
Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus (Dimas), Leptis Minor
(Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about 11 m. from Utica)
and Theudalis. Those towns, however, which had remained
faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like Carthage itself.
After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio
Tripolitana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli),
Sabrata, and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes,
appears to have been annexed to the Roman province in a more
or less regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus
in 46 made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the
spheres of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia was
converted into a new province called ``Africa Nova,'' and of
this province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and
invested with the imperium. From that time the old province
of Africa was known as ``Africa Vetus'' or ``Africa Propria.''
This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In
31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King
Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia,
which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, however,
no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached to the
old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province of
Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth of
the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and the two
tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable boundary
between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east (Tissot ii.
261). In the partition of the government of the provinces of
the Roman empire between the senate and the emperor, Africa
fell to the senate, and was henceforth administered by a
proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati pro consule,
who were placed at the head of districts called dioceses.
At first there were only three dioceses: Carthaginiensis,
Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now Bizerta),
and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine). At
a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and
perhaps at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana.
The province of Africa was the only senatorial province
whose governor had originally been invested with military
powers. The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of
the legio III. Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in
A.D. 37 Caligula deprived the proconsul of his military
powers and gave them to the imperial legate (legatus Augusti
pro praetore provinciae Africae), who was nominated directly
by the emperor, and whose special duty it was to guard the
frontier zone (Tacitus, Mist. iv. 48; Dio Cass. lix. 20). The
headquarters of the imperial legate were originally at Cirta
and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa). The military posts were
drawn up in echelon along the frontier of the desert, especially
along the southern slopes of the Aures, as far as Ad Majores
(Besseriani), and on the Tripolitan frontier as far as Cydamus
(Ghadames), forming an immense arc extending from Cyrenaica to
Mauretania. A network of military routes, constructed and
kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa in all
directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as
Leptis Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa), Thenae and Tacape
(Gabes). The powers of the proconsul, however, extended
scarcely beyond the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the
littoral. Towards 194 Septimius Severus completed the reform
of Caligula by detaching from the province of Africa the greater
