somewhat earlier sculpture of Pergamum. (See GREEK ART.)
AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family,
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger
step-brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C.
Agis had, indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as
illegitimate, current rumour representing him as the son of
Alcibiades. Agesilaus' success was largely due to Lysander,
who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance
of his political designs; in this hope, however, Lysander war
disappointed, and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon
led to his downfall. In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia
with a force of 2000 Neodamodes (enfranchized Helots) and
6000 allies to secure the Greek cities against a Persian
attack. On the eve of sailing from Aulis he attempted to
offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before the Trojan
expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent it, an
insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival at
Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissaphernes,
the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations conducted
during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Carla.
After spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he
made a successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395.
Tithraustes was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who
paid with his life for his continued failure. An armistice
was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the
southern satrapy and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged
until the following spring. He then came to an agreement
with the satrap Pharnabazus and once more turned southward.
It was said that he was planning a campaign in the interior,
or even an attack on Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled
to Greece owing to the war between Sparta and the combined
forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor
states. A rapid march through Thrace and Macedonia brought
him to Thessaly, where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who
tried to impede him. Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian
troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces
at Coronea in Boeotia, and in a hotly contested battle was
technically victorious, but the success was a barren one
and he had to retire by way of Delphi to the Peloponnese.
Shortly before this battle the Spartan navy, of which he had
received the supreme command, was totally defeated off Cnidus
by a powerful Persian fleet under Conon and Pharnabazus.
Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the Corinthian
war, making several successful expeditions into Corinthian
territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum. The loss,
however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates,
neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to
Sparta. In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but
two years later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly
supported by Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war
broke out afresh with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia
(378, 377), and it was on his advice that Cleombrotus was
ordered to march against Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was
defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.
In 370 Agesilaus tried to restore Spartan prestige by an
invasion of Mantinean territory, and his prudence and heroism
saved Sparta when her enemies, led by Epaminondas, penetrated
Laconia that same year, and again in 362 when they all but
succeeded in seizing the city by a rapid and unexpected
march. The battle of Mantinea (362), in which Agesilaus took
no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however,
stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.
In order to gain money for prosecuting the war Agesilaus
had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he went to
Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos against
Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's cousin
and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave
him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus
died at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years.
A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was
somewhat lame from birth, a fact which was used as an argument
against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against
a ``lame reign.'' He was a successful leader in guerilla
warfare, alert and quick, yet cautious--a man, moreover, whose
personal bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won
himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but
of his patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most
frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his
campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content
to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as
he had set forth. . The worst trait in his character is his
implacable hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle
of Leuctra and Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy.
See lives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend),
Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch; Xenophon's Hellenica and Diodorus
xiv., xv. Among modern authorities, besides the general
histories of Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ff.; G. F.
Hertzberg, Das Leben des Konigs Agesilaos II. von Sparta
(1856); Buttmann, Agesilaus Sohn des Archidamus (1872); C.
Haupt, Agesilaus in Asien (1874); E. von Stern, Geschichte der
spartanischen und thebanischen Hegemonie (1884). (M. N. T.)
AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat. agglomerare, to form into a ball,
glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded
in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to the
accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently
occur near extinct or active volcanoes. Agglomerates in the
geological sense, with which this article is concerned, consist
typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed often
with more or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded
in a finer-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser
fragments. As distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs,
they are essentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded;
they are less persistent and tend to occur locally, but
may attain a very great thickness. Showers of fine ash may
be distributed over a wide area of country and will form
thin layers of great extent. Coarser accumulations gather
only near the actual foci of eruption (craters, fissures,
&c.). When the activity of a volcanic vent comes to an
end, the orifice is often choked by masses of debris, which
will in time become compacted into firm agglomerates. Hence
rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites of necks, the
remains of once-active volcanic craters. In this connexion
they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always
important to be able to locate the exact points at which
volcanic products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted.
The blocks in agglomerates vary greatly in size. Some
are thirty or forty feet in diameter, and weigh many tons;
these are usually pieces of the strata through which the
volcano has forced an outlet. They are never far from the
crater; most of them, in fact, lie within its boundaries,
and cases are known in which enormous masses of this kind
(half an acre in area) have been found in such situations.
They are masses which have been dislodged, by fissures and
landslides, from the crater's walls and have tumbled into the
cavity. Pieces of sandstone, limestone and shale occur in
the agglomerates mixed with volcanic materials, and very
often have been baked and partly recrystallized by contact
with the hot igneous rocks and the gases discharged by the
volcano. At Vesuvius such blocks of altered limestone
are rich in new minerals and are well known to collectors.
Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs. These
are spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from
the crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in
it, and was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of
steam. These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of
ejection and by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal
form. They are commonly one or two feet in diameter,
but specimens as large as nine or twelve feet have been
observed. There is less variety in their composition at any
volcanic centre than in the case of the foreign blocks above
described. They correspond in nature to the lava which at
the time fills the crater of the volcano, and as this varies
only very slowly the bombs belong mostly to only a few kinds
of rock and are similar in composition to the lava flows.
Crystalline masses of a different kind occur in some
numbers in certain agglomerates. They consist of volcanic
minerals very much the same as those formed in the lavas,
but exhibiting certain peculiarities which indicate that
they have formed slowly under pressure at considerable
depths. Hence they bear a resemblance to plutonic igneous
rocks, but are more correctly to be regarded as agglomerations
of crystals formed within the liquid lava as it slowly rose
towards the surface, and at a subsequent period cast out
by violent steam explosions. The sanidinites of the Eifel
belong to this group. At Vesuvius, Ascension, St Vincent
and many other volcanoes, they form a not inconsiderable
part of the coarser ash-beds. Their commonest minerals are
olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite, biotite and leucite.
Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known. In many
parts of Britain they attain a great development either in
beds alternating with lavas or as the material occupying
necks. In the latter case they are often penetrated by
dikes. They also show a steep, angular, funnel-shaped
dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), and may contain
thin layers of clay or ashy sand-stone, which gathered
in the crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.)
AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally
to fasten together with glue), a term used technically in
philology for the method of word-formation by which two
significant words or roots are joined together in a single
word to express a combination of the two meanings each of
which retains its force. This juxtaposition or conjoining
of roots is characteristic of languages such as the Turkish
and Japanese, which are therefore known as agglutinative,
as opposed to others, known generically as inflexional,
in which differences of termination or combinations in
which all separate identity disappears are predominant.
The term was also formerly used by associationist
philosophers for those mental associations which were
regarded as peculiarly close. Combination in its
simplest form has been called Agglutination by W. Wundt.
AGGRAVATION (from Lat. ad, increasing, and gravis,
heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially
of offences; also used as synonymous with ``irritation.'' In the
canon law ``aggravation'' was a form of ecclesiastical censure,
threatening excommunication after three disregarded admonitions.
AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect
together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or
states in which matter exists. Three primary ``states of
aggregation'' are recognized--gaseous, liquid and solid.
Generally, if a solid be heated to a certain temperature, it
melts or fuses, assuming the liquid condition (see FUSION);
if the heating be continued the liquid boils and becomes
a vapour (see VAPORIZATION.) On the other hand, if a gas
be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it liquefies; this
