delight, and denies the existence of a primary source in sensations
themselves. He illustrates the working of the principle of
association at great length, and with much skill; yet his
attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic pleasure fails
completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in the Edinburgh
Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are little
more than a modification of Alison's theory. Philosophical
Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted assumption
lurking in the doctrine of a single quality running through
all varieties of beautiful object. He seeks to show how the
successive changes in the meaning of the term ``beautiful'' have
arisen. He suggests that it originally connoted the pleasure of
colour. The value of his discussion resides more in the
criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new
ideas. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology
of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects.
Of the assoication psychologists James Mill did little
more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty
than re-state Alison's doctrine. Alexander Bain, in his
treatise, The Emotions and the Will (``Aesthetic
Emotions''), carries this examination considerably further.
He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other varieties
of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics:--(1) their
freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought
for their own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable
concomitants; (3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable
nature. He takes a comprehensive view of the constituents of
aesthetic enjoyment, including the pleasures of sensation and
of its revived or its ``ideal'' form; of revived emotional
states; and lastly the satisfaction of those wide-ranging
susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty, of contrast
and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected with
the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees,
which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the
beholder. The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on
Aristotle and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing
dignity in circumstances that excite no other strong emotion.
Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of
Psychology and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the
psychology of aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of
evolution. Adopting Schiller's idea of a connexion between
aesthetic activity and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point
in tracing the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is
defined as the outcome of the superfluous energies of the
organism: as the activity of organs and faculties which, owing
to a prolonged period of inactivity, have become specially
ready to discharge their function, and as a consequence vent
themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic activities
supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the
higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree
with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive
to life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake
only. Spencer seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic
pleasures according to the degree of complexity of the
faculty exercised: from those of sensation up to the revived
emotional experiences which constitute the aesthetic sentiment
proper. Among the more vaguely revived emotions Spencer
includes more permanent feelings of the race transmitted
by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable
emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones
expressive of feeling built up during the past history of our
species. This biological treatment of aesthetic activity has
had a wide influence, some e.g. Grant Allen) being content
to develop his evolutional method. Yet, as suggested above,
his theory is now recognized as taking us only a little way
towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.39--.a) Works on General Aesthetics. which
deal with the whole subject. The following will be found
helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt.
viii. c. 9, ``Aesthetic Sentiments,'' and the papers on ``Use
and Beauty,'' ``Origin and Function of Music'' and others
in the Essays; A. Bain, Emotions and Will, ``Aesthetic
Emotions''; J Sully, Human Mind, ii. ``Aesthetic
Sentiment'': (Grant Allen, ``Physiological Aesthetics'' (Meth.,
Pl., Senses, Play); Rutgers Marshall, Pain, Pleasure and
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., Pl., Play).
French and Italian Works.--M. Guyau, Les problemes
de l'esthetique contemporaine (1884) (Pl., Play); E.
Veron, L'Esthetique (1890) (slight Pl.); L. Bray,
Du Beau (1902). (Pl., Play); P. Saurian, La Beaute
rationnelle (1904) (Meth., Pl., Senses, Einf.); M. Pilo,
Estetica (Pl., Senses): A. Rolla, Storia delle idee
estetiche in Italia (1905) (full account of ideas of Dante
and other medieval writers, as well as of modern systems).
German Works.---K. Kostlin, Prolegomena zur
Asthetik (1889) (good introduction to subject); K. Groos,
Der asthetische Genuss (1902) (Meth., Judg., Play, Senses,
Einf. and Ill.); J. Volkelt, System der Asthetik (1905)
(very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses, Einf.); J.
Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K.
Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., Ill., Play).
(b) Works on History on. Schasler, Kritische Geschichte
der Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Kritische
Geschichte der Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with
ancient and modern theories); E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche
asthetik seit Kant (Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.); K. H. von
Stein, Die Entstehung der neueren Asthetik (theories
of French critics, &c.); F. Brunetiere, L'Evolution des
genres (History of critical discussions in the 17th and 18th
centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full,
especially on ancient theories and German systems); W. Knight,
Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. ``History'' (Univ.
Extension Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.)
1 See below for Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment,
as having subjective universal validity. On the meaning
of judgments of value see J. Cohn, Allgem. Asthetik,
Einleitung, pp. 7 ff., and Teil i., Kap. 2 and 3.
2 Cf. Larid, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 361.
3 For example, that hinted at by Bosanquet in his
definition of the beautiful, History of aesthetic, p. 5.
4 Beauty is defined as perfection by P. Souriau,
La Beaute rationnelle, 2eme partie.
5 K. Groos argues well against this violent stretching of
the word beautiful, Einleitung in die Asthetik, pp. 46 seq.
6 Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective,
was probably influenced by Hume, who wrote: ``Beauty
is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in
the mind which contemplates them'' (Essays, xxii.).
7 On the nature of these qualities see S.
Witasek, Grundzuge der Allgem. Asthetik, p. 11.
8 See J. Cohn; Allgem. Esthetik, P. 96
9 Originally, as pointed out by Home and others, sight was
regarded as the sense by which we received impressions of
beauty. The recognition of the claims of hearing date back
to Plato. (See Bosanquet, Hist. of Aesth. pp. 51-52). For
recent discussions of the claims of sight and hearing see
article by J. Volkelt, ``Der Aesth. Werth der niederen Sinne,''
in Zeitschrift fur Psych. u. Phys. der Sinnesorgane,
vol. xxix. pp. 402 ff.; see also below, Bibliography.
10 Laws, 880 (see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54).
11 Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play
(see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). Among modern writers the
idea is specially connected with the names of Schiller and
Herbert Spencer. In recent works the subject is touched
on by S. Wittasek, Grundzuge der allgem. Asthetik,
pp. 223 fl.; Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 ff., and by Rutgers
Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography.
12 Hence to say, as Bosanquet says (op. cit. pp. 3-4),
that art is to nature as the scientific conception of the
world to that of the ordinary observer, seems wide of the mark.
13 K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical
motive to features of architecture commonly supposed to
have aesthetic value, e.g. a regular series of similar
forms (Das Wesen der Kunst, Bd. i. pp. 277 ff.).
14 K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably
has a technical origin (op. cit. pp. 283-284).
15 The question of the place of the historical development
of art in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J.
Volkelt, System der Asthetik, Bd. i. 5es Kap.
16 See, for example, a little work, The
Genesis of Art-From, by G. L. Raymond.
17 Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a
concrete object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of this
universal form see below). On the importance of these inductions
see K. H. von Stein, Vorlesungen uber Asthetik (Einleitung).
18 Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ
of aesthetic taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch.
v. The aesthetic importance of the observations made on
animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du Beau, pp. 233 ff.
19 See below, and Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 382 ff.
20 The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are
indicated by W. Wundt in his Physiol. Psychologie
(5e Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 142 ff. and 147 ff.
21 On the value of the judgments of experts
see K. Groos, Der asth. Genuss, p. 149.
22 Examples of a forcina of the physiological method in
aesthetics may be found in the Physiological Aesthetics of Grant
Allen, and the Aufgabe der Kunstphysialogie, by Georg Hirsch.
23 These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensations
of hearing and sight have been well brought out
in the article by J. Volkelt, already referred to.
24 On the later investigations into musical consonance and
harmony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial
forms, see Wundt, op..cit. Bd. ii. pp. 419 ff., and iii.
135 g., 140 ff., 147 ff. and 154 ff. Time-form in music is
specially discussed by E. Gurney, The Power of Sound, v.
25 K. Lange, who recognizes the influence of nature
and custom here denies that proportion is an aesthetic
principle (Das Wesen der Kunst, 11es Kap.).
26 Alison and other English Associationists have emphasized
the aesthetic importance of the principle of association.
Among more recent advocates of it is G. T. Fechner. Vorschule
der Asthetik, and O. Kulpe, ``Uber den associativ
Factor des asthet. Eindrucks'', Fierteljahrsschrift
fur wissensch. Philosophie, xxiii. pp. 145 ff.
27 This idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating
form is supported by K. Groos, Der asth. Genuss, pp. 49 ff.
28 It is commonly spoken of as ``feeling oneself into''
Einfuhlen), or as``sympathetic feeling'' (Mitempfinden.)
29 Lipps theory is developed in a number of works, the
chief of which is Asthetik: Psychologie des Schonen und
der Kunst, see esp. 1er Theil, 1er to 3er Abschnitt;
cf. Paul Stern, Einfuhlung und Association, in which
is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and A.
Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst. The play of
imagination in the contemplation of form is discussed also
by P. Souriau, L'Esthetique du mouvement, 3eme part.,
and La Suggestion dans l'art, pp. 300 ff. Cf. works of
Karl Groos and K. Lange named below (Bibliography.) .
30 See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans l'art (1ere partie).
31 Cf. K. Lange, op. cit. lfh. i. p. 208.
32 See a curious passage in Home's Elements of Criticism, chap
iv., in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects
