the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions. With the
exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some
of which was spent in building the gallery containing the
statues and bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions
have provided the sole source of revenue, all other moneys
that have come to the Academy having been either left in
trust, or been constituted trusts, for certain specific
purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained 136 works,
of which more than one-half were contributed by members, and
brought in L. 699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the
receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was
489, of which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum
received was L. 3069: 1s. This increase continued gradually
with fluctuations, and in 1836, the last year at Somerset
House, the number of works was 1154, and the receipts were
L. 5179: 19s. No great addition to the number of works exhibited
took place at Trafalgar Square, but the receipts steadily
grew, and their careful management enabled the Academy, when
the time came for moving, to erect its own buildings and
become no longer dependent on the government for a home.
The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington
House rendered it possible to increase the number of works
exhibited, which of late years has reached a total of over
2000, while the receipts have also been such as to provide
the means for further building, and for a largely increased
expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted that the number
of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed the space
available. In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the
number sent was 3011. This went on increasing, with occasional
fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it
reached the number of 13,462. The annual winter exhibition
of works by old masters and deceased British artists was
begun in 1870. It was never intended to be a source of
revenue, but appreciation by the public has so far prevented
it from being a cause of loss. The summer exhibition
of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in
May, and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter
exhibition of works by deceased artists opens on the first
Monday in Januaty. and closes on the second Saturday in
March. The galleries containing the diploma works, the
Gibson statuary and other works of art are open daily, free.
Presidents of the Royal Academy.--Sir Joshua Reynolds,
1768-1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt
(president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820;
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820--1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830-1850;
Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850--1865; Sir Francis Grant,
1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878--1896;
Sir John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896.
The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with
the history, the theory and the practice of the various
branches of the fine arts, some of them of great
rarity and value. It is open daily to the students and
members, and to other persons on a proper introduction.
The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are --
The Turner fund (J. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides
sixteen annuities of L. 50 each, for artists of repute
not members of the Academy, also a biennial scholarship
of L. 50 and a gold medal for a landscape painting.
The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the
income of which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees,
is spent on pictures and sculpture. (See CHANTREY.)
The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides
an annual prize of L. 30 for a landscape painting in oil.
The Cooke fund (E.W. Cooke, R.A.), which provides
two annuities of L. 35 each for painters not members
of the Academy, over sixty years of age and in need.
The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides
four scholarships of L. 40 each, two in painting and two
in sculpture, tenable for two years, open to students
at the end of the first two years of studentship, and
given for the best work done during the second year.
The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R.A.), which provides two annual prizes
of L. 30 and L. 10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture.
The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R.A.), which provides
seven annuities of L. 80 each for deserving artists,
not members of the Academy, in need of assistance.
The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an
annual sum of L. 60 for the indigent widow of a painter.
The Bizo.fund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific
investigation into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c.
The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing L. 40 a year
for the benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers.
The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received
from Mrs Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their
brother, the income from which, about L. 300, is expended
on the decoration of public places and buildings.
The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists
chiefly of pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral
value. More serious works are: William Sandby, The History
of the Royal Academy of Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn
from circulation on a question of copyright); Report
from the Select Committee on Arts and their Connexion with
Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
(London, 1836 ); Report of the Royal Commission on the
Royal Academy, with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
(London, 1863); Martin Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A.
Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860); C. R. Leslie, R.A., and Tom
Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A.
(London, 1865); J. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late), and
Fred. A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., ``The Royal Academy in the
Last Century,'' Art Journal, 1889-1901. But the chief
sources of information on the subject are the minute-books
of the council and of the general assembly, and the annual
reports, which, however, only date from 1859. (F. A. E.)
ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson
in 1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and
slates, with dark grey limestones, which are well developed
at St John, New Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and
Braintree in E. Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle
Cambrian age and possess a Paradoxides fauna. They
have been correlated with limestone beds in Tennessee,
Alabama, central Nevada and British Columbia (St Stephen).
See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull.
U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W.
Dawson, Acadian Geology, 1st ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878.
ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to
that part of the mainland of North America lying between the
latitudes 40 deg. and 46 deg. . In the treaty of Utrecht (1713)
the words used in transferring the French possessions to
Britain were ``Nova Scotia or Acadia.'' See NOVA SCOTIA
for the limits included at that date under the term.
ACAMTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, parasitic
worms, with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its
members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal,
but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., ``Worms,
&c.,'' by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
Fig. 1. A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus,
Rud., attached to a piece of intestinal wall, X 4.
B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified.
means of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly,
from forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus
gigas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live
in great numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate,
usually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the
body cavity of some invertebrate, most often an insect or
crustacean, more rarely a small fish. The body is divisible
into a proboscis and a trunk with sometimes an intervening neck
region. The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged
in horizontal rows, and it is by means of these hooks that the
animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks
may be of two or three shapes. Like the body, the proboscis
is hollow, and its cavity is separated from the body cavity
by a septum or proboscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of
the proboscis are muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the
proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other. Their
contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its
cavity (fig. 2). But the whole proboscis apparatus can also
be, at least partially, withdrawn into the body cavity, and
this is effected by two retractor muscles which run from the
posterior aspect of the septum to the body wall (fig. 3).
The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this
covers the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with
no cell limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series
of branching tubules containing fluid and is controlled
by a few wandering, amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the
syncytium is a not very regular layer of circular muscle
fibres, and within this again some rather scattered
longitudinal fibres; there is no endothelium. In their
minute structure the muscular fibres resemble those of
Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longitudinal fibres
the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but
the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut off
from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base.
From the circular canal two sac-like diverticula called the
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii.,
``Worms, &c.,'' by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 2.--A longitudinal section through the
anterior end of Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from
a, The proboscis not fully expanded.
b, Proboscis-sheath.
c, Retractor muscles of the proboscis.
d, Cerebral ganglion.
e, Retinaculum enclosing a nerve
f, One of the retractors of the sheath.
g, A lemniscus.
h, One of the spaces in the sub-cuticular tissue.
i, Longitudinal muscular layer.
j, Circular muscular laver.
k, Line of division between the sub-cuticular tissue of the trunk
and that of the proboscis with the lemnisci.
``lemnisci'' depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each
consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the
proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty
muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the
fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it
is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when
it is wished to expand the proboscis.
There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for
circulation or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from
the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala
live.
J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like
minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into
which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane
pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen
of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion.
The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the
proboscis sheath or septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and
gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2).
Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the
complex retains the old name of ``retinaculum.'' In the male at
least there is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae
may possibly be sense-organs.
