300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.;
the hall was 110 ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The
most celebrated historically is the Charter house of London,
founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which
is preserved by the famous public school established on the
site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming.
Mendicant Friars.
An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without
some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching
Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey
or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or
Austin, Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the
13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their
various reformed branches, had terminated their active
mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious
revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns,
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their
buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of
arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had
studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of
large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form
a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder
orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long
parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually
consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls
of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the
congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting,
the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with
a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually
square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal
apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of
great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement
is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries
afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of
ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of
towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good
example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally
peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity
of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at
Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church
of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense
length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across
the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the
nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal,
with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at
right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the
church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east.
Norwich. Gloucester.
As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at
Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at
Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black
Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the
nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In
this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at
Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower
between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. Thc
cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the
north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the
cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated
church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south
the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good
example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided
by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side
was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey
or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in
having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of
windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir.
Hulne.
Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a
good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first
of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240. The church
is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by
only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with
the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory
over. The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the
cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to
which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual
area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites
in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and
has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and
graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the
cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of
Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still
standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the
name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of
the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of
the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris:---``The friars
who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences
as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day
by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty
walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently
transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very
fundamental rules of their profession.'' Allowance must here be
made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity.
Cells.
Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller
establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some
outlying estate. As an example, we may refer to the small
religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great
Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the
Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln. This consists
of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part
formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of
the handful of monks of which it was the home. To the east
may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and
mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house,
were called Obedientiae. The plan given by Viollet-le-Duc
of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell,
situated between the town of Avallon and the village of
Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised
every essential feature of a monastery,---chapel, cloister,
chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the
recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae differed
from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of
penitentiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a
prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling
the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as
farmservants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to
the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges.
They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers
under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother
Hospitaller ---the granges, like their parent institutions,
affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers.
AUTHORITIES.--Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir,
Architecture monastique (1852--1856); Veollet-le-Duc,
Dictionnaire raisonnee de l'architecture francaise;
Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus,
Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.)
ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945-1004), a
learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He distinguished
himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was especially
proficient in science as known in his time. He spent two
years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire
(988). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a
threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in
1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an
Epitomie de vitis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol.
139). His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in
which much of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great
importance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially
with reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).
See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885);
Cuissard-Gaucheron, ``L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du 10
siecle,'' in Memoires de la societe de l'Orleanais, xiv.
(Orleans, 1875); A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France.
ABBOT, EZRA (1819--1884), American biblical scholar, was
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April
1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in
1847, at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to
Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until
1856. He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from
1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card
catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary
dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics
under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic
catalogue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor
of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard
Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, thoygh his
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future
life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of
a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages
(1862), and published separately in 1864. His publications,
though always of the most thorough and scholarly character,
were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews,
dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian
controversial treatises, &c.; but he took a more conspicuous
and more personal part in the preparation (with the Baptist
scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition
of Dr (afterwards Sir) William Smith's Dictionary of the
Bible (1867-1870), to which he contributed more than 400
articles besides greatly improving the bibliographical
completeness of the work; was an efficient member of the
American revision committee employed in connexion with the
Revised Version (1881-1885) of the King James Bible; and aided
in the preparation of Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to
the revised Greek New Testament of Tischendorf. His principal
single production, representing his scholarly method and
conservative conclusions, was The Authorship af the Fourth
Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second edition, by J. H.
Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture, and
in spite of the compression due to its form, up to that time
probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence,
of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the completest
treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from
