army, they submitted. As it happened, Count Antonelli
was with Menelek when he claimed the throne, and promptly
concluded (2nd of May 1889) with him on behalf of Italy a
friendly treaty, to be known hereafter as the famous Uccialli
treaty. In consequence of this the Italians occupied Asmara,
made friends with Mangasha and received Ras Makonnen7,
Menelek's nephew, as his plenipotentiary in Italy. Thus it
seemed as though hostilities between the two countries had
come to a definite end, and that peace was assured in the
land. For the next three years the land was fairly quiet,
the chief political events being the convention (6th February
1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between Italy
and Great Britain (24th March and 15th April 1891) and a
proclamation by Menelek (10th April 1891), all on the subject of
boundaries. As, however, the Italians became more and more
friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic
versions. According to the former, the negus was bound
to make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with
other powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional.
Meanwhile the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine
action by Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (21st
December 1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri
resulted in the acquisition of Kassala (17th July 1894).
On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier
with a large army. At Koatit and Senafe (13th to 15th
January 1895) Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by
Baratieri, who occupied Adrigat in March. But as the year
wore on the Italian commander pushed his forces unsupported
too far to the south. Menelek was advancing with a large
army in national support of Mangasha, and the subsequent
reverses at Amba Alagi (7th December 1895) and Macalle
(23rd January 1896) forced the Italians to fall back.
Battle of Adowa. Reinforcements of many thousands were
meanwhile arriving at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took
the field at the head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army,
amounting to about 90,000, had during this time advanced,
and was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima, near
Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the 1st
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great,
and one of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far
forward. This brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers,
and on the remaining brigades advancing in support, they were
successively cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the
enemy. The Italians lost over 4500 white and 2000 native
troops killed and wounded, and over 2500 prisoners, of which
1600 were white, whilst the Abyssinians owned to a loss of over
3000. General Baldissera advanced with a large body of
reinforcements to avenge this defeat, but the Abyssinians,
desperately short of supplies, had already retired, and beyond
the peaceful relief of Adrigat no further operations took
place. It may here be remarked that the white prisoners
taken by Menelek were exceedingly well treated by him, and
that he behaved throughout the struggle with Italy with
the greatest humanity and dignity. On the 26th of October
following a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at
Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and recognizing
the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This treaty was
ratified, and followed by other treaties and agreements
defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian-Italian
Somaliland frontiers (see ITALY, History, and SOMALILAND, Italian
Menelek as independent monarch.
(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention of
all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous
missions, two Russian, three French and one British, were
despatched to the country, and hospitably received by
Menelek. The British one, under Mr (afterwards Sir) Rennell
Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty with Abyssinia (15th
of May 1897), but did not, except in the direction of
Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for several
years continued a subject of discussion. During the same
year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs Clochette
and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile, but, after
surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes of the
Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expedition
of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompanied by three
Europeans---Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and Artomonov
(Russian)--started early in 1898, and reached the Nile at the
Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major Marchand
and his gallant companions arrived on the scene. But no
contact was made, and the expedition returned to Abyssinia.
In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large
army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again
rebelling against his authority. After some trifling fighting
Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force
to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country,
Wad Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This
effected, the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the
Egyptian troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation
of Khartum) to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both
sides were anxious to avoid a collision over this latter
town, no hostile results ensued. An excellent understanding
was, in fact, established between these two contiguous
countries, in spite of occasional disturbances by bandits
on the frontier. On this frontier question, a treaty
was concluded on the 15th of May 1902 between England and
Abyssinia for the delimitation of the Sudan-Abyssinian
frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not to obstruct the
waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat, so as not
to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he also
agreed to give a concession, if such should be required,
for the construction of a British railway through his
dominions, to connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined
British-Abyssinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched
in 1901 to propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia
on the one side and British East Africa and Uganda on the
other; and the report of the expedition was made public by
the British government in November 1904. It was followed
in 1908 by an agreement defining the frontiers concerned.
Co-operation with Britain against the Somali mullah.
(26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called ``mad'' mullah
(Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders of British
Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was, at Great
Britain's request, sent against the mullah, but without much
effect. In the spring and summer of 1901 a fresh expedition
from Harrar was undertaken against the mullah, who was
laying waste the Ogaden country. Two British officers
accompanied this force, which was to co-operate with British
troops advancing from Somaliland; but little was achieved
by the Abyssinians, and after undergoing considerable
privations and losses, and harassing the country generally,
including that of some friendly tribes, it returned to
Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign of General (Sir) W. H.
Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000 to co-operate with
the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli and south-western
parts of the Hand. This time the Abyssinians were more
successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but
the difficulties of the country again precluded effective
co-operation. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4)
yet another force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards
Somaliland. Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked
its way southward, but did not contribute much towards the
final solution. In any case, however, it is significant
that the Abyssinians have repeatedly been willing to
co-operate with the British away from their own country.
Growth of European influence. Regarding the question of
railways, the first concession for a railway from the coast
at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the interior was granted
hy Menelek to a French company in 1894. The company having
met with numberless difficulties and financial troubles, the
French government, on the extinction of the company's funds,
came to the rescue and provided money for the construction.
(In the alternative British capitalists interested in the
company would have obtained control of the line.) The French
government's help enabled the railway to be completed to
Dire Dawa, 28 m. from Harrar, by the last day of 1902.
Difficulties arose over the continuation of the railway to
Adis Ababa and beyond, and the proposed internationalization
of the line. These difficulties, which hindered the work
of construction for years, were composed (so far as the
European Powers interested were concerned) in 1906. By the
terms of an Anglo-French-Italian agreement, signed in London
on the 13th of December of that year, it was decided that
the French company should fund the railway as far as Adis
Ababa, while railway construction west of that place should
be under British auspices, with the stipulation that any
railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red Sea with
its Somaliland protectorate should be built under Italian
auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian representative
were to be appointed to the board of the French company, and a
French director to the board of any British or Italian company
formed. Absolute equality of treatment on the railway and
at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all the Powers.
Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened
out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers
appointed representatives at Menelek's capital--the British
minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel
Sir J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after
the British mission in 1897. In December 1903 an American
mission visited Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between
the United States and Abyssinia was signed. A German
mission visited the country early in 1905 and also concluded
a treaty of commerce with the negus. Later in the year a
German minister was appointed to the court of the emperor.
After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was
sensibly on the increase. Of the remaining powers France
occupied the most important position in the country. Ras
Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable
successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in
the same year; the question of the succession therefore
opened up the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing
influences, Abyssinia might still relapse in the future
into its old state of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian
agreement of December 1906 contained provisions in view of
this contingency. The preamble of the document declared
that it was the common interest of the three Powers ``to
maintain intact the integrity of Ethiopia,'' and Article
I. provided for their co-operation in maintaining ``the
political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia.'' Should,
however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to
concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms
of the agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text
forthwith communicated to the negus. After considerable
hesitation Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the
