(ministers), had complete control in the field and presided
over the assembly, though with restricted advisory powers. The
Aetolians also used the Amphictyonic synod for passing solemn
enactments. The league's relation to outlying dependencies
is obscure; many of these were probably mere protectorates or
``allied states'' and secured no representation. The federal
executive was certainly much more efficient than that of the
Achaeans, and its councils suffered less from disunion; but
its generals and admirals, official or otherwise, enjoyed undue
licence; hence the league deservedly gained an evil name for
the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which its troops
committed. But as a champion of republican Greece against
foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal
services. After the first overthrow of the Byzantine
empire Aetolia passed to a branch of the old imperial house
(1205). In the 15th century it was held by Scanderbeg
(q.v.) and by the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it
definitely under Turkish rule. In the War of Independence
the Aetolians by their stubborn defence, culminating in the
sieges of Missolonghi (q.v.), formed the backbone of the
rebellion. Northern Aetolia remains a desolate region,
inhabited mainly by Vlach shepherds. The south-western plain,
though rendered unhealthy by lagoons, and central Aetolia
yield good crops of currants, vine, maize and tobacco, which
are conveyed by railway from Agrinion and Anatolikon to the
coast. The country, which forms part of the modern department
of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains numerous fragments of ancient
fortifications. It has contributed a notable Droportion of
distinguished men to modern Greece. Diodorus xviii. 24. 5;
Pausanias x. 20 sq.; Polybius and Livy passim; W. J. Woodhouse,
Aetolia (Oxford, 1897); M. Dubois, Les Lieues acheenne et
etolienne (Paris, 1885); E. A. Freeman, Federal Government
(ed. 1893, London), ch. vi.; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in Bulletin de
Correspondance Hellenique (1905, pp. 362-372l; G. Sotiriades
in `Efemeris `Arxaiologike, (1900) pp. 163-212, (1903)
pp. 73-94, and in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique
(1907), pp. 139-184: C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia
Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), pp. 270-320. (M. O. B. C.)
AFARS (DANAHIL), a tribe of African ``Arabs'' of Hamitic
stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia
and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to
the Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into
a pastoral and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is
chiefly fetish and tree-worship; many, nominally, profess
Mahommedanism. They are distinguished by narrow straight
noses, thin lips and small pointed chins; their cheekbones
are not prominent. They are more scantily clothed than
the Abyssinians or Galla, wearing, generally, nothing but a
waist-cloth. Their women, when quite young, are pretty and
graceful. Their huts are often tastefully decorated, the floors
being spread with yellow mats, embroidered with red and violet
designs. The Afars are divided into many sub-tribes, each
having an hereditary sultan, whose power is, however, limited.
They are desperate fighters and in 1875 successfully resisted
an attempt to bring them under Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888,
however, their most important sultan concluded treaties placing
his country under Italian protection. The Afar region is now
partly under Abyssinian and partly under Italian authority.
The Afars are also found in considerable numbers in French
Somaliland. They have a saying ``Guns are only useful to
frighten cowards.'' They were formerly redoubtable pirates,
but the descendants of these corsairs are now fishermen,
and are the only sailors in the Red Sea who hunt the dugong.
P. Paulitschke, Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1893-1896); and Die geographische Erforschung der
A dal-Lander und Harars in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884).
AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, born at
Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His
pupil Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever
known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public
informer against some of the most distinguished personages in
Rome. He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia
Pulcra, the widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of
magic arts against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured
him the consulship under Caligula (39); and under Nero he
was superintendent of the water supply. He died A.D. 60,
according to Jerome, of over-eating. Quintilian quotes some
of his witty sayings (dicta), collections of which were
published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses.
Quintilian, Instit. vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. 1. 118, &c.; Tac.
Ann iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18.
AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to,
sc. a person), literally, a mental state resulting generally
from an external influence. It is popularly used of a
relation between persons amounting to more than goodwill or
friendship. By ethical writers the word has been used generally
of distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic;
some contrast it with ``passion'' as being free from the
distinctively sensual element. More specifically the word has
been restricted to emotional states which are in relation to
persons. In the former sense, it is the Gr. pathos, and as
such it appears in Descartes and most of the early British ethical
writers. On various grounds, however---e.g. that it does
not involve anxiety or excitement, that it is comparatively
inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous
element--At is generally and usefully distingmshed from
passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a great part
in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental
``affections'' as in some sense a part of moral obligation.
For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend
ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as
voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349.
In psychology the terms ``affection'' and ``affective'' are
of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion
has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental
affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations
are ultimately composed. The nature of this element is a
problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively,
solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily
experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly
difficult. The solutions proposed are two. In the first,
all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those
which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse. The
main objections to this are that it does not explain the
infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the
distinction which most philosophers admit between higher
and lower pleasures. The second solution is that every
sensation has its specific affective quality, though by
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no
name. W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H.
Judd, Leipzig, 1897), maintains that we may group under three
main affective directions, each with its negative, all the
infinite varieties in question; these are (a) pleasure,
or rather pleasantness, and the reverse, (b) tension and
relaxation, (c) excitement and depression. These two
views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered.
Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The first,
introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists in
recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany
modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus it is found
that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, and
retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and
volume are found to accompany modifications of affection--and so
on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment
are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered
highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific
results can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with
a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable.
The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in
contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in
groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes.
Mention should also be made of a third method which has
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to
isolate one of the three ``directions'' by the method
of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations.
For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O.
Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans.
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experimental
Psychology (1905); art. PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted.
AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for ``he has declared upon oath,''
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn
or affirmed to before some person who has authority to
administer an oath or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly
taken by means of affidavits in the Chancery Division of the
High Court of Justice in England on a petition, summons or
motion. Interlocutory proceedings before trial are conducted
by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of documents, hence
called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are sometimes
necessary as certificates that certain formalities have been
duly and legally performed (such as service of proceedings,
&c.). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice, in the
administration of the revenue and in the inferior and county
courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any kind,
such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must
be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of
scripts.) In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit
is almost unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as
prima facie evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court
(R.S.C. Ord. XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid
down for all affidavits and affirmations in causes or matters
depending in the High Court. An affidavit must consist of
title, body or statement and jurat. It must be written or
printed on foolscap, bookwise, in the first person; give
correctly the names of the parties to the action; and the
description and true place of abode of the deponent. An
affidavit is confined, except on interlocutory motions, to
such facts as the witness is able of his own knowledge to
prove. The signature of the deponent must be written opposite
to the jurat, which must contain the place, date and time of
swearing, and this signed by the officer or magistrate before
whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit sworn on a Sunday
is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and Separatists were first
privileged to make a solemn declaration or affirmation, and
by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 and other statutes all
persons prevented by religious belief from taking an oath
were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths Act 1888,
