payment of imposts, and for dealing with disaffected
members. Moreover, owing to difficulties of travel, the
assembly and magistracies were practically monopolized
by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in their own
interest. But their rule was mostly judicious, and when at
last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the
country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean
league to have combined city autonomy with an organized
central administration, and in this way to have postponed
the entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century.
CHIEF SOURCES.--Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii.,
xxviii.),who is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv.,
xxxviii., &c.); Pausanias vii. 9-24; Strabo viii. 384; F.
Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893, London), chs.
v.-ix.; M. Dubois, Les lignes Etolienne et Acheenne
(Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G. Hertzberg,
Geschichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig,
1866); L. Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863); E.
Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892),
169, 187, 198, 201; W.. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionunn
Graecarum (Leipzig, 1898--1901), 236, 282, 316; H. Francotte
in Musee Belge (1906), pp. 4-20. See also art. ROME,
History, ii. ``The Republic,'' sect. B(b). (M. O. B. C.)
ACHAEANS ('Achaioi, Lat. Achivi), one of the four
chief divisions of the ancient greek peoples, descended,
according to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of
Hellen. This Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely
with the Ionians, but historically they approach nearer to
the Aeolians. Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of
Achaeus. In the Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans
are the master race in Greece; they are represented both in
Homer and in all later traditions as having come into Greece
about three generations before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.),
i.e. about 1300 B.C. They found the land occupied by a
people known by the ancients as Pelasgians, who continued
down to classical times the main element in the population
even in the states under Achaean and later under Dorian rule.
In some cases it formed a serf class, e.g. the Penestae in
Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and the Gymnesii at Argos,
whilst it practically composed the whole population of Arcadia
and Attica, which never came under either Achaean or Dorian
rule. This people had dwelt in the Aegean from the Stone
Age, and, though still in the Bronze Age at the Achaean
conquest, had made great advances in the useful and ornamental
arts. They were of short stature, with dark hair and eyes,
and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres were
at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each
being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus
built Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the
lead until the Achaean conquest. All the ancient dynasties
traced their descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the
Achaean conquest was the chief male divinity of Greece and the
islands. The Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European
language adopted by their conquerors with slight modifications.
(See further PELASGIANS for a discussion of other views.)
The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus,
Who with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity.
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into
Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops,
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master
of Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship
of Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia.
They brought with them iron, which they used for their long
swords and for their cutting implements; the costume of both
sexes was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used
round shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped
or rectaogular shields of the latter; they fastened their
garments with brooches, and burned their dead instead of
burying them as did the Pelasgians. They introduced a special
style of ornament (``geometric'') instead of that of the
Bronze Age, characterized by spirals and marine animals and
plants. The Achaeans, or Hellenes, as they were later
termed, were on this hypothesis one of the fair-haired tribes
of upper Europe known to the ancients as Keltoi (Celts),
who from time to time have pressed down over the Alps into
the southern lands, successively as Achaeans, Gauls, Goths
and Franks, and after the conquest of the indigenous small
dark race in no long time died out under climatic conditions
fatal to their physique and morale. The culture of the
Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent with that
of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hallstatt)
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova).
See W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a
detailed discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway
and J. L. Myres in the Classical Review, vol. xvi. 1902,
pp. 68-93, 135. See also J. B. Bury's History of Greece
(1902) and art. in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xv., 1895,
pp. 217 foll.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek Epic
(1907), chap. ii.; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906);
G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D.
B. Monro's ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. RI.)
ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI), the eponymous ancestor of the royal
house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, ``a clan fretre of the
Pasargadae'' (Herod. i. 125), the leading Persian tribe. According
to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod. iii. 75, vii.
11, he was the father of Teispes, the great-grandfather of
Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name.
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely
the mythical ancestor of the family cannot be decided.
According to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an
eagle. We learn from Cyrus's proclamation that Teispes and
his successors had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of
Elam (Susiana), Where they ruled as vassals of the Median
kings, until Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian
empire. After the death of Cambyses, the younger line of
the Achaemenidae came to the throne with Darius, the son
of Hystaspes, who was, like Cyrus, the great-grandson of
Teispes. Cyrus, Darius and all the later kings of Persia
call themselves Achaemenides (Hakhamanishiya). With
Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became extinct and
the Persian empire came to an end (330). The adjective
Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent
of ``Persian'' (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See PERSIA.
The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother of
Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became
satrap of Egypt (484 B.C.); he commanded the Persian
fleet at Salamis, and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain
by Inarus, the leader of the second rebellion of Egypt.
ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753--1821), Prussian chemist, was born
at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern, in
Silesia, on the 20th of April 1821. He was a pioneer in
turning to practical account A. S. Marggraf's discovery
of the presence of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of
the 18th century he was producing considerable quantities
of beet-sugar, though by a very imperfect process, at
Kunern, on an estate which was granted him about 1800 by
the king of Prussia. There too he carried on a school of
instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an international
reputation. For a time he was director of the physics
class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published
several volumes of chemical and physical researches,
discovering among other things a method of working platinum.
ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born On the
10th of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala University,
where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D. at Lund in
1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany at Wadstena
Academy. He devoted himself to the study of lichens, and all
his publications were connected with that class of plants, his
Lichenographia Universalis (Gottingen, 1804) being the most
important. He died at Wadstena on the 13th of August 1819.
ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's
Aeneid. The expression ``fidus Achates'' has
become proverbial for a loyal and devoted companion.
ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, ``white river''), the
largest river in Greece (130 m.). It rises in Mt. Pindus,
and, dividing Aetolla from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian
Sea. In the lower part of its course the river winds through
fertile, marshy plains. Its water is charged with fine
mud, which is deposited along its banks and at its mouth,
where a number of small islands (Echinades) have been
formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuosity;
and its upper portion was called by some Inachus, the
name Acholous being restricted to the shorter eastern
branch. Acholous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (Il. xxi.
193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several
other rivers in Greece. The Dame appears in cult and in
mythology as that of the typical river-god; a familiar
legend is that of his contest with Heracles for Deianira.
ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815-- ), German landscape painter,
was born at Cassel in 1815. He began his art education in
1827 in Dusseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy. In
his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German
romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the
strooger influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new
channels, and he became the founder of the German realistic
school. Although his landscapes evince too much of his aim at
picture-making and lack personal temperament, he is a master
of technique, and is historically important as a reformer. A
number of his finest works are to be found at the Berlin National
Gallery, the New Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at
Dresden, Darmstadt, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg.
His brother, OSWALD ACHENBACH (1827--1905), was born
at Dusseldorf and received his art education from
Andreas. His landscapes generally dwell on the rich and
glowing effects of colour which drew him to the Bay of
Naples and the neighbourhood of Rome. He is represented
at most of the important German galleries of modern art.
ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1719-1772), German statisticiao,
was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719. He
studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at
the last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1746,
where for two years he read lectures on history and on
the law of nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced
those inquiries in statistics by which his name became
known. In 1748 he was given a professorship at Gottingen,
where he resided till his death in 1772. His chief works
were connected with statistics. The Staatsverfassung der
heutigen vornehmsten europaischen Reiche appeared first in
1749, and revised editions were published in 1762 and 1768.
ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter. As a
punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their contest
with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over which
departed souls were ferried by Charon. The name (meaning the
river of ``woe'') was eventually used to designate the whole
of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ecl. Phys. i. 41, sec. sec. 50, 54).
ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i.
21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the
