mines. Some small quantity of gold is taken from the streams in
Laghman and the adjoining districts. Famous silver mines were
formerly worked near the head of the Panjshir valley in Hindu
Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied with iron from the Permuli
(or Farmuli) district, between the Upper Kurram and Gomal,
where it is said to be abundant. Iron ore is most abundant
near the passes leading to Bamian, and in other parts of Hindu
Kush. Copper ore from various parts of Afghanistan has been
seen, but it is nowhere worked. Lead is found in Upper
Bangash (Kurram district), and in the Shinwari country (also
among the branches of Safed Koh), and in the Kakar country.
There are reported to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely
worked. Lead, with antimony, is found near the Arghand-ab, 32
m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the Ghorband valley, north of
Kabul. Most of the lead used, however, comes from the Hazara
country, where the ore is described as being gathered on the
surface. An ancient mine of great extent and elaborate
character exists at Feringal, in the Ghorband valley. Antimony
is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah-Maksud, about
30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is said to be found at
Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments, but the chief
supply comes from the Hazara country and from Pirkisri,
on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem to be a
crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the same
place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of
Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near the
surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat
(between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni. Nitre
abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan, and
often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals.
Vegetation.
The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains
of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great mass of it
is confined to the main ranges and their immediate off-shoots,
whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is
almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone.
Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself
and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000
ft., we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among
which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as
Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, Pinus longifolia, P.
Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch. We
have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and
almond. Growing under the shade of these are several
varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn,
rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the
ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of
genera. The lemon and wild vine are also here met with,
but are more common on the northern mountains. The walnut
and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the
secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash,
khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astragalus,
&c. Here also are Indigoferae rind dwarf laburnum.
Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species
of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and
Zizyphus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain,
Chamaerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful
purposes), Bignonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora
persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae.
The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are,
as has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is
almost wholly herbal; shrubs are only occasional; trees almost
non-existent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most
common. Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges.
In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary
plains of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous
thorny plants of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as
camel-thorn (Hedysarum Alhagi), Astragalus in several
varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis spinosa), the
fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants
of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa; a
plant of the rue family, called by the natives lipad the
common wormwood; also certain orchids, and several species
of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as
domestic medicines---the former for rheumatism and neuralgia;
the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a
vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour,
is believed to keep off evil soirits. In some places,
occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the
rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah,
or ass-bane, the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae.
In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, poplar,
ash, and occasionally the plane; but these are due to man's planting.
Uncultivated products of value.
One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex
asafetida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry
plains of eastern Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and
Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its way to
India, where it is much used as a condiment. It is not so used
in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat the green stalks of
the plant preserved in brine. The collection of the gum-resin
is almost entirely in the hands of the Kakar clan of Afghans.
In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local
luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose
stones or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the
neighbouring hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and
unbleached rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked.
The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are exported.
The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of
water-courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in
the mountain yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious
mucilage called salep: a good deal of this goes to India.
Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with
its resin, is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern
Afghanistan.The true pistachio is found only on the northern
frontier; the nuts are imported from Badakshan and Kunduz by the
Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for meat.
Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars.
One, called turanjbin, apoears to exude, in small round
tears, from the camelthorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk;
the other, sir-kasht, in large grains and irregular
masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded, is obtained
from a tree which the natives call sian chob (black
wood), thought by Bellow to be a Fraxinus or Ornus.
Agriculture.
In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as generally
in India. One of these, called by the Afghans baharak, or
the sprine crop. is sown in the end of autumn and reaped in
summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a variety of
lentils. The other, called paizah or tirmai, the
autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in
autumn. It consists of rice, varieties of millet and
sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet,
turnips, &c. The loftier regions have but one harvest.
Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the
country. Rice is not largely distributed. In much of the
eastern mountainous country bajra (Holcus spicatus) is
the chief grain. Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are
cultivated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food.
The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous
plants is reckoned very important, especially near
towns; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest.
Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though cotton is
grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is imported.
Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni
and Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and
supplies the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable,
though it takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and
exported. The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and
furnishes most of the oil of the country. Tobacco is grown
very generally; that of Kandahar has much repute, and is
exported to India and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are taken.
Lucerne and a trefoil called shaftal form important fodder
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated.
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The
komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of
Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to
Herat. It is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent
fodder. Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and
from two kinds of panick. It is common to cut down the green
wheat and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the
repetition of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure
the grain crop. Bellow gives the following statement of the
manner in which the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar
district:---Barley is sown in November; in March and April
it is twice cut for fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the
ground is ploughed and manured and sown with tobacco, which
yields two cuttings. The ground is then prepared for carrots
and turnips, which are gathered in November or December.
Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits are
produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent quality.
Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a large class of
the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported. In the valleys
of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in skins for winter
use. This mulberry cake is often reduced to flour, and used
as such, forming in some valleys the main food of the people.
Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very
numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises,
but most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft.
high. The principal part of the garden lands in villages
round Kandahar is vineyard, and the produce must be enormous.
Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern
Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the
country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean
aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting
their combined volume to the surface at a lower level.
Fauna.
As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the
frontier of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the
Ethiopian (to which region Baluchistan seems to belong)
and the Indo-Halayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat
of the forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian.
Felidae.--F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal
(Eur., Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated
to be found almost all over the country, perhaps rather the
cheetah F. jubatus, Ind, and Eth.); F. pardus, the common
leopard (Eth. and Ind.). The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan.
Canidae.--The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds
on the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves
(C. Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts,
and assemble in troops on the snow, destroying cattle and
sometimes attacking single horsemen. The hyena (H. striata,
Africa to India) is common. These do not hunt in packs, but
will sometimes singly attack a bullock; they and the wolves
