tree. It is of primary economic importance to thenatives,who
use it for the most variouspurposcs. On the islands of the
Alexander Archipelago and on Prince William Sound it grows
to gigantic size; even on the Koyukuk and the middle Yukon
it attains in places a diameter of 2 ft. In 1002 a forest
reservation comprising the largest part of the Alexander
Archipelago was created by the United States government. The
separation of the coast and interior floras is almost complete;
only along the mountain passes and river valleys, and rarely
there, is there an exchange of species. Timber, however, is
fairly abundant along the entire course of the Yukon above Anvik
(about 400 m. from the mouth), along the great tributaries of
the Yukon, and, so far as explorations have re vealed, along
every stream in central Alaska; and the woods of the interior
consist almost entirely of spruce. On the Yukon flats it
grows in a vast forest impenetrably dense.6 The timber line,
which in the I,anhandle and along the southern coast of the
continental mass runs from 1800 to 2400 ft., frequently rises
in the interior plateau even to 4000 ft. Next in importance
after spruce, in the interior, is birch, and then balsam
poplar. Thickets of alders and willows in wet places and
new-made land, aspens and large cottonwoods west of the
characteristic spruce area (as on Seward Peninsula), are also
common. Toward the Arctic circle, the timber becomes, of
course, sparse, low, gnarled and distorted. The willows in
the Arctic drainage basin shrink to shrubs scarcely knee-high.
Bushes are common in western Alaska, but undergrowth is very
scanty in the forests. Crasses grow luxuriantly in the river
bottoms and wherever the tundra moss is destroyed to give them
footing. Most distinctive is the ubiquitous carpeting of
mosses, varying in colours from the pure white and cream of
the reindeer moss to the deep green and brown of the peat
moss, all conspicuously spangled in the briefsummer with
bright flowers of the higher orders, heavy blossoms on stunted
stalks. The thick peat moss or tundra of the undrained lowlands
covers probably at least a quarter of Alaska; the reindeer moss
grows both on the lowlands and the hills.7 Sedges available
for forage grow in the tundra. In August berries are fairly
abundant over the interior; one of them, the salmon or cloud
berry, preserved in seal oil for the winter, is an important
food of the natives. The grasses are killed by the frosts in
September. The western timber limit is on Kodiak Island.
The Aleutian Islands (q.v.) are almost destitute of trees,
but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage. Climatic
differences cannot account for the treeless condition of
the country W. of this point, and the true explanation lies
probably in the fact that in winter, when the seeds of the
coastal forests ripen and are released, the prevalent winds
W. of Kodiak are damp and blow from the S. and S.W., while
the spread of the seeds requires dry winds blowing from the
N. and N.W. Such favourable conditions occur only rarely.
The Soil of Alaska seems to be in Jtself rich, and quite
capable of agricultural development; the great impediment
to this is in . the briefness of the summer. Contrary,
however, to the once universal belief, the experiments of
the department of agriculture of the United States have
definitely proved that hardy vegetables in great variety
can readily be produced in the coastal region and at various
stations in the Yukon valley; and presumably, therefore, all
over the interior S. of the Arctic circle, save along Bering
Sea; also that there is little doubt of the practicability
of successfully cultivating buckwheat, barley and oats, and
possibly also rye and wheat; that grasses for grazing grow
generally and often in abundance; and in general that the
possibilities of interior Alaska as a live-stock country
are very cons18erable. It is calculated that a twentieth of
south-eastern Alaska is available for agriculture, and that of
the entire country 100,000 sq. m. are pasturable or tillable.
Indiistrl'.---The fur and fish resources of Alaska have until
recently held first place in her industries. Herrings furnish
oil and guano, and the young fish are packed as ``sardines'' at
Juneau. Cod can be taken with comparatively little danger or
hardship. During the Russian occupation a small amount was
shipped to California and the Sandwich Islands. The take
since 1879 has been practically constant. The take of halibut
is increasing steadily. The salmon industry dates from
1878. The total output (in 1901, 100,000,000 lb.; in 1006,
about 72,000,000 lb.), which since 1900 has been more than
half the total salmon product of the United States, is more
than ten' times the product of all other fish.8 On the Karluk
river, Kodiak Island, is the greatest salmon fishery in the
world. More than 3,000,000 salmon have been canned here
in one season. The second salmon stream is the Nushagak,
flowing into Bristol Bay; this bay is the richest fishing
field of Alaska, furnishing in 1901, 35% of the total
production. The recklessly wasteful manner in which these
fisheries are conducted, and the inadequate measures taken by
the United States government for their protection, threaten
the entire industry with destruction. From 1867 to 1902
the value of the total fishery product was estimated at
$60,000,000. The fur-seal industry has been better protected
but still unavailingly. (See SEAL FIsheries and BERINO SEA
ARBITRATION.) The value of the fur seals taken from 1868 to
1902 was estimated at $35,000,000 and that of other furs at
$17,000,000. The walrus, hunted for its ivory tusks, and
the sea otter, rarest and most valuable of Alaskan fur
animals, are near extermination; the blue fox is now bred
for its pelt on the Aleutians and the southern continental
coast; the skins of the black and silver fox are extremely
rare, and in general the whole fur industry is discouragingly
decadent. The whale fishery also has greatly fallen off;
there is no profit on the oil and the whales are sought for
the baleen alone; they are much less numerous too than they
once were, and have to be sought farther and farther north.
Minerals.--The timber resources of Alaska are untouched
and the serious exploitation of her minerals is very recent.
As early as 1861 gold discoveries were made on the Stikine
river; repeated discoveries, culminating in the Cassiar
district ``boom,'' were made in British Columbia from 1857 to
1874; colourings along the Yukon were reported in 1866-1867
and systematic prospecting of the upper river began about
1873. Juneau was founded in 1880; the same year the opposition
of the Indians was withdrawn that had prevented the crossing
of the mountain passes to the interior, and after 1880
repeated and scattered discoveries were made on the Lewes,
Pelly, Stewart and other streams of the Upper Yukon country in
Canada. As early as 1883-1885 there was a considerable mining
excitement due to these discoveries, and a much greater one
in 1887 after the discovery of coarse gold on Forty Mile
Creek in American territory; but these were as nothing to
the picturesque and feverish rush that followed the location
of the first Klondike claim in Canadian territory in August
1896. (SEE KLONDIKE.) The mines in American territory
were temporarily deserted for the new diggings. Other gold
districts are scattered over the whole interior of Alaska.
Nome (q.v.) was the scene of a great gold mining stampede in
1900. The quartz mines near Juneau are among the greatest
stamp mills of the world (SEE JUNEAU.) The product of gold
and silver (of the latter some 1.3% of the total) from 1895
to 1901 was more than $32,000,000 from Alaska proper (not
including that from the Canadian Tukon fields) as against
a production of $5,000,000 in 1880-1896. The gold product
of the Canadian Yukon territory from 1896-1903 was about
$96,000,000, as estimated by the Canadian Geological Survey. In
1905 the product of gold from Alaska was valued at $15,630,000
(mines report); and from 1880 to 19djec the production of
gold, according to the estimate of A. H. Brooks, was more than
$100,000,000. The gravest problem of mining in the interior
country, even graver than that presented by the climate, is
transportation; in 1900 the Tanana fields, for example, were
provisioned from Circle City, about 125 m. distant, at the
rate of a cent per lb. mile (i.e. $2000 for moving a ton 100
m.). Even higher rates prevailed in the copper country in
1902. Various other minerals in addition to gold have been
discovered, and several of them, notably copper and silver
(the latter appearing with the gold deposits), may probably
be profitably exploited. In 1905 the product of copper
was valued at $759,634, that of silver at $80,165 (mines
report). Coal, and in much larger quantities lignite,
have been found in many parts of Alaska. Most important,
because of their location, are deposits along the Alaska
Peninsula and between Circle City and Dawson. The latter
furnishes fuel to the river steamboats, and it is hoped may
eventually supply the surrounding mining region. There are
valuable deposits of gypsum on Chicagof Island, and marble
quarries are being developed on Prince of Wales Island.
As against $7,200,000 paid for Alaska in 1867, the revenues
returned to the United States in the years 1867--1903 totalled
$9,555,909 (namely, rental for the Fox and Pribilof Islands,
$999,200; special revenue tax on seal-skins, $7,597,351;
Alaskan customs, $528,558; public lands, $28,928; other sources
$401,872). It has been estimated that in the same period
the United States drew from Alaska fish, furs and gold
to the value of about $150,000,000; that up to 1903 the
imports from the states aggregated $i00,000,000; and that
$25,000,000 of United States capital was invested in Alaska.
Since 1896 communication with the outer world has been greatly
increased. Alaskan mails leave the states daily, many
post-offices are maintained, mail is regularly delivered
beyond the Arctic circle, all the more important towns have
telegraphic communication with the states,9 there is one
railway in the interior through Canadian territory from
Skagway, and other railways are planned. The total mileage
in 1906 was 136 m. In that year the Alaskan Central Railroad
(from Seward to Fairbanks, 463 m.) was chartered; 45 m. of
this road were in operation in 1905. One long military road
as an ``All American'' route from Valdez has long been built.
Population.---The population in 1867 at the time of the
cession from Russia is estimated at 30,000, of which two-thirds
were Eskimo and other Indians. Population returned in
1880, 33,426; in 1890, 32,052; in 1900, 63,592, of whom
approximately 48% were whites, 46% natives and 6% Japanese and
Chinese; (1910 census) 64,356. The Asiatics are employed in
the salmon canneries. The natives of Alaska fall under four
ethnologic races: the Eskimo or Innuit---of these the Aleuts
are an offshoot; the Haidas or Kaigani, found principally
on Prince of Wales Island and thereabouts; the Thlinkits,
rather widely distributed in the ``Panhandle''; and the
Tinnehs or Athapascans, the stock race of the great interior
country. In 1800 the pure-blooded natives numbered 23,531,
of whom 6000 were Haidas, Thlinkits or other natives of the
coastal region, 1000 Aleuts, 3400 Athapascans and 13,100
Eskimo. The natives have adopted many customs of white
civilization, and on the Aleutians, and in coastal Alaska, and
in scattered regions in the interior acknowledge Christianity
