imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological
observations. In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made eight
or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The
heights attained were not great, but the general result was
to confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see
Voyages aeriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air,
London, 1871, in which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are
noticed. On the 15th of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E.
Croce-Spinelli and Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in
the balloon ``Zenith,'' and reached a height of 27,950 ft.;
but only Tissandier came down alive, his two companions being
asphyxiated. This put an end to such attempts for a time.
But Dr A. Berson and Lieut. Gross attained 25,840 ft. on
the 11th of May 1894; Berson, ascending alone from Strassfurt
on the 4th of December 1894, attained about 31,500 ft. and
recorded a temperature of --54 deg. F.; and Berson and Stanley
Spencer are stated by the latter to have attained 27,500 ft.
on the 15th of September 1898 when they ascended in a hydrogen
balloon from the Crystal Palace, the thermometer registering
--29 deg. F. On the 31st of July 1901, Berson and R. J. Suring,
ascending at Berlin, actually noted a barometric reading
corresponding to a height of 34,500 ft., and possibly rose
1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of oxygen inhalations
they were unconscious during the highest portion of the ascent.
The personal danger attending his ascents led Gustave Hermite
and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the sending up of
unmanned balloons (ballons sondes) equipped with automatic
recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also been employed
for similar meteorological purposes. (See also METEOROLOOY.)
Military balloons.
The balloon had not been discovered very long before it
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of
the French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was founded
at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau, the chemist, and
Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835). Four balloons were
constructed for the armies of the north, of the Sambre and
Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt. In June 1794
Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general to reconnoitre
the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus, and two
reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours. It is
generally stated that it was to the information so gained that
the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in constant
requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear that,
with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned,
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of
view. But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much
disconcerted at having their movements so completely watched,
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior
information it was believed they were gaining. An attempt
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be
employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon
was sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons
loaded with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French
campaign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the
use of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic
corps, and their management was entrusted to the brothers
Godard. Several reconnaissances were made, and one of
especial interest the day before the battle of Solferino. No
information of much importance seems, however, to have been
gained thereby. In the American Civil War (1861) balloons
were a good deal used by the Federals. There was a regular
balloon staff attached to Mcclellan's army, with a captain, an
assistant-captain and about 50 non-commissioned officers and
privates. The apparatus consisted of two generators, drawn
by four horses each; two balloons, drawn by four horses each,
and an acid-cart, drawn by two horses. The two balloons used
contained about 13,000 and 26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation
usually occupied about three hours. (See Royal Engineers'
Papers, vol. xii.) By their aid useful information was
gained about the enemy round Richmond and in other places,
but eventually difficulties of transport and the topography
of the theatre of war made ballooning impracticable; and
little was heard of it after the first two years of the war.
The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege of
Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was
kept up between the besieged city and the external world,
as the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which
afterwards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The
total number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the
siege, conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four--the
first having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the
last on the 28th of January 1871. Gambetta effected his
escape from Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon
``Armand-Barbes,', an event which doubtless led to the
prolongation of the war. Of the sixty-four balloons only two
were never heard of; they were blown out to sea. One of the
most remarkable voyages was that of the ``Ville d'Orleans,''
which, leaving Paris at eleven o'clock on the 21st of November,
descended fifteen hours afterwards near Christiania, having
crossed the North Sea. Several of the balloons on their
descent were taken by the Prussians, and a good many were
fired at while in the air. The average size of the balloons
was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or from 70,000 to 72,000 cub.
ft. The above facts are extracted from Les Ballons du
siege de Paris, a sheet published by Buila and Sons,
Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well-known
French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times of
ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the
Da.mes of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the
weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those
balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended.
The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally from
(the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway) under
the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed were
mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use whatever
was made in the war of balloons for purposes of reconnaissance.
Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only
dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the
powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85
the French found balloons very useful during their campaign
in Tongking; and the British government also despatched
balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that
to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several
ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it was
said that a great moral effect was produced. The employment
of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars.
We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military
operations. The French in the campaigns of the 19th century
used varnished silk balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft.
capacity. The Americans in the Civil War used much
larger ones. those of 26,000 cub. ft. being found the most
suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the present
day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft., made
of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of
goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size,
the normal capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of
7000 and 4500 cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin.
The usual shape is spherical; but since 1896 the Germans,
and now other nations, have adopted a long cylindrical-shaped
balloon, so affixed to its cable as to present an inclined
surface to the wind and thus act partly on the principle of a
kite. Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasionally be used
for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness fat
preferable. In the early days of ballooning this had to
be manufactured in the field, but nowadays it is almost
universally carried compressed in steel tubes. About 100 such
tubes, each weighing 75lb., are required to fill a 10,000-ft.
balloon. Tubes of greater capacity have also been tried.
The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed
to go free it will usually be rapidly carried away by the
wind and the results of the observations cannot easily be
transmitted back. Occasions may occur when such ascents
will be of value, but the usual method is to send up a
captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft.
With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up,
one of whom has now particularly to attend to the management
of the balloon, while the other makes the observations.
With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends on
circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in
which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in
the war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose
the troops to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a
rule, to be obtained; but in fairly open country all important
movements of troops should be discernible by an experienced
observer at any point within about four or five miles of the
balloon. The circumstances, it may be mentioned, are such
as would usually preclude one unaccustomed to ballooning
from affording valuable reports. Not only is he liable to
be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous situation,
but troops and features of the ground often have so peculiar
an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a
column of troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will
depend on atmospheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather
a balloon is well-nigh useless; and in strong winds, with a
velocity of anything over 20 m. an hour, efficient observation
becomes a matter of difficulty. When some special point has
to be reported on, such as whether there is any large body
of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid ascent may
still be mace in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the balloon
would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be
made. It is.usually estimated that a successful captive
ascent can only be made in England on half the days of the
year. As a general rule balloon ascents would be made for
one of the following objects-- to examine the country for an
enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's position; to ascertain the
strength of his force, number of guns and exact situation of
the various arms; also to note the plan of his earthworks or
fortifications. During an action the aerial observer would
be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give
warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer
could also keep the general informed as to the progress of
various detached parties of his own force, as to the advance of
reinforcements, or to the conduct of any fighting going on at a
distance. Balloon observations are also of especial use
to artillery in correcting their aim. The vulnerability
of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been tested
by many experiments with variable results. One established
fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely
difficult to judge, and, as its altitude can he very rapidly
altered, it becomes a very difficult mark for artillery to
hit. A few bullet-holes in the fabric of a balloon make but
little difference, since the size of the perforation is very
