and stunted, these flourish most on the eastern foothills),
a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine, which resists the
attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime, pomegranate,
peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees; the grape vine
(rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton and indigo
Plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are in the
south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the coffee
plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes its
name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large areas
are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose family,
which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant pendent red
blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant are
highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the
hurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields
a black grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland
a great variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated.
A fibrous plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild
state in the semi-desert regions of the north and south-east.
In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below (sec. 8) the
fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in
certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat valley.
The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin has no
folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the larger
rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in which,
however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound
in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river
valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are
hardy and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also
common. Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe
is found in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass
frequent the lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the
north. There are large herds of buffalo and antelope, and
gazelles of many varieties and in great numbers are met
with in most parts of the country. Among the varieties are
the greater and lesser kudu (both rather rare); the duiker,
gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most common--it has
long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klipspringer, found
on the high plateaus as well as in the lower districts;
and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight
rarely exceeding 10 lb. , common in the low countries and the
foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia,
but chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares
are numerous, as are several kinds of monkeys, notably
the guereza, gelada, guenon and dog-faced baboon. They
range from the tropical lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft.
Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the
beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks,
bustards and other birds of prey are met with; and partridges,
duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, woodcock, snipe,
pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful. A fine
variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds prized
for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, blacks bird,
parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance,
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the
inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents
are not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There
are thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects.
(7) Provinces and Towns.--Politically, Abyssinia is divided
into provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The
chief provinces are Tigro, which occupies the N.E. of the
country; Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district
enclosed by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa
(q.v.), which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara.
Besides these ancient provinces and several others of smaller
size, the empire includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of
Gojam; the Harrar province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla
land, S.W. and S. of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland.
With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab
foundation, there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar
is some 30 m. S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway
(188 m. long) to Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence
of large towns in Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces
into which the country is divided having been for centuries
in a state of almost continual warfare, and to the frequent
change of the royal residences on the exhaustion of fuel
supplies. The earliest capital appears to have been Axum
(q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive ruins. In
the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital of the
country and was so regarded up to the middle of the 19th
century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the
kingdom of Shoa.
The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be grouped
according to their geographical position. None of them has
a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several large
markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa
or Adua ( 17 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and
Antalo The three last-named places are on the high plateau
near its eastern escarpment and on the direct road south
from Massawa to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of
Debra-Domo, one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia.
In Amhara there are:---Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence
of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British
captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor (``Mount Tabor''), the chief
royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong
strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake
Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea; it has
a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of
Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the
time of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station
midway between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east
side of Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the
famous shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the
name of the place, ``Fort St Mary.'' Mahdera-Mariam (``Mary's
Rest''), for some time a royal residence, and an important
market and great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west
of Debra-Tabor; its two churches of the ``Mother'' and the
``Son'' are held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it
has a permanent population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and
Amharas, the former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the
great central markets, and capital of the province of Waag in
Amhara, at the converging point of several main trade routes;
the market is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the
salt blocks which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns
are in Shoa:---Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom;
Aliu-Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of
Aden; Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (``Mountain of Light''),
once a royal residence; Liche (Litche), one of the largest
market towns in southern Abyssinia. Licka, the largest market
in Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and
other parts of the empire. Bonga, the commercial centre of
Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of
Jimma, are frequented by traders from all the surrounding
provinces, and also by foreign merchants from the seaports
on the Gulf of Aden. Apart from these market-places there
are no settlements of any size in southern Abyssinia.
Communications.--The J'buti-Dire Dawa railway has been mentioned
above. The continuation of this railway to the capital was
begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end. There are few roads
in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is
usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the
lower regions) camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a
well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the
caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being
spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade
route from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect
Adis Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia
with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic
service, the longest line being from Harrar to the capital.
(8) Agriculture.--The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is
evident from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its
fertility to the sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian
tributaries. Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly
by the Gallas, the indolence of the Abyssinians preventing
them from being good farmers. In the lower regions a wide
variety of crops are grown --among them maize, durra, wheat,
barley, rye, teff, pease, cotton and sugar-cane---and many
kinds of fruit trees are cultivated. Teff is a kind of
millet with grains about the size of an ordinary pin-head,
of which is made the bread commonly eaten. The low grounds
also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black bread is
made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the
suf, nuc and selite (there are no European equivalents
for the native names), and the ground-nut are largely
grown. The castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the
low, damp regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The
kat plant, a medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is
largely grown in the Harrar province. On the higher plateaus
the hardier cereals only are cultivated. Here the chief
crops are wheat, barley, teff, peppers, vegetables of all
kinds and coffee. Above 10,000 ft. the crops are confined
practically to barley, oats, beans and occasionally wheat.
Coffee is one of the most important products of the country,
and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands.
It is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to
a less extent in the central districts. Two qualities of
coffee are cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as
Harrar-Mocha. The ``Abyssinian'' coffee is grown very extensively
throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low
grade. ``Harrar-Mocha'' is of first-class quality. It is
grown in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme
care. The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus
in the early years of the 20th century. The soil of the
Hawash valley proved particularly suitable for raising this
crop. In the high plateaus the planting of seeds begins in
May, in the lower plateaus and the plains in June, but in
certain parts where the summer is long and rain abundant
sowing and reaping are going on at the same time. Most
regions yield two, many three crops a year. The methods
of culture are primitive, the plough commonly used being a
long pole with two vertical iron teeth and a smaller pole
at right angles to which oxen are attached. This implement
costs about four shillings. The ploughing is done by the
men, but women and girls do the reaping. The grain is usually
trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay-lined
pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to tenfold
the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields twenty to
thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very little
land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the
channels being often two miles or more long. Of all the
