3 A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. COSMOGONY.)
4 See an illustration from Naville's Book of the
Dead (Egyptian) in Jewish Cyclopaedia, i. 174a.
5 Or park. (See PARADISE.)
6 The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall
the animals could speak, and that they had all one language
(Jubilees, iii. 28; Jos. Antiquities, i. I, 4).
7 Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to
Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, pp. 280 ff.
8 ``Good and evil'' may be a late marginal gloss. See
further Ency. Bib. col. 3578, and the commentaries
(Driver leaves the phrase); also Jastrow, Relig. of.
Bab. and Ass. p. 553; Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 242.
9 See illustration in Toy's Ezekiel (Sacred
Books of the Old Testament), p. 182.
10 Gaokerena is the mythic white haoma plant (Zendavesta,
Vendidad, xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization
of the yellow haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices
(Yasna, x. 6-10). It corresponds to the soma plant Asclepias
acida of the ancient Aryans of India. On the illustrative value
of Gaokerena see Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 400-439.
11 See Life of Adam and Eve (apocryphal), sec. sec. 36,
40; Apocal. Mos. sec. 9; Secrets of Enoch, viii.
7, xxii. 8, 9. ``Oil of life,'' in a Bab. hymn, Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526.
12 Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar.
13 W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, pp.
133, 442; Ency. Bib., ``Serpent,''
14 Note the food and drink of the gods
in the Babylonian Adapa (or Adamu?) myth.
15 The mortality of man forms no part of
the curse (cp. iii. 19, ``dust thou art'').
16 See H. Schultz, Alttest. Theologie, ed.
4, pp. 679 ff., 720; Driver, Genesis, p. a4.
17 See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus.
18 The ``fair shepherd'' Yima of the Avesta (Vend.
ii.), the first man and the founder of civilization
to the Iranians,though not like the Yama of the Vedas.
19 See Jastrow, Rel. of Bab. and Ass. pp. 548-554; R. J. Harper, in
Academy, May 30, 1891; Jensen, Keilinschr. Bibliothek, vi. 93 ff.
20 The wisdom was probably to qualify him as a
ruler. It is too much to say with Hommel that
``Adapa is the archetype of the Johannine Logos.''
21 Jastrow, op. cit. p. 474 ff.; Jensen, Keil. Bibl. vi. 120 ff.
22 Jastrow, p. 522 f.; Jensen, vi. 112 ff.
23 See Smith and Sayce, Chaldaean Genesis, p. 88;
Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? p. 90; Babel and Bible,
Eng. trans., p. 56, with note on pp. 114-118; Zimmern,
Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3, p. 529; Jeremias,
Das Alte Test. im Lichte d. Alten Orient. pp. 104-106.
ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably born
in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition) before
1045. He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely on
the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year
of the latter's episcopate (1043?-1072); in 1069 he appears
as a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral
school. Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark,
Sweyn Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in
1072, he began the Historia Hammaburgenisis Ecclesiae, which
he finished about 1075. He died on the 12th of October of a
year unknown, perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia---known also
as Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium
praesulum Historia, and Historia ecclesiastica--is
a primary authority, not only for the great diocese of
Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North German and Baltic lands
(down to 1072), and for the Scandinavian colonies as far as
America. Here occurs the earliest mention of Vinland, and here
are also references of great interest to Russia and Kiev, to
the heathen Prussians, the Wends and other Slav races of the
South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule or Iceland, Greenland
and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada and the nobles of
Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's own day (before
1066). Adam's account of North European trade at this time,
and especially of the great markets of Jumne at the mouth of
the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard (Old Novgorod?)
in Russia, is also of much value. His work, which places
him among the first and best of German annalists, consists
of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from written
records and partly from oral information, the latter mainly
gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and Sweyn
Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several, such as
Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman, ``bishop
of Zealand,'' formerly chancellor of Canute the Great, and
an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the
most important) book of Adam's History, Variously entitled
Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam
sunt regionum, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has
often been considered, but wrongly, as a separate work.
Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen,
Royal Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of 12th to
13th cents.; No. 718, of 15th cent.; (3) Leyden University,
Voss. Lat. 123, of 11th cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library,
2010; (5) Vienna, Hofu. Staatsbibliothek, 413, of 13th cent.;
(6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Library, Gud. 83, of 15th cent.
There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the
first published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus
or Descriptio Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615),
the best at Hanover, 1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum
Germanicarum; reissued by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris,
1884 (in Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi.). There are
also three German versions, and one Danish; the best is by J.
C. M. Laurent (and W. Wattenbach) in Geschichtsschreiber d.
deutsch. Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888) . See also J.
Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg in
Pertz, Archiv, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris,
1895); Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901).
ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French
trouvere, was born at Arras. His patronymic is generally
modernized to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his
contemporaries as Adam d'Arras or Adam le Bossu, sometimes
simply as Le Bossu d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale,
was a well-known Citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar,
theology and music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near
Cambrai. Father and son had their share in the civil
discords in Arras, and for a short time took refuge in
Douai. Adam had been destined for the church, but renounced
this intention, and married a certain Marie, who figures
in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and jeux-partis.
Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II., count of
Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, brother
of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, Syria,
Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he
became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin et Marion,
the most famous of his works. He died between 1285 and
1288. Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which
a transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is
given in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion
is cited as the earliest French play with music on a secular
subject. The pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the
knight, and remained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based
on an old chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists
of dialogue varied by refrains already current in popular
song. The melodies to which these are set have the character
of folk-music, and are more spontaneous and melodious than
the more elaborate music of his songs and motets. A modern
adaptation, by Julien Tiersot, was played at Arras by a
company from the Paris Opera Comique on the occasion of a
festival in 1896 in honour of Adam de le Hale. His other
play, Le jeu Adan or Le jeu de la Feuillee (c. 1262),
is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself, his father
and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities. His works
include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of Arras,
and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles
of Anjou, Le roi de Sicile, begun in 1282; another short
piece, Le jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him.
The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is
the La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris, dating from the latter half of the 13th
century. Many of his pieces are also contained in Douce MS.
308, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. His OEuvres completes
(1872) were edited by E. de Coussemaker. See also an article
by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire de La France
(vol. xx. pp. 638-675); G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets
francais des XIIe et XIIIe siecles (1882); Canchons
et Partures des . . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900),
a critical edition by Rudolf Berger; an edition of Adam's
two jeux in Monmerque and Michel's Theatre francais
au moyen age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin et
Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A.
Guesnon, La Satire a Arras au XIIIe, siecle (1900); and
a full bibliography of works on the subject in No. 6 of the
Bibliotheque de bibliographies critiques, by Henri Guy.
ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman
antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, in
Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon diligence
and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding many
difficulties and privations. In 1757 he went to Edinburgh,
where he studied at the university. His reputation as a
classical scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's
Hospital and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became
private tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of
Edinburgh, by whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the
rectorship of the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson,
whose substitute he had been for some time before. From this
period he devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office
and to the preparation of his numerous works on classical
literature. His popularity and success as a teacher are
strikingly illustrated by the great increase in the number
of his pupils, many of whom subsequently became distinguished
men, among them being Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and
Jeffrey. He succeeded in introducing the study of Greek into
the curriculum of the school, notwithstanding the opposition
of the university headed by Principal Robertson. In 1780 the
university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree
of Doctor of Laws. He died on the 18th of December 1809,
after an illness of five days, during which he occasionally
imagined himself still at work, his last words being, ``It
grows dark, boys, you may go.'' Dr Adam's first publication
was his Principles of Latin and English Grammar (1772),
which, being written in English instead of Latin, brought down
a storm of abuse upon him. This was followed by his Roman
Antiquities (1791), A Summary of Geography and History
(1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of the Latin Tongue
(1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin dictionary,
which he did not live to complete, lies in the library of
the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities,
which has passed through a large number of editions and
received the unusual compliment of a German translation.
See An Account of the Life and Character of A. A., by A. Henderson (1810).
ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781--1853), British general, was the
son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair-Adam, lord-lieutenant of
Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of
