ordinance, dated December 20, 1820. It was divided into three
sections--medicine, surgery and pharmacy. In its constitution
it closely resembled the Academie des sciences. Its
function was to preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and
answer inquiries addressed to it by the government on the
subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health
generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in
all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes.
Germany.--The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards
called the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in
1662 by J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published
a general invitation to medical men to communicate all
extraordinary cases that occurred in the course of their
practice. The works of the Naturae Curiosi were at first
published separately; but in 1770 a new arrangement was
planned for publishing a volume of observations annually.
From some cause, however, the first volume did not make
its appearance until 1784, when it was published under the
title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor Leopold took the
society under his protection, and its name was changed in his
honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but follows the
home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden. By its
constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a president,
two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or
members. At their admission the last come under a twofold
obligation--first, to choose some subject for discussion out
of the animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously
treated by any colleague of the academy; and, secondly, to apply
themselves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides.
V. ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS France.---The Academie
royale de peinture et de sculpture at Paris was founded by
Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of Academie royale des
beaux arts, to which was afterwards united the Academie
d'architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of painters,
sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers.
From among the members of the society who are painters,
is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux
arts at Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The
director's province is to superintend the studies of the
painters, sculptors, &c., who, chosen by competition, are
sent to Italy at the expense of the government, to complete
their studies in that country. Most of the celebrated
French painters have begun their career in this way.
The Academie nationale de musique is the official and
administrative name given in France to the grand opera. In
1570 the poet Baif established in his house a school of
music, at which ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645
Mazarin brought from Italy a troupe of actors, and established
them in the rue du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules
Strozzi's Achille in Sciro, the first opera performed in
France. After Moliere's death in 1673, his theatre in the
Palais Royal was given to Sulu, and there were performed
all Gluck's great operas; there Vestris danced, and there
was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's Devin du Village.
Great Britain.--The Royal Academy of Arts in London, founded in
1768, is described in a separate article. (See ACADEMY, ROYAL.)
The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London in
1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the
gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's,
with the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish
for many years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary
for the instruction of youth in the principias of music
and the laws of harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was
formed for the performance of operas, composed by Handel,
and conducted by him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The
subscription amounted to L. 50,000, and the king, besides
subscribing L. 1000, allowed the society to assume the title
Royal. It consisted of a governor, deputy-governor and twenty
directors. A contest between Handel and Senesino, one of
the performers, in which the directors took the part of the
latter, occasioned the dissolution of the academy after it
had existed with honour for more than nine years. The present
Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incorporated in
1830. It instructs pupils of both sexes in music. (See
also the article CONSERVATOIRE for colleges of music. )
Italy.--In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was
established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace
of the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful
members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the
middle of the 18th century an academy of the arts was
established there, after the example of those at Paris and
Rome. The pupils were furnished with originals and models,
and prizes were distributed by competent judges annually.
The prize for painting was a gold medal. Before the effects
of the French Revolution reached Italy this was one of the
best establishments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall
of the academy were some admirable examples of Correggio,
as well as several statues of great merit, particularly a
small bust of Vitellins, and a torso of Agrippina, of most
exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had been
long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was
restored in the end of the 18th century. In it there are halls
for nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor
and the painter, with models of all the finest statues in
Italy. But the treasures of this and the other institutions
for the fine arts were greatly diminished during the occupancy
of Italy by the French. The academy of the arts at Modena,
after being plundered by the French, dwindled into a petty
school for drawing from living models. There is also an
academy of the fine arts in Mantua, and another at Venice.
Russia.--The academy of St Petersburg was established in
1757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count
Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund for
its support was L. 4000 per annum, and the foundation admitted
forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate
institution, augumented the annual revenue to L. 12,000, and
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she
built for it a large circular building, which fronts the
Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and
continue until they have attained that of eighteen. They
are clothed, fed and lodged at the expense of the crown;
and are instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, French,
German and drawing. At the age of fourteen they are at
liberty to choose any of the following arts; first, painting
in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, enamelling,
&c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, sealcutting,
&c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth,
watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues
in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in
paste and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes
are annually distributed, and from those who have obtained
four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at
the charge of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray
their travelling expenses; and when they are settled in any
town, they receive during four years an annual salary of
L. 60. The academy has a small gallery of paintings for
the use of the scholars; and those who have made great
progress are permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial
collection. For the purpose of design, there are
full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy.
South America.---There are several small academies in the
various towns of South America, the only one of note being
that of Rio de Janeiro, founded by John VI. of Portugal in
1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes.
Spain.---In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and
architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando,
was founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is
president. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz
a few students are supplied by government with the means of
drawing and modelling from figures; and such as are not able
to purchase the requisite instruments are provided with them.
Sweden.---An academy of the fine arts was founded at
Stockholm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are
the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to
Charles XI. The works of the students are publicly exhibited,
and prizes are distributed annually. Such of them as display
distinguished ability obtain pensions from government, to
enable them to reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes
of investigation and improvement. In this academy there are
nine professors and generally about four hundred students.
Austria.--In the year 1705 an academy of painting,
sculpture and architecture was established at Vienna,
with the view of encouraging and promoting the fine arts.
United States of America.--In America the institution similar
to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy
of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American
Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the academy.
The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of
books in the British Museum, ``Academies,'' 5 parts and
index, furnishes a complete bibliography. (F. S.)
1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the
Salle des seances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription
``Rienne manque a sa gloire, it manquait a la notre.''
2 Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502.
ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. akademeia or
ekademia), the name given to the philosophic successors of
Plato. The name is derived from a pleasure-garden or
gymnasium situated in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the
river Cephissus about a mile to the north-west of Athens
from the gate called Dipylum. It was said to have belonged
to the ancient Attic hero Academus, who, when the Dioscuri
invaded Attica to recover their sister Helen, carried off by
Theseus, revealed the place where she was hidden. Out of
gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced the Dioscuri,
always spared the Academy during their invasions of the
country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned
with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. Cim.
13), who bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to
his fellow-citizens. Subsequently the garden became the
resort of Plato (q.v.), who had a small estate in the
neighbourhood. Here he taught for nearly fifty years till
his death in 348 B.C., and his followers continued to
make it their headquarters. It was closed for teaching by
Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools.
Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoll,
where he Composed his dialogue The Academic Questions.
The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato
to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is
traceable a distinct continuity of thought which justifies
its examination as a real intellectual unit. On the
other hand, this continuity of thought is by no means an
identity. The Platonic doctrine was so far modified in
the hands of successive scholarchs that the Academy has
been divided into either two, three or five main sections
(Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally,in the days
of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism
