Galvani, whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with
notes in 1791. He became professor of physics at Bologna in
1798, in succession to his teacher Sebastiano Canterzani
(1734-1819). His scientific work was chiefly concerned with
galvanism and its medical applications, with the construction
and illumination of lighthouses, and with experiments for
preserving human life and material objects from destruction by
fire. He wrote in French and English in addition to his
native Italian. In recognition of his merits, the emperor
of Austria made him a knight of the Iron Crown and a
councillor of state at Milan, where he died on the 17th
of January 1834. He left by will a considerable sum to
found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna.
ALDRED, or EALDRED (d. 1069), English ecclesiastic,
became abbot of Tavistock about 1027, in 1044 was made
bishop of Worcester, and in 1060 archbishop of York. He
had considerable influence over King Edward the Confessor,
and as his interests were secular rather than religious he
took a prominent part in affairs of state, and in 1046 led
an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh. In 1050 he
was largely instrumental in restoring Sweyn, the son of Earl
Godwin, to his earldom, and about the same time went to Rome
``on the king's errand.'' In 1054 he was sent to the emperor
Henry III. to obtain that monarch's influence in securing
the return to England of Edward, son of Edmund Ironside,
who was in Hungary with King Andrew I. In this mission he
was successful and obtained some insight into the working of
the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II.,
archbishop of Cologne. After his return to England he took
charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury, although not
appointed to these bishoprics; and in 1058 made a pilgrimage
to Jerusalem, being the first English bishop to take this
journey. Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury,
Aldred was elected archbishop of York in 1060, and in 1061
he proceeded to Rome to receive the pallium. On his arrival
there, however, various charges were brought against him by a
synod, and Pope Nicholas II. not only refused his request
but degraded him from the episcopate. The sentence was,
however, subsequently reversed, and Aldred received the pallium
and was restored to his former station. It is stated by
Florence of Worcester that Aldred crowned King Harold II. in
1066, although the Norman authorities mention Stigand as the
officiating prelate. After the battle of Hastings Aldred
joined the party who sought to bestow the throne upon Edgar
the AEtheling, but when these efforts appeared hopeless he
was among those who submitted to William the Conqueror at
Berkhampstead. Selected to crown the new king he performed
the ceremony on Christmas Day 1066, and in 1068 performed
the same office at the coronation of Matilda, the Conqueror's
wife. But though often at court, he seems to have been no
sympathiser with Norman oppression, and is even said to have
bearded the king himself. He died at York on the 11th of
September 1069 and was buried in his own cathedral. Aldred
did much for the restoration of discipline in the monasteries
and churches under his authority, and was liberal in his
gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the monastic
church of St Peter at Gloucester, and rebuilt a large part of
that of St John at Beverley. At his instigation, Folcard, a
monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley.
See The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer
(Oxford, 1892-1899); Florence of Worcester, Chronicon ex
Chronicis, edited by B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849); William
of Malmesbury, De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum, edited
by N. E. S. A. Hamilton (London, 1870); W. H. Dixon, Fasti
Eboracenses, vol. i., edited by J. Raine (London, 1863); T.
Stubbs, Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Eboracensis, edited by
J. Raine (London, 1879-1894); E. A. Freeman, History of the
Norman Conquest, vols. ii., iii., iv. (Oxford, 1867-1879).
ALDRICH, HENRY (1647-1710), English theologian and philosopher,
was born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated at the
collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. In 1662 he entered
Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1689 was made dean in succession
to the Roman Catholic, John Massey, who had fled to the
continent. In 1692 he was vice-chancellor of the University. In
1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shropshire, but continued
to reside at Oxford, where he died on the 14th of December
1710. He was buried in the cathedral without any memorial
at his own desire. Aldrich was a man of unusually varied
gifts. A classical scholar of fair merits, he is best known
as the author of a little book on logic (Compendium Artis
Logicae), a work of little value in itself, but used at Oxford
(in Mansel's revised edition) till long past the middle of the
19th century. Aldrich also composed a number of anthems and
church services of high merit, and adapted much of the music of
Palestrina and Carissimi to English words with great skill and
judgment. To him we owe the well-known catch, ``Hark, the
bonny Christ Church bells.'' Evidence of his skill as an
architect may be seen in the church and campanile of All
Saints, Oxford, and in three sides of the so-called Peckwater
Quadrangle of Christ Church, which were erected after his
designs. He bore a great reputation for conviviality,
and wrote a humorous Latin version of the popular ballad--
A soldier and a sailor,
A tinker and a tailor, &c.
Another specimen of his wit is furnished by the
following epigram of the five reasons for drinking:--
Si bene quid memini, causae sunt quinque bibendi;
Hospitis adventus, praesens sitis atque futura,
Aut vini bonitas, aut quaelibet altera causa.
The translation runs:--
If on my theme I rightly think,
There are five reasons why men drink:--
Good wine; a friend; because I'm dry;
Or lest I should be by and by;
Or--any other reason why.
ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (1841- ), American politician,
was born at Foster, Rhode Island, on the 6th of November
1841. His first political service was as a member (1869-1875)
and president (1871-1872) of the Providence common council.
He was a member of the lower house of the Rhode Island
legislature in 1875 and 1876, and speaker in the latter
year. By this time he had become a power in Republican
state politics, and in 1878 and 1880 was elected to
Congress. Early in his second term he was chosen United
States senator, and was re-elected in 1886, 1892, 1898 and
1905. In the Senate he was looked upon as the special
representative of the high protective industries and moneyed
interests, and he took a prominent part in all legislation
dealing with the tariff, banking and the merchant marine.
ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1907), American author, was
born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 11th of November
1836. When he was but a child his father moved to New Orleans,
but after ten years the boy was sent back to Portsmouth--the
``Rivermouth'' of several of his stories--to prepare for
college. This period of his life is partly described in his
Story of a Bad Boy (1870), of which ``Tom Bailey'' is the
juvenile hero.1 His father's death in 1852 compelled Aldrich to
abandon the idea of college and enter a business office in New
York. Here he soon became a constant contributor to the
newspapers and magazines, and the intimate friend of the young
poets, artists and wits of the metropolitan Bohemia of the
early'sixties, among whom were E. C. Stedman, R. H. Stoddard,
Bayard Taylor and Walt Whitman. From 1856 to 1859 he was
on the staff of the Home Journal, then edited by N. P.
Willis, while during the Civil War he was himself editor of
the New York Illustrated News. In 1865 he moved to Boston
and was editor for ten years for Ticknor and Fields--then
at the height of their prestige--of the eclectic weekly
Every Saturday, discontinued in 1875. From 1881 to 1890
he was editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Meanwhile Aldrich
had written much, both in prose and verse. His genius was
many-sided, and it is surprising that so busy an editor and
so prolific a writer should have attained the perfection of
form for which he was remarkable. His successive volumes of
verse, chiefly The Ballad of Babie Bell (1856), Pampinea,
and Other Poems (1861), Cloth of Gold (1874), Flower
and Thorn (1876), Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (1881),
Mercedes and Later Lyrics (1883), Wyndham Towers (1889),
and the collected editions of 1865, 1882, 1897 and 1900,
showed him to be a poet of lyrical skill, dainty touch and
felicitous conceit, the influence of Herrick being constantly
apparent. He repeatedly essayed the long narrative or
dramatic poem, but seldom with success, save in such earlier
work as Garnaut Hall. But no American poet has shown more
skill in describing some single picture, mood, conceit or
episode. His best things are such lyrics as ``Hesperides,''
``When the Sultan goes to Ispahan,'' ``Before the Rain,''
``Nameless Pain,'' ``The Tragedy,'' ``Seadrift,'' ``Tiger
Lilies,'' ``The One White Rose,'' ``Palabras Carinosas,''
``Destiny,'' or the eight-line poem ``Identity,'' which did
more to spread Aldrich's reputation than any of his writing
after Babie Bell. Beginning with the collection of stories
entitled Marjorie Daw and Other People (1873), Aldrich
applied to his later prose work that minute care in composition
which had previously characterized his verse--taking a
near, new or salient situation, and setting it before the
reader in a pretty combination of kindly realism and reticent
humour. In the novels, Prudence Palfrey (1874), The
(Queen of Sheba (1877), and The Stillwater Tragedy (1880),
there is more rapid action; but the Portsmouth pictures
in the first are elaborated with the affectionate touch
shown in the shorter humourous tale, A Rivermouth Romance
(1877). In An Old Town by the Sea (1893) the author's
birthplace was once more commemorated, while travel and
description are the theme of From Ponkapog to Pesth
(1883). Aldrich died at Boston on the 19th of March 1907.
His Life was written by Ferris Greenslet (1908).
1 This book has been translated into French as Education et
recreation, and into German as a specimen of American humour.
ALDRINGER (ALTRINGER, ALDRINGEN), JOHANN, COUNT
VON (1588-1634), Austrian soldier, was born at Diedenhofen
(Thionville) in Lorraine. After travelling as page to a
nobleman in France, Italy and the Netherlands, he went to
the university of Paris. In 1606 he entered the service of
Spain, in which he remained until 1618, when he joined the
imperial army. Here he distinguished himself in the field
and in the cabinet. Made a colonel in 1622, two years later
he was employed on the council of war and on diplomatic
missions. At the bridge of Dessau in 1626 he performed very
distinguished service against Ernst von Mansfeld. He and
his constant comrade Matthias Gallas (q.v.) were ennobled
on the same day, and in the course of the Italian campaign
of 1630 the two officers married the two daughters of Count
d'Arco. Aldringer served as Count Rambold Collalto's
major-general in this campaign and was present at the taking of
Mantua. The plunder of the duke of Mantua's treasures made
Gallas and Aldringer wealthy men. Back in Germany in 1631,
he served after Breitenfeld as Tilly's artillery commander,
and, elevated to the dignity of count of the Empire, he was
present at the battle of the Lech, where he was wounded.
When Tilly died of his wounds Aldringer succeeded to the
command. Made field-marshal after the assault of the Alte
